Minstrel show - Knowledge

876:. "First performed by George Dixon in 1834, Zip Coon made a mockery of free blacks. An arrogant, ostentatious figure, he dressed in high style and spoke in a series of malaprops and puns that undermined his attempts to appear dignified." The white actors who portrayed these characters spoke an exaggerated form of Black Vernacular English. The blackface makeup and illustrations on programs and sheet music depicted them with huge eyeballs, very wide noses, and thick-lipped mouths that hung open or grinned foolishly; one character expressed his love for a woman with "lips so large a lover could not kiss them all at once". They had huge feet and preferred "possum" and "coon" to more civilized fare. Minstrel characters were often described in animalistic terms, with "wool" instead of hair, "bleating" like sheep, and having "darky cubs" instead of children. Other claims were that blacks had to drink ink when they got sick "to restore their color" and that they had to file their hair rather than cut it. They were inherently musical, dancing and frolicking through the night with no need for sleep. 699:

entertainment with black audiences have long been debated by historians. Perhaps they felt in on the joke, laughing at the over-the-top characters from a sense of "in-group recognition". Maybe they even implicitly endorsed the racist antics, or they felt some connection to elements of an African culture that had been suppressed but was visible, albeit in racist, exaggerated form, in minstrel personages. They certainly got many jokes that flew over whites' heads or registered as only quaint distractions. An undeniable draw for black audiences was simply seeing fellow African Americans on stage; black minstrels were largely viewed as celebrities. Formally educated African Americans, on the other hand, either disregarded black minstrelsy or openly disdained it. Still, black minstrelsy was the first large-scale opportunity for African Americans to enter American show business. Black minstrels were therefore viewed as a success.

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fires, in empty rooms that they had to convert into theaters, arrest on trumped up charges, exposed to deadly diseases, and managers and agents who skipped out with all the troupe's money." The more popular groups stuck to the main circuit that ran through the Northeast; some even went to Europe, which allowed their competitors to establish themselves in their absence. By the late 1840s, a Southern tour had opened from Baltimore to New Orleans. Circuits through the Midwest and as far as California followed by the 1860s. As its popularity increased, theaters sprang up specifically for minstrel performance, often with names such as the Ethiopian Opera House and the like. Many amateur troupes performed only a few local shows before disbanding. Meanwhile, celebrities like Emmett continued to perform solo.

1116:"Minstrelsy evolved from several different American entertainment traditions; the traveling circus, medicine shows, shivaree, Irish dance and music with African syncopated rhythms, musical halls and traveling theatre." Music and dance were the heart of the minstrel show and a large reason for its popularity. Around the time of the 1830s, there was a lot of national conflict as to how people viewed African Americans. Because of that interest in the Negro people, these songs granted the listener new knowledge about African Americans, who were different from themselves, even if the information was prejudiced. Troupes took advantage of this interest and marketed sheet music of the songs they featured so that viewers could enjoy them at home and other minstrels could adopt them for their act. 630: 847: 536: 211: 482:

minstrelsy became more pro-slavery as political and satirical content was toned down or removed entirely. Most minstrels projected a greatly romanticized and exaggerated image of black life with cheerful, simple slaves always ready to sing and dance and to please their masters. (Less frequently, the masters cruelly split up black lovers or sexually assaulted black women.) The lyrics and dialogue were generally racist, satiric, and largely white in origin. Songs about slaves yearning to return to their masters were plentiful. Figures like the Northern dandy and the homesick ex-slave reinforced the idea that blacks did not belong, nor did they want to belong, in Northern society.

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most cases, especially with the rise of motion pictures, which could easily outcompete the touring minstrel shows on ticket prices. Small companies and amateurs carried the traditional minstrel show into the 20th century, now with an audience mostly in the rural South, while black-owned troupes continued traveling to more outlying areas like the West. These black troupes were one of minstrelsy's last bastions, as more white actors moved into vaudeville. (Community amateur blackface minstrel shows persisted in northern New York State into the 1960s. The University of Vermont banned the minstrel-like Kake Walk as part of the winter Carnival in 1969.)

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and the pain it caused his master was a common theme in sentimental songs. Alternatively, the master could die, leaving the old darky to mourn. Stephen Foster's "Old Uncle Ned" was the most popular song on this subject. Less frequently, the old darky might be cast out by a cruel master when he grew too old to work. After the Civil War, this character became the most common figure in plantation sketches. He frequently cried about the loss of his home during the war, only to meet up with someone from the past such as the child of his former master. In contrast, the trickster, often called Jasper Jack, appeared less frequently.

991: 403: 1183: 1144:"vigorous earth-slapping footwork of black dances … with the Irish lineaments of blackface jigs and reels." Similar to the look of a blackface performer, the lyrics in the songs that were sung have a tone of mockery and a spirit of laughing at black Americans rather than with them. The minstrel show texts sometimes mixed black lore, such as stories about talking animals or slave tricksters, with humor from the region southwest of the Appalachians, itself a mixture of traditions from different races and cultures. Minstrel instruments were also a mélange: African banjo and tambourine with European fiddle and 597:

criticism was the moral decay of the urbanized North. Cities were painted as corrupt, as homes to unjust poverty, and as dens of "city slickers" who lay in wait to prey upon new arrivals. Minstrels stressed traditional family life; stories told of reunification between mothers and sons thought dead in the war. Women's rights, disrespectful children, low church attendance, and sexual promiscuity became symptoms of decline in family values and of moral decay. Of course, Northern black characters carried these vices even further. African-American members of Congress were one example, pictured as pawns of the

99: 4007:, with the frontispiece showing the two endmen in blackface. One passage reads: "Reminiscent of those mellowed days of Primrose and West, Honey Boy Eveans and Lew Docstader, this specific greeting is both a cordial invitation and a subtle suggestion. For the appeal of these delightful entertainers is directly primarily, though not exclusively, to men whose memories still cherish the illusive fancies of bygone days"whose recollections can conjure the faded odors of glue and greasepaint, wafted across the limelight of some small town Opera House, back in the Gay 90s." 1096:. However, beginning in the 1850s, many Irishmen joined minstrelsy, and Irish theatergoers probably came to represent a significant part of the audience, so this negative image was muted. Germans, on the other hand, were portrayed favorably from their introduction to minstrelsy in the 1860s. They were responsible and sensible, though still portrayed as humorous for their large size, hearty appetites, and heavy "Dutch" accents. Part of this positive portrayal no doubt came about because some of the actors portraying German characters were German themselves. 527:", accompanied by depictions of scenes from American history that lionized figures like George Washington and Andrew Jackson. Social commentary grew increasingly important to the show. Performers criticized Northern society and those they felt responsible for the breakup of the country, who opposed reunification, or who profited from a nation at war. Emancipation was either opposed through "happy plantation" material, or mildly supported with pieces that depicted slavery in a negative light. Eventually, direct criticism of the South became more biting. 1135:, Scottish, and Irish folk music. Musicologist Dale Cockrell argues that early minstrel music mixed both African and European traditions and that distinguishing black and white urban music during the 1830s is impossible. Insofar as the minstrels had authentic contact with black culture, it was via neighborhoods, taverns, theaters and waterfronts where blacks and whites could mingle freely. The inauthenticity of the music and the Irish and Scottish elements in it are explained by the fact that slaves were rarely allowed to play native 1062:

to progress. These characters were formidable scalpers to be feared, not ridiculed; any humor in such scenarios usually derived from a black character trying to act like one of the frightful savages. One sketch began with white men and American Indians enjoying a communal meal in a frontier setting. As the American Indians became intoxicated, they grew more and more antagonistic, and the army ultimately had to intervene to prevent the massacre of the whites. Even favorably presented American Indian characters usually died tragically.

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by slavery, runaways, or even slave uprisings. A few stories highlighted black trickster figures who managed to get the better of their masters. Beginning in the mid-1850s, performers did burlesque renditions of other plays; both Shakespeare and contemporary playwrights were common targets. The humor of these came from the inept black characters trying to perform some element of high white culture. Slapstick humor pervaded the afterpiece, including cream pies to the face, inflated bladders, and on-stage fireworks. Material from

695:, brass band burlesque, a practice adopted after Callender's Minstrels used it in 1875 or 1876. Although black minstrelsy lent credence to racist ideals of blackness, many African-American minstrels worked to subtly alter these stereotypes and to poke fun at white society. One jubilee described heaven as a place "where de white folks must let the darkeys be" and they could not be "bought and sold". In plantation material, aged black characters were rarely reunited with long-lost masters like they were in white minstrelsy. 777: 859: 1259: 626:, BARNYARD, AND ON THE LEVEE AND FLATBOAT." Keeping with convention, black minstrels still corked the faces of at least the endmen. One commentator described a mostly uncorked black troupe as "mulattoes of a medium shade except two, who were light. ... The end men were each rendered thoroughly black by burnt cork." The minstrels themselves promoted their performing abilities, quoting reviews that favorably compared them to popular white troupes. These black companies often featured female minstrels. 1035: 57: 761:, was historically the last to evolve, as its real purpose was to allow for the setting of the stage for act three behind the curtain. It had more of a variety show structure. Performers danced, played instruments, did acrobatics, and demonstrated other amusing talents. Troupes offered parodies of European-style entertainments, and European troupes themselves sometimes performed. The highlight was when one actor, typically one of the endmen, delivered a faux-black-dialect 390:" was largely supplanted by a racist one of "white slavery". This suggested that the abuses against northern factory workers were a graver ill than the treatment of black slaves—or by a less class-conscious rhetoric of "productive" versus "unproductive" elements of society. On the other hand, views on slavery were fairly evenly presented in minstrelsy, and some songs even suggested the creation of a coalition of working blacks and whites to end the institution. 234:, which were on the cheaper side of outdoor shows for the paying masses. Such traveling medicine shows also employed a Negro band and minstrels, including both men and women. Museums were set up to appeal to the low income audience, housing freak shows, wax sculptures, as well as exhibits of exoticism, mingled with magic, and necessarily live performance. African Americans were most often displayed as savages, cannibals, or natural freaks. 687:

whole trains or had custom sleeping cars built, complete with hidden compartments to hide in should things turn ugly. Even these were no haven, as whites sometimes used the cars for target practice. Their salaries, though higher than those of most blacks of the period, failed to reach levels earned by white performers; even superstars like Kersands earned slightly less than featured white minstrels. Most black troupes did not last long.

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woman's eyes. On the other hand, the fact that the minstrel show broached the subjects of slavery and race at all is perhaps more significant than the racist manner in which it did so. Despite these pro-plantation attitudes, minstrelsy was banned in many Southern cities. Its association with the North was such that as secessionist attitudes grew stronger, minstrels on Southern tours became convenient targets of anti-Yankee sentiment.

