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809:(1899–1972) employed the use of a microscope in order to examine the basilar membrane located within the inner-ear of cadavers. He found that movement of the basilar membrane resembles that of a traveling wave; the shape of which varies based on the frequency of the pitch. In low-frequency sounds, the tip (apex) of the membrane moves the most, while in high-frequency sounds, the base of the membrane moves most.
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window, the beginning of the inner ear. When the stapes presses on the oval window, it causes the perilymph, the liquid of the inner ear to move. The middle ear thus serves to convert the energy from sound pressure waves to a force upon the perilymph of the inner ear. The oval window has only approximately 1/18 the area of the tympanic membrane and thus produces a higher
474:) as the cochlea uses, and sends information to the brain about the attitude, rotation, and linear motion of the head. The type of motion or attitude detected by a hair cell depends on its associated mechanical structures, such as the curved tube of a semicircular canal or the calcium carbonate crystals (
839:
Birds have an auditory system similar to that of mammals, including a cochlea. Reptiles, amphibians, and fish do not have cochleas but hear with simpler auditory organs or vestibular organs, which generally detect lower-frequency sounds than the cochlea. The cochlea of birds is also similar to that
670:
is lined with a single row of inner hair cells and three rows of outer hair cells. The hair cells have a hair bundle at the apical surface of the cell. The hair bundle consists of an array of actin-based stereocilia. Each stereocilium inserts as a rootlet into a dense filamentous actin mesh known as
1051:
is responsible for horizontal acceleration. These microscopic structures possess stereocilia and one kinocilium which are located within the gelatinous otolithic membrane. The membrane is further weighted with otoliths. Movement of the stereocilia and kinocilium enable the hair cells of the saccula
830:
Another condition has come to be known as autoimmune inner ear disease (AIED). It is characterized by idiopathic, rapidly progressive, bilateral sensorineural hearing loss. It is a fairly rare disorder while at the same time, a lack of proper diagnostic testing has meant that its precise incidence
458:
is translated into mechanical vibrations by the three auditory ossicles. Pressure waves move the tympanic membrane which in turns moves the malleus, the first bone of the middle ear. The malleus articulates to incus which connects to the stapes. The footplate of the stapes connects to the oval
466:
The vestibular system is the region of the inner ear where the semicircular canals converge, close to the cochlea. The vestibular system works with the visual system to keep objects in view when the head is moved. Joint and muscle receptors are also important in maintaining balance. The brain
731:
cell found in the organ of Corti and organised in one row of inner phalangeal cells and three rows of outer phalangeal cells. They are the supporting cells of the hair cell area within the cochlea. They are named after the German pathologist Otto
Deiters (1834–1863) who described them.
801:
Neurons within the ear respond to simple tones, and the brain serves to process other increasingly complex sounds. An average adult is typically able to detect sounds ranging between 20 and 20,000 Hz. The ability to detect higher pitch sounds decreases in older humans.
697:
are found in the organ of Corti where they are present only in the lower turn of the cochlea. They lie on the basilar membrane beneath
Claudius' cells and are organized in rows, the number of which varies between species. The cells interdigitate with each other, and project
909:, the ducts are simply extended, together forming an elongated, more or less straight, tube. The endolymphatic duct is wrapped in a simple loop around the lagena, with the basilar membrane lying along one side. The first half of the duct is now referred to as the
985:. The central part of the system consists of two chambers, the saccule and utricle, each of which includes one or two small clusters of sensory hair cells. All jawed vertebrates also possess three semicircular canals arising from the utricle, each with an
674:
Inner and outer pillar cells in the organ of Corti support hair cells. Outer pillar cells are unique because they are free standing cells which only contact adjacent cells at the bases and apices. Both types of pillar cell have thousands of cross linked
952:
Although many fish are capable of hearing, the lagena is, at best, a short diverticulum of the saccule, and appears to have no role in sensation of sound. Various clusters of hair cells within the inner ear may instead be responsible; for example,
1232:
Rask-Andersen, Helge; Liu, Wei; Erixon, Elsa; Kinnefors, Anders; Pfaller, Kristian; Schrott-Fischer, Annelies; Glueckert, Rudolf (November 2012). "Human
Cochlea: Anatomical Characteristics and their Relevance for Cochlear Implantation".
