739:
82:). However, a population can only grow to a very limited number within an environment. The carrying capacity, defined by the variable k, of an environment is the maximum number of individuals or species an environment can sustain and support over a longer period of time. The resources within an environment are limited, and are not endless. An environment can only support a certain number of individuals before its resources completely diminish. Numbers larger than this will suffer a negative population growth until eventually reaching the carrying capacity, whereas populations smaller than the carrying capacity will grow until they reach it.
135:
339:
20:
150:) have evolved varying levels of aggression depending on the intensity of intraspecific competition. In populations where the resources are scarcer, more aggressive behaviours are likely to evolve. It is a more effective strategy to fight rivals within the species harder instead of searching for other options due to the lack of available food. More aggressive salamanders are more likely obtain the resources they require to reproduce whereas timid salamanders may starve before reproducing, so aggression can
265:) have different energy intakes based on their ranking within the group. Both males and females compete for territories with the best access to food and the most successful monkeys are able to obtain a disproportionately large quantity of food and therefore have a higher fitness in comparison to the subordinate members of the group. In the case of
325:. For instance, the caterpillars of cinnabar moths feed via scramble competition, and when there are too many caterpillars competing very few are able to pupate and there is a large population crash. Subsequently, very few cinnabar moths are competing intraspecifically in the next generation so the population grows rapidly before crashing again.
165:) found that birds in a bond were much more aggressive than single birds. The paired birds were significantly more likely to start an agonistic encounter in defense of their mate or young whereas single birds were typically non-breeding and less likely to fight. Not all flamingos can mate in the population because of an unsuitable
296:
is very uneven between males. The reproductive success of most males is zero; they die before breeding age or are prevented from mating by higher ranked males. In addition, just a few dominant males account for the majority of copulations. The potential reproductive success for males is so great that
215:
In stationary organisms, such as plants, exploitative competition plays a much larger role than interference competition because individuals are rooted to a specific area and utilise resources in their immediate surroundings. Saplings will compete for light, most of which will be blocked and utilised
536:
grown in test tubes initially grew exponentially. But as resources became scarcer, their growth rates slowed until reaching the carrying capacity. If the populations were moved to a larger container with more resources they would continue to grow until reaching their new carrying capacity. The shape
300:
Contest competition produces relatively stable population dynamics. The uneven distribution of resources results in some individuals dying off but helps to ensure that the members of the population that hold a territory can reproduce. As the number of territories in an area stays the same over time,
346:
The major impact of intraspecific competition is reduced population growth rates as population density increases. When resources are infinite, intraspecific competition does not occur and populations can grow exponentially. Exponential population growth is exceedingly rare, but has been documented,
515:
The logistic growth curve is initially very similar to the exponential growth curve. When population density is low, individuals are free from competition and can grow rapidly. However, as the population reaches its maximum (the carrying capacity), intraspecific competition becomes fiercer and the
196:). Both increasing the density of young spiders and reducing the available food supply lowered the growth of individual spiders. Food is clearly a limiting resource for the wolf spiders but there was no direct competition between juveniles for food, just a reduction in fitness due to the increased
316:
involves a more equal distribution of resources than contest competition and occurs when there is a common resource pool that an individual cannot be excluded from. For instance, grazing animals compete more strongly for grass as their population grows and food becomes a limiting resource. Each
219:
Apparent competition occurs in populations that are predated upon. An increase in population of the prey species will bring more predators to the area, which increases the risk of an individual being eaten and hence lowers its survivorship. Like exploitative competition, the individuals aren’t
126:
which then excludes other animals from entering the area. There may not be an actual conflict between the two competitors, but the animal excluded from the territory suffers a fitness loss due to a reduced foraging area and is unable to enter the area as it risks confrontation from a more
65:
When resources are limited, an increase in population size reduces the quantity of resources available for each individual, reducing the per capita fitness in the population. As a result, the growth rate of a population slows as intraspecific competition becomes more intense, making it a
276:
Aggressive encounters are potentially costly for individuals as they can get injured and be less able to reproduce. As a result, many species have evolved forms of ritualised combat to determine who wins access to a resource without having to undertake a dangerous fight. Male adders
216:
by taller trees. The saplings can be easily out-competed by larger members of their own species, which is one of the reasons why seed dispersal distances can be so large. Seeds that germinate in close proximity to the parents are very likely to be out-competed and die.