1050:, after the song popularized by George Washington Dixon, although others had pretentious names like Count Julius Caesar Mars Napoleon Sinclair Brown. Their clothing was a ludicrous parody of upper-class dress: coats with tails and padded shoulders, white gloves, monocles, fake mustaches, and gaudy watch chains. They spent their time primping and preening, going to parties, dancing and strutting, and wooing women. 914:(for their position in the minstrel semicircle) were ignorant and poorly spoken, being conned, electrocuted, or run over in various sketches. They happily shared their stupidity; one slave character said that to get to China, one had only to go up in a balloon and wait for the world to rotate below. Highly musical and unable to sit still, they constantly contorted their bodies wildly while singing. 1219:, and not the high steps of an Irish jig." Lane and the white men who mimicked him moved about the stage with no obvious foot movement. The walk around, a common feature of the minstrel show's first act, was ultimately of West African origin and featured a competition between individuals hemmed in by the other minstrels. Elements of white tradition remained, of course, such as the fast-paced 765:, a long oration about anything from nonsense to science, society, or politics, during which the dim-witted character tried to speak eloquently, only to deliver countless malapropisms, jokes, and unintentional puns. All the while, the speaker moved about like a clown, standing on his head and almost always falling off his stump at some point. With blackface makeup serving as 622:

who are EARNING THEIR FREEDOM by giving concerts under the guidance of their Northern friends." White curiosity proved a powerful motivator, and the shows were patronized by people who wanted to see blacks acting "spontaneously" and "naturally." Promoters seized on this, one billing his troupe as "THE DARKY AS HE IS AT HOME, DARKY LIFE IN THE CORNFIELD,

1885:(1954), features a full-scale minstrel show number, but without blackface. The lyrics to the songs do not insinuate that minstrel shows involved blackface, but invoked much of the same linguistic mechanisms as minstrel shows, such as double entendre. The lyrics to the song also include the line "I'd pawn my overcoat and vest / To see a minstrel show". 519:, minstrels remained mostly neutral and satirized both sides. However, as the war reached Northern soil, troupes turned their loyalties to the Union. Sad songs and sketches came to dominate in reflection of the mood of a bereaved nation. Troupes performed skits about dying soldiers and their weeping widows, and about mourning white mothers. " 740:. The interlocutor acted as a master of ceremonies and as a dignified, if pompous, straight man. He had a somewhat aristocratic demeanor, a "codfish aristocrat", while the endmen exchanged jokes and performed a variety of humorous songs. Over time, the first act came to include maudlin numbers not always in dialect. One minstrel, usually a 1464:. Jokes once delivered by endmen are still told today: "Why did the chicken cross the road?" "Why does a fireman wear red suspenders?" Other jokes form part of the repertoire of modern comedians: "Who was that lady I saw you with last night? That was no lady—that was my wife!" The stump speech is an important precursor to modern comedy. 576:

right. Mainstream minstrelsy continued to emphasize its propriety and "fun without vulgarity", but traditional troupes adopted some of these elements in the guise of the female impersonator. A well-played prima donna character, as popularised by the performer Francis Leon, was considered to be critical to success in the postwar period.

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supposed to care berry little about polytick, and yet de majority ob em am strongly tached to parties." Minstrel humor was simple and relied heavily on slapstick and wordplay. Performers told riddles: "The difference between a schoolmaster and an engineer is that one trains the mind and the other minds the train."

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before the Civil War were usually depicted as innocent symbols of the pre-industrial world or as pitiable victims whose peaceful existence had been shattered by the encroachment of the white man. However, as the United States turned its attentions West, American Indians became savage, pagan obstacles

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took the opportunity to promote their Callender's Consolidated Colored Minstrels. Their success was such that the Frohmans bought Haverly's group and merged it with theirs, creating a virtual monopoly on the market. The company split in three to better canvas the nation and dominated black minstrelsy

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became the first African Americans to perform on the minstrel stage. All-black troupes followed as early as 1855. These companies emphasized that their ethnicity made them the only true delineators of black song and dance, with one advertisement describing a troupe as "SEVEN SLAVES just from Alabama,

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By the 1890s, minstrelsy formed only a small part of American entertainment, and, by 1919, a mere three troupes dominated the scene. A key cause was rising salary costs, which for the leading companies had risen from $ 400 a week in the 1860s to $ 2500 a week in 1912, far too high to be profitable in

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had over 100 members. Scenery grew lavish and expensive, and specialty acts such as strongmen, acrobats, or circus freaks sometimes appeared. These changes made minstrelsy unprofitable for smaller troupes. Minstrel troupes, which previously had tended to be owned by performers, now tended to be owned

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Minstrelsy's racism (and sexism) could be vicious. There were comic songs in which blacks were "roasted, fished for, smoked like tobacco, peeled like potatoes, planted in the soil, or dried up and hung as advertisements", and there were multiple songs in which a black man accidentally put out a black

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sprang up rapidly after its publication (all were unlicensed by Harriet Beecher Stowe, who refused to sell the theatrical rights for any sum). While all incorporated some elements of minstrelsy, their content varied significantly, from serious productions retaining the book's antislavery message like

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White, working-class Northerners could identify with the characters portrayed in early blackface performances. This coincided with the rise of groups struggling for workingman's nativism and pro-Southern causes, and faux black performances came to confirm pre-existing racist concepts and to establish

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described blackface performers as "...the filthy scum of white society, who have stolen from us a complexion denied them by nature, in which to make money, and pander to the corrupt taste of their white fellow citizens." Circus sideshows included Negro performers, minstrels were exhibited in museums,

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Early blackface songs often consisted of unrelated verses strung together by a common chorus. In this pre-Emmett minstrelsy, the music "jangled the nerves of those who believed in music that was proper, respectable, polished, and harmonic, with recognizable melodies." It was thus a juxtaposition of

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In content, early black minstrelsy differed little from its white counterpart. As the white troupes drifted from plantation subjects in the mid-1870s however, black troupes placed a new emphasis on it. The addition of jubilee singing gave black minstrelsy a popularity boost as the black troupes were

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broke with Haverly's Mastodons in 1877, they did away with blackface for all but the endmen and dressed themselves in lavish finery and powdered wigs. They decorated the stage with elaborate backdrops and performed no slapstick whatsoever. Their brand of minstrelsy differed from other entertainments

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The minstrels' dance styles, on the other hand, were much truer to their alleged source. The success of "Jump Jim Crow" is indicative: It was an old English tune with fairly standard lyrics, which leaves only Rice's dance—wild upper-body movements with little movement below the waist—to explain its

1027:", so the character many times bore that name. Actress Olive Logan commented that some actors were "marvelously well fitted by nature for it, having well-defined soprano voices, plump shoulders, beardless faces, and tiny hands and feet." Many of these actors were teen-aged boys. In contrast was the 986:

was the old darky's counterpart. She often went by the name of Aunt Dinah Roh after the song of that title. Mammy was lovable to both blacks and whites, matronly, but hearkening to European peasant woman sensibilities. Her main role was to be the devoted mother figure in scenarios about the perfect

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that usually included song-and-dance numbers and featured Sambo- and Mammy-type characters in slapstick situations. The emphasis lay on an idealized plantation life and the happy slaves who lived there. Nevertheless, antislavery viewpoints sometimes surfaced in the guise of family members separated

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established the basic structure of the minstrel show in the 1840s. A crowd-gathering parade to the theater often preceded the performance. The show itself was divided into three major sections. During the first, the entire troupe danced onto stage singing a popular song. Upon the instruction of the

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Racism made black minstrelsy a difficult profession. When playing Southern towns, performers had to stay in character off stage, dressed in ragged "slave clothes" and perpetually smiling. Troupes left town quickly after each performance, and some had so much trouble securing lodging that they hired

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Minstrels toured the same circuits as opera companies, circuses, and European itinerant entertainers, with venues ranging from lavish opera houses to makeshift tavern stages. Life on the road entailed an "endless series of one-nighters, travel on accident-prone railroads, in poor housing subject to

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argued that minstrel dances were merely a "faint, feeble, impotent—in a word, pale Northern reproductions of that ineffable black conception." The introduction of the jubilee, or spiritual, marked the minstrels' first undeniable adoption of black music. These songs remained relatively authentic in

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formed the head of the idyllic black family. Like other slave characters, he was highly musical and none-too-bright, but he had favorable aspects like his loving nature and the sentiments he raised regarding love for the aged, ideas of old friendships, and the cohesiveness of the family. His death

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fought and boasted that they could "wip weight in wildcats" or "eat an alligator". As public opinion toward blacks changed, however, so did the minstrel stereotypes. Eventually, several stock characters emerged. Chief among these were the slave, who often maintained the earlier name Jim Crow, and

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ran with the idea, first performing in 1870 in skimpy costumes and tights, the scantily clad women being the real attraction. Their success gave rise to at least 11 all-female troupes by 1871, one of which did away with blackface altogether. Ultimately, the girlie show emerged as a form in its own

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Although the minstrel shows were extremely popular, being "consistently packed with families from all walks of life and every ethnic group", they were also controversial. Integrationists decried them as falsely showing happy slaves while at the same time making fun of them; segregationists thought

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During the 1830s and 1840s at the height of its popularity, it was at the epicenter of the American music industry. For several decades, it provided the means through which American whites viewed black people. On the one hand, it had strong racist aspects; on the other, it afforded white Americans

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Social commentary continued to dominate most performances, with plantation material constituting only a small part of the repertoire. This effect was amplified as minstrelsy featuring black performers took off in its own right and stressed its connection to the old plantations. The main target of

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Popular entertainment perpetuated the racist stereotype of the uneducated, ever-cheerful, and highly musical black person well into the 1950s. Even as the minstrel show was dying out in all but amateur theater, blackface performers became common acts on vaudeville stages and in legitimate drama.

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and therefore had to adopt and adapt elements of European folk music. Compounding the problem is the difficulty in ascertaining how much minstrel music was written by black composers, as the custom at the time was to sell all rights to a song to publishers or other performers. Nevertheless, many

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The black soldier became another stock type during the Civil War and merged qualities of the slave and the dandy. He was acknowledged for playing some role in the war, but he was more frequently lampooned for bumbling through his drills or for thinking his uniform made him the equal of his white

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The interlocutor was responsible for beginning and ending each segment of the show. To this end, he had to be able to gauge the mood of the audience and know when it was time to move on. Accordingly, the actor who played the role was paid very well in comparison to other non-featured performers.

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mask, these stump speakers could deliver biting social criticism without offending the audience, although the focus was usually on sending up unpopular issues and making fun of blacks' inability to make sense of them. Many troupes employed a stump specialist with a trademark style and material.

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was another serious subject that appeared with some regularity in antebellum minstrelsy, almost always to ridicule the notion. The women's rights lecture became common in stump speeches. When one character joked, "Jim, I tink de ladies oughter vote", another replied, "No, Mr. Johnson, ladies am

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movement. Many Northerners were concerned for the oppressed blacks of the South, but most had no idea how these slaves lived day-to-day. Blackface performance had been inconsistent on this subject; some slaves were happy, others victims of a cruel and inhuman institution. However, in the 1850s,

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who combined the light skin and facial features of a white woman with the perceived sexual promiscuity and exoticism of a black woman. Her beauty and flirtatiousness made her a common target for male characters, although she usually proved capricious and elusive. After the Civil War, the wench

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Among the appeals and racial stereotypes of early blackface performance were the pleasure of the grotesque and its infantilization of blacks. These allowed—by proxy, and without full identification—childish fun and other low pleasures in an industrializing world where workers were increasingly

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Meanwhile, African-American actors were limited to the same old minstrel-defined roles for years to come and by playing them, made them more believable to white audiences. On the other hand, these parts opened the entertainment industry to African-American performers and gave them their first

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Despite the elements of ridicule contained in blackface performance, mid-nineteenth century white audiences, by and large, believed the songs and dances to be authentically black. For their part, the minstrels always billed themselves and their music as such. The songs were called "plantation

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even described the music as vulgar because it was "entirely too elegant" and that the "excellence" of the singing " an objection to it." Others complained that the minstrels had foregone their black roots. In short, the Virginia Minstrels and their imitators wanted to please a new audience of

496:'s, to minstrel show parodies which generally excised characters such as the cruel master Simon Legree, retaining only the "plantation frolics", differing from earlier minstrel shows only in name, to outright condemnation of Stowe as uninterested in the suffering of the white working class. " 698:

African Americans formed a large part of the black minstrels' audience, especially for smaller troupes. In fact, their numbers were so great that many theater owners had to relax rules relegating black patrons to certain areas. The reasons for the popularity of this openly racist form of

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was a variety troupe, founded in 1900 by an African American, Pat Chappelle, which drew on and developed the minstrel tradition while updating it and helping to develop and spread black musical styles. Besides Ma Rainey and Bessie Smith, later musicians working for "the Foots" included

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makeup for the purpose of comically portraying racial stereotypes of African Americans. There were also some African-American performers and black-only minstrel groups that formed and toured. Minstrel shows stereotyped blacks as dimwitted, lazy, buffoonish, cowardly, superstitious, and

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rightly believed to be the most authentic performers of such material. Other significant differences were that the black minstrels added religious themes to their shows while whites shied from them, and that the black companies commonly ended the first act of the show with a military

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being traditionally played by an actor in black makeup, the minstrel show as such has later origins. By the late 18th century, blackface characters began appearing on the American stage, usually as "servant" types whose roles did little more than provide some element of comic relief.