776:
The bony labyrinth receives its blood supply from three arteries: 1 – Anterior tympanic branch (from maxillary artery). 2 – Petrosal branch (from middle meningeal artery). 3 – Stylomastoid branch (from posterior auricular artery). The
932:
mammals, the lagena is extended still further, becoming a coiled structure (cochlea) in order to accommodate its length within the head. The organ of Corti also has a more complex structure in mammals than it does in other
1008:. In many reptiles, fish, and amphibians this sac may reach considerable size. In amphibians the sacs from either side may fuse into a single structure, which often extends down the length of the body, parallel with the
712:
are found in the organ of Corti located above rows of
Boettcher's cells. Like Boettcher's cells, they are considered supporting cells for the auditory hair cells in the organ of Corti. They contain a variety of
1235:
827:. The symptoms of labyrinthitis include temporary nausea, disorientation, vertigo, and dizziness. Labyrinthitis can be caused by viral infections, bacterial infections, or physical blockage of the inner ear.
944:
is, in most respects, similar to that of reptiles. However, they often lack a basilar papilla, having instead an entirely separate set of sensory cells at the upper edge of the saccule, referred to as the
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961:
in the utricle that may have this function. Although fish have neither an outer nor a middle ear, sound may still be transmitted to the inner ear through the bones of the skull, or by the
1023:, however, have a simpler system. The inner ear in these species consists of a single vestibular chamber, although in lampreys, this is associated with a series of sacs lined by
1035:
The inner ear is primarily responsible for balance, equilibrium and orientation in three-dimensional space. The inner ear can detect both static and dynamic equilibrium. Three
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652:
Rosenthal's canal or the spiral canal of the cochlea is a section of the bony labyrinth of the inner ear that is approximately 30 mm long and makes 2¾ turns about the
1516:
1656:
666:
The hair cells are the primary auditory receptor cells and they are also known as auditory sensory cells, acoustic hair cells, auditory cells or cells of Corti. The
753:
463:. The cochlea propagates these mechanical signals as waves in the fluid and membranes and then converts them to nerve impulses which are transmitted to the brain.
663:
Specialized inner ear cell include: hair cells, pillar cells, Boettcher's cells, Claudius' cells, spiral ganglion neurons, and
Deiters' cells (phalangeal cells).
874:, which equalizes pressure, allowing the incompressible fluid to move freely. Running parallel with the perilymphatic duct is a separate blind-ending duct, the
717:
water channels and appear to be involved in ion transport. They also play a role in sealing off endolymphatic spaces. They are named after the German anatomist
124:
765:
741:
1431:
Workshop. Vol. UHMS Publication Number WS6-15-74. Undersea and
Hyperbaric Medical Society. 1973. p. 11. Archived from the original on 2009-07-03
886:, and contains the sensory hair cells that finally translate the vibrations in the fluid into nerve signals. It is attached at one end to the saccule.
747:
470:
The vestibular system of the inner ear is responsible for the sensations of balance and motion. It uses the same kinds of fluids and detection cells (
359:, dedicated to hearing; converting sound pressure patterns from the outer ear into electrochemical impulses which are passed on to the brain via the
702:
into the intercellular space. They are supporting cells for the auditory hair cells in the organ of Corti. They are named after German pathologist
1649:
100:
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refer to the fluid-filled spaces between the outer pillar cells and adjacent hair cells and also the spaces between the outer hair cells.
1027:. Lampreys have only two semicircular canals, with the horizontal canal being absent, while hagfish have only a single, vertical, canal.
378:
The inner ear is found in all vertebrates, with substantial variations in form and function. The inner ear is innervated by the eighth
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of crocodiles, consisting of a short, slightly curved bony tube within which lies the basilar membrane with its sensory structures.