96:
and contest competition. Scramble competition involves a relatively even distribution of resources among a population as all individuals exploit a common resource pool. In contrast, contest competition is the uneven distribution of resources and occurs when
220:
interacting directly but rather suffer a reduction in fitness as a consequence of the increasing population size. Apparent competition is generally associated with inter rather than intraspecific competition, whereby two different species share a common
224:. An adaptation that makes one species less likely to be eaten results in a reduction in fitness for the other prey species because the predator species hunts more intensely as food has become more difficult to obtain. For example, native skinks (
516:
per capita growth rate slows until the population reaches a stable size. At the carrying capacity, the rate of change of population density is zero because the population is as large as possible based on the resources available. Experiments on
320:
Scramble completion can lead to unstable population dynamics, the equal division of resources can result in very few of the organisms obtaining enough to survive and reproduce and this can cause population crashes. This phenomenon is called
57:
which is required for survival or reproduction. The resource must be limited for competition to occur; if every member of the species can obtain a sufficient amount of every resource then individuals do not compete and the population
460:
493:
500:
The logistic growth equation is an effective tool for modelling intraspecific competition despite its simplicity, and has been used to model many real biological systems. At low population densities,
169:
or some dominant flamingos mating with multiple partners. Mates are a fiercely contested resource in many species as the production of offspring is essential for an individual to propagate its genes.
200:. The negative density dependence in young wolf spiders is evident: as the population density increases further, growth rates continues to fall and could potentially reach zero (as predicted by the
62:. Prolonged exponential growth is rare in nature because resources are finite and so not every individual in a population can survive, leading to intraspecific competition for the scarce resources.
641:
85:
Intraspecific competition does not just involve direct interactions between members of the same species (such as male deer locking horns when competing for mates) but can also include
131:. As organisms are encountering each other during interference competition, they are able to evolve behavioural strategies and morphologies to out-compete rivals in their population.
829:
Perdue, Bonnie M.; Gaalema, Diann E.; Martin, Allison L.; Dampier, Stephanie M.; Maple, Terry L. (2010-02-22). "Factors affecting aggression in a captive flock of
Chilean flamingos (
46:
occurs when members of different species compete for a shared resource. Members of the same species have rather similar requirements for resources, whereas different species have a
1202:
Young, Kim; Ferreira, Van Aarde (March 2009). "The influence of increasing population size and vegetation productivity on elephant distribution in the Kruger
National Park".
1032:
Olsson, Mats; Schwartz, Tonia; Uller, Tobias; Healey, Mo (February 2009). "Effects of sperm storage and male colour on probability of paternity in a polychromatic lizard".
259:
Contest competition takes place when a resource is associated with a territory or hierarchical structure within the population. For instance: white-faced capuchin monkeys (
89:
where an individual depletes a shared resource (such as a grizzly bear catching a salmon that can then no longer be eaten by bears at different points along a river).
283:) undertake complex ritualised confrontations when courting females. Generally, the larger male will win and fights rarely escalate to injury to either combatant.
950:
Norbury, Grant (December 2001). "Conserving dryland lizards by reducing predator-mediated apparent competition and direct competition with introduced rabbits".
105:
or at the top of the hierarchies obtain a sufficient quantity of the resources, whereas individuals without a territory don’t obtain any of the resource.
292:, engage in fierce competitive displays in an attempt to control a large harem of females with which to mate. The distribution of females and subsequent
496:
Population growth against time in a population growing logistically. The steepest parts of the graph are where the population growth is most rapid.
924:
672:
2067:
1320:
1067:
Madsen, Thomas; Shine, Richard (1993). "Temporal variability in sexual selection acting on reproductive tactics and body size in male snakes".
512:
approaches the carrying capacity the second term in the logistic equation becomes smaller, reducing the rate of change of population density.
364:
1264:
Schoener, Thomas (March 1973). "Population growth regulated by intraspecific competition for energy or time: Some simple representations".
2211:
118:
Interference competition is the process by which individuals directly compete with one another in pursuit of a resource. It can involve
2281:
286:
However, sometimes the resource may be so prized that potentially fatal confrontations can occur to acquire them. Male elephant seals,
766:
1853:
1818:
2291:
2019:
624:
556:
201:
71:
2296:
2484:
2237:
2060:
1901:
1313:
934:
749:
1573:
246:) so the introduction of rabbits resulted in immigration of ferrets to the area, which then depleted skink numbers.
185:
as a result. The organisms may not actually come into contact and only interact via the shared resource indirectly.
2872:
273:
variants, red lizards have are more aggressive in defending their territory compared to their yellow counterparts.
67:
2034:
2316:
2029:
1896:
1608:
212:, where the existence of color morphs within a population depends on the density and intraspecific competition.
