Commerce Clause - Knowledge

767: (1995), "For nearly a century thereafter , the Court's Commerce Clause decisions dealt but rarely with the extent of Congress' power, and almost entirely with the Commerce Clause as a limit on state legislation that discriminated against interstate commerce." Under this line of precedent, the Court held that certain categories of activity such as "exhibitions", "production", "manufacturing", and "mining" were within the province of state governments, and thus were beyond the power of Congress under the Commerce Clause. When Congress began to engage in economic regulation on a national scale, the Court's dormant Commerce Clause decisions influenced its approach to Congressional regulation. 1439:, the Supreme Court has held that Congress may regulate only those activities within a state that arise out of or are connected with a commercial transaction and that, viewed in the aggregate, substantially affect interstate commerce. Since judicial interpretations of constitutional limitations on Congressional exercise of its Commerce Clause powers represent an invasion of the democratic process which may not be overturned through ordinary democratic means, the Court has continued to assert that the primary limitation on the unwise exercise of Congressional Commerce Clause power by Congress must be found at the ballot box. Thus in 969:

legitimate end, the effective execution of the granted power to regulate interstate commerce.... The power of Congress over interstate commerce is plenary and complete in itself, may be exercised to its utmost extent, and acknowledges no limitations other than are prescribed in the Constitution.... It follows that no form of state activity can constitutionally thwart the regulatory power granted by the commerce clause to Congress. Hence, the reach of that power extends to those intrastate activities which in a substantial way interfere with or obstruct the exercise of the granted power.

992:: "He made emphatic the embracing and penetrating nature of this power by warning that effective restraints on its exercise must proceed from political, rather than from judicial, processes." The Court also stated, "The conflicts of economic interest between the regulated and those who advantage by it are wisely left under our system to resolution by the Congress under its more flexible and responsible legislative process. Such conflicts rarely lend themselves to judicial determination. And with the wisdom, workability, or fairness, of the plan of regulation, we have nothing to do." 1133:(1948), the Court held that Section 301k of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, which prohibited the misbranding of pharmaceutical drugs transported in interstate commerce, did not exceed the congressional commerce power because Congress has the power to “keep the channels of such commerce free from the transportation of illicit or harmful articles.” Topics in this category include mailing or shipping in interstate commerce, prohibiting crimes where the individual crossed a state line to commit the act, and explosives. 1217:, "the noneconomic, criminal nature of the conduct at issue was central to our decision." Furthermore, the Court pointed out that neither case had "'express jurisdictional element which might limit its reach (to those instances that) have an explicit connection with or effect on interstate commerce.'" In both cases, Congress criminalized activity that was not commercial in nature without including a jurisdictional element establishing the necessary connection between the criminalized activity and interstate commerce. 46: 1517:

upholding the PPACA under the commerce clause "would open a new and potentially vast domain to congressional authority" and that "the power to regulate commerce presupposes the existence of commercial activity to be regulated." The Court held that Congress did not have authority under the Commerce Clause to require citizens to purchase health insurance but still upheld the law's "individual mandate" provision under Congress's taxing authority.

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important source of those powers delegated to Congress and so its interpretation is very important in determining the scope of federal power in controlling innumerable aspects of American life. The Commerce Clause has been the most broadly-interpreted clause in the Constitution, making way for many laws that some argue, contradict the original intended meaning of the Constitution. Justice Thomas has gone so far as to state in his dissent to

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congressional reports that are issued to accompany the legislation. It might come from the record of testimony compiled in committee hearings. It might come from facts posited by proponents in their briefs in support of the legislation. For example, the Court referenced extensive testimony presented in hearings in support of the conclusion that discrimination in public accommodations reduces interstate commerce. The Court wrote:

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of the United States can, with strict accuracy, be denominated foreign nations. They may, more correctly be denominated domestic dependent nations. They occupy a territory to which we assert a title independent of their will, which must take effect in point of possession when their right of possession ceases. Meanwhile, they are in a state of pupilage. Their relation to the United States resembles that of a ward to his guardian.

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so concluding. Given the enforcement difficulties that attend distinguishing between marijuana cultivated locally and marijuana grown elsewhere, 21 U.S.C. § 801(5), and concerns about diversion into illicit channels, we have no difficulty concluding that Congress had a rational basis for believing that failure to regulate the intrastate manufacture and possession of marijuana would leave a gaping hole in the CSA.

908:, the Supreme Court struck down a key element of the New Deal's regulation of the mining industry on the grounds that mining was not "commerce." In the preceding decades, the Court had struck down a laundry list of progressive legislation: minimum-wage laws, child labor laws, agricultural relief laws, and virtually every other element of the New Deal legislation that had come before it. After winning 517:. The Commerce Clause confers a unique position upon the federal government in connection with navigable waters: "The power to regulate commerce comprehends the control for that purpose, and to the extent necessary, of all the navigable waters of the United States.... For this purpose they are the public property of the nation, and subject to all the requisite legislation by Congress." 1161:(1) whether the regulated activity is commercial or economic in nature; (2) whether an express jurisdictional element is provided in the statute to limit its reach; (3) whether Congress made express findings about the effects of the proscribed activity on interstate commerce; and (4) whether the link between the prohibited activity and the effect on interstate commerce is attenuated. 638:(1824) that the power to regulate interstate commerce also included the power to regulate interstate navigation: "Commerce, undoubtedly is traffic, but it is something more—it is intercourse.... power to regulate navigation is as expressly granted, as if that term had been added to the word 'commerce'.... he power of Congress does not stop at the jurisdictional lines of the several 983:, which sought to stabilize wide fluctuations in the market price for wheat. The Court found that Congress could apply national quotas to wheat grown on one's own land for one's own consumption because the total of such local production and consumption could potentially be sufficiently large as to affect the overall national goal of stabilizing prices. The Court cited its recent 663:, which he had then ultimately franchised to Ogden, who claimed river traffic was not "commerce" under the Commerce Clause and that Congress could not interfere with New York State's grant of an exclusive monopoly within its own borders. Ogden's assertion was untenable: he contended that New York could control river traffic within New York all the way to the border with 548:, 347 U.S. 239, 249 (1954), which extends to the entire stream and the stream bed below ordinary high-water mark. The proper exercise of this power is not an invasion of any private property rights in the stream or the lands underlying it, for the damage sustained does not result from taking property from riparian owners within the meaning of the 1232:." The Court's New Federalism doctrine was focused on reining in congressional powers in order to re-strengthen the powers of the individual states which had been weakened during the New Deal era. Members on the Rehnquist Court theorized that by re-apportioning power back to the states, individual liberty was strengthened. In contrast, 1205:("VAWA"), which created civil liability for the commission of a gender-based violent crime but without any jurisdictional requirement of a connection to interstate commerce or to commercial activity. Once again, the Court stated it was presented with a congressional attempt to criminalize traditional local criminal conduct. As in 426:, the U.S. Supreme Court rejected the argument that the ban on growing medical marijuana for personal use exceeded the powers of Congress under the Commerce Clause. Even if no goods were sold or transported across state lines, the Court found that there could be an indirect effect on interstate commerce and relied heavily on a 1265:. The Court found the federal law valid although the marijuana in question had been grown and consumed within a single state and had never entered interstate commerce. The court held Congress may regulate an intrastate economic good as part of a complete scheme of legislation designed to regulate interstate commerce. 642:. It would be a very useless power if it could not pass those lines." The Court's decision contains language supporting one important line of Commerce Clause jurisprudence, the idea that the electoral process of representative government represents the primary limitation on the exercise of the Commerce Clause powers: 775:. ("One approach the Court used to inquire into the lawfulness of state authority was to draw content-based or subject-matter distinctions, thus defining by semantic or formalistic categories those activities that were commerce and those that were not.") The Dormant Commerce Clause formalisms spilled over into its 848:), "Though that approach likely would not have survived even if confined to the question of a State's authority to enact legislation, it was not at all propitious when applied to the quite different question of what subjects were within the reach of the national power when Congress chose to exercise it." 1281:

Respondents Diane Monson and Angel Raich use marijuana that has never been bought or sold, that has never crossed state lines, and that has had no demonstrable effect on the national market for marijuana. If Congress can regulate this under the Commerce Clause, then it can regulate virtually anything

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to allow the President to appoint an additional Justice for each sitting Justice over age 70. Given the age of the current justices, that would allow a Supreme Court of up to 15 Justices. Roosevelt claimed that to be intended to lessen the load on the older Justices, rather than an attempt to achieve

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Though the Indians are acknowledged to have an unquestionable, and, heretofore, unquestioned right to the lands they occupy, until that right shall be extinguished by a voluntary cession to our government; yet it may well be doubted whether those tribes which reside within the acknowledged boundaries

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Of course, we continue to recognize that the States occupy a special and specific position in our constitutional system and that the scope of Congress' authority under the Commerce Clause must reflect that position. But the principal and basic limit on the federal commerce power is that inherent in

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Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States, 379 U.S. 241, 357 (1964) ('he authority of Congress to keep the channels of interstate commerce free from immoral and injurious uses has been frequently sustained, and is no longer open to question.' " (quoting Caminetti v. United States, 242 U.S. 470,

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In assessing the scope of Congress' authority under the Commerce Clause, we stress that the task before us is a modest one. We need not determine whether respondents' activities, taken in the aggregate, substantially affect interstate commerce in fact, but only whether a "rational basis" exists for

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to hold a broad range of activities sufficiently related to interstate commerce, the Supreme Court has exercised little independent judgment, choosing instead to defer to the expressed or implied findings of Congress to the effect that regulated activities have the requisite "economic effect". Such

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review. The idea behind rational basis review is that the judiciary must show deference to the elected representatives of the people. A respect for the democratic process requires courts to uphold legislation if there are rational facts and reasons that could support congressional judgment, even if

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The wisdom and the discretion of Congress, their identity with the people, and the influence which their constituents possess at elections, are, in this, as in many other instances, as that, for example, of declaring war, the sole restraints on which they have relied, to secure them from its abuse.

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The commerce power is not confined in its exercise to the regulation of commerce among the states. It extends to those activities intrastate which so affect interstate commerce, or the exertion of the power of Congress over it, as to make regulation of them appropriate means to the attainment of a

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petitioned the Supreme Court to hear the appeal immediately, rather than going through the Fourth Circuit. On November 14, 2011, the Supreme Court announced that it would hear the case in the spring of 2012. The Supreme Court heard arguments on March 26–28, 2012. Its majority opinion agreed that

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is a criminal statute that by its terms has nothing to do with "commerce" or any sort of economic enterprise, however broadly one might define those terms. is not an essential part of a larger regulation of economic activity, in which the regulatory scheme could be undercut unless the intrastate

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The Commerce Clause represents one of the most fundamental powers delegated to the Congress by the founders. The outer limits of the Interstate Commerce Clause power have been the subject of long, intense political controversy. Interpretation of the sixteen words of the Commerce Clause has helped

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the Court upheld a ban on growing marijuana intended for medical use on the grounds that Congress could rationally conclude that such cultivation might make enforcement of drug laws more difficult by creating an otherwise-lawful source of marijuana that could be diverted into the illicit market:

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defines the noun "commerce" narrowly as "xchange of one thing for another; interchange of any thing; trade; traffick," but it defines the corresponding verb "to commerce" more broadly as "o hold intercourse." The word "intercourse" also had a different and wider meaning back in 1792, compared to

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has once again played an integral part in the Court's view of the Commerce Clause. The Tenth Amendment states that the federal government has the powers specifically delegated to it by the Constitution and that other powers are reserved to the states or to the people. The Commerce Clause is an

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with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes". Courts and commentators have tended to discuss each of these three areas of commerce as a separate power granted to Congress. It is common to see the individual components of the Commerce Clause referred to under

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Of course, the mere fact that Congress has said when particular activity shall be deemed to affect commerce does not preclude further examination by this Court. But where we find that the legislators, in light of the facts and testimony before them, have a rational basis for finding a chosen

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The instrumentalities category allows Congress to make regulations in regards to "the safety, efficiency, and accessibility of the nationwide transportation and communications networks." It is a significant basis for congressional authority however it has not been fully occupied by Congress.

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Channels of commerce represent a broad congressional power that directly regulates the movement of goods and people across state lines. Importantly, the Court has never required a nexus (causal link) between a state border crossing and the engagement in an activity prohibited by Congress. In

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Rational basis review begins with establishing the factual predicate upon which the exercise of congressional power is based. The factual basis might come from a variety of sources. It might come from factual determinations made by Congress, passed in the legislation itself, or found in the

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The Commerce Clause emerged as the Framers' response to the central problem giving rise to the Constitution itself: the absence of any federal commerce power under the Articles of Confederation. For the first century of our history, the primary use of the Clause was to preclude the kind of

1088:. It was the first time in almost 60 years that the Court had struck down a federal law for exceeding the limits of the Commerce Clause. In the case, the Court was confronted with the conviction of a high school student for carrying a concealed handgun into school in violation of the act. 1478:. Although Congress had invoked its authority from the Commerce Clause to enact the mandate, many opponents of the PPACA claim that the individual mandate exceeds Congress's authority, primarily on the position that the law attempts to define the nonpurchase of insurance as "commerce." 1299:

by giving the states some jurisdiction over Indian affairs beyond what had been granted to them by Congress. Another view is that the Court was compelled to define limits to address congressional legislation that sought to use the Commerce Clause power in new and unprecedented ways.

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discriminatory state legislation that had once been permissible. Then, in response to rapid industrial development and an increasingly interdependent national economy, Congress "ushered in a new era of federal regulation under the commerce power," beginning with the enactment of the

730: (1831), the Supreme Court addressed whether the Cherokee nation is a foreign state in the sense in which that term is used in the U.S. constitution. The Court provided a definition of Indian tribe that clearly made the rights of tribes far inferior to those of foreign states: 584:

and Daniel E. Troy, argue that prior to 1887, the Commerce Clause was rarely invoked by Congress and so a broad interpretation of the word "commerce" was clearly never intended by the Founding Fathers. In support of that claim, they argue that the word "commerce," as used in the

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decision and decided, "Whether the subject of the regulation in question was 'production,' 'consumption,' or 'marketing' is, therefore, not material for purposes of deciding the question of federal power before us." The Court reiterated Chief Justice Marshall's decision in

813: (1905), the Court ruled that the clause covered meatpackers; although their activity was geographically "local", they had an important effect on the "current of commerce", and thus could be regulated under the Commerce Clause. The Court's decision halted price fixing. 995:

Thereafter, the Court began to defer to the Congress on the theory that determining whether legislation affected commerce appropriately was a decision that was political and legislative, not judicial. That overall change in the Court's jurisprudence, beginning with

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era (1801–1835), interpretation of the Commerce Clause gave Congress jurisdiction over numerous aspects of intrastate and interstate commerce as well as activity that had traditionally been regarded not to be commerce. Starting in 1937, following the end of the

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Thus, Ogden contended, Congress could not invalidate his monopoly if transported passengers only within New York. The Supreme Court, however, found that Congress could invalidate his monopoly since it was operational on an interstate channel of navigation.