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new ones. Following a pattern that had been pioneered by Rice, minstrelsy united workers and "class superiors" against a common black enemy, symbolized especially by the character of the black dandy. In this same period, the class-conscious but racially inclusive rhetoric of "

470:) with the Virginia Minstrels' bawdy schtick. Christy's company established the three-act template into which minstrel shows would fall for the next few decades. This change to respectability prompted theater owners to enforce new rules to make playhouses calmer and quieter. 3801:

While much of the literature relating to the bones has assumed it to be an African instrument because of ethnocentric ideas about their "primitiveness", historical and musicological evidence supports a European origin for the bones in North America. See Beth Lenz' thesis,

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melodies" or "Ethiopian choruses", among other names. By using the black caricatures and so-called black music, the minstrels added a touch of the unknown to the evening's entertainment, which was enough to fool audiences into accepting the whole performance as authentic.

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The minstrel show played a powerful role in shaping assumptions about black people. However, unlike vehemently anti-black propaganda from the time, minstrelsy made this attitude palatable to a wide audience by couching it in the guise of well-intentioned paternalism.

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theater, founded and operated by free blacks in 1821, with a repertoire drawing heavily on Shakespeare. A rival theater company paid people to "riot" and cause disturbances at the theater, and it was shut down by the police when neighbors complained of the commotion.

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would bring "a fortune to any man who would start on a professional tour with him". Rice responded by adding a "Corn Meal" skit to his act. Meanwhile, there had been several attempts at legitimate black stage performance, the most ambitious probably being New York's

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Tambo and Bones were favorites of the audience, and their repartee with the interlocutor was for many the best part of the show. There was an element of laughing with them for the audience, as they frequently made light of the interlocutor's grandiose ways.

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The earliest minstrel characters took as their base popular white stage archetypes—frontiersmen, fishermen, hunters, and riverboatsmen whose depictions drew heavily from the tall tale—and added exaggerated blackface speech and makeup. These Jim Crows and

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who wooed audiences away. Blackface troupes responded by traveling farther and farther afield, with their primary base now in the South and Midwest. By 1883 there were no resident minstrel troupes in New York, only performances by travelling troupes.

328:, much to the dismay of some patrons. Theater was a participatory activity, and the lower classes came to dominate the playhouse. They threw things at actors or orchestras who performed unpopular material, and rowdy audiences eventually prevented the 1073:

minstrel songs arising in the 1850s depicted the stock character of John Chinaman as effeminate and unmanly, often centering on the stock character's failed pursuit of white women. Minstrels caricatured East Asians by their strange language

925:. This character, although usually in blackface, spoke in aristocratic English and used a much larger vocabulary. The humor of these exchanges came from the misunderstandings on the part of the endmen when talking to the interlocutor: 1140:

troupes claimed to have carried out more serious "fieldwork". Just as the American people came from all over the world, some of the first forms of truly American music and drama were composed of elements from many different places.

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came to be synonymous with the institution of black minstrelsy. J. H. Haverly, in turn, purchased Callender's troupe in 1878 and applied his strategy of enlarging troupe size and embellishing sets. When this company went to Europe,

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emerged as the most important specialist role in the minstrel troupe; men could alternately be titillated and disgusted, while women could admire the illusion and high fashion. The role was most strongly associated with the song "

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counterparts. He was usually better at retreating than fighting, and, like the dandy, he preferred partying to serious pursuits. Still, his introduction allowed for some return to themes of the breakup of the plantation family.

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had previously been reserved for traveling white singing groups, but Emmett and company made it synonymous with blackface performance, and by using it, signalled that they were reaching out to a new, middle-class audience.

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The typical minstrel performance followed a three-act structure. The troupe first danced onto stage then exchanged wisecracks and sang songs. The second part featured a variety of entertainments, including the pun-filled

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A small number of films available today contain authentic recreations of Minstrel show numbers and routines. Due to their content they are rarely (if ever) broadcast on television today, but are available on home video.

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incarnations through the medium of "race music" and "hillbilly" recordings. Many minstrel tunes are now popular folk songs. Most have been expunged of the exaggerated black dialect and the overt references to blacks.

744:, came to specialize in this part; such singers often became celebrities, especially with women. Initially, an upbeat plantation song and dance ended the act; later it was more common for the first act to end with a 1046:, a common character in the afterpiece. He was a Northern, urban black man trying to live above his station by mimicking white, upper-class speech and dress—usually to no good effect. Dandy characters often went by 1031:, a slapstick role played by a large man in motley clothing and large, flapping shoes. The humor she invoked often turned on the male characters' desire for a woman whom the audience would perceive as unattractive. 1091:

The few white characters in minstrelsy were stereotypes of immigrant groups like the Irish and Germans. Irish characters first appeared in the 1840s, portrayed as hotheaded, odious drunkards who spoke in a thick

707:, which performed with an all-black cast that elevated the level of shows with sophisticated and fun comedy. It successfully toured mainly the Southwest and Southeast, as well as in New Jersey and New York City. 558:

Those minstrels who stayed in New York and similar cities followed Barnum's lead by advertising relentlessly and emphasizing spectacle. Troupes ballooned; as many as 19 performers could be on stage at once, and

1148:

In short, early minstrel music and dance was not true black culture; it was a white reaction to it. This was the first large-scale appropriation and commercial exploitation of black culture by American whites.

134:. They were developed into full-fledged art form in the next decade. By 1848, blackface minstrel shows were the national artform, translating formal art such as opera into popular terms for a general audience. 1629:, after being denied a chance to audition wins a black minstrel show in a crap game. The endmen in the show in the film emulate traditional white blackface by a line of white greasepaint around their mouths. 305:." As early as the 1820s, blackface performers called themselves "Ethiopian delineators"; from then into the early 1840s, unlike the later heyday of minstrelsy, they performed either solo or in small teams. 1108: 1119:

How much influence black music had on minstrel performance remains a debated topic. Minstrel music certainly contained some element of black culture, added onto a base of European tradition with distinct

645:'s Slave Troupe of Georgia Minstrels formed shortly thereafter and toured England to great success beginning in 1866. In the 1870s, white entrepreneurs bought most of the successful black companies. 1078:"), odd eating habits (dogs and cats), and propensity for wearing pigtails. Parodies of Japanese became popular when a Japanese acrobat troupe toured the United States beginning in 1865. A run of 793: 584:, to their repertoire in the 1870s. These were fairly authentic religious slave songs borrowed from traveling black singing groups. Other troupes drifted further from minstrelsy's roots. When 1287:

uses the setting of a traveling minstrel show, giving an on-screen presentation of a performance. Likewise, when the sound era of cartoons began in the late 1920s, early animators such as

1238:. The black troupes sang the most authentic jubilees, while white companies inserted humorous verses and replaced religious themes with plantation imagery, often starring the old darky. 4748: 1271:

These entertainers kept the familiar songs, dances, and pseudo-black dialect, often in nostalgic looks back at the old minstrel show. The most famous of these performers is probably

794: 932:

I'm astonished at you, Why, the idea of a man of your mental caliber talking about such sordid matters, right after listening to such a beautiful song! Have you no sentiment left?

434:. The minstrel show as a complete evening's entertainment was born. The show had little structure. The four sat in a semicircle, played songs, and traded wisecracks. One gave a 4472: 1621: 454:

wrote that the production was "entirely exempt from the vulgarities and other objectionable features, which have hitherto characterized Negro extravaganzas." In 1845, the

324:. Upper class houses at first limited the number of such acts they would show, but beginning in 1841, blackface performers frequently took to the stage at even the classy 181:

wench, and the black soldier. Minstrels claimed that their songs and dances were authentically black, although the extent of the genuine black influence remains debated.

1106: 593:

only in name. Other troupes followed to varying extents, and pre-war style minstrelsy found itself confined to explicitly nostalgic "histories of minstrelsy" features.

1825:(1951), is based around a young child who finds a rest home for retired minstrel performers. In "flashback" sequences, a number of actual minstrel veterans, including 141:

style of theatre. The form survived as professional entertainment until about 1910; amateur performances continued until the 1960s in high schools and local theaters.

4598:

On the Real Side: Laughing, Lying, and Signifying—The Underground Tradition of African-American Humor that Transformed American Culture, from Slavery to Richard Pryor

1315:") with the expectation, presumably, that audiences would get the reference. Radio shows got into the act, a fact perhaps best exemplified by the popular radio shows 1565:. Long thought to have been lost, a copy of the film and sound disc were located and the restored version has been issued as a bonus feature on the DVD release of 838:

dominated beginning in 1853. The afterpiece allowed the minstrels to introduce new characters, some of whom became quite popular and spread from troupe to troupe.

1225:

that formed part of the repertoire beginning with Rice. Minstrel dance was generally not held to the same mockery as other parts, although contemporaries such as

169:

Minstrel songs and sketches featured several stock characters, most popularly the slave and the dandy. These were further divided into sub-archetypes such as the

1057:

Non-black stereotypes played a significant role in minstrelsy, and, although still performed in blackface, were distinguished by their lack of black dialect.

4686: 1721:. The final scene, edited out of recent television broadcasts, shows Bunny and Fudd in blackface, along with five tall men in the same condition, singing " 4576: 1529: 1516:. And by introducing America to black dance and musical style, minstrels opened the nation to black cultural forms for the first time on a large scale. 724:, a sort of host, they sat in a semicircle. Various stock characters always took the same positions: the genteel interlocutor in the middle, flanked by 123:

happy-go-lucky. Each show consisted of comic skits, variety acts, dancing, and music performances that depicted people specifically of African descent.

5024: 1295:(who already resembled blackface performers) a minstrel-show personality; the early Mickey is constantly singing and dancing and smiling. The face of 649:

obtained Sam Hague's troupe in 1872 and renamed it Callender's Georgia Minstrels. They became the most popular black troupe in America, and the words

1207:

all had their origins in the plantations of the South, and some were popularized by black performers such as William Henry Lane, Signor Cornmeali ("

1508:. The instruments of the minstrel show were largely kept on, especially in the South. Minstrel performers from the last days of the shows, such as 523:" became the hit of the period, selling over a million copies of sheet music. To balance the somber mood, minstrels put on patriotic numbers like " 422:, theater attendance suffered, and concerts were one of the few attractions that could still make money. In 1843, four blackface performers led by 362:

for spare change on their days off, and musicians played what they claimed to be "Negro music" on so-called black instruments like the banjo. The

4190: 1942: 1761:(1944), blackface musicians perform a jolly number on the river vessel, in the scene where Captain Clemens rescues Charles Langdon from a thief. 1471:

blues genre carried over the dandy, the wench, the simple-minded slave characters (sometimes rendered as the rustic white "rube") and even the

1200: 137:

By the turn of the 20th century the minstrel show enjoyed but a shadow of its former popularity, having been replaced for the most part by the

964:

Female characters ranged from the sexually provocative to the laughable. These roles were almost always played by men in drag (most famously

2919: 4700: 4438: 1426:

The very structure of American entertainment bears minstrelsy's imprint. The endless barrage of gags and puns appears in the work of the

246:

is frequently cited as the first actor to perform in blackface based on an impression he did of a drunken black man in a 1769 staging of

126:

Blackface minstrelsy was the first uniquely American form of theater, and for many minstrel shows emerged as brief burlesques and comic

4165: 5034: 638: 3999:"Gentlemen, Be Seated!" New York: National Broadcasting Company, Inc. 1930. The pamphlet specifically describes the marketing for the 1581:, the story tells of Jakie Rabinowitz (Al Jolson), the son of a devout Jewish family, who runs away from home to become a jazz singer. 571:

Other minstrel troupes tried to satisfy different, less socially acceptable tastes. Female acts had made a stir in variety shows, and

507:

Non-race-related humor came from lampoons of other subjects, including aristocratic whites such as politicians, doctors, and lawyers.