2701:
2574:
868:
Wise, David; Wagner (August 1992). "Evidence of exploitative competition among young stages of the wolf spider
581:
151:
2747:
2346:
2301:
2053:
1306:
1833:
526:
population density graph occurred at half the carrying capacity, as predicted by the logistic growth model.
2179:
359:(South Africa) also grew exponentially in the mid-1900s after strict poaching controls were put in place.
178:
86:
74:. The rate of change of population density eventually falls to zero, the point ecologists have termed the
50:, resulting in intraspecific competition generally being a stronger force than interspecific competition.
2536:
1427:
642:"On the prevalence and relative importance of interspecific competition: evidence from field experiments"
181:. Exploitative competition involves individuals depleting a shared resource and both suffering a loss in
70:
process. The falling population growth rate as population increases can be modelled effectively with the
23:
Male hartebeest locking horns and fiercely defending their territories. An example of direct competition.
101:
in a population influence the amount of resource each individual receives. Organisms in the most prized
2601:
2321:
1808:
1525:
1422:
2782:
2394:
2286:
2144:
2124:
1803:
1515:
1151:
Crawley, Mick; Gillman (April 1990). "A comparative evaluation of models of cinnabar moth dynamics".
985:
Vogel, Erin (August 2005). "Rank differences in energy intake rates in white-faced capuchin monkeys,
551:
302:
143:
43:
1298:
2772:
2767:
2737:
2541:
2004:
1886:
533:
2045:
1676:
522:
growth rates showed a striking adherence to the logistic growth curve. The inflexion point in the
508:
and so the main determinant for population growth is just the per capita growth rate. However, as
297:
many are killed before breeding age as they attempt to move up the hierarchy in their population.
42:
for both individuals, but the more fit individual survives and is able to reproduce. By contrast,
2616:
2479:
2389:
2257:
2139:
2109:
1966:
1931:
1651:
1618:
1593:
767:"Competition and the evolution of aggressive behavior in two species of terrestrial salamanders"
2762:
2706:
2641:
2504:
2439:
2374:
1936:
1724:
1432:
1412:
322:
288:
270:
2666:
2611:
2474:
2459:
2242:
2199:
2189:
2184:
1941:
1921:
1777:
1767:
1709:
1704:
1540:
1392:
546:
492:
348:
261:
138:
Flamingos competing via interference competition, potentially for territories, mates or food.
2792:
2757:
2752:
2676:
2671:
2626:
2524:
2494:
2489:
2341:
2204:
2194:
1739:
1578:
1367:
1211:
1160:
959:
881:
356:
313:
305:
remains constant which produces a similar number of new individuals every breeding season.
293:
128:
93:
805:
92:
The way in which resources are partitioned by organisms also varies and can be split into
8:
2842:
2817:
2681:
2651:
2596:
2509:
2399:
2384:
2331:
2164:
2099:
1981:
1911:
1843:
1442:
119:
98:
1215:
1164:
963:
885:
317:
herbivore receives less food as more individuals compete for the same quantity of food.
2853:
2802:
2797:
2606:
2569:
2311:
2267:
2232:
2089:
2014:
1916:
1848:
1838:
1772:
1719:
1530:
1475:
1437:
1362:
1184:
1100:
1084:
1049:
1014:
1006:
905:
789:
664:
566:
266:
197:
123:
102:
59:
54:
31:
188:
For instance, exploitative competition has been shown experimentally between juvenile
2742:
2711:
2499:
2326:
2134:
1999:
1976:
1714:
1490:
1402:
1387:
1372:
1352:
1281:
1277:
1250:
1223:
1176:
1092:
971:
930:
897:
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797:
745:
620:
571:
205:
182:
75:
39:
1053:
1018:
909:
668:
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2559:
2551:
2469:
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2336:
2272:
2252:
2169:
2159:
2154:
2119:
1951:
1891:
1762:
1563:
1505:
1417:
1377:
1273:
1246:
1237:
Hanson, Floyd (1981). "Logistic growth with random density independent disasters".
1219:
1188:
1168:
1131:
1104:
1076:
1041:
998:
967:
889:
842:
781:
715:
656:
576:
158:
47:
1045:
703:
230:) in New Zealand suffered a large decline in population after the introduction of
134:
2832:
2691:
2661:
2656:
2646:
2579:
2564:
2444:
2424:
2306:
2174:
2080:
1971:
1881:
1823:
1407:
1333:
231:
537:
of their growth can be modeled very effectively with the logistic growth model.