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In this context, the Court took a formalistic approach, which distinguished between services and commerce, manufacturing and commerce, direct and indirect effects on commerce, and local and national activities. See concurring opinion of Justice Kennedy in

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activity were regulated. It cannot, therefore, be sustained under our cases upholding regulations of activities that arise out of or are connected with a commercial transaction, which viewed in the aggregate, substantially affects interstate commerce.

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the justices would have come to different conclusions. Throughout the 20th century, in a variety of contexts, courts sought to avoid second guessing the legislative branch, and Commerce Clause jurisprudence can be seen as a part of that trend, as

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That to which it is incident, the exhibition, although made for money, would not be called trade of commerce in the commonly accepted use of those words. As it is put by defendant, personal effort not related to production is not a subject of

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in Atlanta held hearings on that issue. On August 12, 2011. The 11th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled the individual mandate to be unconstitutional and stated that Congress had exceeded its authority by requiring Americans to buy coverage.

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rule. In essence, it relates to economic activities which, in the aggregate, have a substantial impact on interstate commerce. The Court has stopped short of establishing a rule prohibiting the aggregation of all non-economic activity.

796: (1888), the Court struck a federal law which prohibited the manufacture of liquor for shipment across state lines. Similar decisions were issued with regard to agriculture, mining, oil production, and generation of electricity. In 678:

In its decision, the Court assumed interstate commerce required movement of the subject of regulation across state borders. The decision contains the following principles, some of which have since been altered by subsequent decisions:

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all congressional action—the built-in restraints that our system provides through state participation in federal governmental action. The political process ensures that laws that unduly burden the States will not be promulgated.

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Far from 'inactivity,' by choosing to forgo insurance, Plaintiffs are making an economic decision to try to pay for health care services later, out of pocket, rather than now, through the purchase of insurance. Similarly, in

1017:(1995) decision, after nearly 60 years of leaving any restraint on the use of the Commerce Clause to political means, that the Court again ruled that a regulation enacted under the Commerce Clause was unconstitutional. 2726: 3183: 689:

Congress can regulate, that is "to prescribe the rule by which commerce is to be governed" that "may be exercised to its utmost extent, and acknowledges no limitations other than are prescribed in the Constitution."

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invalidated regulations of the poultry industry according to the nondelegation doctrine and as an invalid use of Congress's power under the commerce clause. The unanimous decision rendered unconstitutional the

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Congress is empowered to regulate and protect the instrumentalities of interstate commerce, or persons or things in Interstate Commerce, even though the threat may come only from intrastate activities;

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Twenty-six state attorneys general filed a lawsuit against the federal government and claimed that the insurance mandate is unconstitutional. On June 8, 2011, a panel of three judges from the

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Constitutional Law. Foreign Commerce Clause. Ninth Circuit Holds That Congress Can Regulate Sex Crimes Committed by U.S. Citizens Abroad. United States v. Clark, 435 F.3d 1100 (9th Cir. 2006)

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Congress's commerce authority includes the power to regulate those activities having a substantial relation to interstate commerce (activities that substantially affect interstate commerce).

6735: 1050:, 395 U.S. 298 (1969), ruled that the federal government could regulate a recreational facility because three of the four items sold at its snack bar were purchased from outside the state. 7242: 6672: 5285: 1711:"Gonzales, Attorney General, et al. v. Raich et al., certiorari to the united states court of appeals for the ninth circuit, No. 03-1454. Argued November 29, 2004 -- Decided June 6, 2005" 1383:

by stating: "Since , the Court has... undertaken to decide whether a rational basis existed for concluding that a regulated activity sufficiently affected interstate commerce. See, e.g.,

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meatpacking industry, because the industry was part of the interstate commerce of beef from ranchers to dinner tables. The stockyards "are but a throat through which the current flows,"

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and that New Jersey could control river traffic within New Jersey all the way to the border with New York, leaving Congress with the power to control the traffic as it crossed the

1495:, Judge Henry Hudson overturned the law and claimed that failure to purchase health insurance coverage could not be considered economic activity but was economic "inactivity." In 1157:

In determining whether the activity Congress is attempting to regulate has a substantial effect on interstate commerce, reviewing courts typically consider the following factors:

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United States v. Lopez, 514 U.S. 549, 558-59 (1995) (citing NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp., 301 U.S. 1, 37 (1937); Maryland v. Wirtz, 392 U.S. 185, 195, n. 27 (1968))

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Differing court opinions have clashed over the question of whether failure to purchase insurance can be considered an economic activity that affects interstate commerce. In

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and the balance of power between the two elected branches of the federal government and the Judiciary. As such, it directly affects the lives of American citizens.

6610: 6605: 6595: 6585: 5753: 5253: 4849: 2956: 1391: 560:, 166 U.S. 269, 275–276 (1897). Thus, without being constitutionally obligated to pay compensation, the United States may change the course of a navigable stream, 6565: 3682: 2964: 2366: 6575: 6570: 6539: 6534: 6090: 5674: 5621: 5325: 5006: 4716: 3917: 3715: 3031: 1321: 1209:, it could not be argued that state regulation alone would be ineffective to protect the aggregate effects of local violence. The Court explained that in both 227: 2779: 6580: 6560: 6544: 4969: 4809: 3135: 1446: 1310: 1187: 1036: 820: 815: 803: 786: 757: 522: 459: 7137: 6511: 5549: 5135: 4676: 3971: 3885: 3610: 3506: 3295: 1846: 1441: 720: 7388: 6516: 6480: 6082: 5461: 5172: 3570: 7905: 7792: 7222: 7117: 6485: 6465: 6455: 5181: 5031: 3191: 1942: 1906: 1888: 1656: 1474:("PPACA"). The debate centers on whether Congress is authorized to require citizens to purchase health insurance from the private market, known as the 6927: 6495: 6490: 6475: 6470: 6460: 6450: 6170: 5841: 5485: 5421: 4724: 1269: 952: 549: 1670: 5857: 5699: 5653: 5221: 4732: 3279: 2839: 920:

Ultimately, there was widespread opposition to the "court packing" plan, and in the end, Roosevelt abandoned it. However, in what became known as "

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Dispute exists within the courts as to the range of powers granted to Congress by the Commerce Clause. As noted below, it is often paired with the

207: 938:. That essentially marked the beginning of the end of Supreme Court's opposition to the New Deal, which also obviated the "court packing" scheme. 779:

jurisprudence. While Congress had the power to regulate commerce, it could not regulate manufacturing, which was seen as being entirely local. In

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The evolving level of scrutiny applied by federal courts to cases involving the Commerce Clause should be considered in the context of

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https://www.annenbergclassroom.org/resource/the-pursuit-of-justice/pursuit-justice-chapter-3-steamboats-states-rights-power-congress/

325: 187: 72: 7102: 5541: 5261: 5015: 4407: 4253: 4245: 3167: 1979:

Leuchtenburg, E. (1996). The Supreme Court Reborn: The Constitutional Revolution in the Age of Roosevelt. Oxford University Press.

1924: 1730: 909: 853: 177: 7313: 5557: 4937: 4548: 4173: 3458: 3303: 3223: 2916: 1031: 913: 708: 35: 2251: 1753: 399:, the use of the Commerce Clause by Congress to authorize federal control of economic matters became effectively unlimited. The 7403: 7072: 6950: 5509: 5159: 4588: 3466: 3047: 842:

wrote, referring to the stockyards as "great national public utilities." As Justice Kennedy wrote: (in a concurring opinion to

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believes that limiting the commerce power as the Rehnquist Court did can only lead to the weakening of individual liberties.

960: 506: 413: 161: 2457:, Symposium: The Commerce Clause and the Global Economy, Chapman Law Review, Vol. 22, Issue 1 (Winter 2019), pp. 55–72. 869:(1973), the Court excluded services not related to production, such as live entertainment, from the definition of commerce: 7838: 7358: 7152: 5079: 4993: 4692: 4626: 4415: 4269: 4261: 3634: 3346: 3175: 3127: 2521: 1491: 606: 77: 1470:

Questions over the range and applicability of the Commerce Clause have arisen in debate over the constitutionality of the

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The substantial impact (or substantial affect) category relates to the power discussed in the Court's 1942 decision in

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of legislative acts to protect economic rights to a paradigm that focused most strongly on protecting civil liberties.

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Commerce among the states cannot stop at the external boundary of each state, but may be introduced into the interior.

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Bork, Robert; Troy, Daniel E. (2002). "Locating the Boundaries: The Scope of Congress's Power to Regulate Commerce".

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Additionally, the Marshall Court limited the extent of federal maritime and admiralty jurisdiction to tidewaters in

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Commerce is "intercourse, all its branches, and is regulated by prescribing rules for carrying on that intercourse."

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The Rehnquist court upheld Congress's plenary authority to legislate in Indian affairs that was derived from

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Examining contemporaneous dictionaries does not neatly resolve the matter. For instance, the 1792 edition of

576:, 324 U.S. 386 (1945), even though the market value of the riparian owner's land is substantially diminished. 377:

specific terms: the Foreign Commerce Clause, the Interstate Commerce Clause, and the Indian Commerce Clause.

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The opinion set a new rule for what was an acceptable use of congressional power under the Commerce Clause:

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but from the lawful exercise of a power to which the interests of riparian owners have always been subject.

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They are the restraints on which the people must often rely solely, in all representative governments....

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To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes;

7538: 7408: 7272: 7132: 7051: 6897: 6887: 6755: 6058: 5951: 5903: 5661: 5293: 5087: 4857: 4439: 4399: 4317: 2791: 2514: 2493: 2479: 2237: 2223: 2209: 1026: 1025:

The wide interpretation of the scope of the Commerce Clause continued following the passing of the

948: 564:, 93 U.S. 4 (1876), or otherwise impair or destroy a riparian owner's access to navigable waters, 7328: 7276: 7202: 7030: 6907: 6902: 6838: 6808: 6750: 5365: 5143: 5071: 4484: 4455: 2998: 2932: 2884: 2754: 2722: 2238:"Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States, 379 US 241 - Supreme Court 1964 - Google Scholar" 1508:, judge George Steeh ruled that such decisions have "a documented impact on interstate commerce." 955:"is but a truism" and was not considered to be an independent limitation on congressional power. 745: 586: 283: 237: 2170: 7491: 7010: 6935: 6882: 6833: 6657: 6298: 5581: 5381: 5301: 4580: 4500: 4325: 4165: 3947: 3650: 3626: 1379: 1075: 1013: 844: 798: 752: 405: 369: 308: 139: 7698: 7077: 7045: 6876: 6705: 6652: 6274: 5737: 4792: 4532: 4475: 4181: 4132: 4007: 3847: 3839: 3785: 3747: 3562: 3394: 3159: 3063: 2388: 1850: 1803: 1450: 1314: 1191: 1040: 824: 807: 790: 761: 724: 526: 510: 479: 463: 2468:

Clause 3. Commerce Power POWER TO REGULATE COMMERCE Capsule history of Commerce Clause cases

7843: 7398: 7112: 7107: 7062: 7035: 6985: 6730: 6306: 6203: 5745: 5605: 5341: 5317: 5277: 4237: 4104: 3955: 2948: 2738: 2058: 1956: 1465: 1410:

regulatory scheme necessary to the protection of commerce, our investigation is at an end.

928:, shortly after the "court packing" plan was proposed, joined the 5-4 majority opinion in 8: 7826: 7615: 7343: 7207: 6995: 6940: 6843: 6700: 6023: 5967: 5943: 5213: 4221: 4205: 4189: 4040: 3939: 3546: 3410: 2616: 2507: 2474: 1325: 951:, which regulated the production of goods shipped across state lines. It stated that the 839: 541: 500: 273: 192: 2499: 1920: 1123: 384:, and the combination used to take a more broad, expansive perspective of these powers. 7528: 7512: 7373: 7187: 7162: 7147: 7057: 7025: 7015: 6975: 6965: 6013: 5927: 5919: 5849: 5437: 4905: 4508: 4309: 4213: 4197: 4080: 4072: 3979: 3963: 3729: 3498: 2940: 2820: 2775: 2442: 1996: 1536: 1453: 1329: 1194: 1043: 975: 895: 827: 810: 764: 529: 452:

The significance of the Commerce Clause is described in the Supreme Court's opinion in

432: 298: 293: 257: 232: 123: 103: 1858: 1317: 7848: 7594: 7579: 7559: 7433: 7308: 7287: 7259: 6863: 6690: 6216: 6066: 5825: 5761: 5309: 5103: 5023: 4772: 4141: 4120: 4016: 3893: 3794: 3674: 3434: 3255: 3007: 2579: 2414: 2262: 1980: 1798: 1749: 1613: 1416: 1241: 1233: 851:

Similarly, the Court excluded most services by distinguishing them from commerce. In

835: 793: 590: 466: 454: 422: 6339: 5877: 727: 7470: 7217: 7092: 7020: 7005: 6740: 6685: 6647: 6042: 5911: 5817: 5533: 5389: 5357: 4841: 4149: 4032: 3855: 3772: 3378: 3338: 3322: 2892: 2832: 2669: 634: 616: 400: 357: 2455:

Comparing Wayfair and Wynne: Lessons for the Future of the Dormant Commerce Clause

7755: 7703: 7584: 7543: 7454: 7378: 7282: 7264: 7000: 6828: 6282: 5996: 5573: 5373: 4929: 4157: 4088: 4064: 4024: 3877: 3602: 3354: 3330: 3199: 2701: 2632: 2152: 1531: 1250: 1066: 1005: 781: 1631: 7693: 7672: 7656: 7620: 7564: 7533: 7348: 6178: 6106: 5959: 5895: 5589: 4572: 4056: 4048: 3995: 3802: 3642: 2677: 1513: 1366: 1351: 1346: 1282:– and the federal Government is no longer one of limited and enumerated powers. 1246: 1229: 1070: 964:(1942), the Court upheld federal price regulation of intrastate milk commerce: 656: 601: 581: 388: 2129: 2097:, 348 F.3d 1132, 1136-37 (9th Cir. 2003)(citing Morrison, 529 U.S. at 610-12). 1714: 1601: 1228:

The Rehnquist Court's Commerce Clause cases helped establish the doctrine of "

7889: 7798: 7719: 7677: 7646: 7574: 7496: 7368: 7338: 7254: 7157: 6868: 6823: 6098: 5833: 5446:

Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board v. College Savings Bank

5095: 4709:

College Savings Bank v. Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board

4608: 4229: 4096: 3929: 3831: 2563: 1617: 865: 660: 629: 594: 252: 118: 1080:

enforced strict limits to congressional power under the Commerce Clause. In

505:

The Commerce Clause provides comprehensive powers to the United States over

5975: 4764: 4685:

San Francisco Arts & Athletics, Inc. v. United States Olympic Committee

3232:

Oregon Waste Systems, Inc. v. Department of Environmental Quality of Oregon

925: 2494:

History of How States and Nations Regulated their Commerce with each other

2478: 2224:"Perez v. United States, 402 US 146 - Supreme Court 1971 - Google Scholar" 7750: 7630: 3739: 2694:

Arizona State Legislature v. Arizona Independent Redistricting Commission

935: 393: 278: 3264:

United Haulers Ass'n v. Oneida-Herkimer Solid Waste Management Authority

1365:

findings have been upheld whenever they could be said to rest upon some

1324:, the Commerce Clause does not give the federal government the power to 7475: 4667: 3362: 2437: 1921:"United States v. Wrightwood Dairy Co. (Cornell University Law School)" 1466:

Debate over applicability to Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act

668: 664: 639: 514: 488: 303: 1657:"Wickard v. Filburn, 317 US 111 - Supreme Court 1942 - Google Scholar" 7383: 5286:

Walker Process Equipment, Inc. v. Food Machinery & Chemical Corp.

