2226:
1187:. The next three elements (Li, Be, B) are rare because they are poorly synthesized in the Big Bang and also in stars. The two general trends in the remaining stellar-produced elements are: (1) an alternation of abundance in elements as they have even or odd atomic numbers, and (2) a general decrease in abundance, as elements become heavier. The "iron peak" may be seen in the elements near iron as a secondary effect, increasing relative abundances of elements with
2213:
In fact, there are several stable nuclides of elements from chromium to nickel around the top of the stability curve, accounting for their relative abundance in the universe. The nuclides which are not on the direct alpha-process pathway are formed by the
2241:) against the number of nucleons in the nucleus. Iron-56 is labelled near the very top of the curve: it can be seen that the "peak" is quite flat, which explains the existence of several common elements around iron.
1019:, immediately below them) were set aside from the other elements because they have obvious similarities in their chemistry, but are not obviously related to any of the other groups. The iron group and its
1180:
2285:
In lighter stars, with less gravitational pressure, the alpha process is much slower and effectively stops at this stage as titanium-44 is unstable with respect to beta decay (t
2210:– that is, they are slightly more stable as nuclides – as can be seen from the table on the right. However, there are no rapid nucleosynthetic routes to these nuclides.
2778:
2829:
1879:
is endothermic. With no further source of energy to support itself, the core of the star collapses on itself while the outer regions are blown off in a
1183:
Abundances of the chemical elements in the Solar System. The scale of the vertical axis is logarithmic. Hydrogen and helium are most common, from the
2894:
100:—five elements that are exceptionally abundant, both on Earth and elsewhere in the universe, compared to their neighbors in the periodic table.
2164:
It is often incorrectly stated that iron-56 is exceptionally common because it is the most stable of all the nuclides. This is not quite true:
2669:
Wang, Meng; Huang, W.J.; Kondev, F.G.; Audi, G.; Naimi, S. (2021). "The AME 2020 atomic mass evaluation (II). Tables, graphs and references".
2700:
1160:, which are substantially more abundant in the universe than those that come after them – or immediately before them – in order of
2887:
2586:
1116:
is often precipitated with the iron group hydroxides. Less common cations which are precipitated with the iron group include
119:
4185:
2261:
1777:: the energy that is released partially offsets the gravitational contraction of the star. However, the series ends at
2549:
2524:
2322:
2880:
1062:
In the traditional methods of qualitative inorganic analysis, the iron group consists of those cations which
1039:
2335:
1050:
as well as atomic weights which increase by equal increments, both in his original 1869 paper and his 1889
1203:. At the end of their lives, once other fuels have been exhausted, such stars can enter a brief phase of "
1012:
2786:
2638:
1031:
4190:
2256:
1204:
1011:; or the top row of "group VIII" in the old (pre-1990) IUPAC system, or of "group VIIIB" in the
2633:
2428:
1004:
2313:
2821:
2361:
2923:
2851:
2805:
2715:
2625:
2357:
8:
2749:
2696:
2225:
2855:
2809:
2719:
2629:
2795:
2741:
2651:
2615:
2373:
2347:
2455:
3774:
2745:
2655:
2582:
2545:
2520:
2318:
1880:
1173:
1113:
1042:"octaves" (1865) were harshly criticized for separating iron from cobalt and nickel.
707:
109:
2377:
3838:
3543:
3372:
3201:
3120:
3039:
3012:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2859:
2813:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2678:
2643:
2568:
2494:
2482:
2478:
2451:
2365:
1164:. The study of the abundances of iron group elements relative to other elements in
1078:
1043:
59:
51:
2369:
991:
In chemistry, "iron group" used to refer to iron and the next two elements in the
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2842:
Fewell, M. P. (1995), "The atomic nuclide with the highest mean binding energy",
2572:
2411:
2407:
1196:
1051:
1035:
89:
32:
2606:
Woosley, Stan; Janka, Thomas (2005), "The
Physics of Core-Collapse Supernovae",
2903:
2682:
2578:
2456:"On the Relationship of the Properties of the Elements to their Atomic Weights"
2336:"Insights into thermonuclear supernovae from the incomplete Si-burning process"
2230:
2207:
1188:
1024:
1016:
1008:
992:
122:
81:; or, sometimes, other elements that resemble iron in some chemical aspects.
2817:
62:
of the periodic table. The term has different meanings in different contexts.