1642:
805:
The human ear has evolved with two basic tools to encode sound waves; each is separate in detecting high and low-frequency sounds.
917:. As a result of this increase in length, the basilar membrane and papilla are both extended, with the latter developing into the
1428:
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are the tooth-shaped ridges on the spiral limbus that are in contact with the tectoria and separated by interdental cells.
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1047:, enable the body to detect any deviation from equilibrium. The macula sacculi detects vertical acceleration while the
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In most reptiles the perilymphatic duct and lagena are relatively short, and the sensory cells are confined to a small
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866:, a membrane-covered opening on the surface of the vestibule. From here, sound waves are conducted through a short
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runs inside of the bony labyrinth, and creates three parallel fluid filled spaces. The two outer are filled with
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receives, interprets, and processes the information from all these systems to create the sensation of balance.
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Right human membranous labyrinth, removed from its bony enclosure and viewed from the antero-lateral aspect
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and utricle to detect motion. The semicircular ducts are responsible for detecting rotational movement.
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is the layer of the tectoria closest to the reticular lamina and overlying the outer hair cell region.
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the cuticular plate. Disruption of these bundles results in hearing impairments and balance defects.
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905:, these structures become much larger and somewhat more complicated. In birds, crocodilians, and
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600:, a cavity within the cochlear labyrinth. The lateral wall of the cochlear duct is formed by the
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Anatomy & Physiology The Unity of Form and
Function. N.p.: McGraw-Hill College, 2011. Print.
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Interference with or infection of the labyrinth can result in a syndrome of ailments called
785:. Venous drainage of the inner ear is through the labyrinthine vein, which empties into the
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develop from the lateral and medial ridges of the cochlear duct, which together with the
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Beginning in the fifth week of development, the auditory vesicle also gives rise to the
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is composed of two cell layers and separates the scala media from the scala vestibuli.
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are high columnar cells that are directly adjacent to the third row of
Deiters' cells.
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filaments in parallel orientation. They provide mechanical coupling between the
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The
Anatomical Record: Advances in Integrative Anatomy and Evolutionary Biology
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Torres, M., Giráldez, F. (1998) The development of the vertebrate inner ear.
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of the skull with a system of passages comprising two main functional parts:
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runs from the saccule up through the head and ending close to the brain. In
913:, while the second half, which includes the basilar membrane, is called the
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1004:, it is simply blind-ending. In all other species, however, it ends in an
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Cross-section through the spiral organ of Corti at greater magnification.
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is the section of the tectorial membrane above the inner hair cell.
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1564:. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 476–489.
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557:. The utricular division of the auditory vesicle also responds to
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will give rise to the utricular and saccular components of the
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862:(stirrup) bone of the middle ear. This is pressed against the
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This article is one of a series documenting the anatomy of the
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Current
Opinion in Otolaryngology & Head and Neck Surgery
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Current Opinion in Otolaryngology & Head and Neck Surgery
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518:. As the auditory placode invaginates towards the embryonic
925:. All of these structures together constitute the cochlea.
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882:. The lagena is separated from the perilymphatic duct by a
1514:
Ruckenstein, M. J. (2004). "Autoimmune Inner Ear Disease".
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varies relatively little between the various groups of
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will separate the cochlear duct from the perilymphatic
422:. The three major parts of the bony labyrinth are the
656:, the central axis of the cochlea that contains the
406:
The labyrinth can be divided by layer or by region.
1560:Romer, Alfred Sherwood; Parsons, Thomas S. (1977).
1465:"General history of vestibular disorders in diving"
1278:Jan Schnupp, Israel Nelken and Andrew King (2011).
1664:
1359:Human embryology: the ultimate USMLE step 1 review
584:that accumulates in the membranous labyrinth. The
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965:, parts of which often lie close by in the body.