4882:

Quality King Distributors Inc., v. L'anza Research International Inc.

1671:"Transcript of the Constitution of the United States - Official Text" 1570:

Miller and Cross. "The Legal Environment Today" Fifth Edition. (2007)

1262: 1124:

Channels of commerce and the instrumentalities of interstate commerce

1113:

Congress may regulate the use of the channels of interstate commerce;

494: 45: 3587:

Hodel v. Virginia Surface Mining & Reclamation Association, Inc.

5238:

Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Co. v. Supermarket Equipment Corp.

3988:

Consolidated Safety-Valve Co. v. Crosby Steam Gauge & Valve Co.

1697:"Gonzales v. Raich, 545 US 1 - Supreme Court 2005 - Google Scholar" 1239:

The outer limits of the New Federalism doctrine were delineated by

899: 540:

This power to regulate navigation confers upon the United States a

487:

define the balance of power between the federal government and the

427: 373: 2153:"Federalism, the Rehnquist Court, and the Modern Republican Party" 1091:

In striking down the federal law, the majority opinion explained:

403:

restricted congressional use of the Commerce Clause somewhat with

7418: 6848: 5797: 2599: 2333:"Supreme Court to Rule This Spring on Health Care Law - ABC News" 2446:. Volume 119, No. 8, June 2006, p. 2612-2619. Available at 1512:

In response to the Virginia decision, Virginia Attorney General

1295:

s interpretation of the Indian Commerce Clause, but it modified

5723: 5454:

J. E. M. Ag Supply, Inc. v. Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Inc.

2130:"Will the New Federalism Be the Legacy of the Rehnquist Court?" 2059:"The Power to Regulate Commerce: Limits on Congressional Power" 4749:

Lexmark International, Inc. v. Static Control Components, Inc.

4619:

Motion Picture Patents Co. v. Universal Film Manufacturing Co.

2867: 1673:. National Archives and Records Administration. Archived from 1386:

Hodel v. Virginia Surface Mining & Reclamation Association

5246:

Graver Tank & Manufacturing Co. v. Linde Air Products Co.

2447: 5598:

Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics, Inc.

5566:

Mayo Collaborative Services v. Prometheus Laboratories, Inc.

1140: 2023:

See for example, Shreveport Rate Cases, 234 U.S. 342 (1914)

3403:

Houston East & West Texas Railway Co. v. United States

2721: 2529: 1961: 917:

a majority that would cease to strike his New Deal acts.

5254:

Aro Manufacturing Co. v. Convertible Top Replacement Co.

4850:

Feist Publications, Inc., v. Rural Telephone Service Co.

1903:"United States v. Darby Lumber Co., 312 U.S. 100 (1941)" 1149:. It is arguably the strongest categorical power in the 739: 6291:

Northeast Bancorp v. Federal Reserve Board of Governors

3683:

National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius

3032:

Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific Railway Co. v. Illinois

2965:

National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius

1220: 4717:

Cooper Industries, Inc. v. Leatherman Tool Group, Inc.

3918:

General Talking Pictures Corp. v. Western Electric Co.

2288:"Appeals court rules against Obama healthcare mandate" 1377:

Justice Rehnquist echoed that point in his opinion in

6369: 6202: 4970:

Fourth Estate Public Benefit Corp. v. Wall-Street.com

4810:

Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.

3886:

Hollister v. Benedict & Burnham Manufacturing Co.

3136:

Hunt v. Washington State Apple Advertising Commission

2819: 2774: 5550:

Stanford University v. Roche Molecular Systems, Inc.

5136:

Fortnightly Corp. v. United Artists Television, Inc.

4677:

Inwood Laboratories, Inc. v. Ives Laboratories, Inc.

3972:

City of Elizabeth v. American Nicholson Pavement Co.

3771: 3611:

Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority

3296:

Tennessee Wine and Spirits Retailers Assn. v. Thomas

2546: 1939:"Wickard v. Filburn (Cornell University Law School)" 1442:

Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority

554:

United States v. Chicago, M., St. P. & P. R. Co.

5462:

Festo Corp. v. Shoketsu Kinzoku Kogyo Kabushiki Co.

5326:

Anderson's-Black Rock, Inc. v. Pavement Salvage Co.