4179:
3997:
1233:
1161:
1047:
877:
16:
General term in chemistry and physics for the set of elements related to iron
4051:
3880:
3585:
2985:
2918:
1195:
The explanation for this relative abundance can be found in the process of
1046:
stressed that groups of "chemically analogous elements" could have similar
919:
786:
560:
85:
2736:
92:, the term is still quite common, and it typically means those three plus
4105:
4069:
4060:
3970:
3952:
3943:
2980:
2620:
2498:
2238:
1603:
1530:
961:
933:
926:
856:
842:
835:
1179:
4114:
4042:
4015:
3988:
3648:
3630:
3603:
3434:
3425:
3164:
2779:"CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants: 2006"
1890:
1774:
1458:
1238:
1200:
1003:. These three comprised the "iron triad". They are the top elements of
968:
912:
891:
870:
609:
595:
574:
446:
439:
240:
4123:
4096:
4087:
3934:
3916:
3907:
3898:
3684:
3594:
3567:
3515:
3461:
3443:
3407:
3387:
3326:
3263:
3207:
3146:
3135:
3054:
3005:
2995:
2990:
2647:
2413:
Theorien und
Experimente zur Bestimmung der Atomgewichte der Elemente
2251:
2215:
2166:
1947:
1883:
1747:
1314:
1169:
1125:
1117:
1109:
1101:
1089:
975:
954:
947:
828:
814:
807:
800:
637:
567:
546:
509:
467:
453:
425:
407:
363:
314:
270:
226:
217:
157:
97:
39:
20:
2863:
4078:
3979:
3862:
3844:
3819:
3810:
3783:
3756:
3720:
3711:
3693:
3621:
3612:
3506:
3378:
3344:
3254:
3245:
3236:
3227:
3182:
3101:
3083:
3018:
1972:
1386:
1213:
1184:
1153:
1129:
1121:
1105:
1067:
940:
863:
772:
758:
742:
735:
714:
693:
665:
658:
644:
588:
581:
502:
400:
377:
307:
300:
293:
286:
254:
194:
180:
132:
105:
101:
93:
2800:
2352:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4033:
4024:
4006:
3961:
3889:
3871:
3801:
3747:
3729:
3702:
3675:
3657:
3639:
3549:
3479:
3452:
3416:
3398:
3362:
3353:
3335:
3317:
3216:
3155:
3045:
3000:
2872:
2429:"Proceedings of Societies [Report on the Law of Octaves]"
2234:
2219:
2187:
1895:
1853:
1675:
1137:
1133:
1093:
1074:
905:
898:
884:
849:
793:
779:
728:
686:
672:
651:
630:
616:
602:
532:
481:
460:
432:
418:
391:
384:
370:
356:
277:
233:
150:
43:
28:
2542:
A Textbook of Macro and
Semimicro Qualitative Inorganic Analysis
2517:
A Textbook of Macro and
Semimicro Qualitative Inorganic Analysis
1100:
The main cations in the iron group are iron itself (Fe and Fe),
3925:
3853:
3738:
3666:
3576:
3558:
3524:
3488:
3470:
3299:
3290:
3281:
3173:
3126:
3092:
3074:
3029:
1208:
1157:
1141:
1020:
1000:
996:
821:
765:
679:
623:
553:
539:
516:
488:
474:
342:
335:
328:
247:
210:
187:
173:
141:
74:
70:
65:
In chemistry, the term is largely obsolete, but it often means
24:
2317:, volume 10, page 283. Royal Society of Chemistry; 430 pages,
1236:") to the heavier elements present in the star, starting from
4139:
3828:
3533:
3191:
3065:
1152:
The iron group in astrophysics is the group of elements from
749:
523:
261:
166:
3792:
3765:
3308:
3272:
3110:
2777:
Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N.; Newell, David B. (2008).
1165:
1082:
721:
700:
349:
321:
201:
66:
55:
2395:(6th ed.), London: Heinemann, pp. 151–54, 727–28
3497:
2912:
987:
Fe, Co and Ni are in group 8, 9, 10 (old group name VIII)
495:
19:
For the group headed by iron and additionally containing
1199:
in certain stars, specifically those of about 8–11
2764:
1893:, and the final stable product of silicon burning is
1112:
is present in the sample, a small amount of hydrated
2695:
2668:
2544:(4th ed.), London: Longman, pp. 592–611,
1030:The similarities in chemistry were noted as one of
2519:(4th ed.), London: Longman, pp. 260–78,
1092:at around pH 10 (or less) in the presence of
2567:
1015:system. These three metals (and the three of the
4177:
2776:
986:
2390:
120:
2888:
2605:
1207:". This involves the sequential addition of
2483:"The Periodic Law of the Chemical Elements"
2450:
2895:
2881:
2662:
2563:
2561:
2477:
2799:
2735:
2637:
2619:
2601:
2599:
2351:
2406:
2224:
1178:
3995:
2558:
2510:
2508:
2307:
2305:
2267:
1057:
4178:
4049:
3878:
3583:
2841:
2770:
2689:
2596:
1889:Nickel-56 is unstable with respect to
4103:
4067:
4058:
3968:
3950:
3941:
2876:
2539:
2514:
2333:
1796:, as the next reaction in the series
4112:
4040:
4013:
3986:
3646:
3628:
3601:
3432:
3423:
2505:
2302:
115:
4121:
4094:
4085:
3932:
3914:
3905:
3896:
3682:
3592:
3565:
3513:
3459:
3441:
3405:
3385:
3324:
3261:
3162:
3144:
3133:
3052:
2393:Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry
1773:All of these nuclear reactions are
1172:allows the refinement of models of
13:
4076:
3977:
3860:
3842:
3817:
3808:
3781:
3754:
3709:
3691:
3619:
3610:
3504:
3376:
3342:
3252:
3234:
3225:
3205:
3180:
2902:
2262:Abundance of the chemical elements
14:
4202:
4031:
4022:
4004:
3959:
3869:
3799:
3772:
3745:
3727:
3718:
3700:
3673:
3655:
3637:
3547:
3477:
3450:
3414:
3360:
3351:
3333:
3315:
3243:
3214:
3153:
3099:
3081:
3043:
3016:
3923:
3887:
3851:
3736:
3664:
3574:
3556:
3486:
3468:
3396:
3297:
3288:
3279:
3124:
3027:
2416:, Braunschweig: Friedrich Vieweg
54:that are in some way related to
3826:
3531:
3522:
3189:
3171:
3090:
3072:
2835:
2279:
2043: = 77.233(27) d
1147:
3790:
3763:
3306:
3270:
3108:
3063:
2728:10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018
2533:
2471:
2444:
2421:
2400:
2384:
2327:
2050:
1981: = 6.075(10) d
1:
3495:
2296:
2289: = 60.0(11) years).