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858:, sound is transmitted to the inner ear by the
1614:American Speech-Language-Hearing Association,
494:The human inner ear develops during week 4 of
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940:The arrangement of the inner ear in living
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1643:
1483:. Archived from the original on 2010-06-15
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949:, which appear to have the same function.
537:. They contain the sensory hair cells and
331:) is the innermost part of the vertebrate
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1429:Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society
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1424:Labyrinthine dysfunction during diving
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1319:Hyman's comparative vertebrate anatomy
569:that connect the saccule and utricle.
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989:containing sensory cells at one end.
957:contain a sensory cluster called the
921:, while the lagena is now called the
596:separates the cochlear duct from the
1631:at the SUNY Downstate Medical Center
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1039:and two chambers, which contain the
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27:Innermost part of the vertebrate ear
592:, a cavity inside the cochlea. The
522:, it forms the auditory vesicle or
24:
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727:(phalangeal cells) are a type of
549:, respectively, which respond to
1316:Hyman, Libbie Henrietta (1992).
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893:lying between them. However, in
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1159:Frequency coding in the cochlea
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446:Vestibular and cochlear systems
2053:Reissner's/vestibular membrane
1594:"Autoimmune Inner Ear Disease"
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442:and the inner with endolymph.
410:Bony and membranous labyrinths
13:
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1796:promontory of tympanic cavity
1366:Health Sciences. p. 61.
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1469:Undersea Biomedical Research
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620:make up the organ of Corti.
576:, which contains the spiral
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1786:secondary tympanic membrane
1592:Ruckenstein, M. J. (2004).
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719:Friedrich Matthias Claudius
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1791:prominence of facial canal
1356:Brauer, Philip R. (2003).
1216:Sensation & Perception
1214:J.M. Wolfe et al. (2009).
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1500:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1463:Kennedy RS (March 1974).
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1393:Schacter, Daniel (2012).
1202:Mechanisms of Development
870:to a second opening, the
347:, a hollow cavity in the
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1811:aditus to mastoid antrum
1629:Anatomy photo:30:05-0101
850:Evolution of the cochlea
506:which gives rise to the
973:By comparison with the
791:inferior petrosal sinus
632:A cross-section of the
1609:Anatomy and Physiology
1604:(5), pp. 426–430.
1218:. 2nd ed. Sunderland:
831:cannot be determined.
649:
641:
502:, a thickening of the
403:
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132:Anatomical terminology
1802:Posterior structures
1324:University of Chicago
1281:Auditory Neuroscience
647:
631:
608:, which produces the
496:embryonic development
393:
343:, it consists of the
314:
2043:Cochlear duct /
2007:Perilymphatic space
1907:Auditory tube /
1326:Press. p. 634.
779:membranous labyrinth
559:angular acceleration
535:membranous labyrinth
516:vestibular ganglions
436:membranous labyrinth
424:vestibule of the ear
402:, viewed from above.
382:in all vertebrates.
2309:Otorhinolaryngology
2225:Semicircular canals
2198:Vestibular aqueduct
1562:The Vertebrate Body
947:papilla amphibiorum
783:labyrinthine artery
781:is supplied by the
760:Reissner's membrane
754:Hardesty's membrane
691:on the hair cells.
551:linear acceleration
428:semicircular canals
271:Semicircular canals
60:Labyrinthine artery
2203:endolymphatic duct
2191:Otolithic membrane
2104:Tectorial membrane
2063:Reticular membrane
1868:posterior ligament
1816:pyramidal eminence
1772:Medial structures
1220:Sinauer Associated
1069:Human ear anatomy.
1037:semicircular ducts
998:cartilaginous fish
994:endolymphatic duct
868:perilymphatic duct
650:
642:
618:tectorial membrane
404:
317:
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2258:crista ampullaris
2208:endolymphatic sac
2140:Vestibular system
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2016:Cochlear aqueduct
1925:
1924:
1863:superior ligament
1851:anterior ligament
1841:superior ligament
1729:Auricular muscles
1712:intertragic notch
1521:(5), pp. 426-430.