2984: 7901:Legislative branch of the United States government 7793:Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787 5182:Continental Paper Bag Co. v. Eastern Paper Bag Co. 5032:Order of St. Benedict of New Jersey v. Steinhauser 3714: 3192:South-Central Timber Development, Inc. v. Wunnicke 2652: 2359:"Health-Care Ruling: Why Not the Commerce Clause?" 1165: 495:Significance in federal rights in navigable waters 5842:Immigration and Naturalization Service v. St. Cyr 5486:Illinois Tool Works Inc. v. Independent Ink, Inc. 5422:Warner-Jenkinson Co. v. Hilton Davis Chemical Co. 5222:Sinclair & Carroll Co. v. Interchemical Corp. 4725:TrafFix Devices, Inc. v. Marketing Displays, Inc. 3727: 3507:United States v. South-Eastern Underwriters Ass'n 857:, 259 U.S. 200 (1922), which was later upheld in 7887: 5995: 5858:Department of Homeland Security v. Thuraissigiam 5700:Patent and Trademark Office v. Booking.com B. V. 5654:TC Heartland LLC v. Kraft Foods Group Brands LLC 4733:Dastar Corp. v. Twentieth Century Fox Film Corp. 4278:United Dictionary Co. v. G. & C. Merriam Co. 3280:Comptroller of the Treasury of Maryland v. Wynne 3184:White v. Mass. Council of Construction Employers 2840:Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Chadha 1885:"Carter v. Carter Coal Co., 298 U.S. 238 (1936)" 1499:, Judge Norman Moon upheld the law, countering: 1430: 6244: 6155:Energy Reserves Group v. Kansas P. & L. Co. 5622:Akamai Techs., Inc. v. Limelight Networks, Inc. 5398:Bonito Boats, Inc. v. Thunder Craft Boats, Inc. 4954:American Broadcasting Cos., Inc. v. Aereo, Inc. 3427:A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States 7804:Bibliography of the United States Constitution 6171:Keystone Bituminous Coal Ass'n v. DeBenedictis 5630:Teva Pharmaceuticals USA, Inc. v. Sandoz, Inc. 5334:Zenith Radio Corp. v. Hazeltine Research, Inc. 5120:Miller Music Corp. v. Charles N. Daniels, Inc. 5040:International News Service v. Associated Press 4565:F. W. Woolworth Co. v. Contemporary Arts, Inc. 4557:Fred Fisher Music Co. v. M. Witmark & Sons 4424:White-Smith Music Publishing Co. v. Apollo Co. 4286:White-Smith Music Publishing Co. v. Apollo Co. 2259:Twenty-Six State AGs Seek Appeals Court Ruling 1547:Section 51(i) of the Constitution of Australia 1253:departed from their previous positions in the 6355: 5684:G. & C. Merriam Co. v. Syndicate Pub. Co. 5526:Quanta Computer, Inc. v. LG Electronics, Inc. 5048:L. A. Westermann Co. v. Dispatch Printing Co. 4890:Feltner v. Columbia Pictures Television, Inc. 3555:Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States 2515: 1398:Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States 1004:, in which the Court shifted from exercising 886:Schecter Poultry Corporation v. United States 412:The Commerce Clause is the source of federal 333: 4648:Fashion Originators' Guild of America v. FTC 4493:DeJonge and Co. v. Breuker & Kessler Co. 4363:Fashion Originators' Guild of America v. FTC 2301:Review, The Regulatory (February 15, 2011). 1799:"Just Compensation and the Navigation Power" 1371:Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v United States 1358:Since 1937, in applying the factual test in 1170: 659:'s attempt to grant a steamboat monopoly to 623: 6115:Home Building & Loan Ass'n v. Blaisdell 5152:Teleprompter Corp. v. Columbia Broadcasting 4962:Star Athletica, LLC v. Varsity Brands, Inc. 4834:Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid 4802:Zacchini v. Scripps-Howard Broadcasting Co. 4597:Williams & Wilkins Co. v. United States 3475:McGoldrick v. Berwind-White Coal Mining Co. 3240:C&A Carbone, Inc. v. Town of Clarkstown 2252:"National Conference of State Legislatures" 1599: 1579:United States v. Lopez, 514 U.S. 549 (1995) 1552:Section 91(2) of the Constitution Act, 1867 6362: 6348: 5470:Merck KGaA v. Integra Lifesciences I, Ltd. 3419:Board of Trade of City of Chicago v. Olsen 3272:Department of Revenue of Kentucky v. Davis 2522: 2508: 1606:The University of New Hampshire Law Review 1472:Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act 1201:the Court invalidated § 40302 of the 1060: 340: 326: 7906:Clauses of the United States Constitution 5230:Funk Bros. Seed Co. v. Kalo Inoculant Co. 5128:Pub. Affairs Associates, Inc. v. Rickover 4408:McLoughlin v. Raphael Tuck & Sons Co. 4371:United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc. 4355:Interstate Circuit, Inc. v. United States 4347:Straus v. American Publishers Association 4254:McLoughlin v. Raphael Tuck & Sons Co. 2356: 1141:Substantial impact on interstate commerce 1053: 7860:Scene at the Signing of the Constitution 5542:Global-Tech Appliances, Inc. v. SEB S.A. 5262:Compco Corp. v. Day-Brite Lighting, Inc. 5016:American Lithographic Co. v. Werkmeister 4938:Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4246:Bleistein v. Donaldson Lithographing Co. 3459:NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp. 3168:Kassel v. Consolidated Freightways Corp. 2909:Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. 2150: 2127: 1731:Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy 1727: 1340: 1180:was clarified by the Rehnquist Court in 854:Federal Baseball Club v. National League 6147:Allied Structural Steel Co. v. Spannaus 5558:Microsoft Corp. v. i4i Ltd. Partnership 4874:Lotus Dev. Corp. v. Borland Int'l, Inc. 4589:Sears, Roebuck & Co. v. Stiffel Co. 4549:Sheldon v. Metro-Goldwyn Pictures Corp. 4174:Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. v. Sarony 3304:National Pork Producers Council v. Ross 3224:Chemical Waste Management, Inc. v. Hunt 3048:George W. Bush & Sons Co. v. Malloy 2917:Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad Co. 2177:from the original on September 17, 2008 1969:from the original on September 4, 2017. 1945:from the original on September 5, 2013. 1774: 1032:Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States 914:Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937 883:In 1935, the Supreme Court decision in 830: (1922), upheld a federal law (the 709:Tribal sovereignty in the United States 696:The Steam-Boat Thomas Jefferson Johnson 14: 7888: 5510:KSR International Co. v. Teleflex Inc. 5406:Eli Lilly & Co. v. Medtronic, Inc. 5160:Twentieth Century Music Corp. v. Aiken 4826:Harper & Row v. Nation Enterprises 3467:United States v. Carolene Products Co. 2473: 2419:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 2300: 2151:Joondeph, Bradley (January 11, 2008). 2056: 1909:from the original on October 18, 2013. 1891:from the original on December 3, 2013. 1796: 6343: 6315:Polar Tankers, Inc. v. City of Valdez 6243: 6201: 6075:Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge 5994: 5876: 5796: 5722: 5646:Apple Inc. v. Samsung Electronics Co. 5614:Alice Corp. v. CLS Bank International 5414:Markman v. Westview Instruments, Inc. 5198:United States v. General Electric Co. 4978:Rimini Street Inc. v. Oracle USA Inc. 4946:Petrella v. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Inc. 4781:Romag Fasteners, Inc. v. Fossil, Inc. 4701:Qualitex Co. v. Jacobson Products Co. 3770: 3713: 3491:United States v. Wrightwood Dairy Co. 3387:Southern Railway Co. v. United States 3016:Willson v. Black-Bird Creek Marsh Co. 2983: 2866: 2818: 2773: 2720: 2651: 2601:Qualifications Clauses of Sections II 2598: 2545: 2503: 2313:from the original on January 16, 2013 2123: 2121: 2052: 2050: 2048: 2046: 2044: 2042: 2040: 2038: 1997:"Daniel v. Paul, 395 U.S. 298 (1969)" 1756:from the original on October 18, 2008 1750:"purple motes » peer production" 961:United States v. Wrightwood Dairy Co. 740:Dormant Commerce Clause jurisprudence 702: 574:United States v. Commodore Park, Inc. 7839:Constitution Day and Citizenship Day 6139:U.S. Trust Co. of N.Y. v. New Jersey 5080:George v. Victor Talking Machine Co. 4994:Georgia v. Public.Resource.Org, Inc. 4693:Two Pesos, Inc. v. Taco Cabana, Inc. 4627:Morton Salt Co. v. G.S. Suppiger Co. 4416:American Tobacco Co. v. Werckmeister 4270:Werckmeister v. American Tobacco Co. 4262:American Tobacco Co. v. Werckmeister 3635:Seminole Tribe of Florida v. Florida 3347:Cooper Manufacturing Co. v. Ferguson 3176:Sporhase v. Nebraska ex rel. Douglas 3128:Complete Auto Transit, Inc. v. Brady 2369:from the original on October 6, 2012 2128:Levinson, Rosalie (April 15, 2011). 1600:Chemerinsky, Erwin (March 1, 2004). 1595: 1593: 1591: 1589: 1587: 1585: 1073:, as evident in its 5–4 decision in 607:A Dictionary of the English Language 420:. In a 2005 medical marijuana case, 7827:Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom 7354:Incorporation of the Bill of Rights 5692:Kellogg Co. v. National Biscuit Co. 5638:Kimble v. Marvel Entertainment, LLC 4914:MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd. 4741:Moseley v. V Secret Catalogue, Inc. 4448:Caliga v. Inter Ocean Newspaper Co. 4391:International Copyright Act of 1891 3152:Exxon Corp. v. Governor of Maryland 2057:Thomas, Kenneth R. (May 16, 2014). 1270:Tenth Amendment to the Constitution 981:Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 439: 24: 7896:Legal history of the United States 6918:Drafting and ratification timeline 6663:District of Columbia Voting Rights 5502:MedImmune, Inc. v. Genentech, Inc. 4866:Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc. 4757:POM Wonderful LLC v. Coca-Cola Co. 3595:Commonwealth Edison Co. v. Montana 3579:National League of Cities v. Usery 3144:City of Philadelphia v. New Jersey 3096:Bibb v. Navajo Freight Lines, Inc. 2686:U.S. Term Limits, Inc. v. Thornton 2625:U.S. Term Limits, Inc. v. Thornton 2572:Department of Commerce v. New York 2430: 2401:from the original on June 28, 2017 2118: 2035: 1927:from the original on July 9, 2017. 1752:. Purplemotes.net. June 19, 2006. 1261:to uphold a federal law regarding 922:the switch in time that saved nine 25: 7917: 6371:Constitution of the United States 5518:Microsoft Corp. v. AT&T Corp. 5478:eBay Inc. v. MercExchange, L.L.C. 5350:United States v. Glaxo Group Ltd. 5190:Minerals Separation, Ltd. v. Hyde 4541:Washingtonian Pub. Co. v. Pearson 4525:Buck v. Jewell-LaSalle Realty Co. 4379:Broadcast Music, Inc. v. CBS Inc. 3483:United States v. Darby Lumber Co. 3371:United States v. E. C. Knight Co. 3248:West Lynn Creamery, Inc. v. Healy 2461: 1582: 1401:, 379 U.S. 241, 252–253 (1964)." 1286: 1100: 1086:Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990 1002:Constitutional Revolution of 1937 944:United States v. Darby Lumber Co. 546:FPC v. Niagara Mohawk Power Corp. 6774:Convention to propose amendments 6323:Texas v. New Mexico and Colorado 5430:Pfaff v. Wells Electronics, Inc. 5206:United States v. Univis Lens Co. 5056:Lumiere v. Mae Edna Wilder, Inc. 3120:Hughes v. Alexandria Scrap Corp. 3104:National Bellas Hess v. Illinois 3080:Dean Milk Co. v. City of Madison 3040:Swift & Co. v. United States 2357:Palazzolo, Joe (June 28, 2012). 2134:Valparaiso University Law Review 1542:National Recovery Administration 1395:, 402 U.S. 146, 155–156 (1971); 1389:, 452 U.S. 264, 276–280 (1981); 894:, a main component of President 892:National Industrial Recovery Act 556:, 312 U.S. 592, 596–597 (1941); 444:Article I, Section 8, Clause 3: 44: 5936:Garner v. Board of Public Works 5064:Educational Films Corp. v. Ward 4922:Reed Elsevier, Inc. v. Muchnick 4294:Dun v. Lumbermen's Credit Ass'n 3523:H.P. Hood & Sons v. Du Mond 3072:Southern Pacific Co. v. Arizona 2381: 2350: 2325: 2294: 2280: 2244: 2230: 2216: 2202: 2189: 2163: 2144: 2109: 2100: 2088: 2076: 2026: 2017: 2007: 1989: 1973: 1949: 1931: 1913: 1895: 1877: 1864: 1840: 1829: 1815: 1790: 1775:Johnson, Samuel (May 1, 1792). 1768: 1742: 1506:Thomas More Law Center v. Obama 1456: (1985), the Court stated: 1268:Since the Rehnquist Court, the 1166:Other Rehnquist Court decisions 1020: 931:West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish 27:Clause in the U.S. constitution 7389:Separation of church and state 4113:Mifflin v. R. H. White Company 3056:Baldwin v. G.A.F. Seelig, Inc. 2925:Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co. 2199:§ 5–4, at P 309 (2d ed. 1988). 