2812:
2636:
2589:
2519:
2514:
2409:
2276:
2149:
1956:
1946:
1926:
1729:
1694:
1633:
1510:
1465:
1357:
532:
1930s lab experiments showed logistic growth in microorganisms. Populations of
1002:
2866:
2837:
1813:
1787:
1744:
1734:
1689:
1656:
1548:
1382:
1337:
561:
2822:
2807:
2464:
2434:
2379:
2262:
2227:
2104:
1603:
1180:
1136:
1119:
1096:
901:
854:
801:
529:
279:
53:
Individuals can compete for food, water, space, light, mates, or any other
1285:
2114:
1661:
1623:
1598:
1588:
1553:
1500:
1480:
189:
1010:
719:
2827:
2404:
2369:
2009:
1961:
1906:
1876:
1782:
1699:
1643:
1520:
1470:
1172:
1088:
893:
793:
846:
455:{\displaystyle {dN(t) \over dt}=rN(t)\left(1-{\frac {N(t)}{K}}\right)}
19:
2732:
2686:
2414:
1858:
1828:
1628:
1583:
1558:
1495:
1485:
1460:
1452:
1397:
1328:
226:
221:
166:
785:
122:. Direct intraspecific competition also includes animals claiming a
2787:
2716:
2247:
2075:
1754:
1666:
1613:
1568:
1080:
660:
338:
1120:"Male-male Competition and Reproductive Success in Elephant Seals"
2777:
2584:
2454:
2449:
2076:
2024:
1684:
1329:
518:
35:
590:
239:
342:
Exponential human population growth in the last 1,000 years.
328:
38:
compete for limited resources. This leads to a reduction in
828:
1031:
586:
1201:
367:
1066:
704:"Experimental studies on the struggle for existence"
454:
589:– extreme result of intraspecific competition in
2864:
269:lizards, males compete for territory. Among the
1150:
610:
608:
606:
2061:
1314:
177:Organisms can compete indirectly, either via
1257:
758:
1144:
1111:
733:
731:
729:
697:
695:
693:
691:
689:
687:
685:
603:
2282:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
2068:
2054:
1321:
1307:
1230:
1060:
943:
916:
867:
633:
142:For example, different populations of the
1195:
1135:
978:
822:
764:
329:Consequences of intraspecific competition
2180:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
1819:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
1263:
1117:
726:
682:
614:
491:
337:
249:
133:
18:
2212:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model
989:: the effects of contest competition".
949:
922:
861:
639:
468:= rate of change of population density
120:fighting, stealing or ritualised combat
2865:
2020:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
1236:
929:. The Blackburn Press. pp. 9–23.
333:
2049:
1302:
984:
737:
701:
16:Species members compete for resources
2035:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
179:exploitative or apparent competition
2485:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
1124:Integrative and Comparative Biology
991:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
347:most notably in humans since 1900.
13:
2238:Ecological effects of biodiversity
48:smaller contested resource overlap
14:
2884:
1574:Generalist and specialist species
926:Perspectives on Plant Competition
640:Connell, Joseph (November 1983).
129:dominant member of the population
2297:Occupancy–abundance relationship
1224:10.1111/j.1442-9993.2009.01934.x
972:10.1046/j.0021-8901.2001.00685.x
2317:Relative abundance distribution
2030:Plant defense against herbivory
1897:Competitive exclusion principle
1609:Mesopredator release hypothesis
1025:
708:Journal of Experimental Biology
1902:Consumer–resource interactions
1266:Theoretical Population Biology
1239:Theoretical Population Biology
702:Gause, Georgy (October 1932).
582:Female intrasexual competition
438:
432:
412:
406:
383:
377:
34:, whereby members of the same
1:
2748:Biological data visualization
2575:Environmental niche modelling
2302:Population viability analysis
1046:10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.10.017
596:
238:). Both species are eaten by
152:spread through the population
108:
2233:Density-dependent inhibition
1278:10.1016/0040-5809(73)90006-3
1251:10.1016/0040-5809(81)90032-0
68:negatively density dependent
7:
2702:Liebig's law of the minimum
2537:Resource selection function
1428:Metabolic theory of ecology
619:. Wiley. pp. 103–105.
540:
308:
172:
10:
2889:
2602:Niche apportionment models
2322:Relative species abundance
1526:Primary nutritional groups
1423:List of feeding behaviours
952:Journal of Applied Ecology
474:= population size at time
254:
2851:
2783:Ecosystem based fisheries
2725:
2625:
2550:
2423:
2395:Interspecific competition
2360:
2287:Minimum viable population
2220:
2145:Maximum sustainable yield
2130:Intraspecific competition
2125:Effective population size
2088:
2005:Anti-predator adaptations
1990:
1869:
1796:
1753:
1675:
1642:
1539:
1516:Photosynthetic efficiency
1451:
1345:
1118:Le Bouef, Burney (1974).