2237:(calculated from the nuclear
2701:"Review of Particle Physics"
2391:Sherwood Taylor, F. (1942),
2340:Astronomy & Astrophysics
2208:binding energies per nucleon
7:
2370:10.1051/0004-6361/201220309
2245:
1918:
1800:
1261:
10:
4207:
3394:
3223:
3142:
3061:
3025:
2927:
415:
283:
223:
163:
138:
18:
4186:Sets of chemical elements
4137:
3837:
3542:
3371:
3200:
3119:
3038:
3011:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2922:
2917:
2910:
2818:10.1103/RevModPhys.80.633
2787:Reviews of Modern Physics
2574:Chemistry of the Elements
2571:; Earnshaw, Alan (1984).
2540:Vogel, Arthur I. (1954),
2515:Vogel, Arthur I. (1954),
2683:10.1088/1674-1137/abddaf
2314:Organometallic Chemistry
2272:
1073:are not precipitated as
2362:2013A&A...550A..24B
2257:Silicon burning process
2311:M. Green, ed. (2002):
2242:
2218:, the capture of slow
2158:8.553080(12) MeV
2152:55.93493554(29) u
2127:8.563158(12) MeV
2096:8.563872(10) MeV
1192:
121:The iron group in the
2228:
2206:have slightly higher
1182:
108:are also produced in
2830:Direct link to value
2569:Greenwood, Norman N.
2499:10.1039/ct8895500634
2268:Notes and references
2121:57.9332736(3) u
2090:61.9283448(5) u
1191:most strongly bound.
1088:are precipitated as
1058:Analytical chemistry
1007:8, 9, and 10 of the
2856:1995AmJPh..63..653F
2810:2008RvMP...80..633M
2720:2008PhLB..667....1A
2697:Particle Data Group
2630:2005NatPh...1..147W
2155:0.5141981(7) u
2124:0.5331899(8) u
2093:0.5700031(6) u
1032:Döbereiner's triads
2581:. pp. 13–16.
2334:Bravo, E. (2013).
2243:
1193:
110:Type Ia supernovae
77:, also called the
4173:
4172:
4166:
4165:
4132:
4131:
2671:Chinese Physics C
2588:978-0-08-022057-4
2222:within the star.
2162:
2161:
2047:
2046:
1875:
1874:
1769:
1768:
1174:stellar evolution
1114:manganese dioxide
1038:in 1859. Indeed,
983:
982:
709:Mercury (element)
116:General chemistry
4198:
4142:
4141:
4128:
4126:
4119:
4117:
4110:
4108:
4101:
4099:
4092:
4090:
4083:
4081:
4074:
4072:
4065:
4063:
4056:
4054:
4047:
4045:
4038:
4036:
4029:
4027:
4020:
4018:
4011:
4009:
4002:
4000:
3993:
3991:
3984:
3982:
3975:
3973:
3966:
3964:
3957:
3955:
3948:
3946:
3939:
3937:
3930:
3928:
3921:
3919:
3912:
3910:
3903:
3901:
3894:
3892:
3885:
3883:
3876:
3874:
3867:
3865:
3858:
3856:
3849:
3847:
3833:
3831:
3824:
3822:
3815:
3813:
3806:
3804:
3797:
3795:
3788:
3786:
3779:
3777:
3770:
3768:
3761:
3759:
3752:
3750:
3743:
3741:
3734:
3732:
3725:
3723:
3716:
3714:
3707:
3705:
3698:
3696:
3689:
3687:
3680:
3678:
3671:
3669:
3662:
3660:
3653:
3651:
3644:
3642:
3635:
3633:
3626:
3624:
3617:
3615:
3608:
3606:
3599:
3597:
3590:
3588:
3581:
3579:
3572:
3570:
3563:
3561:
3554:
3552:
3538:
3536:
3529:
3527:
3520:
3518:
3511:
3509:
3502:
3500:
3493:
3491:
3484:
3482:
3475:
3473:
3466:
3464:
3457:
3455:
3448:
3446:
3439:
3437:
3430:
3428:
3421:
3419:
3412:
3410:
3403:
3401:
3392:
3390:
3383:
3381:
3367:
3365:
3358:
3356:
3349:
3347:
3340:
3338:
3331:
3329:
3322:
3320:
3313:
3311:
3304:
3302:
3295:
3293:
3286:
3284:
3277:
3275:
3268:
3266:
3259:
3257:
3250:
3248:
3241:
3239:
3232:
3230:
3221:
3219:
3212:
3210:
3196:
3194:
3187:
3185:
3178:
3176:
3169:
3167:
3160:
3158:
3151:
3149:
3140:
3138:
3131:
3129:
3115:
3113:
3106:
3104:
3097:
3095:
3088:
3086:
3079:
3077:
3070:
3068:
3059:
3057:
3050:
3048:
3034:
3032:
3023:
3021:
2913:
2897:
2890:
2883:
2874:
2873:
2868:
2866:
2839:
2833:
2828:
2826:
2820:. Archived from
2803:
2783:
2774:
2768:
2762:
2761:
2760:
2754:
2748:, archived from
2739:
2705:
2693:
2687:
2686:
2666:
2660:
2658:
2648:10.1038/nphys172
2641:
2623:
2621:astro-ph/0601261
2603:
2594:
2592:
2565:
2556:
2554:
2537:
2531:
2529:
2512:
2503:
2501:
2475:
2469:
2467:
2448:
2442:
2440:
2425:
2419:
2417:
2404:
2398:
2396:
2388:
2382:
2381:
2355:
2331:
2325:
2309:
2290:
2283:
2205:
2203:
2202:
2195:
2194:
2184:
2182:
2181:
2174:
2173:
2149:
2148:
2147:
2140:
2139:
2118:
2117:
2116:
2109:
2108:
2087:
2086:
2085:
2078:
2077:
2051:
2028:
2027:
2026:
2019:
2018:
2003:
2002:
2001:
1994:
1993:
1965:
1963:
1962:
1955:
1954:
1939:
1938:
1937:
1930:
1929:
1919:
1913:
1911:
1910:
1903:
1902:
1871:
1869:
1868:
1861:
1860:
1845:
1844:
1843:
1836:
1835:
1821:
1820:
1819:
1812:
1811:
1801:
1795:
1794:
1793:
1786:
1785:
1765:
1763:
1762:
1755:
1754:
1739:
1738:
1737:
1730:
1729:
1715:
1714:
1713:
1706:
1705:
1693:
1691:
1690:
1683:
1682:
1667:
1666:
1665:
1658:
1657:
1643:
1642:
1641:
1634:
1633:
1621:
1619:
1618:
1611:
1610:
1595:
1594:
1593:
1586:
1585:
1571:
1570:
1569:
1562:
1561:
1548:
1546:
1545:
1538:
1537:
1522:
1521:
1520:
1513:
1512:
1498:
1497:
1496:
1489:
1488:
1476:
1474:
1473:
1466:
1465:
1450:
1449:
1448:
1441:
1440:
1426:
1425:
1424:
1417:
1416:
1404:
1402:
1401:
1394:
1393:
1378:
1377:
1376:
1369:
1368:
1354:
1353:
1352:
1345:
1344:
1332:
1330:
1329:
1322:
1321:
1306:
1305:
1304:
1297:
1296:
1282:
1281:
1280:
1273:
1272:
1262:
1256:
1254:
1253:
1246:
1245:
1231:
1229:
1228:
1221:
1220:
1079:hydrogen sulfide
978:
971:
964:
957:
950:
943:
936:
929:
922:
915:
908:
901:
894:
887:
880:
873:
866:
859:
852:
845:
838:
831:
824:
817:
810:
803:
796:
789:
782:
775:
768:
761:
752:
745:
738:
731:
724:
717:
710:
703:
696:
689:
682:
675:
668:
661:
654:
647:
640:
633:
626:
619:
612:
605:
598:
591:
584:
577:
570:
563:
556:
549:
542:
535:
526:
519:
512:
505:
498:
491:
484:
477:
470:
463:
456:
449:
442:
435:
428:
421:
410:
403:
394:
387:
380:
373:
366:
359:
352:
345:
338:
331:
324:
317:
310:
303:
296:
289:
280:
273:
264:
257:
250:
243:
236:
229:
220:
213:
204:
197:
190:
183:
176:
169:
160:
153:
144:
135:
129:
128:
4206:
4205:
4201:
4200:
4199:
4197:
4196:
4195:
4191:Nucleosynthesis
4176:
4175:
4174:
4169:
4168:
4167:
4133:
4124:
4122:
4115:
4113:
4106:
4104:
4097:
4095:
4088:
4086:
4079:
4077:
4070:
4068:
4061:
4059:
4052:
4050:
4043:
4041:
4034:
4032:
4025:
4023:
4016:
4014:
4007:
4005:
3998:
3996:
3989:
3987:
3980:
3978:
3971:
3969:
3962:
3960:
3953:
3951:
3944:
3942:
3935:
3933:
3926:
3924:
3917:
3915:
3908:
3906:
3899:
3897:
3890:
3888:
3881:
3879:
3872:
3870:
3863:
3861:
3854:
3852:
3845:
3843:
3829:
3827:
3820:
3818:
3811:
3809:
3802:
3800:
3793:
3791:
3784:
3782:
3775:
3773:
3766:
3764:
3757:
3755:
3748:
3746:
3739:
3737:
3730:
3728:
3721:
3719:
3712:
3710:
3703:
3701:
3694:
3692:
3685:
3683:
3676:
3674:
3667:
3665:
3658:
3656:
3649:
3647:
3640:
3638:
3631:
3629:
3622:
3620:
3613:
3611:
3604:
3602:
3595:
3593:
3586:
3584:
3577:
3575:
3568:
3566:
3559:
3557:
3550:
3548:
3534:
3532:
3525:
3523:
3516:
3514:
3507:
3505:
3498:
3496:
3489:
3487:
3480:
3478:
3471:
3469:
3462:
3460:
3453:
3451:
3444:
3442:
3435:
3433:
3426:
3424:
3417:
3415:
3408:
3406:
3399:
3397:
3388:
3386:
3379:
3377:
3363:
3361:
3354:
3352:
3345:
3343:
3336:
3334:
3327:
3325:
3318:
3316:
3309:
3307:
3300:
3298:
3291:
3289:
3282:
3280:
3273:
3271:
3264:
3262:
3255:
3253:
3246:
3244:
3237:
3235:
3228:
3226:
3217:
3215:
3208:
3206:
3192:
3190:
3183:
3181:
3174:
3172:
3165:
3163:
3156:
3154:
3147:
3145:
3136:
3134:
3127:
3125:
3111:
3109:
3102:
3100:
3093:
3091:
3084:
3082:
3075:
3073:
3066:
3064:
3055:
3053:
3046:
3044:
3030:
3028:
3019:
3017:
2906:
2901:
2871:
2864:10.1119/1.17828
2840:
2836:
2824:
2781:
2775:
2771:
2758:
2756:
2752:
2703:
2694:
2690:
2667:
2663:
2639:10.1.1.336.2176
2604:
2597:
2589:
2566:
2559:
2552:
2538:
2534:
2527:
2513:
2506:
2476:
2472:
2452:Mendelejeff, D.