2173:. Straylight.law.cornell.edu. 1721: 1703: 1689: 1663: 1649: 1624: 1573: 1564: 1497:Liberty University v. Geithner 1000:, is often referred to as the 372:shall have power "to regulate 368:). The clause states that the 366:Article I, Section 8, Clause 3 13: 1: 6893:Virginia Ratifying Convention 6123:W.B. Worthen Co. v. Kavanaugh 6051:Dartmouth College v. Woodward 4639:Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914 4432:Globe Newspaper Co. v. Walker 4338:Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 3910:Bauer & Cie. v. O'Donnell 3811:Globe Newspaper Co. v. Walker 3288:South Dakota v. Wayfair, Inc. 3208:Healy v. Beer Institute, Inc. 2800:United States v. Munoz-Flores 2197:American Constitutional Law, 1558: 1483:11th Circuit Court of Appeals 1431:Role of the political process 979:(1942), the Court upheld the 947:(1941), the Court upheld the 905:Carter v. Carter Coal Company 314:Common good constitutionalism 7854:National Constitution Center 7652:Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer 6951:Assemble and Petition Clause 6225:Canton Railroad Co. v. Rogan 4898:New York Times Co. v. Tasini 3902:Schillinger v. United States 3539:Canton Railroad Co. v. Rogan 3088:Miller Bros. Co. v. Maryland 1957:"PBS Supreme Court Timeline" 1320: (1996) that unlike the 1084:, the Court struck down the 7: 7725:Charles Cotesworth Pinckney 6779:State ratifying conventions 6716:Equal Opportunity to Govern 6711:Electoral College abolition 6638:Congressional Apportionment 5725:Necessary and Proper Clause 5494:LabCorp v. Metabolite, Inc. 4818:Mills Music, Inc. v. Snyder 4302:Bobbs-Merrill Co. v. Straus 3443:Panama Refining Co. v. Ryan 3216:Quill Corp. v. North Dakota 2848:Clinton v. City of New York 2480:"Interstate Commerce" 1872:American Constitutional Law 1797:Powell, William J. (1956). 1520: 878: 860:Toolson v. New York Yankees 382:Necessary and Proper Clause 208:Right to keep and bear arms 10: 7922: 6131:City of El Paso v. Simmons 5778:United States v. Kebodeaux 5270:Wilbur-Ellis Co. v. Kuther 3531:Henderson v. United States 3112:Pike v. Bruce Church, Inc. 3024:Cooley v. Board of Wardens 2869:Taxing and Spending Clause 2106:42 U.S.C. § 13981(c). 1602:"The Rehnquist Revolution" 1527:Australian commerce clause 1203:Violence Against Women Act 832:Packers and Stockyards Act 743: 716:Cherokee Nation v. Georgia 706: 498: 362:United States Constitution 218:Criminal procedural rights 7812: 7784: 7764: 7743: 7712: 7686: 7665: 7639: 7603: 7552: 7521: 7505: 7484: 7463: 7442: 7426: 7417: 7296: 7178:Privileges and Immunities 6991:Congressional enforcement 6926: 6913:Rhode Island ratification 6804:Articles of Confederation 6791: 6769: 6746:Parental Rights amendment 6671: 6628: 6553: 6525: 6504: 6441: 6437: 6428: 6377: 6267:Virginia v. West Virginia 6253: 6239: 6211: 6197: 6034: 6011: 6007: 5990: 5890: 5879:No Bills of Attainder or 5872: 5812: 5792: 5770:United States v. Comstock 5732: 5718: 5672: 5170: 5112:Commissioner v. Wodehouse 5004: 4791: 4666: 4637: 4607: 4517:Fox Film Corp. v. Knowles 4474: 4464:Kalem Co. v. Harper Bros. 4389: 4336: 4131: 4006: 3928: 3866: 3821: 3784: 3780: 3766: 3723: 3709: 3667:United States v. Morrison 3619:New York v. United States 3515:North American Co. v. SEC 3451:Carter v. Carter Coal Co. 3314: 2997: 2993: 2979: 2901:Springer v. United States 2879: 2862: 2828: 2814: 2786: 2769: 2733: 2716: 2664: 2647: 2611: 2594: 2558: 2541: 2083:United States v. Sullivan 1786:– via Google Books. 1335: 1306:Seminole Tribe v. Florida 1183:United States v. Morrison 1172:United States v. Morrison 1131:United States v. Sullivan 912:, Roosevelt proposed the 624:Early years (1800s–1830s) 587:Constitutional Convention 562:South Carolina v. Georgia 418:Controlled Substances Act 7409:Unitary executive theory 7183:Privileges or Immunities 6898:New York Circular Letter 6888:Massachusetts Compromise 6059:Sturges v. Crowninshield 5952:Barr v. City of Columbia 5904:Sturges v. Crowninshield 5662:Peter v. NantKwest, Inc. 5294:Graham v. John Deere Co. 5088:KVOS v. Associated Press 4858:Fogerty v. Fantasy, Inc. 4656:Dowling v. United States 4440:Bong v. Campbell Art Co. 4400:Press Pub. Co. v. Monroe 4318:Bong v. Campbell Art Co. 2792:Flint v. Stone Tracy Co. 2747:United States v. Johnson 2095:United States v. Stewart 1027:Civil Rights Act of 1964 949:Fair Labor Standards Act 655:, the Court struck down 289:Political process theory 7329:Dormant Commerce Clause 7173:Presidential succession 6908:Fayetteville Convention 6903:Hillsborough Convention 6839:Three-fifths Compromise 6819:Philadelphia Convention 6809:Mount Vernon Conference 6696:Campaign finance reform 6163:Exxon Corp. v. Eagerton 5366:Sakraida v. Ag Pro Inc. 5144:Goldstein v. California 5072:Fox Film Corp. v. Doyal 4485:Hills and Co. v. Hoover 4456:Hills and Co. v. Hoover 3691:Taylor v. United States 2999:Dormant Commerce Clause 2933:United States v. Butler 2885:Hylton v. United States 2755:Gravel v. United States 2723:Speech or Debate Clause 2486:Encyclopædia Britannica 2363:The Wall Street Journal 1554:(Canadian Constitution) 1061:Change in jurisprudence 746:Dormant Commerce Clause 580:Some scholars, such as 572:, 179 U.S. 141 (1900); 568:, 166 U.S. 269 (1897); 566:Gibson v. United States 558:Gibson v. United States 476:Interstate Commerce Act 284:Substantive due process 7492:William Samuel Johnson 7364:Nondelegation doctrine 6936:Admission to the Union 6883:Anti-Federalist Papers 6834:Connecticut Compromise 6299:New Jersey v. New York 5754:Sabri v. United States 5582:Bowman v. Monsanto Co. 5382:Diamond v. Chakrabarty 5302:United States v. Adams 4581:De Sylva v. Ballentine 4501:Herbert v. Shanley Co. 4326:Henry v. A.B. Dick Co. 4166:Schreiber v. Sharpless 3948:Hotchkiss v. Greenwood 3659:Jones v. United States 3651:United States v. Locke 3627:United States v. Lopez 2957:Sabri v. United States 2085:, 332 U.S. 689 (1948). 1510: 1463: 1435:Since its decision in 1428: 1412: 1392:Perez v. United States 1380:United States v. Lopez 1375: 1284: 1163: 1098: 1076:United States v. Lopez 1065:Starting in 1995, the 1055:United States v. Lopez 1014:United States v. Lopez 971: 876: 845:United States v. Lopez 799:Swift v. United States 773:United States v. Lopez 753:United States v. Lopez 737: 649: 578: 519:United States v. Rands 484: 450: 406:United States v. Lopez 370:United States Congress 309:Strict constructionism 213:Right to trial by jury 203:Freedom of association 7699:Richard Dobbs Spaight 7168:Presidential Electors 7143:Original Jurisdiction 7083:Full Faith and Credit 6956:Assistance of Counsel 6877:The Federalist Papers 6706:Crittenden Compromise 6275:Virginia v. Tennessee 5738:McCulloch v. Maryland 4793:Copyright Act of 1976 4533:Douglas v. Cunningham 4476:Copyright Act of 1909 4182:Thornton v. Schreiber 4133:Copyright Act of 1870 4008:Copyright Act of 1831 3786:Copyright Act of 1790 3748:Juilliard v. Greenman 3563:Katzenbach v. McClung 3395:Hoke v. United States 3160:Reeves, Inc. v. Stake 3064:Edwards v. California 1804:Washington Law Review 1501: 1458: 1423: 1407: 1356: 1341:Rational basis review 1279: 1159: 1093: 966: 871: 732: 644: 538: 480:Sherman Antitrust Act 471: 446: 7868:A More Perfect Union 7844:Constitution Gardens 7765:Convention Secretary 7427:Convention President 7399:Symmetric federalism 7394:Separation of powers 7128:Necessary and Proper 7123:Natural-born citizen 7068:Freedom of the Press 7006:Copyright and Patent 6996:Contingent Elections 6814:Annapolis Convention 6307:Virginia v. Maryland 6204:Import-Export Clause 6091:Stone v. Mississippi 5746:Lambert v. Yellowley 5606:FTC v. Actavis, Inc. 5342:Gottschalk v. Benson 5318:Lear, Inc. v. Adkins 5278:Brulotte v. Thys Co. 4238:Bolles v. Outing Co. 4105:Bolles v. Outing Co. 2949:South Dakota v. Dole 2739:Kilbourn v. Thompson 2475:Fetter, Frank Albert 2453:Zelinsky Edward A., 2157:Faculty Publications 1717:on October 11, 2008. 1632:"Wickard v. Filburn" 1492:Virginia v. Sebelius 1361:Jones & Laughlin 1322:Fourteenth Amendment 902:. Again in 1936, in 536:decision continues: 258:Comprehensible rules 228:Freedom from slavery 188:Freedom of the press 132:Government structure 94:Separation of powers 38:of the United States 7875:Worldwide influence 7616:Gunning Bedford Jr. 7344:Executive privilege 7324:Criminal sentencing 7247:Title of Nobility ( 7238:Taxing and Spending 7138:Oath or Affirmation 7098:House Apportionment 6961:Case or Controversy 6844:Committee of Detail 6736:"Liberty" amendment 6701:Christian amendment 6024:Hepburn v. Griswold 5968:Kansas v. Hendricks 5944:De Veau v. Braisted 5214:Altvater v. Freeman 4222:Belford v. Scribner 4206:Thompson v. Hubbard 4190:Banks v. Manchester 4041:Stevens v. Gladding 3940:Pennock v. Dialogue 3868:Patent infringement 3547:Boynton v. Virginia 3411:Hammer v. Dagenhart 2617:Powell v. McCormack 2195:Laurence H. Tribe, 2171:"Gonzales v. Raich" 2063:UNT Digital Library 1870:See also L. Tribe, 1303:The Court found in 1221:New Federalism and 910:re-election in 1936 816:Stafford v. Wallace 570:Scranton v. Wheeler 501:Navigable servitude 274:Living Constitution 193:Freedom of assembly 178:Freedom of religion 18:Interstate commerce 7529:William Livingston 7513:Alexander Hamilton 7319:Criminal procedure 7314:Constitutional law 7249:Foreign Emoluments 7213:State of the Union 7198:Self-Incrimination 7188:Recess appointment 6981:Compulsory Process 6643:Titles of Nobility 6259:Florida v. Georgia 6014:Legal Tender Cases 5928:Samuels v. McCurdy 5920:Hawker v. New York 5850:Boumediene v. Bush 5438:Dickinson v. Zurko 4906:Eldred v. Ashcroft 4509:Manners v. Morosco 4310:Scribner v. Straus 4214:Higgins v. Keuffel 4198:Callaghan v. Myers 4081:Higgins v. Keuffel 4073:Callaghan v. Myers 3980:Egbert v. Lippmann 3964:Cochrane v. Deener 3823:Patent Act of 1793 3730:Legal Tender Cases 3499:Wickard v. Filburn 2941:Helvering v. Davis 2821:Presentment Clause 2776:Origination Clause 2548:Enumeration Clause 2531:U.S. Supreme Court 2443:Harvard Law Review 1874:306 (2d ed. 1988). 1537:Home Port Doctrine 1476:individual mandate 1330:sovereign immunity 1245:in which Justices 1147:Wickard v. Filburn 1071:revived federalism 976:Wickard v. Filburn 896:Franklin Roosevelt 840:Chief Justice Taft 703:Tribal sovereignty 542:dominant servitude 433:Wickard v. Filburn 294:Judicial restraint 253:Right to candidacy 140:Legislative branch 36:Constitutional law 7883: 7882: 7849:Constitution Week 7834:Independence Mall 7822:National Archives 7780: 7779: 7595:Gouverneur Morris 7580:Thomas Fitzsimons 7560:Benjamin Franklin 7434:George Washington 7334:Enumerated powers 7309:Concurrent powers 7304:Balance of powers 7133:No Religious Test 7073:Freedom of Speech 6864:Independence Hall 6787: 6786: 6691:Bricker amendment 6624: 6623: 6337: 6336: 6333: 6332: 6235: 6234: 6217:Brown v. Maryland 6193: 6192: 6189: 6188: 6083:Bronson v. Kinzie 6067:Ogden v. Saunders 5986: 5985: 5868: 5867: 5826:Ex parte Merryman 5802:Suspension Clause 5788: 5787: 5762:Gonzales v. Raich 5714: 5713: 5710: 5709: 5310:Brenner v. Manson 5104:Buck v. Gallagher 5024:Ferris v. Frohman 4773:Iancu v. Brunetti 4142:Perris v. Hexamer 4121:Mifflin v. Dutton 4017:Wheaton v. Peters 3956:O'Reilly v. Morse 3894:Rowell v. Lindsay 3795:Wheaton v. Peters 3762: 3761: 3758: 3757: 3705: 3704: 3701: 3700: 3675:Gonzales v. Raich 3571:Maryland v. Wirtz 3435:Gold Clause Cases 3256:Granholm v. Heald 3008:Brown v. Maryland 2975: 2974: 2858: 2857: 2810: 2809: 2765: 2764: 2712: 2711: 2643: 2642: 2590: 2589: 2580:Trump v. New York 1417:Gonzales v. Raich 1242:Gonzales v. Raich 1234:Erwin Chemerinsky 1223:Gonzales v. Raich 1011:It was not until 834:) regulating the 614:Nevertheless, in 591:Federalist Papers 532: (1967). The 455:Gonzales v. Raich 423:Gonzales v. Raich 350: 349: 198:Right to petition 183:Freedom of speech 170:Individual rights 124:Tiers of scrutiny 99:Individual rights 16:(Redirected from 7913: 7730:Charles Pinckney 7539:William Paterson 7471:Nathaniel Gorham 7424: 7423: 7203:Speech or Debate 7031:Equal Protection 6741:Ludlow amendment 6726:Flag Desecration 6721:Federal Marriage 6686:Blaine amendment 6648:Corwin Amendment 6439: 6438: 6435: 6434: 6364: 6357: 6350: 6341: 6340: 6241: 6240: 6199: 6198: 6043:Fletcher v. Peck 6009: 6008: 5992: 5991: 5912:Ex parte Garland 5874: 5873: 5818:Ex parte Bollman 5794: 5793: 5720: 5719: 5534:Bilski v. Kappos 5390:Diamond v. Diehr 5358:Dann v. Johnston 4842:Stewart v. Abend 4150:Trade-Mark Cases 4033:Stephens v. Cady 3856:Evans v. Hettich 3782: 3781: 3773:Copyright Clause 3768: 3767: 3725: 3724: 3711: 3710: 3379:Champion v. Ames 3339:Paul v. Virginia 3323:Gibbons v. Ogden 2995: 2994: 2981: 2980: 2893:Collector v. Day 2864: 2863: 2833:Pocket Veto Case 2816: 2815: 2771: 2770: 2718: 2717: 2670:Ex parte Siebold 2654:Elections Clause 2649: 2648: 2596: 2595: 2543: 2542: 2524: 2517: 2510: 2501: 2500: 2490: 2489:(11th ed.). 