1003:10.1007/s00265-005-0960-4
765:Nishikawa, Kiisa (1985).
552:Interspecific competition
483:= per capita growth rate
144:northern slimy salamander
113:
44:interspecific competition
28:Intraspecific competition
2773:Ecological stoichiometry
2738:Alternative stable state
923:Connell, Joseph (1990).
831:Phoenicopterus chilensis
204:). This is also seen in
163:Phoenicopterus chilensis
157:In addition, a study on
2873:Biological interactions
2617:Ontogenetic niche shift
2480:Ideal free distribution
2390:Ecological facilitation
2140:Malthusian growth model
2110:Consumer-resource model
1967:Paradox of the plankton
1932:Energy systems language
1652:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
1619:Optimal foraging theory
1594:Heterotrophic nutrition
1069:The American Naturalist
289:Mirounga augustirostris
2763:Ecological forecasting
2707:Marginal value theorem
2505:Landscape epidemiology
2440:Cross-boundary subsidy
2375:Biological interaction
1725:Microbial intelligence
1413:Green world hypothesis
497:
456:
343:
139:
24:
2768:Ecological humanities
2667:Ecological energetics
2612:Niche differentiation
2475:Habitat fragmentation
2243:Ecological extinction
2190:Small population size
1942:Feed conversion ratio
1922:Ecological succession
1854:San Francisco Estuary
1768:Ecological efficiency
1710:Microbial cooperation
617:Essentials of Ecology
547:Competition (biology)
504:is much smaller than
495:
457:
341:
250:Resource partitioning
236:Oryctolagus cuniculus
202:logistic growth model
137:
87:indirect interactions
72:logistic growth model
30:is an interaction in
22:
2793:Evolutionary ecology
2758:Ecological footprint
2753:Ecological economics
2677:Ecological threshold
2672:Ecological indicator
2542:Source–sink dynamics
2495:Land change modeling
2490:Insular biogeography
2342:Species distribution
2081:Modelling ecosystems
1740:Microbial metabolism
1579:Intraguild predation
1368:Biogeochemical cycle
1334:Modelling ecosystems
1137:10.1093/icb/14.1.163
738:Keddy, Paul (2001).
489:= carrying capacity
365:
357:Kruger National Park
314:Scramble competition
294:reproductive success
148:Plethodon glutinosus
2843:Theoretical ecology
2818:Natural environment
2682:Ecosystem diversity
2652:Ecological collapse
2642:Bateman's principle
2597:Limiting similarity
2510:Landscape limnology
2332:Species homogeneity
2170:Population modeling
2165:Population dynamics
1982:Trophic state index
1216:2009AusEc..34..329Y
1165:1990Oecol..82..437G
964:2001JApEc..38.1350N
886:1992Oecol..91....7W
720:10.1242/jeb.9.4.389
649:American Naturalist
334:Slowed growth rates
303:breeding population
60:grows exponentially
2854:Outline of ecology
2803:Industrial ecology
2798:Functional ecology
2662:Ecological deficit
2607:Niche construction
2570:Ecosystem engineer
2347:Species–area curve
2268:Introduced species
2083:: Other components
2015:Deimatic behaviour
1917:Ecological network
1849:North Pacific Gyre
1834:hydrothermal vents
1773:Ecological pyramid
1720:Microbial food web
1531:Primary production
1476:Foundation species
1173:10.1007/BF00319783
894:10.1007/BF00317234
870:Schizocosa ocreata
567:Population ecology
498:
452:
353:Loxodonta africana
344:
267:Ctenophorus pictus
198:population density
194:Schizocosa ocreata
140:
32:population ecology
25:
2860:
2859:
2743:Balance of nature
2500:Landscape ecology
2385:Community ecology
2327:Species diversity
2263:Indicator species
2258:Gradient analysis
2135:Logistic function
2043:
2042:
2000:Animal coloration
1977:Trophic mutualism
1715:Microbial ecology
1506:Photoheterotrophs
1491:Myco-heterotrophy
1403:Ecosystem ecology
1388:Carrying capacity
1353:Abiotic component
847:10.1002/zoo.20313
626:978-1-4051-5658-5
615:Townsend (2008).