2449:
2445:
2427:
2426:
2422:
2405:
2401:
2389:
2385:
2332:
2328:
2310:
2303:
2299:
2294:
2293:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2248:
2201:
2199:
2198:
2197:
2193:
2190:
2189:
2188:
2186:
2180:
2178:
2177:
2176:
2172:
2169:
2168:
2167:
2165:
2146:
2144:
2143:
2142:
2138:
2135:
2134:
2133:
2132:
2115:
2113:
2112:
2111:
2107:
2104:
2103:
2102:
2101:
2084:
2082:
2081:
2080:
2076:
2073:
2072:
2071:
2070:
2064:
2042:
2025:
2023:
2022:
2021:
2017:
2014:
2013:
2012:
2011:
2000:
1998:
1997:
1996:
1992:
1989:
1988:
1987:
1986:
1980:
1961:
1959:
1958:
1957:
1953:
1950:
1949:
1948:
1946:
1936:
1934:
1933:
1932:
1928:
1925:
1924:
1923:
1922:
1909:
1907:
1906:
1905:
1901:
1898:
1897:
1896:
1894:
1867:
1865:
1864:
1863:
1859:
1856:
1855:
1854:
1852:
1842:
1840:
1839:
1838:
1834:
1831:
1830:
1829:
1828:
1818:
1816:
1815:
1814:
1810:
1807:
1806:
1805:
1804:
1792:
1790:
1789:
1788:
1784:
1781:
1780:
1779:
1778:
1761:
1759:
1758:
1757:
1753:
1750:
1749:
1748:
1746:
1736:
1734:
1733:
1732:
1728:
1725:
1724:
1723:
1722:
1712:
1710:
1709:
1708:
1704:
1701:
1700:
1699:
1698:
1689:
1687:
1686:
1685:
1681:
1678:
1677:
1676:
1674:
1664:
1662:
1661:
1660:
1656:
1653:
1652:
1651:
1650:
1640:
1638:
1637:
1636:
1632:
1629:
1628:
1627:
1626:
1617:
1615:
1614:
1613:
1609:
1606:
1605:
1604:
1602:
1592:
1590:
1589:
1588:
1584:
1581:
1580:
1579:
1578:
1568:
1566:
1565:
1564:
1560:
1557:
1556:
1555:
1554:
1544:
1542:
1541:
1540:
1536:
1533:
1532:
1531:
1529:
1519:
1517:
1516:
1515:
1511:
1508:
1507:
1506:
1505:
1495:
1493:
1492:
1491:
1487:
1484:
1483:
1482:
1481:
1472:
1470:
1469:
1468:
1464:
1461:
1460:
1459:
1457:
1447:
1445:
1444:
1443:
1439:
1436:
1435:
1434:
1433:
1423:
1421:
1420:
1419:
1415:
1412:
1411:
1410:
1409:
1400:
1398:
1397:
1396:
1392:
1389:
1388:
1387:
1385:
1375:
1373:
1372:
1371:
1367:
1364:
1363:
1362:
1361:
1351:
1349:
1348:
1347:
1343:
1340:
1339:
1338:
1337:
1328:
1326:
1325:
1324:
1320:
1317:
1316:
1315:
1313:
1303:
1301:
1300:
1299:
1295:
1292:
1291:
1290:
1289:
1279:
1277:
1276:
1275:
1271:
1268:
1267:
1266:
1265:
1252:
1250:
1249:
1248:
1244:
1241:
1240:
1239:
1237:
1227:
1225:
1224:
1223:
1219:
1216:
1215:
1214:
1212:
1205:silicon burning
1197:nucleosynthesis
1150:
1060:
1052:Faraday Lecture
1036:Adolph Strecker
989:
988:
985:
984:
976:
969:
962:
955:
948:
941:
934:
927:
920:
913:
906:
899:
892:
885:
878:
871:
864:
857:
850:
843:
836:
829:
822:
815:
808:
801:
794:
787:
780:
773:
766:
759:
750:
743:
736:
729:
722:
715:
708:
701:
694:
687:
680:
673:
666:
659:
652:
645:
638:
631:
624:
617:
610:
603:
596:
589:
582:
575:
568:
561:
554:
547:
540:
533:
524:
517:
510:
503:
496:
489:
482:
475:
468:
461:
454:
447:
440:
433:
426:
419:
408:
401:
392:
385:
378:
371:
364:
357:
350:
343:
336:
329:
322:
315:
308:
301:
294:
287:
278:
271:
262:
255:
248:
241:
234:
227:
218:
211:
202:
195:
188:
181:
174:
167:
158:
151:
142:
133:
125:
118:
90:nuclear physics
36:
33:group 8 element
17:
12:
11:
5:
4204:
4194:
4193:
4188:
4171:
4170:
4164:
4163:
4158:
4153:
4148:
4140:
4138:
4135:
4134:
4130:
4129:
4120:
4111:
4102:
4093:
4084:
4075:
4066:
4057:
4048:
4039:
4030:
4021:
4012:
4003:
3994:
3985:
3976:
3967:
3958:
3949:
3940:
3931:
3922:
3913:
3904:
3895:
3886:
3877:
3868:
3859:
3850:
3841:
3835:
3834:
3825:
3816:
3807:
3798:
3789:
3780:
3771:
3762:
3753:
3744:
3735:
3726:
3717:
3708:
3699:
3690:
3681:
3672:
3663:
3654:
3645:
3636:
3627:
3618:
3609:
3600:
3591:
3582:
3573:
3564:
3555:
3546:
3540:
3539:
3530:
3521:
3512:
3503:
3494:
3485:
3476:
3467:
3458:
3449:
3440:
3431:
3422:
3413:
3404:
3395:
3393:
3384:
3375:
3369:
3368:
3359:
3350:
3341:
3332:
3323:
3314:
3305:
3296:
3287:
3278:
3269:
3260:
3251:
3242:
3233:
3224:
3222:
3213:
3204:
3198:
3197:
3188:
3179:
3170:
3161:
3152:
3143:
3141:
3132:
3123:
3117:
3116:
3107:
3098:
3089:
3080:
3071:
3062:
3060:
3051:
3042:
3036:
3035:
3026:
3024:
3015:
3009:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2908:
2907:
2904:Periodic table
2900:
2899:
2892:
2885:
2877:
2870:
2869:
2834:
2827:on 2017-10-01.
2794:(2): 633–730.
2769:
2737:1854/LU-685594
2688:
2661:
2608:Nature Physics
2595:
2587:
2579:Pergamon Press
2557:
2550:
2532:
2525:
2504:
2479:Mendeléeff, D.
2470:
2443:
2420:
2399:
2383:
2326:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2292:
2291:
2286:
2277:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2265:
2264:
2259:
2254:
2247:
2244:
2231:binding energy
2200:
2191:
2179:
2170:
2160:
2159:
2156:
2153:
2150:
2145:
2136:
2129:
2128:
2125:
2122:
2119:
2114:
2105:
2098:
2097:
2094:
2091:
2088:
2083:
2074:
2067:
2066:
2063:Binding energy
2061:
2058:
2055:
2049:
2048:
2045:
2044:
2040:
2037:
2034:
2031:
2024:
2015:
2008:
2005:
1999:
1990:
1983:
1982:
1978:
1975:
1970:
1967:
1960:
1951:
1944:
1941:
1935:
1926:
1908:
1899:
1877:
1876:
1873:
1872:
1866:
1857:
1850:
1847:
1841:
1832:
1826:
1823:
1817:
1808:
1791:
1782:
1771:
1770:
1767:
1766:
1760:
1751:
1744:
1741:
1735:
1726:
1720:
1717:
1711:
1702:
1695:
1694:
1688:
1679:
1672:
1669:
1663:
1654:
1648:
1645:
1639:
1630:
1623:
1622:
1616:
1607:
1600:
1597:
1591:
1582:
1576:
1573:
1567:
1558:
1551:
1550:
1543:
1534:
1527:
1524:
1518:
1509:
1503:
1500:
1494:
1485:
1478:
1477:
1471:
1462:
1455:
1452:
1446:
1437:
1431:
1428:
1422:
1413:
1406:
1405:
1399:
1390:
1383:
1380:
1374:
1365:
1359:
1356:
1350:
1341:
1334:
1333:
1327:
1318:
1311:
1308:
1302:
1293:
1287:
1284:
1278:
1269:
1251:
1242:
1226:
1217:
1149:
1146:
1098:
1097:
1086:
1071:
1059:
1056:
1048:atomic weights
1025:ferromagnetism
1017:platinum group
1009:periodic table
993:periodic table
981:
980:
973:
966:
959:
952:
945:
938:
931:
924:
917:
910:
903:
896:
889:
882:
875:
868:
861:
854:
847:
840:
833:
826:
819:
812:
805:
798:
791:
784:
777:
770:
763:
755:
754:
747:
740:
733:
726:
719:
712:
705:
698:
691:
684:
677:
670:
663:
656:
649:
642:
635:
628:
621:
614:
607:
600:
593:
586:
579:
572:
565:
558:
551:
544:
537:
529:
528:
521:
514:
507:
500:
493:
486:
479:
472:
465:
458:
451:
444:
437:
430:
423:
416:
414:
412:
405:
397:
396:
389:
382:
375:
368:
361:
354:
347:
340:
333:
326:
319:
312:
305:
298:
291:
284:
282:
275:
267:
266:
259:
252:
245:
238:
231:
224:
222:
215:
207:
206:
199:
192:
185:
178:
171:
164:
162:
155:
147:
146:
139:
137:
127:
126:
123:periodic table
117:
114:
60:period (row) 4
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4203:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4184:
4183:
4181:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4143:
4136:
4127:
4118:
4109:
4100:
4091:
4082:
4073:
4064:
4055:
4046:
4037:
4028:
4019:
4010:
4001:
3992:
3983:
3974:
3965:
3956:
3947:
3938:
3929:
3920:
3911:
3902:
3893:
3884:
3875:
3866:
3857:
3848:
3840:
3836:
3832:
3823:
3814:
3805:
3796:
3787:
3778:
3769:
3760:
3751:
3742:
3733:
3724:
3715:
3706:
3697:
3688:
3679:
3670:
3661:
3652:
3643:
3634:
3625:
3616:
3607:
3598:
3589:
3580:
3571:
3562:
3553:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3528:
3519:
3510:
3501:
3492:
3483:
3474:
3465:
3456:
3447:
3438:
3429:
3420:
3411:
3402:
3391:
3382:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3357:
3348:
3339:
3330:
3321:
3312:
3303:
3294:
3285:
3276:
3267:
3258:
3249:
3240:
3231:
3220:
3211:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3186:
3177:
3168:
3159:
3150:
3139:
3130:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3105:
3096:
3087:
3078:
3069:
3058:
3049:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3022:
3014:
3010:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2914:
2909:
2905:
2898:
2893:
2891:
2886:
2884:
2879:
2878:
2875:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2850:(7): 653–58,
2849:
2845:
2838:
2831:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2788:
2780:
2773:
2766:
2755:on 2020-09-07
2751:
2747:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2708:Phys. Lett. B
2702:
2698:
2692:
2684:
2680:
2677:(3): 030003.