2482: 2425: 2424: 2418: 2410: 2408: 2406: 2400: 2393: 2385: 2379: 2378: 2376: 2374: 2354: 2348: 2347: 2345: 2343: 2329: 2323: 2322: 2320: 2318: 2298: 2292: 2291: 2284: 2278: 2277: 2275: 2273: 2267: 2261:. Archived from 2256: 2248: 2242: 2241: 2234: 2228: 2227: 2220: 2214: 2213: 2206: 2200: 2193: 2187: 2186: 2184: 2182: 2167: 2161: 2160: 2148: 2142: 2141: 2125: 2116: 2113: 2107: 2104: 2098: 2092: 2086: 2080: 2074: 2073: 2071: 2069: 2054: 2033: 2030: 2024: 2021: 2015: 2011: 2005: 2004: 1993: 1987: 1977: 1971: 1970: 1953: 1947: 1946: 1935: 1929: 1928: 1917: 1911: 1910: 1899: 1893: 1892: 1881: 1875: 1868: 1862: 1844: 1838: 1833: 1827: 1823:Gibbons v. Ogden 1819: 1813: 1812: 1794: 1788: 1787: 1785: 1783: 1772: 1766: 1765: 1763: 1761: 1746: 1740: 1739: 1725: 1719: 1718: 1713:. Archived from 1707: 1701: 1700: 1693: 1687: 1686: 1684: 1682: 1677:on March 4, 2014 1667: 1661: 1660: 1653: 1647: 1646: 1644: 1642: 1628: 1622: 1621: 1597: 1580: 1577: 1571: 1568: 1197: (2000). In 750:As explained in 635:Gibbons v. Ogden 617:Gibbons v. Ogden 507:navigable waters 478:in 1887 and the 440:Text and pairing 414:drug prohibition 401:US Supreme Court 358:enumerated power 342: 335: 328: 238:Equal protection 223:Right to privacy 162:Local government 157:State government 145:Executive branch 48: 32: 31: 21: 7921: 7920: 7916: 7915: 7914: 7912: 7911: 7910: 7886: 7885: 7884: 7879: 7814: 7808: 7776: 7772:William Jackson 7760: 7756:Abraham Baldwin 7739: 7708: 7704:Hugh Williamson 7682: 7661: 7635: 7626:Richard Bassett 7599: 7585:Jared Ingersoll 7548: 7544:Jonathan Dayton 7517: 7501: 7480: 7459: 7455:Nicholas Gilman 7438: 7413: 7379:Reserved powers 7359:Judicial review 7292: 7088:General Welfare 7011:Double Jeopardy 6922: 6849:List of Framers 6829:New Jersey Plan 6783: 6765: 6761:Victims' Rights 6681:Balanced budget 6667: 6620: 6549: 6521: 6500: 6424: 6373: 6368: 6338: 6329: 6283:Wharton v. Wise 6249: 6231: 6207: 6185: 6030: 6003: 5997:Contract Clause 5982: 5886: 5864: 5808: 5784: 5728: 5727:of Section VIII 5706: 5675:trademark cases 5668: 5574:Kappos v. Hyatt 5374:Parker v. Flook 5166: 5007:copyright cases 5000: 4986:Allen v. Cooper 4930:Golan v. Holder 4787: 4662: 4633: 4603: 4470: 4385: 4332: 4158:Merrell v. Tice 4127: 4089:Holmes v. Hurst 4065:Baker v. Selden 4025:Backus v. Gould 4002: 3924: 3878:Evans v. Jordan 3862: 3817: 3776: 3775:of Section VIII 3754: 3719: 3718:of Section VIII 3697: 3603:EEOC v. Wyoming 3355:Kidd v. Pearson 3331:Passenger Cases 3310: 3200:Maine v. Taylor 2989: 2988:of Section VIII 2986:Commerce Clause 2971: 2875: 2854: 2824: 2806: 2782: 2761: 2729: 2708: 2702:Moore v. Harper 2660: 2639: 2633:Cook v. Gralike 2607: 2586: 2554: 2537: 2528: 2464: 2433: 2431:Further reading 2428: 2412: 2411: 2404: 2402: 2398: 2391: 2389:"Archived copy" 2387: 2386: 2382: 2372: 2370: 2355: 2351: 2341: 2339: 2331: 2330: 2326: 2316: 2314: 2299: 2295: 2286: 2285: 2281: 2271: 2269: 2268:on July 1, 2011 2265: 2254: 2250: 2249: 2245: 2236: 2235: 2231: 2222: 2221: 2217: 2208: 2207: 2203: 2194: 2190: 2180: 2178: 2169: 2168: 2164: 2149: 2145: 2126: 2119: 2114: 2110: 2105: 2101: 2093: 2089: 2081: 2077: 2067: 2065: 2055: 2036: 2031: 2027: 2022: 2018: 2012: 2008: 1995: 1994: 1990: 1978: 1974: 1955: 1954: 1950: 1937: 1936: 1932: 1919: 1918: 1914: 1901: 1900: 1896: 1883: 1882: 1878: 1869: 1865: 1845: 1841: 1834: 1830: 1820: 1816: 1795: 1791: 1781: 1779: 1773: 1769: 1759: 1757: 1748: 1747: 1743: 1726: 1722: 1709: 1708: 1704: 1695: 1694: 1690: 1680: 1678: 1669: 1668: 1664: 1655: 1654: 1650: 1640: 1638: 1630: 1629: 1625: 1598: 1583: 1578: 1574: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1532:Dual federalism 1523: 1468: 1433: 1343: 1338: 1332:of the states. 1289: 1251:Anthony Kennedy 1226: 1175: 1168: 1143: 1126: 1107: 1067:Rehnquist Court 1063: 1058: 1023: 1006:judicial review 953:Tenth Amendment 881: 782:Kidd v. Pearson 748: 742: 711: 705: 626: 550:Fifth Amendment 511:riparian rights 503: 497: 442: 416:laws under the 354:Commerce Clause 346: 152:Judicial branch 78:Judicial review 37: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7919: 7909: 7908: 7903: 7898: 7881: 7880: 7878: 7877: 7872: 7864: 7856: 7851: 7846: 7841: 7836: 7831: 7830: 7829: 7818: 7816: 7810: 7809: 7807: 7806: 7801: 7796: 7788: 7786: 7782: 7781: 7778: 7777: 7775: 7774: 7768: 7766: 7762: 7761: 7759: 7758: 7753: 7747: 7745: 7741: 7740: 7738: 7737: 7732: 7727: 7722: 7716: 7714: 7713:South Carolina 7710: 7709: 7707: 7706: 7701: 7696: 7694:William Blount 7690: 7688: 7687:North Carolina 7684: 7683: 7681: 7680: 7675: 7669: 7667: 7663: 7662: 7660: 7659: 7657:Daniel Carroll 7654: 7649: 7643: 7641: 7637: 7636: 7634: 7633: 7628: 7623: 7621:John Dickinson 7618: 7613: 7607: 7605: 7601: 7600: 7598: 7597: 7592: 7587: 7582: 7577: 7572: 7567: 7565:Thomas Mifflin 7562: 7556: 7554: 7550: 7549: 7547: 7546: 7541: 7536: 7534:David Brearley 7531: 7525: 7523: 7519: 7518: 7516: 7515: 7509: 7507: 7503: 7502: 7500: 7499: 7494: 7488: 7486: 7482: 7481: 7479: 7478: 7473: 7467: 7465: 7461: 7460: 7458: 7457: 7452: 7446: 7444: 7440: 7439: 7437: 7436: 7430: 7428: 7421: 7415: 7414: 7412: 7411: 7406: 7404:Taxation power 7401: 7396: 7391: 7386: 7381: 7376: 7371: 7366: 7361: 7356: 7351: 7349:Implied powers 7346: 7341: 7336: 7331: 7326: 7321: 7316: 7311: 7306: 7300: 7298: 7297:Interpretation 7294: 7293: 7291: 7290: 7285: 7280: 7262: 7257: 7252: 7245: 7240: 7235: 7230: 7225: 7220: 7215: 7210: 7205: 7200: 7195: 7193:Recommendation 7190: 7185: 7180: 7175: 7170: 7165: 7160: 7155: 7150: 7145: 7140: 7135: 7130: 7125: 7120: 7115: 7110: 7105: 7100: 7095: 7090: 7085: 7080: 7078:Fugitive Slave 7075: 7070: 7065: 7060: 7055: 7048: 7046:Excessive Bail 7043: 7038: 7033: 7028: 7023: 7018: 7013: 7008: 7003: 6998: 6993: 6988: 6983: 6978: 6973: 6968: 6963: 6958: 6953: 6948: 6946:Appropriations 6943: 6938: 6932: 6930: 6924: 6923: 6921: 6920: 6915: 6910: 6905: 6900: 6895: 6890: 6885: 6880: 6873: 6872: 6871: 6866: 6861: 6856: 6851: 6846: 6841: 6836: 6831: 6826: 6816: 6811: 6806: 6801: 6795: 6793: 6789: 6788: 6785: 6784: 6782: 6781: 6776: 6770: 6767: 6766: 6764: 6763: 6758: 6756:Single subject 6753: 6748: 6743: 6738: 6733: 6728: 6723: 6718: 6713: 6708: 6703: 6698: 6693: 6688: 6683: 6677: 6675: 6669: 6668: 6666: 6665: 6660: 6655: 6650: 6645: 6640: 6634: 6632: 6626: 6625: 6622: 6621: 6619: 6618: 6613: 6608: 6603: 6598: 6593: 6588: 6583: 6578: 6573: 6568: 6563: 6557: 6555: 6551: 6550: 6548: 6547: 6542: 6537: 6531: 6529: 6527:Reconstruction 6523: 6522: 6520: 6519: 6514: 6508: 6506: 6502: 6501: 6499: 6498: 6493: 6488: 6483: 6478: 6473: 6468: 6463: 6458: 6453: 6447: 6445: 6443:Bill of Rights 6432: 6426: 6425: 6423: 6422: 6417: 6412: 6407: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6387: 6381: 6379: 6375: 6374: 6367: 6366: 6359: 6352: 6344: 6335: 6334: 6331: 6330: 6328: 6327: 6319: 6311: 6303: 6295: 6287: 6279: 6271: 6263: 6254: 6251: 6250: 6246:Compact Clause 6237: 6236: 6233: 6232: 6230: 6229: 6221: 6212: 6209: 6208: 6195: 6194: 6191: 6190: 6187: 6186: 6184: 6183: 6179:Sveen v. Melin 6175: 6167: 6159: 6151: 6143: 6135: 6127: 6119: 6111: 6107:Block v. Hirsh 6103: 6095: 6087: 6079: 6071: 6063: 6055: 6047: 6038: 6036: 6032: 6031: 6029: 6028: 6019: 6017: 6005: 6004: 5988: 5987: 5984: 5983: 5981: 5980: 5972: 5964: 5960:Teague v. Lane 5956: 5948: 5940: 5932: 5924: 5916: 5908: 5900: 5896:Calder v. Bull 5891: 5888: 5887: 5870: 5869: 5866: 5865: 5863: 5862: 5854: 5846: 5838: 5830: 5822: 5813: 5810: 5809: 5790: 5789: 5786: 5785: 5783: 5782: 5774: 5766: 5758: 5750: 5742: 5733: 5730: 5729: 5716: 5715: 5712: 5711: 5708: 5707: 5705: 5704: 5696: 5688: 5679: 5677: 5670: 5669: 5667: 5666: 5658: 5650: 5642: 5634: 5626: 5618: 5610: 5602: 5594: 5590:Gunn v. Minton 5586: 5578: 5570: 5562: 5554: 5546: 5538: 5530: 5522: 5514: 5506: 5498: 5490: 5482: 5474: 5466: 5458: 5450: 5442: 5434: 5426: 5418: 5410: 5402: 5394: 5386: 5378: 5370: 5362: 5354: 5346: 5338: 5330: 5322: 5314: 5306: 5298: 5290: 5282: 5274: 5266: 5258: 5250: 5242: 5234: 5226: 5218: 5210: 5202: 5194: 5186: 5177: 5175: 5168: 5167: 5165: 5164: 5156: 5148: 5140: 5132: 5124: 5116: 5108: 5100: 5092: 5084: 5076: 5068: 5060: 5052: 5044: 5036: 5028: 5020: 5011: 5009: 5002: 5001: 4999: 4998: 4990: 4982: 4974: 4966: 4958: 4950: 4942: 4934: 4926: 4918: 4910: 4902: 4894: 4886: 4878: 4870: 4862: 4854: 4846: 4838: 4830: 4822: 4814: 4806: 4797: 4795: 4789: 4788: 4786: 4785: 4777: 4769: 4761: 4753: 4745: 4737: 4729: 4721: 4713: 4705: 4697: 4689: 4681: 4672: 4670: 4664: 4663: 4661: 4660: 4652: 4643: 4641: 4635: 4634: 4632: 4631: 4623: 4614: 4612: 4605: 4604: 4602: 4601: 4593: 4585: 4577: 4573:Mazer v. Stein 4569: 4561: 4553: 4545: 4537: 4529: 4521: 4513: 4505: 4497: 4489: 4480: 4478: 4472: 4471: 4469: 4468: 4460: 4452: 4444: 4436: 4428: 4420: 4412: 4404: 4395: 4393: 4387: 4386: 4384: 4383: 4375: 4367: 4359: 4351: 4342: 4340: 4334: 4333: 4331: 4330: 4322: 4314: 4306: 4298: 4290: 4282: 4274: 4266: 4258: 4250: 4242: 4234: 4226: 4218: 4210: 4202: 4194: 4186: 4178: 4170: 4162: 4154: 4146: 4137: 4135: 4129: 4128: 4126: 4125: 4117: 4109: 4101: 4093: 4085: 4077: 4069: 4061: 4057:Paige v. Banks 4053: 4049:Little v. Hall 4045: 4037: 4029: 4021: 4012: 4010: 4004: 4003: 4001: 4000: 3996:Voss v. Fisher 3992: 3984: 3976: 3968: 3960: 3952: 3944: 3935: 3933: 3926: 3925: 3923: 3922: 3914: 3906: 3898: 3890: 3882: 3873: 3871: 3864: 3863: 3861: 3860: 3852: 3848:Evans v. Eaton 3844: 3840:Evans v. Eaton 3836: 3827: 3825: 3819: 3818: 3816: 3815: 3807: 3803:Paige v. Banks 3799: 3790: 3788: 3778: 3777: 3764: 3763: 3760: 3759: 3756: 3755: 3753: 3752: 3744: 3735: 3733: 3721: 3720: 3716:Coinage Clause 3707: 3706: 3703: 3702: 3699: 3698: 3696: 3695: 3687: 3679: 3671: 3663: 3655: 3647: 3643:Reno v. Condon 3639: 3631: 3623: 3615: 3607: 3599: 3591: 3583: 3575: 3567: 3559: 3551: 3543: 3535: 3527: 3519: 3511: 3503: 3495: 3487: 3479: 3471: 3463: 3455: 3447: 3439: 3431: 3423: 3415: 3407: 3399: 3391: 3383: 3375: 3367: 3359: 3351: 3343: 3335: 3327: 3318: 3316: 3312: 3311: 3309: 3308: 3300: 3292: 3284: 3276: 3268: 3260: 3252: 3244: 3236: 3228: 3220: 3212: 3204: 3196: 3188: 3180: 3172: 3164: 3156: 3148: 3140: 3132: 3124: 3116: 3108: 3100: 3092: 3084: 3076: 3068: 3060: 3052: 3044: 3036: 3028: 3020: 3012: 3003: 3001: 2991: 2990: 2977: 2976: 2973: 2972: 2970: 2969: 2961: 2953: 2945: 2937: 2929: 2921: 2913: 2905: 2897: 2889: 2880: 2877: 2876: 2860: 2859: 2856: 2855: 2853: 2852: 2844: 2836: 2829: 2826: 2825: 2823:of Section VII 2812: 2811: 2808: 2807: 2805: 2804: 2796: 2787: 2784: 2783: 2767: 2766: 2763: 2762: 2760: 2759: 2751: 2743: 2734: 2731: 2730: 2714: 2713: 2710: 2709: 2707: 2706: 2698: 2690: 2682: 2678:Smiley v. Holm 2674: 2665: 2662: 2661: 2645: 2644: 2641: 2640: 2638: 2637: 2629: 2621: 2612: 2609: 2608: 2592: 2591: 2588: 2587: 2585: 2584: 2576: 2568: 2559: 2556: 2555: 2539: 2538: 2527: 2526: 2519: 2512: 2504: 2498: 2497: 2491: 2471: 2463: 2462:External links 2460: 2459: 2458: 2451: 2432: 2429: 2427: 2426: 2380: 2349: 2324: 2293: 2279: 2243: 2229: 2215: 2201: 2188: 2162: 2143: 2117: 2108: 2099: 2087: 2075: 2034: 2025: 2016: 2006: 1988: 1972: 1948: 1930: 1912: 1894: 1876: 1863: 1839: 1828: 1814: 1789: 1767: 1741: 1738:: 849, 861–62. 