572:Sexual dimorphism
445:
395:
355:) populations in
206:Viviparous lizard
159:Chilean flamingos
76:carrying capacity
2880:
2560:Ecological niche
2532:selection theory
2352:Umbrella species
2337:Species richness
2273:Invasive species
2253:Flagship species
2160:Population cycle
2155:Overexploitation
2120:Ecological yield
2070:
2063:
2056:
2047:
2046:
1952:Mesotrophic soil
1892:Climax community
1824:Marine food webs
1763:Biomagnification
1564:Chemoorganotroph
1418:Keystone species
1378:Biotic component
1323:
1316:
1309:
1300:
1299:
1290:
1289:
1261:
1255:
1254:
1234:
1228:
1227:
1199:
1193:
1192:
1148:
1142:
1141:
1139:
1115:
1109:
1108:
1064:
1058:
1057:
1034:Animal Behaviour
1029:
1023:
1022:
982:
976:
975:
958:(6): 1350–1361.
947:
941:
940:
920:
914:
913:
865:
859:
858:
826:
820:
819:
817:
816:
810:
804:. Archived from
780:(6): 1282–1294.
771:
762:
756:
755:
735:
724:
723:
699:
680:
679:
677:
671:. Archived from
646:
637:
631:
630:
612:
577:Sexual selection
461:
459:
458:
453:
451:
447:
446:
441:
427:
396:
394:
386:
369:
323:overcompensation
210:Lacerta vivipara
2888:
2887:
2883:
2882:
2881:
2879:
2878:
2877:
2863:
2862:
2861:
2856:
2847:
2833:Systems ecology
2721:
2692:Extinction debt
2657:Ecological debt
2647:Bioluminescence
2628:
2621:
2590:marine habitats
2565:Ecological trap
2546:
2426:
2419:
2362:
2356:
2312:Rapoport's rule
2307:Priority effect
2248:Endemic species
2216:
2175:Population size
2091:
2084:
2074:
2044:
2039:
1992:
1986:
1972:Trophic cascade
1882:Bioaccumulation
1865:
1792:
1749:
1671:
1638:
1535:
1447:
1408:Ecosystem model
1341:
1327:
1296:
1294:
1293:
1262:
1258:
1235:
1231:
1204:Austral Ecology
1200:
1196:
1149:
1145:
1116:
1112:
1065:
1061:
1030:
1026:
987:Cebus capucinus
983:
979:
948:
944:
937:
921:
917:
866:
862:
827:
823:
814:
812:
808:
786:10.2307/2408785
769:
763:
759:
752:
736:
727:
700:
683:
675:
644:
638:
634:
627:
613:
604:
599:
543:
428:
426:
419:
415:
387:
370:
368:
366:
363:
362:
336:
331:
311:
262:Cebus capucinus
257:
252:
175:
116:
111:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2886:
2876:
2875:
2858:
2857:
2852:
2849:
2848:
2846:
2845:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2813:Microecosystem
2810:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2729:
2727:
2723:
2722:
2720:
2719:
2714:
2712:Thorson's rule
2709:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2637:Assembly rules
2633:
2631:
2623:
2622:
2620:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2593:
2592:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2556:
2554:
2548:
2547:
2545:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2522:
2520:Patch dynamics
2517:
2515:Metapopulation
2512:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2431:
2429:
2421:
2420:
2418:
2417:
2412:
2410:Storage effect
2407:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2366:
2364:
2358:
2357:
2355:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2292:Neutral theory
2289:
2284:
2279:
2277:Native species
2270:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2224:
2222:
2218:
2217:
2215:
2214:
2209:
2208:
2207:
2202:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2150:Overpopulation
2147:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2096:
2094:
2086:
2085:
2073:
2072:
2065:
2058:
2050:
2041:
2040:
2038:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1996:
1994:
1988:
1987:
1985:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1957:Nutrient cycle
1954:
1949:
1947:Feeding frenzy
1944:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1927:Energy quality
1924:
1919:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1889:
1887:Cascade effect
1884:
1879:
1873:
1871:
1867:
1866:
1864:
1863:
1862:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1800:
1798:
1794:
1793:
1791:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1759:
1757:
1751:
1750:
1748:
1747:
1742:
1737:
1732:
1730:Microbial loop
1727:
1722:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1702:
1697:
1695:Lithoautotroph
1692:
1687:
1681:
1679:
1677:Microorganisms
1673:
1672:
1670:
1669:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1648:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1637:
1636:
1634:Prey switching
1631:
1626:
1621:
1616:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1556:
1551:
1545:
1543:
1537:
1536:
1534:
1533:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1513:
1511:Photosynthesis
1508:
1503:
1498:
1493:
1488:
1483:
1478:
1473:
1468:
1466:Chemosynthesis
1463:
1457:
1455:
1449:
1448:
1446:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1370:
1365:
1360:
1358:Abiotic stress
1355:
1349:
1347:
1343:
1342:
1326:
1325:
1318:
1311:
1303:
1292:
1291:
1256:
1229:
1210:(3): 329–342.