5054: 1372:

alleges that modern black entertainment exploits African-American culture much as the minstrel shows did a century ago, for example.

2889: 1757: 1737:

performing in blackface in the style of a minstrel show. Beginning in the 1980s, this number has been cut from many TV broadcasts.

356: 4481: 500:" continued into the 20th century, continuing to blend the comic aspects of minstrelsy with the more serious plot of the novel. 355:

Meanwhile, at least some whites were interested in black song and dance by actual black performers. Nineteenth-century New York

118:, was an American form of theater developed in the early 19th century. The shows were performed by mostly white actors wearing 4936: 4707: 786: 564: 540: 2408:, MAAP (Mapping the African American Past; Columbia CNMTL, JPMorganChase, Teachers College, Curriculum Concepts International) 633:

Plantation scenarios were common in black minstrelsy, as shown here in this post-1875 poster for Callender's Colored Minstrels

4634: 4614: 4428: 4358: 4327: 4301: 4280: 4258: 4239: 4218: 3706: 3616: 2209: 2184: 2079: 1358:. The racist archetypes that blackface minstrelsy helped to create persist to this day; some argue that this is even true in 1058: 197:

such shows were "disrespectful" of social norms as they portrayed runaway slaves with sympathy and would undermine slavery.

17: 2045: 1168:" have a catchy tune and energetic rhythm, melody and harmony; minstrel music was now for singing as well as dancing. The 1376:

opportunity to alter those stereotypes. Many famous singers and actors gained their start in black minstrelsy, including

3234:"Rabbit's Foot Comedy Company; T. G. Williams; William Mosely; Ross Jackson; Sam Catlett; Mr. Chappelle." News/Opinion, 1417:, and the company was still touring as late as 1950. Its success was rivalled by other touring variety troupes, such as 4715: 4714:, containing more than 50 years of documentation about minstrelsy and its origins is available for research use at the 4319: 1937: 1590: 572: 3669: 2149: 1789:(1944), a fictional film about the rise, fall, and revival of a minstrel performer's career. It was nominated for two 4557: 4526: 2031: 2007: 1920: 1350: 830: 637:

One or two African-American troupes dominated the scene for much of the late 1860s and 1870s. The first of these was

478: 439: 163: 146: 2401: 1857:. Veteran performer Glen Turnbull makes a guest appearance as a blackface Minstrel performer in Christy's Minstrels. 1546:" it featured black stereotypes such as having the slaves dance in almost any context, including at a slave auction. 4474:

Ashley Street Blues: Racial Uplift and the Commodification of Vernacular Performance in Lavilla, Florida, 1896–1916

1932: 290:", brought blackface performance to a new level of prominence in the early 1830s. At the height of Rice's success, 280:

even claimed that Forrest's impression was so good he could fool blacks when he mingled with them in the streets.

5039: 4780: 1987: 1837:, "endmen" Cotton Watts and Slim Williams, the dancing team of Boyce and Evans, and the comic duo Ches Davis and 1175:

predominantly white, middle-class Northerners, by playing music the spectators would find familiar and pleasant.

546:

Minstrelsy lost popularity during the Civil War. New entertainments such as variety shows, musical comedies and

1337:, which uses many of the standard forms of the minstrel show, including Tambo, Bones and the interlocutor. The 497: 298: 4588: 5044: 4464: 1778: 1493: 1489: 1212: 1152:

In the late 1830s, a decidedly European structure and high-brow style became popular in minstrel music. The

829:

rounded out the production. In the early days of the minstrel show, this was often a skit set on a Southern

5029: 4393: 4372: 3569: 1435: 1419: 1401: 704: 4643:

Zapata-Rodríguez, Melisa M. (2016). "Minstresy: Iconography of Resistance During the American Civil War".

1950:, the stereotyped portrayal of Irish people once common in plays during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries 466:, combining the refined singing of the Ethiopian Serenaders (epitomized by the work of Christy's composer 341: 189:) entered the repertoire in the 1870s, marking the first undeniably black music to be used in minstrelsy. 4690: 1577:(1927), the first feature-length motion picture with synchronized dialogue sequences. Based on a play by 1131:

influences. According to the historian of music Larry Birnbaum, minstrel music primarily originated from

803: 692: 520: 237:

Although white theatrical portrayals of black characters date back to as early as 1604, the character of

4736: 3564: 3420: 252:. Later research by Cockrell and others disputes this claim. Eventually, similar performers appeared in 917:

Tambo and Bones's simple-mindedness and lack of sophistication were highlighted by pairing them with a

458:

purged their show of low humor and surpassed the Virginia Minstrels in popularity. Shortly thereafter,

131: 4182: 1893:(2000), a satirical film using minstrelsy to lampoon American popular culture written and directed by 1311:, minstrel shows could be used as a gag (in this case, Elmer Fudd and Bugs Bunny leading a chorus of " 1355: 1235: 493: 435: 256:

in New York City theaters and other venues such as taverns and circuses. As a result, the blackface "

159: 69: 5049: 1845: 1785: 1677: 1609:(1930), another Al Jolson film, this relives Jolson's early years as a minstrel man. With songs by 1431: 629: 524: 325: 144:

The genre has had a lasting legacy and influence and was featured in the British television series

873: 4972: 3909:

Blesh, Rudi, and Janis, Harriet. Unpublished notes. Quoted in Stearns, Marshall and Jean (1968).

1870: 1594: 973: 269: 2923: 1924:, a British television and theatre show of the American traditional genre in the 1960s and 1970s 4885: 4183:"'Ac-cent-tchu-ate the Positive': song History, Commentary, Discography, Performances on Video" 1881: 1861: 1673:(1939), in which Eleanor Powell performs a blackface dance homage to Bill "Bojangles" Robinson. 716: 463: 4444: 2495:, pp. 102–103 Emmett and the Virginia Minstrel's claim as originators is not undisputed. 2024:

Behind the Burnt Cork Mask: Early Blackface Minstrelsy and Antebellum American Popular Culture

1341:, in a 1930 pamphlet, used the minstrel show as a point of reference in selling its services. 4920: 4314:

Scripting the Black Masculine Body: Identity, Discourse, and Racial Politics in Popular Media

4162: 2135: 2123: 1746: 1633: 1397: 1187: 580:

This new minstrelsy maintained an emphasis on refined music. Most troupes added jubilees, or

308:

Blackface soon found a home in the taverns of New York's less respectable precincts of Lower

174: 151: 4745:, includes biographical sketches of many black minstrel composers and access to their music. 4742: 1994:, Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia, Ferris State University. Retrieved 29 January 2016. 1681:(1940), another fictionalized biographical film on Stephen Foster. It was nominated for the 3857: 2956:

Playbill, "Seven Slaves Just From Alabama", Springfield, Massachusetts, May 7, . Quoted in

1901: 1813:, is set in 1890s New York and features several scenes depicting blackface musical numbers. 1501: 1472: 1079: 1066: 976:), even though American theater outside minstrelsy was filled with actresses at this time. 487: 459: 455: 364: 345: 317: 309: 4535:

Sullivan, Megan (2001), "African-American music as rebellion: From slavesong to hip-hop",

8: 4773: 4172:, Uncle Tom's Cabin and American Culture, a Multi-Media Archive, accessed April 19, 2007. 3608: 2897: 1765: 1665:

features a dance number entitled "Bojangles of Harlem" performed by Astaire in blackface.

1585: 1454: 1329: 1323: 1216: 1196: 1170: 850:

This reproduction of a 1900 minstrel show poster, originally published by the Strobridge

598: 427: 257: 238: 1819:(1950), a collection of stage acts with Glen Vernon and Edward Ryan in a blackface skit. 1215:. One performance by Lane in 1842 was described as consisting of "sliding steps, like a 535: 4703:

From the collection of the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University

4312: 4269: 1927: 1797: 1729: 1145: 1132: 907: 516: 431: 411: 333: 222: 210: 78: 74: 4624: 2503:, but Emmett, performing in Manhattan, promptly gained attention that Christy had not. 4679: 4652: 4630: 4610: 4553: 4522: 4424: 4354: 4323: 4297: 4291: 4276: 4254: 4235: 4214: 3712: 3702: 3612: 2500: 2205: 2180: 2075: 2072:

Representing African Americans in Transatlantic Abolitionism and Blackface Minstrelsy

2027: 1693: 1653: 1605: 1578: 1283: 1125: 703:

capitalized on this and created the first totally black-owned black vaudeville show,

646: 589: 585: 581: 508: 182: 31: 1182: 4951: 4730: 4726: 4694: 3441:

Virginia Serenaders (1844). "Lubly Fan Will You Come Out?", sheet music. Quoted in

2982: 1874: 1826: 1769:(1944), contains a show-within-a-show. It includes a minstrel routine performed by 1550: 1509: 1121: 846: 700: 277: 1534:(1903), an early "full-length" movie (between 10 and 14 minutes), was directed by 4890: 4607:

On the Real Side: A History of African American Comedy from Slavery to Chris Rock

4229: 4208: 4169: 3696: 2405: 2011: 1991: 1669: 1642: 1598: 1573: 1535: 1460: 1359: 1317: 1277: 1136: 1093: 978: 663: 659: 359: 265: 227: 170: 4296:, Cambridge University Press / Cambridge Studies in American Theatre and Drama, 1266:

promotional pamphlet using minstrel show references. Collection of E.O. Costello

332:

from staging high drama at all. Typical blackface acts of the period were short

4915: 4859: 4766: 4675: 4671: 4097: 1967: 1854: 1790: 1722: 1410: 1312: 1300: 1165: 1024: 965: 672: 668: 618: 467: 329: 283: 221:

Minstrel shows were popular before slavery was abolished, sufficiently so that

214: 193:

more awareness, albeit distorted, of some aspects of black culture in America.

41: 5003: 3716: 2499:

did more or less the same, apparently independently, earlier the same year in

1705:. The next-to-last musical number is a medley of songs performed in blackface. 1442:" and dramatic pieces continued into vaudeville, variety shows, and to modern 1258: 5018: 4956: 4895: 4854: 4828: 4813: 4721: 4656: 4400: 4138: 2496: 1866: 1838: 1830: 1802: 1698: 1682: 1662: 1626: 1610: 1558: 1513: 1480: 1443: 1427: 1221: 1208: 1070: 995: 880: 560: 419: 378: 373: 302: 287: 273: 264:" and "frontiersman" character-types in popularity, and white actors such as 231: 4231:

Racial Innocence: Performing American Childhood from Slavery to Civil Rights

1034: 4941: 4849: 4711: 4004: 3673: 2153: 1877:, contains a musical number, done in blackface, entitled "Two-faced Woman." 1741: 1702: 1658: 1646: 1485: 1414: 1406: 1393: 1389: 1292: 1226: 1157: 990: 969: 879:

Thomas "Daddy" Rice introduced the earliest slave archetype with his song "

766: 680: 551: 387: 253: 243: 127: 98: 3287: 2864:

The Rise, Development, Decline and Influence of the American Minstrel Show

2004: 402: 56: 4987: 4946: 4869: 4823: 4743:

Historical Notes for Collection 1: African-American and Jamaican Melodies

2398: 1947: 1834: 1810: 1806: 1774: 1770: 1750: 1734: 1638: 1377: 1296: 1288: 1075: 1010: 868: 851: 614: 369: 297:

wrote, "The two most popular characters in the world at the present are

293: 248: 40:. For the video game with a remake subtitled Minstrel Song in Japan, see 4900: 4864: 4808: 4803: 4461:

Way up North in Dixie: A Black Family's Claim to the Confederate Anthem

1889: 1718: 1714: 1709: 1368: 1304: 1204: 1128: 1084: 918: 887: 825: 815: 746: 547: 423: 407: 138: 2890:"The Survival of Blackface Minstrel Shows in the Adirondack Foothills" 1984: 1307:

in mind. As late as 1942, as demonstrated in the Warner Bros. cartoon

1004: 4346: 4163:

The First Uncle Tom's Cabin Film: Edison-Porter's Slavery Days (1903)

1906: 1894: 1686: 1562: 1555: 1543: 1539: 1385: 1363: 1275:, who took blackface to the big screen in the 1920s in films such as 1272: 676: 642: 623: 349: 230:, and in musical ensembles. Black people were also part of traveling 119: 4701:

Ruckus! American Entertainments at the Turn of the Twentieth Century

4251:"Gentlemen, Be Seated!" - The Rise and the Fall of the Minstrel Show 2138:(2000) By Frank W. Sweet, Backintyme, p. 28 Retrieved 18 March 2010. 1156:, played with "scientific touches of perfection" and popularized by 4351:

Love and Theft: Blackface Minstrelsy and the American Working Class

1505: 1497: 1231: 1088:

in the mid-1880s inspired another wave of Asian characterizations.