1720: 1702: 1688: 1662: 1648: 1623: 1581: 1572: 1562: 1560: 1557: 1556: 1555: 1549: 1544: 1539: 1534: 1529: 1522: 1519: 1514:Ken Cuccinelli 1467: 1464: 1432: 1429: 1414:Similarly, in 1367:rational basis 1352:Laurence Tribe 1347:rational basis 1342: 1339: 1337: 1334: 1288: 1287:Indian affairs 1285: 1247:Antonin Scalia 1230:New Federalism 1225: 1219: 1174: 1169: 1167: 1164: 1142: 1139: 1125: 1122: 1121: 1120: 1117: 1114: 1106: 1099: 1062: 1059: 1057: 1052: 1048:Daniel v. Paul 1022: 1019: 880: 877: 744:Main article: 741: 738: 707:Main article: 704: 701: 691: 690: 687: 684: 657:New York State 628:Chief Justice 625: 622: 602:Samuel Johnson 582:Robert H. Bork 499:Main article: 496: 493: 441: 438: 389:Marshall Court 360:listed in the 348: 347: 345: 344: 337: 330: 322: 319: 318: 317: 316: 311: 306: 301: 296: 291: 286: 281: 276: 268: 267: 263: 262: 261: 260: 255: 250: 245: 240: 235: 230: 225: 220: 215: 210: 205: 200: 195: 190: 185: 180: 172: 171: 167: 166: 165: 164: 159: 154: 148: 147: 142: 134: 133: 129: 128: 127: 126: 121: 116: 111: 106: 101: 96: 88: 87: 83: 82: 81: 80: 75: 69: 68: 63: 55: 54: 50: 49: 41: 40: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7918: 7907: 7904: 7902: 7899: 7897: 7894: 7893: 7891: 7876: 7873: 7870: 7869: 7865: 7862: 7861: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7832: 7828: 7825: 7824: 7823: 7820: 7819: 7817: 7811: 7805: 7802: 7800: 7799:Jacob Shallus 7797: 7795: 7794: 7790: 7789: 7787: 7783: 7773: 7770: 7769: 7767: 7763: 7757: 7754: 7752: 7749: 7748: 7746: 7742: 7736: 7735:Pierce Butler 7733: 7731: 7728: 7726: 7723: 7721: 7720:John Rutledge 7718: 7717: 7715: 7711: 7705: 7702: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7691: 7689: 7685: 7679: 7678:James Madison 7676: 7674: 7671: 7670: 7668: 7664: 7658: 7655: 7653: 7650: 7648: 7647:James McHenry 7645: 7644: 7642: 7638: 7632: 7629: 7627: 7624: 7622: 7619: 7617: 7614: 7612: 7609: 7608: 7606: 7602: 7596: 7593: 7591: 7588: 7586: 7583: 7581: 7578: 7576: 7575:George Clymer 7573: 7571: 7570:Robert Morris 7568: 7566: 7563: 7561: 7558: 7557: 7555: 7551: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7535: 7532: 7530: 7527: 7526: 7524: 7520: 7514: 7511: 7510: 7508: 7504: 7498: 7497:Roger Sherman 7495: 7493: 7490: 7489: 7487: 7483: 7477: 7474: 7472: 7469: 7468: 7466: 7464:Massachusetts 7462: 7456: 7453: 7451: 7448: 7447: 7445: 7443:New Hampshire 7441: 7435: 7432: 7431: 7429: 7425: 7422: 7420: 7416: 7410: 7407: 7405: 7402: 7400: 7397: 7395: 7392: 7390: 7387: 7385: 7382: 7380: 7377: 7375: 7372: 7370: 7369:Plenary power 7367: 7365: 7362: 7360: 7357: 7355: 7352: 7350: 7347: 7345: 7342: 7340: 7339:Equal footing 7337: 7335: 7332: 7330: 7327: 7325: 7322: 7320: 7317: 7315: 7312: 7310: 7307: 7305: 7302: 7301: 7299: 7295: 7289: 7286: 7284: 7281: 7278: 7274: 7270: 7266: 7263: 7261: 7260:Trial by Jury 7258: 7256: 7253: 7250: 7246: 7244: 7241: 7239: 7236: 7234: 7231: 7229: 7226: 7224: 7221: 7219: 7216: 7214: 7211: 7209: 7206: 7204: 7201: 7199: 7196: 7194: 7191: 7189: 7186: 7184: 7181: 7179: 7176: 7174: 7171: 7169: 7166: 7164: 7161: 7159: 7156: 7154: 7151: 7149: 7146: 7144: 7141: 7139: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7116: 7114: 7113:Ineligibility 7111: 7109: 7108:Import-Export 7106: 7104: 7101: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7074: 7071: 7069: 7066: 7064: 7063:Free Exercise 7061: 7059: 7056: 7054: 7053: 7052:Ex Post Facto 7049: 7047: 7044: 7042: 7039: 7037: 7036:Establishment 7034: 7032: 7029: 7027: 7024: 7022: 7019: 7017: 7014: 7012: 7009: 7007: 7004: 7002: 6999: 6997: 6994: 6992: 6989: 6987: 6986:Confrontation 6984: 6982: 6979: 6977: 6974: 6972: 6969: 6967: 6964: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6933: 6931: 6929: 6925: 6919: 6916: 6914: 6911: 6909: 6906: 6904: 6901: 6899: 6896: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6886: 6884: 6881: 6879: 6878: 6874: 6870: 6869:Syng inkstand 6867: 6865: 6862: 6860: 6857: 6855: 6852: 6850: 6847: 6845: 6842: 6840: 6837: 6835: 6832: 6830: 6827: 6825: 6824:Virginia Plan 6822: 6821: 6820: 6817: 6815: 6812: 6810: 6807: 6805: 6802: 6800: 6797: 6796: 6794: 6790: 6780: 6777: 6775: 6772: 6771: 6768: 6762: 6759: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6751:School Prayer 6749: 6747: 6744: 6742: 6739: 6737: 6734: 6732: 6729: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6719: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6697: 6694: 6692: 6689: 6687: 6684: 6682: 6679: 6678: 6676: 6674: 6670: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6656: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6635: 6633: 6631: 6627: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6597: 6594: 6592: 6589: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6579: 6577: 6574: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6564: 6562: 6559: 6558: 6556: 6552: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6538: 6536: 6533: 6532: 6530: 6528: 6524: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6510: 6509: 6507: 6503: 6497: 6494: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6459: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6448: 6446: 6444: 6440: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6427: 6421: 6418: 6416: 6413: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6383: 6382: 6380: 6376: 6372: 6365: 6360: 6358: 6353: 6351: 6346: 6345: 6342: 6325: 6324: 6320: 6317: 6316: 6312: 6309: 6308: 6304: 6301: 6300: 6296: 6293: 6292: 6288: 6285: 6284: 6280: 6277: 6276: 6272: 6269: 6268: 6264: 6261: 6260: 6256: 6255: 6252: 6247: 6242: 6238: 6227: 6226: 6222: 6219: 6218: 6214: 6213: 6210: 6205: 6200: 6196: 6181: 6180: 6176: 6173: 6172: 6168: 6165: 6164: 6160: 6157: 6156: 6152: 6149: 6148: 6144: 6141: 6140: 6136: 6133: 6132: 6128: 6125: 6124: 6120: 6117: 6116: 6112: 6109: 6108: 6104: 6101: 6100: 6099:Smyth v. Ames 6096: 6093: 6092: 6088: 6085: 6084: 6080: 6077: 6076: 6072: 6069: 6068: 6064: 6061: 6060: 6056: 6053: 6052: 6048: 6045: 6044: 6040: 6039: 6037: 6033: 6026: 6025: 6021: 6020: 6018: 6016: 6015: 6010: 6006: 6002: 5998: 5993: 5989: 5978: 5977: 5973: 5970: 5969: 5965: 5962: 5961: 5957: 5954: 5953: 5949: 5946: 5945: 5941: 5938: 5937: 5933: 5930: 5929: 5925: 5922: 5921: 5917: 5914: 5913: 5909: 5906: 5905: 5901: 5898: 5897: 5893: 5892: 5889: 5885:of Section IX 5884: 5882: 5881:Ex post facto 5875: 5871: 5860: 5859: 5855: 5852: 5851: 5847: 5844: 5843: 5839: 5836: 5835: 5834:Ex parte Endo 5831: 5828: 5827: 5823: 5820: 5819: 5815: 5814: 5811: 5807: 5803: 5801: 5800:Habeas corpus 5795: 5791: 5780: 5779: 5775: 5772: 5771: 5767: 5764: 5763: 5759: 5756: 5755: 5751: 5748: 5747: 5743: 5740: 5739: 5735: 5734: 5731: 5726: 5721: 5717: 5702: 5701: 5697: 5694: 5693: 5689: 5686: 5685: 5681: 5680: 5678: 5676: 5671: 5664: 5663: 5659: 5656: 5655: 5651: 5648: 5647: 5643: 5640: 5639: 5635: 5632: 5631: 5627: 5624: 5623: 5619: 5616: 5615: 5611: 5608: 5607: 5603: 5600: 5599: 5595: 5592: 5591: 5587: 5584: 5583: 5579: 5576: 5575: 5571: 5568: 5567: 5563: 5560: 5559: 5555: 5552: 5551: 5547: 5544: 5543: 5539: 5536: 5535: 5531: 5528: 5527: 5523: 5520: 5519: 5515: 5512: 5511: 5507: 5504: 5503: 5499: 5496: 5495: 5491: 5488: 5487: 5483: 5480: 5479: 5475: 5472: 5471: 5467: 5464: 5463: 5459: 5456: 5455: 5451: 5448: 5447: 5443: 5440: 5439: 5435: 5432: 5431: 5427: 5424: 5423: 5419: 5416: 5415: 5411: 5408: 5407: 5403: 5400: 5399: 5395: 5392: 5391: 5387: 5384: 5383: 5379: 5376: 5375: 5371: 5368: 5367: 5363: 5360: 5359: 5355: 5352: 5351: 5347: 5344: 5343: 5339: 5336: 5335: 5331: 5328: 5327: 5323: 5320: 5319: 5315: 5312: 5311: 5307: 5304: 5303: 5299: 5296: 5295: 5291: 5288: 5287: 5283: 5280: 5279: 5275: 5272: 5271: 5267: 5264: 5263: 5259: 5256: 5255: 5251: 5248: 5247: 5243: 5240: 5239: 5235: 5232: 5231: 5227: 5224: 5223: 5219: 5216: 5215: 5211: 5208: 5207: 5203: 5200: 5199: 5195: 5192: 5191: 5187: 5184: 5183: 5179: 5178: 5176: 5174: 5169: 5162: 5161: 5157: 5154: 5153: 5149: 5146: 5145: 5141: 5138: 5137: 5133: 5130: 5129: 5125: 5122: 5121: 5117: 5114: 5113: 5109: 5106: 5105: 5101: 5098: 5097: 5096:Gibbs v. Buck 5093: 5090: 5089: 5085: 5082: 5081: 5077: 5074: 5073: 5069: 5066: 5065: 5061: 5058: 5057: 5053: 5050: 5049: 5045: 5042: 5041: 5037: 5034: 5033: 5029: 5026: 5025: 5021: 5018: 5017: 5013: 5012: 5010: 5008: 5003: 4996: 4995: 4991: 4988: 4987: 4983: 4980: 4979: 4975: 4972: 4971: 4967: 4964: 4963: 4959: 4956: 4955: 4951: 4948: 4947: 4943: 4940: 4939: 4935: 4932: 4931: 4927: 4924: 4923: 4919: 4916: 4915: 4911: 4908: 4907: 4903: 4900: 4899: 4895: 4892: 4891: 4887: 4884: 4883: 4879: 4876: 4875: 4871: 4868: 4867: 4863: 4860: 4859: 4855: 4852: 4851: 4847: 4844: 4843: 4839: 4836: 4835: 4831: 4828: 4827: 4823: 4820: 4819: 4815: 4812: 4811: 4807: 4804: 4803: 4799: 4798: 4796: 4794: 4790: 4783: 4782: 4778: 4775: 4774: 4770: 4767: 4766: 4762: 4759: 4758: 4754: 4751: 4750: 4746: 4743: 4742: 4738: 4735: 4734: 4730: 4727: 4726: 4722: 4719: 4718: 4714: 4711: 4710: 4706: 4703: 4702: 4698: 4695: 4694: 4690: 4687: 4686: 4682: 4679: 4678: 4674: 4673: 4671: 4669: 4665: 4658: 4657: 4653: 4650: 4649: 4645: 4644: 4642: 4640: 4636: 4629: 4628: 4624: 4621: 4620: 4616: 4615: 4613: 4610: 4609:Patent misuse 4606: 4599: 4598: 4594: 4591: 4590: 4586: 4583: 4582: 4578: 4575: 4574: 4570: 4567: 4566: 4562: 4559: 4558: 4554: 4551: 4550: 4546: 4543: 4542: 4538: 4535: 4534: 4530: 4527: 4526: 4522: 4519: 4518: 4514: 4511: 4510: 4506: 4503: 4502: 4498: 4495: 4494: 4490: 4487: 4486: 4482: 4481: 4479: 4477: 4473: 4466: 4465: 4461: 4458: 4457: 4453: 4450: 4449: 4445: 4442: 4441: 4437: 4434: 4433: 4429: 4426: 4425: 4421: 4418: 4417: 4413: 4410: 4409: 4405: 4402: 4401: 4397: 4396: 4394: 4392: 4388: 4381: 4380: 4376: 4373: 4372: 4368: 4365: 4364: 4360: 4357: 4356: 4352: 4349: 4348: 4344: 4343: 4341: 4339: 4335: 4328: 4327: 4323: 4320: 4319: 4315: 4312: 4311: 4307: 4304: 4303: 4299: 4296: 4295: 4291: 4288: 4287: 4283: 4280: 4279: 4275: 4272: 4271: 4267: 4264: 4263: 4259: 4256: 4255: 4251: 4248: 4247: 4243: 4240: 4239: 4235: 4232: 4231: 4230:Brady v. Daly 4227: 4224: 4223: 4219: 4216: 4215: 4211: 4208: 4207: 4203: 4200: 4199: 4195: 4192: 4191: 4187: 4184: 4183: 4179: 4176: 4175: 4171: 4168: 4167: 4163: 4160: 4159: 4155: 4152: 4151: 4147: 4144: 4143: 4139: 4138: 4136: 4134: 4130: 4123: 4122: 4118: 4115: 4114: 4110: 4107: 4106: 4102: 4099: 4098: 4097:Brady v. Daly 4094: 4091: 4090: 4086: 4083: 4082: 4078: 4075: 4074: 4070: 4067: 4066: 4062: 4059: 4058: 4054: 4051: 4050: 4046: 4043: 4042: 4038: 4035: 4034: 4030: 4027: 4026: 4022: 4019: 4018: 4014: 4013: 4011: 4009: 4005: 3998: 3997: 3993: 3990: 3989: 3985: 3982: 3981: 3977: 3974: 3973: 3969: 3966: 3965: 3961: 3958: 3957: 3953: 3950: 3949: 3945: 3942: 3941: 3937: 3936: 3934: 3931: 3930:Patentability 3927: 3920: 3919: 3915: 3912: 3911: 3907: 3904: 3903: 3899: 3896: 3895: 3891: 3888: 3887: 3883: 3880: 3879: 3875: 3874: 3872: 3869: 3865: 3858: 3857: 3853: 3850: 3849: 3845: 3842: 3841: 3837: 3834: 3833: 3832:Tyler v. Tuel 3829: 3828: 3826: 3824: 3820: 3813: 3812: 3808: 3805: 3804: 3800: 3797: 3796: 3792: 3791: 3789: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3774: 3769: 3765: 3750: 3749: 3745: 3742: 3741: 3737: 3736: 3734: 3732: 3731: 3726: 3722: 3717: 3712: 3708: 3693: 3692: 3688: 3685: 3684: 3680: 3677: 3676: 3672: 3669: 3668: 3664: 3661: 3660: 3656: 3653: 3652: 3648: 3645: 3644: 3640: 3637: 3636: 3632: 3629: 3628: 3624: 3621: 3620: 3616: 3613: 3612: 3608: 3605: 3604: 3600: 3597: 3596: 3592: 3589: 3588: 3584: 3581: 3580: 3576: 3573: 3572: 3568: 3565: 3564: 3560: 3557: 3556: 3552: 3549: 3548: 3544: 3541: 3540: 3536: 3533: 3532: 3528: 3525: 3524: 3520: 3517: 3516: 3512: 3509: 3508: 3504: 3501: 3500: 3496: 3493: 3492: 3488: 3485: 3484: 3480: 3477: 3476: 3472: 3469: 3468: 3464: 3461: 3460: 3456: 3453: 3452: 3448: 3445: 3444: 3440: 3437: 3436: 3432: 3429: 3428: 3424: 3421: 3420: 3416: 3413: 3412: 3408: 3405: 3404: 3400: 3397: 3396: 3392: 3389: 3388: 3384: 3381: 3380: 3376: 3373: 3372: 3368: 3365: 3364: 3360: 3357: 3356: 3352: 3349: 3348: 3344: 3341: 3340: 3336: 3333: 3332: 3328: 3325: 3324: 3320: 3319: 3317: 3313: 3306: 3305: 3301: 3298: 3297: 3293: 3290: 3289: 3285: 3282: 3281: 3277: 3274: 3273: 3269: 3266: 3265: 3261: 3258: 3257: 3253: 3250: 3249: 3245: 3242: 3241: 3237: 3234: 3233: 3229: 3226: 3225: 3221: 3218: 3217: 3213: 3210: 3209: 3205: 3202: 3201: 3197: 3194: 3193: 3189: 3186: 3185: 3181: 3178: 3177: 3173: 3170: 3169: 3165: 3162: 3161: 3157: 3154: 3153: 3149: 3146: 3145: 3141: 3138: 3137: 3133: 3130: 3129: 3125: 3122: 3121: 3117: 3114: 3113: 3109: 3106: 3105: 3101: 3098: 3097: 3093: 3090: 3089: 3085: 3082: 3081: 3077: 3074: 3073: 3069: 3066: 3065: 3061: 3058: 3057: 3053: 3050: 3049: 3045: 3042: 3041: 3037: 3034: 3033: 3029: 3026: 3025: 3021: 3018: 3017: 3013: 3010: 3009: 3005: 3004: 3002: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2987: 2982: 2978: 2967: 2966: 2962: 2959: 2958: 2954: 2951: 2950: 2946: 2943: 2942: 2938: 2935: 2934: 2930: 2927: 2926: 2922: 2919: 2918: 2914: 2911: 2910: 2906: 2903: 2902: 2898: 2895: 2894: 2890: 2887: 2886: 2882: 2881: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2865: 2861: 2850: 2849: 2845: 2842: 2841: 2837: 2834: 2831: 2830: 2827: 2822: 2817: 2813: 2802: 2801: 2797: 2794: 2793: 2789: 2788: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2772: 2768: 2757: 2756: 2752: 2749: 2748: 2744: 2741: 2740: 2736: 2735: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2719: 2715: 2704: 2703: 2699: 2696: 2695: 2691: 2688: 2687: 2683: 2680: 2679: 2675: 2672: 2671: 2667: 2666: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2650: 2646: 2635: 2634: 2630: 2627: 2626: 2622: 2619: 2618: 2614: 2613: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2597: 2593: 2582: 2581: 2577: 2574: 2573: 2569: 2566: 2565: 2564:Utah v. Evans 2561: 2560: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2544: 2540: 2535: 2532: 2525: 2520: 2518: 2513: 2511: 2506: 2505: 2502: 2496:Madison, P.A. 2495: 2492: 2488: 2487: 2481: 2476: 2472: 2469: 2466: 2465: 2456: 2452: 2449: 2445: 2444: 2439: 2435: 2434: 2422: 2416: 2397: 2390: 2384: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2353: 2338: 2334: 2328: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2297: 2289: 2283: 2264: 2260: 2253: 2247: 2239: 2233: 2225: 2219: 2211: 2205: 2198: 2192: 2176: 2172: 2166: 2158: 2154: 2147: 2140:(3): 589–598. 