1194:
1159:(4): 437–445.
1143:
1130:(1): 163–176.
1110:
1081:10.1086/285467
1075:(1): 166–171.
1059:
1040:(2): 419–424.
1024:
997:(4): 333–344.
977:
942:
936:978-1930665859
935:
915:
860:
821:
757:
751:978-1402002298
750:
725:
714:(4): 389–402.
681:
678:on 2014-10-26.
661:10.1086/284165
655:(5): 661–696.
632:
625:
601:
600:
598:
595:
594:
593:
584:
579:
574:
569:
564:
559:
557:Logistic model
554:
549:
542:
539:
450:
444:
440:
437:
434:
431:
425:
422:
418:
414:
411:
408:
405:
402:
399:
393:
390:
385:
382:
379:
376:
373:
335:
332:
330:
327:
310:
307:
256:
253:
251:
248:
174:
171:
115:
112:
110:
107:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2885:
2874:
2871:
2870:
2868:
2855:
2850:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2838:Urban ecology
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2730:
2728:
2724:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2697:Kleiber's law
2695:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2634:
2632:
2630:
2624:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2591:
2588:
2587:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2557:
2555:
2553:
2549:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2470:Foster's rule
2468:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2432:
2430:
2428:
2422:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2367:
2365:
2359:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2225:
2223:
2219:
2213:
2210:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2197:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2097:
2095:
2093:
2087:
2082:
2078:
2071:
2066:
2064:
2059:
2057:
2052:
2051:
2048:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1997:
1995:
1989:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1874:
1872:
1868:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1826:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1801:
1799:
1795:
1789:
1788:Trophic level
1786:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1760:
1758:
1756:
1752:
1746:
1745:Phage ecology
1743:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1735:Microbial mat
1733:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1690:Bacteriophage
1688:
1686:
1683:
1682:
1680:
1678:
1674:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1657:Decomposition
1655:
1653:
1650:
1649:
1647:
1645:
1641:
1635:
1632:
1630:
1627:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1604:Mesopredators
1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1580:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1557:
1555:
1552:
1550:
1549:Apex predator
1547:
1546:
1544:
1542:
1538:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1522:
1519:
1517:
1514:
1512:
1509:
1507:
1504:
1502:
1499:
1497:
1494:
1492:
1489:
1487:
1484:
1482:
1479:
1477:
1474:
1472:
1469:
1467:
1464:
1462:
1459:
1458:
1456:
1454:
1450:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1383:Biotic stress
1381:
1379:
1376:
1374:
1371:
1369:
1366:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1350:
1348:
1344:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1324:
1319:
1317:
1312:
1310:
1305:
1304:
1301:
1297:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1260:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1233:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1198:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1147:
1138:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1114:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1063:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1028:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
981:
973:
969:
965:
961:
957:
953:
946:
938:
932:
928:
927:
919:
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
864:
856:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
825:
811:on 2014-10-17
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
768:
761:
753:
747:
744:. Dordrecht.
743:
742:
734:
732:
730:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
698:
696:
694:
692:
690:
688:
686:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
643:
636:
628:
622:
618:
611:
609:
607:
602:
592:
588:
585:
583:
580:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
565:
563:
562:Plant density
560:
558:
555:
553:
550:
548:
545:
544:
538:
535:
531:
527:
525:
521:
520:
513:
511:
507:
503:
494:
490:
488:
484:
482:
478:
477:
473:
469:
467:
463:
448:
442:
435:
429:
423:
420:
416:
409:
403:
400:
397:
391:
388:
380:
374:
371:
360:
358:
354:
350:
340:
326:
324:
318:
315:
306:
304:
298:
295:
291:
290:
284:
282:
281:
274:
272:
268:
264:
263:
247:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
228:
223:
217:
213:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
186:
184:
180:
170:
168:
164:
160:
155:
153:
149:
145:
136:
132:
130:
125:
121:
106:
104:
100:
95:
90:
88:
83:
81:
77:
73:
69:
63:
61:
56:
51:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
21:
2823:Regime shift
2808:Macroecology
2529:
2525:
2465:Edge effects
2435:Biogeography
2380:Commensalism
2228:Biodiversity
2129:
2105:Allee effect
1844:kelp forests
1797:Example webs
1662:Detritivores
1501:Organotrophs
1481:Kinetotrophs
1433:Productivity
1295:
1272:(1): 56–84.