1047: 751: 37: 4722:

The JUBA Project: Early Blackface Minstrelsy in Britain, 1842–1852

1685:

for Best Musical Scoring and was the last on-screen appearance of

4977: 4626:

Escaping the Delta: Robert Johnson and the Invention of the Blues

2014:, musicals101.com. 1996, revised 2003. Retrieved 9 November 2011. 1448: 1381: 1019: 178: 4383:(2nd ed.). Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers Inc. 4339:

The Bones in the United States: History and Performance Practice

3804:

The Bones in the United States: History and Performance Practice

2046:"Blackface photos found in old University of Maryland yearbooks" 1968:"Minstrel show | Description, History, & Facts | Britannica" 320:. It also appeared on more respectable stages, most often as an 104:

The Celebrated Negro Melodies, as Sung by the Virginia Minstrels

4982: 4749:"Popular culture once embraced racist blackface minstrel shows" 477:

The rise of the minstrel show coincided with the growth of the

337: 313: 261: 3806:. M. A. Thesis, University of Michigan, 1989, and articles in 3607:. New Approaches to International History series. London, UK: 2202:

Blacks in Blackface: A Sourcebook on Early Black Musical Shows

2177:

Blacks in Blackface: A Sourcebook on Early Black Musical Shows

2026:

by William J. Mahar, University of Illinois Press (1998) p. 9

1519: 1303:, designed the doll in part with the antics of blackface star 1299:

is a color-reversed minstrel mask, and Raggedy Ann's creator,

854:

Co., shows the blackface transformation from white to "black".

154:

progressed and gained acceptance, minstrelsy lost popularity.

4844: 4818: 4789: 4501:

Staging Race: Black Performers in Turn of the Century America

4443:, Garden City: Doubleday, Doran & Company, archived from 4293:

Demons of Disorder: Early Blackface Minstrels and their World

1492:

as its unofficial national anthem and is still popular, and "

1476: 1468: 1439: 1153: 741: 4568:

Blacking Up: The Minstrel Show in Nineteenth-century America

1777:; their two characters then sing a musical number entitled " 1625:(1934), is a 21-minute short in which Bill Green, played by 4905: 1038:

1906 postcard advertisement featuring dandy-type characters

890:

types with names that matched the instruments they played:

862:

Jim Crow, the archetypal slave character as created by Rice

406:

Sheet music cover for "Dandy Jim from Caroline", featuring

276:

began to build reputations as blackface performers. Author

217:

from sheet music cover of "Sich a Getting Up Stairs", 1830s

1841:, perform in the roles they popularized in Minstrel shows. 1733:(1942), contains a musical number entitled "Abraham" with 858: 4645:

Music in Art: International Journal for Music Iconography

4271:

Bluegrass Breakdown: The Making of the Old Southern Sound

4101:

is simply a minstrel survival with a new coat of paint."

3416: 1467:

Another important legacy of minstrelsy is its music. The

1345: 1338: 1263: 4758: 1649:. One of the shows on board is a blackface minstrel act. 872:

the dandy, known frequently as Zip Coon, from the song

4577:"Behind the Blackface: Minstrel Men and Minstrel Myths" 4381:

Comic Visions: Television Comedy & American Culture

4141:, 50states.com. Accessed online 2006-09-03, 2009-07-20. 3810:, the official publication of the Rhythm Bones Society. 2369:(1862), New York:Burt Franklin 1969, p. 344, quoted in 667:

throughout the 1880s. Individual black performers like

550:

appeared in the North, backed by master promoters like

27:

19th- and 20th-century American form of musical theater

1613:, who is also credited with the original story titled 426:

combined to stage just such a concert at the New York

4003:, a show broadcast Saturday nights at 9.30 ET on the 1589:(1929), a feature film starring Minstrel show comics 952:

There were many variants on the slave archetype. The

3831:

March 18, 1841. Playbill, Bowery Theatre. Quoted in

260:" character came to supplant the "tall-tale-telling 4510:

Men in Blackface: True Stories of the Minstrel Show

3605:

The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History

1512:, helped popularize the banjo and fiddle in modern 1234:with a repetitive structure that relied heavily on 4311: 4268: 4156: 3270: 3268: 2223: 2221: 4390:Dan Emmett and the Rise of Early Negro Minstrelsy 2256:American Humor: A Study of the National Character 162:. The final act consisted of a slapstick musical 5016: 4642: 3238:, page 6. October 7, 1905. Indianapolis, Indiana 2199: 2174: 683:grew as famous as any featured white performer. 150:as recently as the mid-1970s. Generally, as the 4366: 4200: 4063: 3311: 3309: 3265: 2218: 1943:List of entertainers who performed in blackface 1745:(1943), a film based on the life of songwriter 3694: 3565:"Blackface: the Sad History of Minstrel Shows" 998:(in wench costume) and George Griffin, c. 1855 4774: 4710:, compiled by minstrel performer and manager 4436: 3698:Before Elvis: The Prehistory of Rock 'n' Roll 3688: 3563:Grosvenor, Edwin S.; Toll, Robert C. (2019). 3562: 3490: 3362: 3360: 2725: 2723: 2614: 2612: 2305: 2303: 1793:(Best Original Song and Best Original Score). 1069:when minstrels encountered Chinese out West. 336:, often with mock Shakespearean titles like " 36:. For the medieval European entertainer, see 4498: 3306: 1853:), a completely fictional film biography of 1851:I Dream of Jeanie (with the Light Brown Hair 1542:in the major roles. Similar to the earlier " 4708:Frank Dumont Minstrelsy Scrapbook 1850–1902 4516: 3643: 3327: 3274: 3259: 3158: 3156: 2492: 2417: 2239: 2147: 1753:singing the film's title song in blackface. 1520:Motion pictures with minstrel show routines 1496:" was sanitized and made the state song of 1190:depicting the final part of the walk around 1065:Depictions of East Asians began during the 757:The second portion of the show, called the 4781: 4767: 4727:Guide to American Minstrel Show Collection 4609:, Chicago, Illinois: Lawrence Hill Books, 4480:, Florida State University, archived from 4458: 4367:Malone, Bill C.; Stricklin, David (2003), 3963: 3357: 2720: 2609: 2300: 1909:plays a blackfaced character in one scene. 1164:. Songs like the Virginia Minstrels' hit " 568:by professional managers such as Haverly. 5025:1830s establishments in the United States 4437:Paskman, Dailey; Spaeth, Sigmund (1928), 4275:, Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 4227: 4206: 4114: 3975: 3222: 3135: 2100: 2088: 438:in dialect, and they ended with a lively 4534: 4459:Sacks, Howard L.; Sacks, Judith (1993), 4401:"Official Song of the State of Virginia" 4289: 4266: 3844: 3832: 3777: 3741: 3729: 3701:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 24. 3153: 2861: 2599: 2597: 2588: 2528: 2512: 2468: 2456: 2341: 2325: 2271: 2069: 2005:A History of the Musical: Minstrel Shows 1438:. The varied structure of songs, gags, " 1333:, A transcription survives from 1931 of 1257: 1181: 1103: 1033: 989: 857: 845: 641:, who played the Northeast around 1865. 628: 534: 401: 209: 97: 4604: 4595: 4342:. M. A. Thesis, University of Michigan. 4309: 4234:. New York: New York University Press. 4150: 4016: 3753: 3667: 3378: 3366: 3210: 3198: 3162: 3075: 3039: 3027: 3015: 2876: 2777: 2729: 2618: 2259: 2227: 2106: 886:Slave characters in general came to be 639:Brooker and Clayton's Georgia Minstrels 14: 5017: 4937:Four-String Banjo Hall of Fame Members 4418: 4387: 4052: 3596: 3403: 2074:. Baton Rouge: LSU Press. p. 36. 2043: 1997: 286:'s successful song-and-dance number, " 4762: 4547: 4507: 4503:, Cambridge: Harvard University Press 4470: 4353:, New York: Oxford University Press, 4248: 4193:from the original on August 18, 2016. 4040: 3987: 3602: 3423:from the original on February 4, 2002 2594: 1042:The counterpart to the slave was the 750:, including dances in the style of a 166:skit or a send-up of a popular play. 30:For the album by Little Brother, see 4622: 4574: 4565: 4378: 4345: 4336: 4139:www.50states.com Virginia State Song 4126: 4102: 4075: 4028: 3951: 3939: 3927: 3914: 3897: 3885: 3873: 3861: 3819: 3789: 3765: 3655: 3631: 3590: 3550: 3538: 3526: 3514: 3502: 3478: 3466: 3454: 3442: 3390: 3351: 3339: 3315: 3300: 3247: 3186: 3174: 3147: 3123: 3111: 3099: 3087: 3063: 3051: 3011: 2999: 2987: 2969: 2957: 2944: 2849: 2837: 2825: 2813: 2801: 2789: 2765: 2753: 2741: 2714: 2702: 2690: 2678: 2666: 2654: 2642: 2630: 2603: 2576: 2564: 2552: 2540: 2480: 2444: 2432: 2386: 2370: 2353: 2329: 2309: 2294: 2283: 2094: 1833:(aka "Brother Bones"), Ned Haverly, 1713:(1942), an animated short featuring 205: 50: 4570:, New York: Oxford University Press 3856:October 9, 1847, writing about the 3402:"Jim Crow", sheet music. Quoted in 2112: 1978: 1905:(2003), set in a dystopian future. 1488:", for example, was adopted by the 541:Haverly's United Mastodon Minstrels 24: 4716:Historical Society of Pennsylvania 4575:Toll, Robert C. (April–May 1978), 4320:State University of New York Press 2862:Davidson, Frank Costellow (1952). 2044:Meehan, Sarah (February 8, 2019). 1938:List of blackface minstrel troupes 1242:eventually became synonymous with 1099: 775: 608: 25: 5066: 5035:African-American cultural history 4755:(Bloomington, Illinois newspaper) 4737:American Minstrel Show Collection 4664: 4091:"…the sort of comedy featured on 2204:. Scarecrow Press. p. 1090. 2179:. Scarecrow Press. p. 1088. 1921:The Black and White Minstrel Show 1351:The Black and White Minstrel Show 1344:As recently as the mid-1970s the 394:expected to abandon such things. 147:The Black and White Minstrel Show 5055:Stereotypes of African Americans 4600:, New York: Simon & Schuster 4253:, Munich, Germany: Grin Verlag, 4175: 4144: 4132: 4120: 4108: 4085: 4069: 4057: 4046: 4034: 4022: 4010: 3993: 3981: 3969: 3957: 3945: 3933: 3920: 3903: 3891: 3879: 3867: 3850: 3838: 3825: 3813: 3795: 3783: 3771: 3759: 3747: 3735: 3723: 3668:Padgett, Ken (August 20, 2014). 3661: 3649: 3637: 3625: 3584: 3556: 3544: 3532: 3520: 3508: 3496: 3484: 3472: 3460: 3448: 3435: 3409: 3396: 3384: 3372: 1933:List of blackface minstrel songs 1186:Detail from an 1859 playbill of 1112:A complete minstrel show, c.1899 921:master of ceremonies called the 814:Problems playing this file? See 802:A blackface stump speech by the 791: 342:Bad Breath, the Crane of Chowder 55: 4371:(Revised ed.), Lexington: 3345: 3333: 3321: 3294: 3280: 3253: 3241: 3228: 3216: 3204: 3192: 3180: 3168: 3141: 3129: 3117: 3105: 3093: 3081: 3069: 3057: 3045: 3033: 3021: 3005: 2993: 2986:, September 6, 1879. Quoted in 2975: 2963: 2950: 2938: 2912: 2882: 2870: 2855: 2843: 2831: 2819: 2807: 2795: 2783: 2771: 2759: 2747: 2735: 2708: 2696: 2684: 2672: 2660: 2648: 2636: 2624: 2582: 2570: 2558: 2546: 2534: 2518: 2506: 2486: 2474: 2462: 2450: 2438: 2426: 2411: 2392: 2376: 2359: 2347: 2335: 2319: 2288: 2277: 2265: 2248: 2233: 2193: 2168: 2148:Ken Padgett (August 20, 2014). 2141: 2129: 787:"A Meeting of the Limkiln Club" 573:Madame Rentz's Female Minstrels 4550:A History of the Minstrel Show 4471:Smith, Peter Dunbaugh (2006), 4310:Jackson, Ronald L. II (2006), 2527:, February 6, 1843. Quoted in 2136:A History of the Minstrel Show 2120:A History of the Minstrel Show 2063: 2037: 2017: 1960: 940:No, I haven't got a cent left. 299:Victoria of the United Kingdom 13: 1: 4687:Waiting for the Robert E. Lee 4465:Smithsonian Institution Press 4369:Southern Music/American Music 1494:Carry Me Back to Old Virginny 1339:National Broadcasting Company 841: 4499:Sotiropoulos, Karen (2006), 4394:University of Oklahoma Press 4373:University Press of Kentucky 4207:Alexander, Michelle (2012). 4201:Cited and general references 1954: 1779:Ac-Cen-Tchu-Ate the Positive 1758:The Adventures of Mark Twain 1504:" remains the state song of 1420:Silas Green from New Orleans 1195:popularity. Dances like the 906:) for the bone castanets or 710: 7: 4064:Malone & Stricklin 2003 4001:Dutch Masters Minstrel Show 3670:"Blackface! Minstrel Shows" 2152:. p. 1. Archived from 2150:"Blackface! Minstrel Shows" 1913: 1697:(1941), a musical starring 1657:(1936), a musical starring 521:When This Cruel War Is Over 68:to comply with Knowledge's 10: 5071: 4517:Strausbaugh, John (2006), 3288:"Mr. Tambo | theatre" 2254:Rourke, Constance (1931). 1160:, became the heart of the 530: 200: 173:, her counterpart the old 130:in the early 1830s in the 29: 4996: 4965: 4929: 4878: 4837: 4796: 4788: 4267:Cantwell, Robert (1984), 4228:Bernstein, Robin (2011). 4187:greatamericansongbook.net 3926:Kemble, Fanny. Quoted in 3913:, 50–55. Quoted later in 3491:Paskman & Spaeth 1928 2200:Henry T. Sampson (2014). 2175:Henry T. Sampson (2014). 2070:Nowatzki, Robert (2010). 1627:Bill "Bojangles" Robinson 1538:and used white actors in 1402:The Rabbit's Foot Company 1356:George Mitchell Minstrels 1249: 994:Minstrel show performers 898:) for the tambourine and 705:The Rabbit's Foot Company 565:United Mastodon Minstrels 430:, calling themselves the 397: 4566:Toll, Robert C. (1974), 4548:Sweet, Frank W. (2000), 2459:, p. 187, note 111. 2404:20 February 2009 at the 1291:gave characters such as 525:The Star-Spangled Banner 81:may contain suggestions. 66:may need to be rewritten 4508:Stark, Seymour (2000), 4290:Cockrell, Dale (1997), 4249:Bauch, Marc A. (2012), 3808:The Rhythm Bones Player 3695:Larry Birnbaum (2013). 3603:Crean, Jeffrey (2024). 1335:The Blue Coal Minstrels 613:In the 1840s and '50s, 515:With the advent of the 410:(center) and the other 270:George Washington Dixon 5040:African-American music 4997:International variants 4739:, Princeton University 4421:The Story of the Blues 3964:Sacks & Sacks 1993 3481:, p. 63, note 63. 1637:(1936), film starring 1281:(1927). His 1930 film 1267: 1213:John "Picayune" Butler 1191: 1113: 1039: 999: 863: 855: 780: 634: 543: 415: 218: 107: 4629:, New York: Amistad, 4623:Wald, Elijah (2004), 4605:Watkins, Mel (1999), 4596:Watkins, Mel (1994), 4447:on September 10, 2006 4419:Oliver, Paul (1972), 4388:Nathan, Hans (1962), 3676:on September 27, 2014 2926:on September 27, 2015 2399:African Grove Theater 2156:on September 27, 2014 1747:Daniel Decatur Emmett 1398:Butterbeans and Susie 1362:and movies. The 2000 1261: 1185: 1111: 1037: 993: 861: 849: 779: 679:, Martin Francis and 632: 538: 405: 372:street vendor called 368:wrote that a singing 284:Thomas Dartmouth Rice 213: 152:civil rights movement 102:Detail from cover of 101: 5045:Blackface minstrelsy 4733:, Harvard University 4678:Minstrels (possibly 4379:Marc, David (1997). 3858:Ethiopian Serenaders 2383:New Orleans Picayune 1902:Masked and Anonymous 1561:short film starring 1502:My Old Kentucky Home 1452:or, more distantly, 1080:Gilbert and Sullivan 1067:California Gold Rush 732:, who served as the 460:Edwin Pearce Christy 456:Ethiopian Serenaders 365:New Orleans Picayune 18:Interlocutor (music) 5030:1830s introductions 4689:" performed by the 4674:" performed by the 4587:(3), archived from 4337:Lenz, Beth (1989), 3822:, pp. 101–103. 