2139: 2135: 2131: 2124: 2122: 2112: 2103: 2096: 2091: 2084: 2079: 2064: 2060: 2053: 2051: 2049: 2047: 2045: 2043: 2041: 2039: 2029: 2020: 2014:491 (1917))). 2010: 2002: 1998: 1992: 1986: 1985:0-19-511131-1 1982: 1976: 1968: 1964: 1963: 1958: 1952: 1944: 1940: 1934: 1926: 1922: 1916: 1908: 1904: 1898: 1890: 1886: 1880: 1873: 1867: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1843: 1837: 1832: 1826: 1824: 1818: 1810: 1806: 1805: 1800: 1793: 1778: 1771: 1755: 1751: 1745: 1737: 1733: 1732: 1724: 1716: 1712: 1706: 1698: 1692: 1676: 1672: 1666: 1658: 1652: 1637: 1633: 1627: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1596: 1594: 1592: 1590: 1588: 1586: 1576: 1567: 1563: 1553: 1550: 1548: 1545: 1543: 1540: 1538: 1535: 1533: 1530: 1528: 1525: 1524: 1518: 1515: 1509: 1507: 1500: 1498: 1494: 1493: 1487: 1484: 1479: 1477: 1473: 1462: 1457: 1455: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1443: 1438: 1427: 1422: 1419: 1418: 1411: 1406: 1402: 1400: 1399: 1394: 1393: 1388: 1387: 1382: 1381: 1374: 1372: 1368: 1363: 1362: 1355: 1353: 1348: 1333: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1307: 1301: 1298: 1294: 1283: 1278: 1276: 1271: 1266: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1243: 1237: 1235: 1231: 1224: 1218: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1184: 1179: 1173: 1162: 1158: 1155: 1152: 1148: 1138: 1134: 1132: 1118: 1115: 1112: 1111: 1110: 1104: 1097: 1092: 1089: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1077: 1072: 1068: 1056: 1051: 1049: 1045: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1033: 1028: 1018: 1016: 1015: 1009: 1007: 1003: 999: 993: 991: 986: 982: 978: 977: 970: 965: 963: 962: 956: 954: 950: 946: 945: 939: 937: 933: 932: 927: 923: 918: 915: 911: 907: 906: 901: 897: 893: 888: 887: 875: 870: 868: 867: 866:Flood v. Kuhn 862: 861: 856: 855: 849: 847: 846: 841: 837: 833: 829: 826: 822: 818: 817: 812: 809: 805: 801: 800: 795: 792: 788: 784: 783: 778: 774: 768: 766: 763: 759: 755: 754: 747: 736: 731: 729: 726: 722: 718: 717: 710: 700: 698: 697: 688: 685: 682: 681: 680: 676: 672: 670: 666: 662: 661:Robert Fulton 658: 654: 648: 643: 641: 637: 636: 631: 630:John Marshall 621: 619: 618: 612: 609: 608: 603: 598: 596: 595:James Madison 592: 588: 583: 577: 575: 571: 567: 563: 559: 555: 551: 547: 543: 537: 535: 531: 528: 524: 520: 516: 512: 508: 502: 492: 490: 483: 481: 477: 470: 469: (2005): 468: 465: 461: 457: 456: 449: 445: 437: 435: 434: 429: 425: 424: 419: 415: 410: 408: 407: 402: 398: 396: 390: 385: 383: 378: 375: 371: 367: 363: 359: 356:describes an 355: 343: 338: 336: 331: 329: 324: 323: 321: 320: 315: 312: 310: 307: 305: 302: 300: 297: 295: 292: 290: 287: 285: 282: 280: 277: 275: 272: 271: 270: 269: 265: 264: 259: 256: 254: 251: 249: 248:Voting rights 246: 244: 241: 239: 236: 234: 231: 229: 226: 224: 221: 219: 216: 214: 211: 209: 206: 204: 201: 199: 196: 194: 191: 189: 186: 184: 181: 179: 176: 175: 174: 173: 169: 168: 163: 160: 158: 155: 153: 150: 149: 146: 143: 141: 138: 137: 136: 135: 131: 130: 125: 122: 120: 119:Equal footing 117: 115: 114:Republicanism 112: 110: 107: 105: 102: 100: 97: 95: 92: 91: 90: 89: 85: 84: 79: 76: 74: 71: 70: 67: 64: 62: 59: 58: 57: 56: 52: 51: 47: 43: 42: 39: 34: 33: 30: 19: 7866: 7858: 7791: 7590:James Wilson 7553:Pennsylvania 7450:John Langdon 7208:Speedy Trial 7050: 6970: 6941:Appointments 6875: 6658:Equal Rights 6554:20th century 6321: 6313: 6305: 6297: 6289: 6281: 6273: 6265: 6257: 6248:of Section X 6223: 6215: 6206:of Section X 6177: 6169: 6161: 6153: 6145: 6137: 6129: 6121: 6113: 6105: 6097: 6089: 6081: 6073: 6065: 6057: 6049: 6041: 6022: 6012: 5976:Smith v. Doe 5974: 5966: 5958: 5950: 5942: 5934: 5926: 5918: 5910: 5902: 5894: 5880: 5856: 5848: 5840: 5832: 5824: 5816: 5799: 5776: 5768: 5760: 5752: 5744: 5736: 5698: 5690: 5682: 5660: 5652: 5644: 5636: 5628: 5620: 5612: 5604: 5596: 5588: 5580: 5572: 5564: 5556: 5548: 5540: 5532: 5524: 5516: 5508: 5500: 5492: 5484: 5476: 5468: 5460: 5452: 5444: 5436: 5428: 5420: 5412: 5404: 5396: 5388: 5380: 5372: 5364: 5356: 5348: 5340: 5332: 5324: 5316: 5308: 5300: 5292: 5284: 5276: 5268: 5260: 5252: 5244: 5236: 5228: 5220: 5212: 5204: 5196: 5188: 5180: 5173:patent cases 5158: 5150: 5142: 5134: 5126: 5118: 5110: 5102: 5094: 5086: 5078: 5070: 5062: 5054: 5046: 5038: 5030: 5022: 5014: 4992: 4984: 4976: 4968: 4960: 4952: 4944: 4936: 4928: 4920: 4912: 4904: 4896: 4888: 4880: 4872: 4864: 4856: 4848: 4840: 4832: 4824: 4816: 4808: 4800: 4779: 4771: 4765:Matal v. Tam 4763: 4755: 4747: 4739: 4731: 4723: 4715: 4707: 4699: 4691: 4683: 4675: 4654: 4646: 4625: 4617: 4595: 4587: 4579: 4571: 4563: 4555: 4547: 4539: 4531: 4523: 4515: 4507: 4499: 4491: 4483: 4462: 4454: 4446: 4438: 4430: 4422: 4414: 4406: 4398: 4377: 4369: 4361: 4353: 4345: 4324: 4316: 4308: 4300: 4292: 4284: 4276: 4268: 4260: 4252: 4244: 4236: 4228: 4220: 4212: 4204: 4196: 4188: 4180: 4172: 4164: 4156: 4148: 4140: 4119: 4111: 4103: 4095: 4087: 4079: 4071: 4063: 4055: 4047: 4039: 4031: 4023: 4015: 3994: 3986: 3978: 3970: 3962: 3954: 3946: 3938: 3916: 3908: 3900: 3892: 3884: 3876: 3854: 3846: 3838: 3830: 3809: 3801: 3793: 3746: 3738: 3728: 3689: 3681: 3673: 3665: 3657: 3649: 3641: 3633: 3625: 3617: 3609: 3601: 3593: 3585: 3577: 3569: 3561: 3553: 3545: 3537: 3529: 3521: 3513: 3505: 3497: 3489: 3481: 3473: 3465: 3457: 3449: 3441: 3433: 3425: 3417: 3409: 3401: 3393: 3385: 3377: 3369: 3361: 3353: 3345: 3337: 3329: 3321: 3302: 3294: 3286: 3278: 3270: 3262: 3254: 3246: 3238: 3230: 3222: 3214: 3206: 3198: 3190: 3182: 3174: 3166: 3158: 3150: 3142: 3134: 3126: 3118: 3110: 3102: 3094: 3086: 3078: 3070: 3062: 3054: 3046: 3038: 3030: 3022: 3014: 3006: 2985: 2963: 2955: 2947: 2939: 2931: 2923: 2915: 2907: 2899: 2891: 2883: 2873:Section VIII 2846: 2838: 2798: 2790: 2753: 2745: 2737: 2700: 2692: 2684: 2676: 2668: 2631: 2623: 2615: 2578: 2570: 2562: 2484: 2454: 2441: 2403:. Retrieved 2383: 2371:. Retrieved 2362: 2352: 2340:. Retrieved 2336: 2327: 2315:. Retrieved 2306: 2296: 2282: 2270:. Retrieved 2263:the original 2258: 2246: 2232: 2218: 2204: 2196: 2191: 2181:September 6, 2179:. Retrieved 2165: 2156: 2146: 2137: 2133: 2115:Id. at 1751. 2111: 2102: 2094: 2090: 2082: 2078: 2068:February 10, 2066:. Retrieved 2062: 2028: 2019: 2009: 2000: 1991: 1975: 1960: 1951: 1933: 1915: 1897: 1879: 1871: 1866: 1842: 1831: 1822: 1817: 1808: 1802: 1792: 1780:. Retrieved 1770: 1760:September 6, 1758:. Retrieved 1744: 1735: 1729: 1723: 1715:the original 1705: 1691: 1679:. Retrieved 1675:the original 1665: 1651: 1639:. Retrieved 1635: 1626: 1609: 1605: 1575: 1566: 1511: 1505: 1502: 1496: 1490: 1488: 1480: 1475: 1469: 1459: 1440: 1436: 1434: 1424: 1415: 1413: 1408: 1403: 1396: 1390: 1384: 1378: 1376: 1370: 1359: 1357: 1344: 1304: 1302: 1296: 1292: 1290: 1280: 1274: 1267: 1258: 1254: 1240: 1238: 1227: 1222: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1198: 1181: 1177: 1176: 1171: 1160: 1156: 1150: 1146: 1144: 1135: 1130: 1127: 1108: 1102: 1094: 1090: 1081: 1074: 1064: 1054: 1047: 1030: 1024: 1021:Civil rights 1012: 1010: 1001: 997: 994: 989: 984: 974: 972: 967: 959: 957: 942: 940: 929: 926:Owen Roberts 919: 903: 884: 882: 872: 864: 858: 852: 850: 843: 814: 797: 780: 772: 769: 751: 749: 733: 714: 712: 695: 692: 677: 673: 652: 650: 645: 633: 627: 615: 613: 605: 599: 579: 573: 569: 565: 561: 557: 553: 545: 539: 533: 518: 504: 485: 472: 453: 451: 447: 443: 431: 421: 411: 404: 394: 386: 379: 353: 351: 29: 7751:William Few 7631:Jacob Broom 7611:George Read 7485:Connecticut 7419:Signatories 7269:Legislative 7243:Territorial 7163:Presentment 7148:Origination 7103:Impeachment 7058:Extradition 7026:Engagements 7016:Due Process 6966:Citizenship 6653:Child Labor 5883:Laws Clause 3740:Knox v. Lee 2780:Section VII 1861: (1825) 1825:(22 U.S. 1) 936:Lochner era 924:," Justice 863:(1953) and 387:During the 299:Purposivism 279:Originalism 243:Citizenship 233:Due process 104:Rule of law 7890:Categories 7863:(painting) 7815:and legacy 7673:John Blair 7522:New Jersey 7476:Rufus King 7374:Preemption 7288:War Powers 7223:Suspension 7041:Exceptions 6731:Human Life 6630:Unratified 6430:Amendments 5806:Section IX 4668:Lanham Act 3363:In re Debs 2727:Section VI 2658:Section IV 2552:Section II 2001:Justia Law 1559:References 1369:. (Citing 1293:Worcester' 985:Wrightwood 665:New Jersey 515:common law 513:under the 304:Textualism 109:Federalism 86:Principles 66:Amendments 7384:Saxbe fix 7273:Executive 7228:Take Care 7218:Supremacy 7093:Guarantee 7021:Elections 6792:Formation 6505:1795–1804 6001:Section X 2534:Article I 2307:upenn.edu 1618:2325-7318 1297:Worcester 1263:marijuana 1199:Morrison, 874:commerce. 777:Article I 632:ruled in 7666:Virginia 7640:Maryland 7604:Delaware 7506:New York 7283:Vicinage 7277:Judicial 7001:Contract 6971:Commerce 6859:Printing 6673:Proposed 6385:Preamble 6378:Articles 4611:case law 3932:case law 3870:case law 2536:case law 2477:(1911). 2415:cite web 2405:June 27, 2396:Archived 2373:June 28, 2367:Archived 2311:Archived 2272:June 24, 2175:Archived 1967:Archived 1943:Archived 1925:Archived 1907:Archived 1889:Archived 1754:Archived 1681:March 7, 1636:Oyez.org 1521:See also 1373:(1964).) 1354:stated: 1326:abrogate 1275:Gonzales 1259:Morrison 1215:Morrison 900:New Deal 879:New Deal 589:and the 482:in 1890. 428:New Deal 409:(1995). 374:Commerce 61:Articles 53:Overview 7813:Display 7785:Related 7744:Georgia 7265:Vesting 7233:Takings 7118:Militia 6976:Compact 6928:Clauses 6854:Signing 6799:History 2470:FindLaw 1641:May 10, 1437:Gibbons 998:Parrish 990:Gibbons 836:Chicago 653:Gibbons 611:today. 395:Lochner 73:History 7871:(film) 7255:Treaty 7158:Postal 7153:Pardon 6326:(2018) 6318:(2009) 6310:(2003) 6302:(1998) 6294:(1985) 6286:(1894) 6278:(1893) 6270:(1871) 6262:(1855) 6228:(1951) 6220:(1827) 6182:(2018) 6174:(1987) 6166:(1983) 6158:(1983) 6150:(1978) 6142:(1977) 6134:(1965) 6126:(1935) 6118:(1934) 6110:(1921) 6102:(1898) 6094:(1880) 6086:(1843) 6078:(1837) 6070:(1827) 6062:(1819) 6054:(1819) 6046:(1810) 6035:Others 6027:(1870) 5979:(2003) 5971:(1997) 5963:(1989) 5955:(1964) 5947:(1960) 5939:(1951) 5931:(1925) 5923:(1898) 5915:(1866) 5907:(1819) 5899:(1798) 5861:(2020) 5853:(2008) 5845:(2001) 5837:(1944) 5829:(1861) 5821:(1807) 5781:(2013) 5773:(2010) 5765:(2005) 5757:(2004) 5749:(1926) 5741:(1819) 5703:(2020) 5695:(1938) 5687:(1915) 5673:Other 5665:(2019) 5657:(2017) 5649:(2016) 5641:(2015) 5633:(2015) 5625:(2014) 5617:(2014) 5609:(2013) 5601:(2013) 5593:(2013) 5585:(2013) 5577:(2012) 5569:(2012) 5561:(2011) 5553:(2011) 5545:(2011) 5537:(2010) 5529:(2008) 5521:(2007) 5513:(2007) 5505:(2007) 5497:(2006) 5489:(2006) 5481:(2006) 5473:(2005) 5465:(2002) 5457:(2001) 5449:(1999) 5441:(1999) 5433:(1998) 5425:(1997) 5417:(1996) 5409:(1990) 5401:(1989) 5393:(1981) 5385:(1980) 5377:(1978) 5369:(1976) 5361:(1976) 5353:(1973) 5345:(1972) 5337:(1971) 5329:(1969) 5321:(1969) 5313:(1966) 5305:(1966) 5297:(1966) 5289:(1965) 5281:(1964) 5273:(1964) 5265:(1964) 5257:(1961) 5249:(1950) 5241:(1950) 5233:(1948) 5225:(1945) 5217:(1943) 5209:(1942) 5201:(1926) 5193:(1916) 5185:(1908) 5171:Other 5163:(1975) 5155:(1974) 5147:(1973) 5139:(1968) 5131:(1962) 5123:(1960) 5115:(1949) 5107:(1939) 5099:(1939) 5091:(1936) 5083:(1934) 5075:(1932) 5067:(1931) 5059:(1923) 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