1269:
1265:
1259:
1242:
1238:
1232:
1207:
1203:
1197:
1156:
1152:
1146:
1127:
1123:
1113:
1072:
1068:
1062:
1037:
1033:
1027:
994:
990:
986:
980:
955:
951:
945:
925:
918:
877:
873:
869:
863:
841:(1): 59–64.
838:
834:
830:
824:
813:. Retrieved
806:the original
777:
773:
760:
740:
711:
707:
673:the original
652:
648:
635:
616:
528:
523:
517:
514:
509:
505:
501:
499:
486:
485:
480:
479:
475:
471:
470:
465:
464:
361:
352:
345:
319:
312:
299:
287:
285:
280:Vipera berus
278:
275:
260:
258:
244:Mustela furo
243:
235:
225:
218:
214:
209:
193:
190:wolf spiders
187:
176:
162:
156:
147:
141:
117:
91:
84:
79:
64:
52:
27:
26:
2460:Disturbance
2363:interaction
2185:Recruitment
2115:Depensation
1907:Copiotrophs
1778:Energy flow
1700:Lithotrophy
1644:Decomposers
1624:Planktivore
1599:Insectivore
1589:Heterotroph
1554:Bacterivore
1521:Phototrophs
1471:Chemotrophs
1443:Restoration
1393:Competition
1245:(1): 1–18.
880:(1): 7–13.
835:Zoo Biology
741:Competition
271:polymorphic
103:territories
99:hierarchies
2828:Sexecology
2405:Parasitism
2370:Antibiosis
2205:Resistance
2200:Resilience
2090:Population
2010:Camouflage
1962:Oligotroph
1877:Ascendency
1839:intertidal
1829:cold seeps
1783:Food chain
1584:Herbivores
1559:Carnivores
1486:Mixotrophs
1461:Autotrophs
1340:components
815:2014-03-27
597:References
109:Mechanisms
2733:Allometry
2687:Emergence
2415:Symbiosis
2400:Mutualism
2195:Stability
2100:Abundance
1912:Dominance
1870:Processes
1859:tide pool
1755:Food webs
1629:Predation
1614:Omnivores
1541:Consumers
1496:Mycotroph
1453:Producers
1398:Ecosystem
1363:Behaviour
1153:Oecologia
874:Oecologia
774:Evolution
424:−
227:Oligosoma
167:sex ratio
124:territory
2867:Category
2788:Endolith
2717:Xerosere
2629:networks
2445:Ecocline
1991:Defense,
1667:Detritus
1569:Foraging
1438:Resource
1181:28311465
1097:19426025
1054:53164664
1019:29039152
1011:25063623
910:19268804
902:28313367
855:20186725
802:28564270
669:84642049
541:See also
466:dN(t)/dt
349:Elephant
309:Scramble
222:predator
173:Indirect
94:scramble
55:resource
2778:Ecopath
2585:Habitat
2455:Ecotype
2450:Ecotone
2427:ecology
2425:Spatial
2361:Species
2221:Species
2092:ecology
2077:Ecology
2025:Mimicry
1993:counter
1937:f-ratio
1685:Archaea
1373:Biomass
1346:General
1338:Trophic
1330:Ecology
1286:4726010
1212:Bibcode
1189:9288133
1161:Bibcode
1105:2390755
1089:2462769
960:Bibcode
882:Bibcode
794:2408785
530:Gause’s
524:Daphnia
519:Daphnia
255:Contest
240:ferrets
232:rabbits
183:fitness
40:fitness
36:species
1809:Rivers
1705:Marine
1284:
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792:
748:
667:
623:
591:humans
114:Direct
2726:Other
2627:Other
2580:Guild
2552:Niche
1804:Lakes
1185:S2CID
1101:S2CID
1085:JSTOR
1050:S2CID
1015:S2CID
1007:JSTOR
906:S2CID
809:(PDF)
790:JSTOR
770:(PDF)
676:(PDF)
665:S2CID
645:(PDF)
534:yeast
208:, or
1814:Soil
1282:PMID
1177:PMID
1093:PMID
931:ISBN
898:PMID
851:PMID
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798:PMID
746:ISBN
621:ISBN
510:N(t)
502:N(t)
472:N(t)
301:the
1274:doi
1247:doi
1220:doi
1169:doi
1132:doi
1077:doi
1073:141
1042:doi
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587:War
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