3609:Bloomsbury Academic 3593:, pp. 118–119. 3330:, pp. 104–105. 3177:, pp. 258–259. 3165:, pp. 124–129. 3102:, pp. 239–240. 3090:, pp. 236–237. 3042:, pp. 114–117. 3030:, pp. 109–110. 2960:, pp. 198–199. 2947:, pp. 197–198. 2840:, pp. 181–183. 2828:, pp. 152–154. 2792:, pp. 146–151. 2744:, pp. 109–112. 2717:, pp. 162–163. 2705:, pp. 104–105. 2669:, pp. 150–152. 2645:, pp. 211–233. 2591:, pp. 147–154. 1817:Hollywood Varieties 1766:Here Come the Waves 1455:Saturday Night Live 1171:Spirit of the Times 987:plantation family. 599:Radical Republicans 464:Christy's Minstrels 428:Bowery Amphitheatre 132:Northeastern states 4838:Family instruments 4691:Heidelberg Quintet 4672:Minstrel Potpourri 4591:on January 9, 2009 4168:2007-03-13 at the 3930:, pp. 115–116 3768:, pp. 41, 94. 2920:"Kake Walk at UVM" 2894:www.nyfolklore.org 2816:, p. 138-142. 2804:, p. 135-155. 2768:, p. 135-155. 2483:, pp. 143–148 2435:, pp. 137–138 2010:2012-06-11 at the 1990:2012-04-14 at the 1985:The Coon Character 1972:www.britannica.com 1928:Eldred Kurtz Means 1823:Yes Sir, Mr. Bones 1798:My Wild Irish Rose 1586:Why Bring That Up? 1268: 1192: 1188:Bryant's Minstrels 1114: 1040: 1000: 864: 856: 781: 635: 615:William Henry Lane 544: 517:American Civil War 432:Virginia Minstrels 416: 412:Virginia Minstrels 223:Frederick Douglass 219: 177:, the provocative 108: 5012: 5011: 4921:Traditional Irish 4680:The Haydn Quartet 4636:978-0-06-052423-4 4616:978-1-55652-351-9 4581:American Heritage 4487:on March 26, 2009 4430:978-0-14-003509-4 4360:978-0-19-509641-5 4333:. Reprinted 2003. 4329:978-0-306-80495-3 4303:978-0-521-56828-9 4286:. Reprinted 2003. 4282:978-0-306-80495-3 4260:978-3-656-08636-9 4241:978-0-8147-8709-0 4220:978-1-59558-819-7 3978:, pp. 146–93 3876:, pp. 50–51. 3744:, pp. 25–26. 3708:978-0-8108-8638-4 3618:978-1-350-23394-2 3570:American Heritage 3505:, pp. 78–79. 3469:, pp. 69–70. 3342:, pp. 53–54. 3250:, pp. 37–38. 2501:Buffalo, New York 2373:, pp. 41–42. 2365:Thoms F. De Voe, 2344:, pp. 31–32. 2332:, pp. 10–11. 2211:978-0-8108-8351-2 2186:978-0-8108-8351-2 2081:978-0-8071-3745-1 2050:The Baltimore Sun 1865:(1953), starring 1846:I Dream of Jeanie 1801:(1947), starring 1694:Babes on Broadway 1579:Samson Raphaelson 1531:Uncle Tom's Cabin 1236:call and response 1109: 1076:ching chang chung 836:Uncle Tom's Cabin 797: 717:Christy Minstrels 647:Charles Callender 488:Uncle Tom's Cabin 338:Hamlet the Dainty 206:Early development 96: 95: 70:quality standards 33:The Minstrel Show 16:(Redirected from 5062: 4952:Rhiannon Giddens 4886:African-American 4783: 4776: 4769: 4760: 4759: 4731:Houghton Library 4695:Internet Archive 4660: 4651:(1–2): 111–127. 4639: 4619: 4601: 4592: 4571: 4562: 4544: 4531: 4513: 4504: 4495: 4494: 4492: 4486: 4479: 4467: 4455: 4454: 4452: 4433: 4415: 4413: 4411: 4396: 4384: 4375: 4363: 4341: 4332: 4317: 4306: 4285: 4274: 4263: 4245: 4224: 4210:The New Jim Crow 4195: 4194: 4179: 4173: 4160: 4154: 4148: 4142: 4136: 4130: 4124: 4118: 4112: 4106: 4089: 4083: 4082:, in particular. 4078:, p. 5 for 4073: 4067: 4061: 4055: 4050: 4044: 4038: 4032: 4026: 4020: 4014: 4008: 3997: 3991: 3985: 3979: 3973: 3967: 3961: 3955: 3949: 3943: 3937: 3931: 3924: 3918: 3907: 3901: 3895: 3889: 3883: 3877: 3871: 3865: 3854: 3848: 3842: 3836: 3829: 3823: 3817: 3811: 3799: 3793: 3787: 3781: 3775: 3769: 3763: 3757: 3751: 3745: 3739: 3733: 3732:, pp. 86–7. 3727: 3721: 3720: 3692: 3686: 3685: 3683: 3681: 3672:. 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Chappelle 278:Constance Rourke 91: 88: 82: 59: 51: 21: 5070: 5069: 5065: 5064: 5063: 5061: 5060: 5059: 5050:Stand-up comedy 5015: 5014: 5013: 5008: 4992: 4961: 4925: 4874: 4833: 4792: 4787: 4667: 4637: 4617: 4560: 4529: 4490: 4488: 4484: 4477: 4450: 4448: 4440:A Working Model 4431: 4409: 4407: 4399: 4361: 4330: 4304: 4283: 4261: 4242: 4221: 4203: 4198: 4181: 4180: 4176: 4170:Wayback Machine 4161: 4157: 4149: 4145: 4137: 4133: 4125: 4121: 4113: 4109: 4090: 4086: 4074: 4070: 4062: 4058: 4051: 4047: 4039: 4035: 4027: 4023: 4015: 4011: 3998: 3994: 3986: 3982: 3974: 3970: 3962: 3958: 3950: 3946: 3938: 3934: 3925: 3921: 3908: 3904: 3896: 3892: 3884: 3880: 3872: 3868: 3855: 3851: 3843: 3839: 3830: 3826: 3818: 3814: 3800: 3796: 3788: 3784: 3776: 3772: 3764: 3760: 3752: 3748: 3740: 3736: 3728: 3724: 3709: 3693: 3689: 3679: 3677: 3666: 3662: 3654: 3650: 3642: 3638: 3630: 3626: 3619: 3601: 3597: 3589: 3585: 3575: 3573: 3561: 3557: 3549: 3545: 3537: 3533: 3525: 3521: 3513: 3509: 3501: 3497: 3489: 3485: 3477: 3473: 3465: 3461: 3453: 3449: 3440: 3436: 3426: 3424: 3415: 3414: 3410: 3401: 3397: 3389: 3385: 3377: 3373: 3365: 3358: 3350: 3346: 3338: 3334: 3326: 3322: 3314: 3307: 3299: 3295: 3286: 3285: 3281: 3273: 3266: 3258: 3254: 3246: 3242: 3233: 3229: 3221: 3217: 3209: 3205: 3197: 3193: 3185: 3181: 3173: 3169: 3161: 3154: 3146: 3142: 3134: 3130: 3122: 3118: 3110: 3106: 3098: 3094: 3086: 3082: 3074: 3070: 3062: 3058: 3050: 3046: 3038: 3034: 3026: 3022: 3014:, p. 203; 3010: 3006: 2998: 2994: 2980: 2976: 2968: 2964: 2955: 2951: 2943: 2939: 2929: 2927: 2918: 2917: 2913: 2903: 2901: 2888: 2887: 2883: 2875: 2871: 2860: 2856: 2848: 2844: 2836: 2832: 2824: 2820: 2812: 2808: 2800: 2796: 2788: 2784: 2776: 2772: 2764: 2760: 2752: 2748: 2740: 2736: 2728: 2721: 2713: 2709: 2701: 2697: 2689: 2685: 2677: 2673: 2665: 2661: 2653: 2649: 2641: 2637: 2629: 2625: 2617: 2610: 2602: 2595: 2587: 2583: 2575: 2571: 2563: 2559: 2551: 2547: 2539: 2535: 2525:New York Herald 2523: 2519: 2511: 2507: 2491: 2487: 2479: 2475: 2467: 2463: 2455: 2451: 2443: 2439: 2431: 2427: 2416: 2412: 2406:Wayback Machine 2397: 2393: 2381: 2377: 2367:The Market Book 2364: 2360: 2352: 2348: 2340: 2336: 2328:, p. 148; 2324: 2320: 2308: 2301: 2293: 2289: 2282: 2278: 2270: 2266: 2253: 2249: 2238: 2234: 2226: 2219: 2212: 2198: 2194: 2187: 2173: 2169: 2159: 2157: 2146: 2142: 2134: 2130: 2117: 2113: 2105: 2101: 2093: 2089: 2082: 2068: 2064: 2054: 2052: 2042: 2038: 2022: 2018: 2012:Wayback Machine 2002: 1998: 1992:Wayback Machine 1983: 1979: 1966: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1916: 1882:White Christmas 1871:Michael Wilding 1643:Hattie McDaniel 1641:, Allan Jones, 1599:Two Black Crows 1574:The Jazz Singer 1567:The Jazz Singer 1536:Edwin S. Porter 1522: 1461:In Living Color 1360:hip hop culture 1318:Two Black Crows 1278:The Jazz Singer 1252: 1104: 1102: 1100:Music and dance 974:Barney Williams 844: 821: 820: 812: 810: 809: 808: 807: 800: 792: 789: 782: 776: 713: 664:Charles Frohman 611: 609:Black minstrels 586:George Primrose 579: 533: 485:Adaptations of 442:song. The term 400: 266:Charles Mathews 228:Wild West shows 208: 203: 92: 86: 83: 73: 60: 45: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5068: 5058: 5057: 5052: 5047: 5042: 5037: 5032: 5027: 5010: 5009: 5007: 5006: 5000: 4998: 4994: 4993: 4991: 4990: 4985: 4980: 4975: 4969: 4967: 4963: 4962: 4960: 4959: 4954: 4949: 4944: 4939: 4933: 4931: 4927: 4926: 4924: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4903: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4882: 4880: 4876: 4875: 4873: 4872: 4867: 4862: 4860:Mandolin-banjo 4857: 4852: 4847: 4841: 4839: 4835: 4834: 4832: 4831: 4826: 4821: 4816: 4811: 4806: 4800: 4798: 4794: 4793: 4786: 4785: 4778: 4771: 4763: 4757: 4756: 4746: 4740: 4734: 4724: 4719: 4704: 4698: 4683: 4666: 4665:External links 4663: 4662: 4661: 4640: 4635: 4620: 4615: 4602: 4593: 4572: 4563: 4558: 4552:, Backintyme, 4545: 4532: 4527: 4519:Black Like You 4514: 4505: 4496: 4468: 4463:, Washington: 4456: 4434: 4429: 4416: 4397: 4385: 4376: 4364: 4359: 4343: 4334: 4328: 4307: 4302: 4287: 4281: 4264: 4259: 4246: 4240: 4225: 4219: 4202: 4199: 4197: 4196: 4174: 4155: 4153:, p. 106. 4143: 4131: 4119: 4115:Bernstein 2011 4107: 4098:Grand Ole Opry 4084: 4068: 4056: 4045: 4033: 4031:, p. 196. 4021: 4009: 3992: 3980: 3976:Bernstein 2011 3968: 3966:, p. 158. 3956: 3954:, p. 119. 3944: 3932: 3919: 3902: 3890: 3878: 3866: 3864:, p. 153. 3849: 3847:, p. 156. 3837: 3835:, p. 148. 3824: 3812: 3794: 3782: 3770: 3758: 3756:, p. 116. 3746: 3734: 3722: 3707: 3687: 3660: 3658:, p. 174. 3648: 3646:, p. 131. 3636: 3634:, p. 172. 3624: 3617: 3595: 3583: 3555: 3553:, p. 166. 3543: 3541:, p. 140. 3531: 3529:, p. 144. 3519: 3507: 3495: 3483: 3471: 3459: 3447: 3434: 3408: 3395: 3383: 3371: 3356: 3354:, p. 161. 3344: 3332: 3320: 3305: 3303:, p. 153. 3293: 3279: 3277:, p. 105. 3264: 3262:, p. 104. 3252: 3240: 3227: 3223:Alexander 2012 3215: 3213:, p. 112. 3203: 3201:, p. 125. 3191: 3189:, p. 226. 3179: 3167: 3152: 3150:, p. 258. 3140: 3136:Alexander 2012 3128: 3126:, p. 227. 3116: 3114:, p. 245. 3104: 3092: 3080: 3078:, p. 109. 3068: 3066:, p. 223. 3056: 3054:, p. 220. 3044: 3032: 3020: 3018:, p. 119. 3004: 3002:, p. 200. 2992: 2990:, p. 205. 2974: 2972:, p. 201. 2962: 2949: 2937: 2911: 2881: 2879:, p. 103. 2869: 2854: 2852:, p. 126. 2842: 2830: 2818: 2806: 2794: 2782: 2770: 2758: 2756:, p. 117. 2746: 2734: 2719: 2707: 2695: 2683: 2671: 2659: 2647: 2635: 2623: 2608: 2593: 2581: 2569: 2557: 2555:, p. 219. 2545: 2533: 2531:, p. 151. 2517: 2515:, p. 152. 