1243:(11): 1791–1811.
1205:71 (1–2) pp. 5–21
1056:Additional images
1006:endolymphatic sac
983:jawed vertebrates
979:vestibular system
969:Vestibular system
695:Boettcher's cells
685:basement membrane
563:endolymphatic sac
561:, as well as the
553:and the force of
543:macula of utricle
368:vestibular system
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207:Tympanic membrane
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16:(Redirected from
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2248:Ampullary cupula
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2075:Stria vascularis
2058:Basilar membrane
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689:mechanoreceptors
606:stria vascularis
594:basilar membrane
531:auditory vesicle
500:auditory placode
454:, the energy of
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2001:Cochlear cupula
1981:Vestibular duct
1961:Auditory system
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590:scala vestibuli
586:vestibular wall
508:bipolar neurons
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2087:Organ of Corti
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1917:Torus tubarius
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1623:External links
1621:
1620:
1619:
1612:
1611:6th ed., print
1605:
1587:
1586:
1577:
1570:
1537:
1532:"Bird cochlea"
1523:
1507:
1455:
1414:
1408:978-1464135606
1407:
1385:
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1322:(3 ed.).
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1015:The primitive
970:
967:
919:organ of Corti
878:, filled with
845:
842:
836:
833:
819:Vestibulopathy
817:Main article:
814:
811:
798:
795:
773:
770:
736:Hensen's cells
725:Deiters' cells
668:organ of Corti
638:organ of Corti
625:
622:
578:organ of Corti
547:of the saccule
491:
488:
456:pressure waves
447:
444:
416:bony labyrinth
411:
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1298:on 2012-03-07
1297:
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1284:. MIT Press.
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1135:Temporal bone
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1111:Ear labyrinth
1107:
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1084: Red is
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923:cochlear duct
920:
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915:scala tympani
912:
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835:Other animals
832:
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825:labyrinthitis
820:
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788:
787:sigmoid sinus
784:
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769:
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755:
751:
749:
748:Nuel's spaces
745:
743:
739:
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733:
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726:
722:
721:(1822–1869).
720:
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707:
706:(1831–1889).
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621:
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598:scala tympani
595:
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583:
579:
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574:cochlear duct
570:
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380:cranial nerve
373:
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352:
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349:temporal bone
346:
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329:auris interna
326:
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52:
47:
43:
38:
35:
31:
19:
2108:
1930:
1781:round window
1608:
1601:
1597:
1580:
1561:
1526:
1515:
1510:
1496:cite journal
1485:. Retrieved
1475:(1): 73–81.
1472:
1468:
1458:
1433:. Retrieved
1423:
1417:
1397:. New York:
1394:
1388:
1377:. Retrieved
1358:
1337:. Retrieved
1318:
1311:
1300:. Retrieved
1296:the original
1280:
1273:
1240:
1234:
1227:
1215:
1210:
1200:
1195:
1095:
1034:
1014:
1010:spinal canal
991:
977:system, the
972:
963:swim bladder
958:
951:
946:
939:
927:
903:crocodilians
890:
888:
875:
872:round window
867:
853:
838:
829:
822:
804:
800:
775:
772:Blood supply
764:
758:
752:
746:
740:
734:
723:
708:
693:
677:microtubules
673:
665:
662:
651:
636:showing the
624:Microanatomy
571:
528:
523:
493:
469:
465:
449:
413:
405:
377:
328:
325:internal ear
324:
320:
318:
241:
101:A15.3.03.001
76:
33:
18:Internal ear
2092:stereocilia
2045:scala media
1986:Helicotrema
1776:oval window
1665:Anatomy of
1031:Equilibrium
864:oval window
490:Development
337:vertebrates
66:Identifiers
2283:Categories
2243:Horizontal
2181:Kinocilium
1946:membranous
1939:Labyrinths
1756:Middle ear
1707:antitragus
1571:003910284X
1487:2009-03-11
1435:2009-03-11
1395:Psychology
1379:2011-05-14
1373:156053561X
1339:2011-05-14
1333:0226870138
1302:2011-04-13
1187:References
1086:middle ear
942:amphibians
907:monotremes
848:See also:
729:neuroglial
700:microvilli
614:hair cells
472:hair cells
452:middle ear
430:, and the
420:periosteum
249:Vestibules
200:Middle ear
2304:Audiology
2294:Inner ear
2238:Posterior
2149:Vestibule
2097:tip links
2070:Endolymph
2031:Boettcher
2011:Perilymph
1931:Inner ear
1890:stapedius
1724:Ear canal
1697:antihelix
1679:Outer ear
1607:Saladin,
1176:Outer ear
1123:Inner ear
1096:inner ear
1076:outer ear
955:bony fish
880:endolymph
813:Disorders
715:aquaporin
610:endolymph
582:endolymph
498:from the
478:) of the
440:perilymph
400:vestibule
386:Structure
321:inner ear
315:Inner ear
242:Inner ear
187:Ear canal
175:Outer ear
166:Human ear
34:Inner ear
2253:Ampullae
2233:Superior
2119:internus
2114:externus
2026:Claudius
1996:Modiolus
1886:Muscles
1828:Ossicles
1364:Elsevier
1265:25472441
1257:23044521
1181:Tip link
1165:See also
1017:lampreys
1002:teleosts
975:cochlear
935:amniotes
856:reptiles
797:Function
687:and the
654:modiolus
604:and the
580:and the
539:otoliths
520:mesoderm
512:cochlear
504:ectoderm
461:pressure
212:Ossicles
2299:Otology
2186:Otolith
2169:Saccule
2157:Utricle
1976:Cochlea
1969:General
1836:Malleus
1734:Eardrum
1717:earlobe
1687:Auricle
1671:balance
1667:hearing
1481:4619861
1171:Hearing
1045:utricle
1041:saccule
1021:hagfish
987:ampulla
930:therian
895:mammals
634:cochlea
555:gravity
541:of the
524:otocyst
510:of the
484:utricle
480:saccule
476:otolith
450:In the
432:cochlea
396:cochlea
372:balance
357:cochlea
341:mammals
266:Cochlea
259:Saccule
254:Utricle
217:Malleus
182:Auricle
89:D007758
49:Details
2174:macula
2162:macula
2022:Cells
1875:Stapes
1702:tragus
1568:
1479:
1427:. 1st
1405:
1370:
1330:
1288:
1263:
1255:
1092:
1082:
1072:
901:, and
876:lagena
860:stapes
612:. The
434:. The
426:, the
227:Stapes
55:Artery
1858:Incus
1692:helix
1261:S2CID
1025:cilia
899:birds
681:actin
335:. In
222:Incus
136:[
125:60909
72:Latin
1951:bony
1739:umbo
1669:and
1566:ISBN
1519:, 12
1502:link
1477:PMID
1450:link
1403:ISBN
1368:ISBN
1328:ISBN
1286:ISBN
1253:PMID
1043:and
1019:and
679:and
567:duct
565:and
545:and
529:The
514:and
482:and
414:The
398:and
394:The
366:The
355:The
319:The
113:6935
96:TA98
84:MeSH
1245:doi
1241:295
1222:Inc
992:An
928:In
854:In
789:or
333:ear
120:FMA
108:TA2
2285::
1602:12
1600:,
1596:.
1540:^
1498:}}
1494:{{
1471:.
1467:.
1446:}}
1442:{{
1401:.
1362:.
1348:^
1259:.
1251:.
1239:.
1012:.
937:.
897:,
793:.
660:.
526:.
486:.
327:,
1658:e
1651:t
1644:v
1618:,
1574:.
1534:.
1504:)
1490:.
1473:1
1452:)
1438:.
1411:.
1382:.
1342:.
1305:.
1267:.
1247::
1098:.
1088:.
1078:.
640:.
374:.
363:.
323:(
300:e
293:t
286:v
140:]
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