2676:
2672:
2665:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2614:(3): 147–54,
2613:
2609:
2602:
2600:
2590:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2575:
2570:
2564:
2562:
2553:
2551:0-582-44367-9
2547:
2543:
2536:
2528:
2526:0-582-44367-9
2522:
2518:
2511:
2509:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2487:J. Chem. Soc.
2484:
2480:
2474:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2447:
2438:
2434:
2433:Chemical News
2430:
2424:
2415:
2414:
2409:
2403:
2394:
2387:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2330:
2324:
2323:9780854043330
2320:
2316:
2315:
2308:
2306:
2301:
2282:
2278:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2249:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2229:The curve of
2227:
2223:
2221:
2217:
2211:
2209:
2204:
2183:
2157:
2154:
2151:
2131:
2130:
2126:
2123:
2120:
2100:
2099:
2095:
2092:
2089:
2069:
2068:
2062:
2059:
2056:
2053:
2052:
2039: t
2038:
2035:
2032:
2029:
2009:
2006:
1985:
1984:
1977: t
1976:
1974:
1971:
1968:
1964:
1945:
1942:
1921:
1920:
1917:
1916:
1915:
1912:
1892:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1870:
1851:
1848:
1827:
1824:
1803:
1802:
1799:
1798:
1797:
1776:
1764:
1745:
1742:
1721:
1718:
1697:
1696:
1692:
1673:
1670:
1649:
1646:
1625:
1624:
1620:
1601:
1598:
1577:
1574:
1553:
1552:
1547:
1528:
1525:
1504:
1501:
1480:
1479:
1475:
1456:
1453:
1432:
1429:
1408:
1407:
1403:
1384:
1381:
1360:
1357:
1336:
1335:
1331:
1312:
1309:
1288:
1285:
1264:
1263:
1260:
1259:
1258:
1255:
1235:
1234:alpha process
1230:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1190:
1186:
1181:
1177:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1162:atomic number
1159:
1155:
1145:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1069:
1066:have soluble
1065:
1064:
1063:
1055:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1028:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
979:
974:
972:
967:
965:
960:
958:
953:
951:
946:
944:
939:
937:
932:
930:
925:
923:
918:
916:
911:
909:
904:
902:
897:
895:
890:
888:
883:
881:
879:Rutherfordium
876:
874:
869:
867:
862:
860:
855:
853:
848:
846:
841:
839:
834:
832:
827:
825:
820:
818:
813:
811:
806:
804:
799:
797:
792:
790:
785:
783:
778:
776:
771:
769:
764:
762:
757:
756:
753:
748:
746:
741:
739:
734:
732:
727:
725:
720:
718:
713:
711:
706:
704:
699:
697:
692:
690:
685:
683:
678:
676:
671:
669:
664:
662:
657:
655:
650:
648:
643:
641:
636:
634:
629:
627:
622:
620:
615:
613:
608:
606:
601:
599:
594:
592:
587:
585:
580:
578:
573:
571:
566:
564:
559:
557:
552:
550:
545:
543:
538:
536:
531:
530:
527:
522:
520:
515:
513:
508:
506:
501:
499:
494:
492:
487:
485:
480:
478:
473:
471:
466:
464:
459:
457:
452:
450:
445:
443:
438:
436:
431:
429:
424:
422:
417:
413:
411:
406:
404:
399:
398:
395:
390:
388:
383:
381:
376:
374:
369:
367:
362:
360:
355:
353:
348:
346:
341:
339:
334:
332:
327:
325:
320:
318:
313:
311:
306:
304:
299:
297:
292:
290:
285:
281:
276:
274:
269:
268:
265:
260:
258:
253:
251:
246:
244:
239:
237:
232:
230:
225:
221:
216:
214:
209:
208:
205:
200:
198:
193:
191:
186:
184:
179:
177:
172:
170:
165:
161:
156:
154:
149:
148:
145:
140:
136:
131:
130:
124:
113:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
82:
80:
76:
72:
68:
63:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
34:
30:
26:
22:
2847:
2844:Am. J. Phys.
2843:
2837:
2822:the original
2791:
2785:
2772:
2757:, retrieved
2750:the original
2714:(1–5): 1–6,
2711:
2707:
2691:
2674:
2670:
2664:
2611:
2607:
2573:
2541:
2535:
2516:
2490:
2486:
2473:
2463:
2459:
2446:
2436:
2432:
2423:
2412:
2408:Strecker, A.
2402:
2392:
2386:
2343:
2339:
2329:
2312:
2281:
2212:
2163:
2065:per nucleon
2057:Nuclide mass
2010:
1888:
1881:Type II
1878:
1772:
1201:Solar masses
1194:
1151:
1148:Astrophysics
1099:
1061:
1029:
990:
921:Darmstadtium
788:Protactinium
562:Praseodymium
86:astrophysics
83:
78:
64:
58:; mostly in
47:
37:
2765:Data tables
2439:: 113, 1866
2239:mass defect
2060:Mass defect
1085:conditions;
963:Livermorium
935:Copernicium
928:Roentgenium
858:Mendelevium
844:Einsteinium
837:Californium
4180:Categories
2759:2019-12-13
2577:. Oxford:
2493:: 634–56,
2297:References
1891:beta decay
1775:exothermic
1170:supernovae
1090:hydroxides
970:Tennessine
914:Meitnerium
893:Seaborgium
872:Lawrencium
611:Dysprosium
597:Gadolinium
576:Promethium
448:Technetium
441:Molybdenum
242:Phosphorus
79:iron triad
50:refers to
48:iron group
2801:0801.0028
2746:227119789
2656:118974639
2634:CiteSeerX
2353:1212.2410
2252:S-process
2216:s-process
1884:supernova
1126:zirconium
1118:beryllium
1110:manganese
1108:(Cr). If
1104:(Al) and
1102:aluminium
1068:chlorides
1044:Mendeleev
1040:Newlands'
995:, namely
977:Oganesson
956:Moscovium
949:Flerovium
830:Berkelium
816:Americium
809:Plutonium
802:Neptunium
639:Ytterbium
569:Neodymium
548:Lanthanum
511:Tellurium
469:Palladium
455:Ruthenium
427:Zirconium
409:Strontium
365:Germanium
316:Manganese
272:Potassium
228:Aluminium
219:Magnesium
159:Beryllium
98:manganese
40:chemistry
21:ruthenium
2699:(2008),
2481:(1889),
2460:Z. Chem.
2454:(1869),
2410:(1859),
2378:49331289
2246:See also
2220:neutrons
1185:Big Bang
1154:chromium
1130:vanadium
1122:titanium
1106:chromium
1075:sulfides
1023:exhibit
942:Nihonium
865:Nobelium
774:Actinium
760:Francium
744:Astatine
737:Polonium
716:Thallium
695:Platinum
667:Tungsten
660:Tantalum
646:Lutetium
590:Europium
583:Samarium
504:Antimony
402:Rubidium
379:Selenium
309:Chromium
302:Vanadium
295:Titanium
288:Scandium
256:Chlorine
196:Fluorine
182:Nitrogen
134:Hydrogen
106:vanadium
102:Titanium
94:chromium
52:elements
4161:p-block
4156:d-block
4151:f-block
4146:s-block
2852:Bibcode
2806:Bibcode
2716:Bibcode
2626:Bibcode
2466:: 405–6
2358:Bibcode
2346:: A24.
2235:nucleon
2033:+
2007:→
1969:+
1943:→
1849:→
1825:+
1743:→
1719:+
1671:→
1647:+
1599:→
1575:+
1549:
1526:→
1502:+
1454:→
1430:+
1382:→
1358:+
1310:→
1286:+
1211:nuclei
1138:thorium
1134:uranium
1094:ammonia
1034:and by
907:Hassium
900:Bohrium
886:Dubnium
851:Fermium
795:Uranium
781:Thorium
730:Bismuth
688:Iridium
674:Rhenium
653:Hafnium
632:Thulium
618:Holmium
604:Terbium
534:Caesium
483:Cadmium
462:Rhodium
434:Niobium
420:Yttrium
393:Krypton
386:Bromine
372:Arsenic
358:Gallium
279:Calcium
235:Silicon
152:Lithium
44:physics
29:hassium
2744:
2654:
2636:
2585:
2548:
2523:
2376:
2321:
2054:
2030:
2004:
1966:
1940:
1846:
1822:
1740:
1716:
1668:
1644:
1596:
1572:
1523:
1499:
1451:
1427:
1379:
1355:
1307:
1283:
1209:helium
1189:nuclei
1158:nickel
1142:cerium
1083:acidic
1021:alloys
1005:groups
1001:nickel
997:cobalt
823:Curium
767:Radium
681:Osmium
625:Erbium
555:Cerium
541:Barium
518:Iodine
490:Indium
476:Silver
344:Copper
337:Nickel
330:Cobalt
249:Sulfur
212:Sodium
189:Oxygen
175:Carbon
143:Helium
75:nickel
73:, and
71:cobalt
46:, the
31:, see
27:, and
25:osmium
2825:(PDF)
2796:arXiv
2782:(PDF)
2753:(PDF)
2742:S2CID
2704:(PDF)
2652:S2CID
2616:arXiv
2374:S2CID
2348:arXiv
2273:Notes
1232:(an "
1166:stars
1070:; and
751:Radon
525:Xenon
263:Argon
168:Boron
2583:ISBN
2546:ISBN
2521:ISBN
2319:ISBN
2233:per
2185:and
1168:and
1140:and
999:and
723:Lead
702:