2505: 2485: 2473: 2461: 2449: 2437: 2425: 2410: 2391: 2375: 2358: 2346: 2334: 2318: 2299: 2287: 2276: 2264: 2247: 2232: 2217: 2210: 2192: 2185: 2167: 2140: 2128: 2111: 2099: 2087: 2080: 2062: 2036: 2016: 2003:John Kenrick, 1996: 1977: 1958: 1956: 1953: 1952: 1951: 1945: 1940: 1935: 1930: 1925: 1915: 1912: 1911: 1910: 1898: 1886: 1878: 1858: 1855:Stephen Foster 1842: 1820: 1814: 1794: 1791:Academy Awards 1782: 1762: 1754: 1749:. It includes 1738: 1726: 1723:Camptown Races 1706: 1690: 1674: 1666: 1650: 1630: 1622:King for a Day 1618: 1602: 1582: 1570: 1547: 1521: 1518: 1446:shows such as 1411:Brownie McGhee 1313:Camptown Races 1301:Johnny Gruelle 1251: 1248: 1166:Old Dan Tucker 1101: 1098: 1025:Miss Lucy Long 966:George Christy 942: 941: 934: 933: 843: 840: 811: 801: 790: 785: 784: 783: 774: 773: 772: 712: 709: 673:James A. Bland 669:Billy Kersands 619:Thomas Dilward 610: 607: 532: 529: 509:Women's rights 468:Stephen Foster 399: 396: 360:shingle danced 346:Julius Sneezer 330:Bowery Theatre 318:Chatham Street 232:medicine shows 215:Thomas D. Rice 207: 204: 202: 199: 114:, also called 94: 93: 63: 61: 54: 42:Romancing SaGa 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5067: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5022: 5020: 5005: 5002: 5001: 4999: 4995: 4989: 4986: 4984: 4981: 4979: 4976: 4974: 4971: 4970: 4968: 4966:Manufacturers 4964: 4958: 4957:Emily Strayer 4955: 4953: 4950: 4948: 4945: 4943: 4940: 4938: 4935: 4934: 4932: 4928: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4902: 4899: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4883: 4881: 4877: 4871: 4868: 4866: 4863: 4861: 4858: 4856: 4855:Banjo ukulele 4853: 4851: 4848: 4846: 4843: 4842: 4840: 4836: 4830: 4829:Scruggs style 4827: 4825: 4822: 4820: 4817: 4815: 4812: 4810: 4807: 4805: 4802: 4801: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4784: 4779: 4777: 4772: 4770: 4765: 4764: 4761: 4754: 4750: 4747: 4744: 4741: 4738: 4735: 4732: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4702: 4699: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4668: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4641: 4638: 4632: 4628: 4627: 4621: 4618: 4612: 4608: 4603: 4599: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4582: 4578: 4573: 4569: 4564: 4561: 4559:0-939479-21-4 4555: 4551: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4533: 4530: 4528:1-58542-498-6 4524: 4520: 4515: 4511: 4506: 4502: 4497: 4483: 4476: 4475: 4469: 4466: 4462: 4457: 4446: 4442: 4441: 4435: 4432: 4426: 4422: 4417: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4395: 4391: 4386: 4382: 4377: 4374: 4370: 4365: 4362: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4335: 4331: 4325: 4321: 4316: 4315: 4308: 4305: 4299: 4295: 4294: 4288: 4284: 4278: 4273: 4272: 4265: 4262: 4256: 4252: 4247: 4243: 4237: 4233: 4232: 4226: 4222: 4216: 4213:. New Press. 4212: 4211: 4205: 4204: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4178: 4171: 4167: 4164: 4159: 4152: 4147: 4140: 4135: 4129:, p. 28. 4128: 4123: 4116: 4111: 4105:, p. 51. 4104: 4100: 4099: 4094: 4088: 4081: 4077: 4072: 4066:, p. 26. 4065: 4060: 4054: 4049: 4042: 4037: 4030: 4025: 4019:, p. 47. 4018: 4013: 4006: 4002: 3996: 3990:, p. 72. 3989: 3984: 3977: 3972: 3965: 3960: 3953: 3948: 3942:, p. 244 3941: 3936: 3929: 3923: 3916: 3912: 3906: 3900:, p. 43. 3899: 3894: 3887: 3882: 3875: 3870: 3863: 3859: 3853: 3846: 3845:Cockrell 1997 3841: 3834: 3833:Cockrell 1997 3828: 3821: 3816: 3809: 3805: 3798: 3792:, p. 94. 3791: 3786: 3780:, p. 80. 3779: 3778:Cockrell 1997 3774: 3767: 3762: 3755: 3750: 3743: 3742:Sullivan 2001 3738: 3731: 3730:Cockrell 1997 3726: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3704: 3700: 3699: 3691: 3675: 3671: 3664: 3657: 3652: 3645: 3640: 3633: 3628: 3620: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3599: 3592: 3587: 3572: 3571: 3566: 3559: 3552: 3547: 3540: 3535: 3528: 3523: 3517:, p. 79. 3516: 3511: 3504: 3499: 3492: 3487: 3480: 3475: 3468: 3463: 3457:, p. 67. 3456: 3451: 3445:, p. 67. 3444: 3438: 3422: 3418: 3412: 3406:, p. 55. 3405: 3399: 3393:, p. 57. 3392: 3387: 3381:, p. 94. 3380: 3375: 3369:, p. 92. 3368: 3363: 3361: 3353: 3348: 3341: 3336: 3329: 3324: 3318:, p. 53. 3317: 3312: 3310: 3302: 3297: 3289: 3283: 3276: 3271: 3269: 3261: 3256: 3249: 3244: 3237: 3231: 3225:, p. 169 3224: 3219: 3212: 3207: 3200: 3195: 3188: 3183: 3176: 3171: 3164: 3159: 3157: 3149: 3144: 3138:, p. 168 3137: 3132: 3125: 3120: 3113: 3108: 3101: 3096: 3089: 3084: 3077: 3072: 3065: 3060: 3053: 3048: 3041: 3036: 3029: 3024: 3017: 3013: 3008: 3001: 2996: 2989: 2985: 2984: 2978: 2971: 2966: 2959: 2953: 2946: 2941: 2930:September 26, 2925: 2921: 2915: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2885: 2878: 2873: 2866:(PhD thesis). 2865: 2858: 2851: 2846: 2839: 2834: 2827: 2822: 2815: 2810: 2803: 2798: 2791: 2786: 2780:, p. 98. 2779: 2774: 2767: 2762: 2755: 2750: 2743: 2738: 2732:, p. 91. 2731: 2726: 2724: 2716: 2711: 2704: 2699: 2693:, p. 38. 2692: 2687: 2681:, p. 90. 2680: 2675: 2668: 2663: 2656: 2651: 2644: 2639: 2633:, p. 85. 2632: 2627: 2621:, p. 93. 2620: 2615: 2613: 2606:, p. 81. 2605: 2600: 2598: 2590: 2589:Cockrell 1997 2585: 2579:, p. 66. 2578: 2573: 2567:, p. 73. 2566: 2561: 2554: 2549: 2543:, p. 37. 2542: 2537: 2530: 2529:Cockrell 1997 2526: 2521: 2514: 2513:Cockrell 1997 2509: 2502: 2498: 2497:E. P. Christy 2494: 2489: 2482: 2477: 2471:, p. 146 2470: 2469:Cockrell 1997 2465: 2458: 2457:Cockrell 1997 2453: 2447:, p. 155 2446: 2441: 2434: 2429: 2423: 2420:, p. 76 2419: 2414: 2407: 2403: 2400: 2395: 2388: 2384: 2379: 2372: 2368: 2362: 2356:, p. 75. 2355: 2350: 2343: 2342:Cockrell 1997 2338: 2331: 2327: 2326:Cockrell 1997 2322: 2315: 2312:, p. 65 2311: 2306: 2304: 2296: 2291: 2285: 2280: 2274:, p. 66. 2273: 2272:Cockrell 1997 2268: 2262:, p. 83. 2261: 2257: 2251: 2245: 2242:, p. 27 2241: 2236: 2229: 2224: 2222: 2213: 2207: 2203: 2196: 2188: 2182: 2178: 2171: 2155: 2151: 2144: 2137: 2132: 2125: 2121: 2115: 2108: 2103: 2096: 2091: 2083: 2077: 2073: 2066: 2051: 2047: 2040: 2033: 2032:0-252-06696-0 2029: 2025: 2020: 2013: 2009: 2006: 2000: 1993: 1989: 1986: 1981: 1973: 1969: 1963: 1959: 1949: 1946: 1944: 1941: 1939: 1936: 1934: 1931: 1929: 1926: 1923: 1922: 1918: 1917: 1908: 1904: 1903: 1899: 1896: 1892: 1891: 1887: 1884: 1883: 1879: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1867:Joan Crawford 1864: 1863: 1859: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1847: 1843: 1840: 1839:Emmett Miller 1836: 1832: 1831:Freeman Davis 1828: 1824: 1821: 1818: 1815: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1803:Dennis Morgan 1800: 1799: 1795: 1792: 1788: 1787: 1783: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1767: 1763: 1760: 1759: 1755: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1743: 1739: 1736: 1732: 1731: 1727: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1711: 1707: 1704: 1700: 1699:Mickey Rooney 1696: 1695: 1691: 1688: 1684: 1683:Academy Award 1680: 1679: 1675: 1672: 1671: 1667: 1664: 1663:Ginger Rogers 1660: 1656: 1655: 1651: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1635: 1631: 1628: 1624: 1623: 1619: 1616: 1612: 1611:Irving Berlin 1608: 1607: 1603: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1587: 1583: 1580: 1576: 1575: 1571: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1559:sound-on-disc 1557: 1553: 1552: 1548: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1532: 1528: 1527: 1526: 1517: 1515: 1514:country music 1511: 1507: 1503: 1500:until 1997. " 1499: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1482: 1481:country music 1478: 1474: 1470: 1465: 1463: 1462: 1457: 1456: 1451: 1450: 1445: 1444:sketch comedy 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1428:Marx Brothers 1424: 1423: 1421: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1373: 1371: 1370: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1354:starring the 1353: 1352: 1347: 1342: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1331: 1330:Amos 'n' Andy 1326: 1325: 1324:Sam 'n' Henry 1320: 1319: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1285: 1280: 1279: 1274: 1265: 1260: 1256: 1247: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1228: 1224: 1223: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1209:Old Corn Meal 1206: 1202: 1198: 1189: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1173: 1172: 1167: 1163: 1162:minstrel band 1159: 1155: 1150: 1147: 1141: 1138: 1137:African music 1134: 1130: 1127: 1123: 1117: 1097: 1095: 1089: 1087: 1086: 1081: 1077: 1072: 1071:John Chinaman 1068: 1063: 1060: 1055: 1051: 1049: 1045: 1036: 1032: 1030: 1029:funny old gal 1026: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1012: 1007: 1006: 997: 996:Rollin Howard 992: 988: 985: 981: 980: 975: 971: 967: 962: 959: 955: 950: 946: 939: 936: 935: 931: 930:Interlocutor: 928: 927: 926: 924: 920: 915: 913: 909: 905: 901: 900:Brudder Bones 897: 893: 892:Brudder Tambo 889: 884: 882: 881:Jump Jim Crow 877: 875: 870: 860: 853: 848: 839: 837: 832: 828: 827: 819: 817: 805: 788: 771: 768: 764: 760: 755: 753: 749: 748: 743: 739: 735: 731: 727: 723: 718: 708: 706: 702: 696: 694: 693:high-stepping 688: 684: 682: 678: 674: 670: 665: 661: 656: 652: 648: 644: 640: 631: 627: 625: 620: 616: 606: 602: 600: 594: 591: 587: 583: 577: 574: 569: 566: 562: 561:J. H. Haverly 556: 553: 549: 542: 537: 528: 526: 522: 518: 513: 510: 505: 501: 499: 495: 490: 489: 483: 480: 475: 471: 469: 465: 461: 457: 453: 448: 445: 441: 437: 433: 429: 425: 421: 420:Panic of 1837 413: 409: 404: 395: 391: 389: 383: 380: 379:African Grove 375: 374:Old Corn Meal 371: 367: 366: 361: 358: 353: 351: 350:Dars-de-Money 347: 343: 339: 335: 331: 327: 323: 319: 315: 311: 306: 304: 303:Jump Jim Crow 300: 296: 295: 289: 288:Jump Jim Crow 285: 281: 279: 275: 274:Edwin Forrest 271: 267: 263: 259: 255: 251: 250: 245: 240: 235: 233: 229: 224: 216: 212: 198: 194: 190: 188: 184: 180: 176: 172: 167: 165: 161: 155: 153: 149: 148: 142: 140: 135: 133: 129: 124: 121: 117: 113: 112:minstrel show 105: 100: 90: 80: 76: 71: 67: 64:This article 62: 58: 53: 52: 49: 47: 43: 39: 35: 34: 19: 4942:Earl Scruggs 4910: 4850:Banjo guitar 4752: 4712:Frank Dumont 4648: 4644: 4625: 4606: 4597: 4589:the original 4584: 4580: 4567: 4549: 4540: 4536: 4518: 4509: 4500: 4489:, retrieved 4482:the original 4473: 4460: 4449:, retrieved 4445:the original 4439: 4420: 4408:. Retrieved 4405:50states.com 4404: 4389: 4380: 4368: 4350: 4338: 4313: 4292: 4270: 4250: 4230: 4209: 4186: 4177: 4158: 4151:Watkins 1994 4146: 4134: 4122: 4110: 4096: 4092: 4087: 4079: 4071: 4059: 4048: 4036: 4024: 4017:Jackson 2006 4012: 4005:Blue Network 4000: 3995: 3983: 3971: 3959: 3947: 3935: 3922: 3917:, p. 44 3910: 3905: 3893: 3888:, p. 39 3881: 3869: 3860:. Quoted in 3852: 3840: 3827: 3815: 3807: 3803: 3797: 3785: 3773: 3761: 3754:Watkins 1994 3749: 3737: 3725: 3697: 3690: 3680:December 10, 3678:. Retrieved 3674:the original 3663: 3651: 3639: 3627: 3604: 3598: 3586: 3576:February 21, 3574:. Retrieved 3568: 3558: 3546: 3534: 3522: 3510: 3498: 3486: 3474: 3462: 3450: 3437: 3427:December 10, 3425:. Retrieved 3417:"Blackface!" 3411: 3398: 3386: 3379:Watkins 1994 3374: 3367:Watkins 1994 3347: 3335: 3323: 3296: 3282: 3255: 3243: 3235: 3230: 3218: 3211:Watkins 1994 3206: 3199:Watkins 1994 3194: 3182: 3170: 3163:Watkins 1994 3143: 3131: 3119: 3107: 3095: 3083: 3076:Watkins 1994 3071: 3059: 3047: 3040:Watkins 1994 3035: 3028:Watkins 1994 3023: 3016:Watkins 1994 3007: 2995: 2981: 2977: 2965: 2952: 2940: 2928:. Retrieved 2924:the original 2914: 2904:November 10, 2902:. Retrieved 2898:the original 2893: 2884: 2877:Watkins 1994 2872: 2863: 2857: 2845: 2833: 2821: 2809: 2797: 2785: 2778:Watkins 1994 2773: 2761: 2749: 2737: 2730:Watkins 1994 2710: 2698: 2686: 2674: 2662: 2650: 2638: 2626: 2619:Watkins 1994 2584: 2572: 2560: 2548: 2536: 2524: 2520: 2508: 2488: 2476: 2464: 2452: 2440: 2428: 2421: 2413: 2394: 2385:. Quoted in 2382: 2378: 2366: 2361: 2349: 2337: 2321: 2313: 2297:, p. 30 2290: 2279: 2267: 2260:Watkins 1994 2258:. 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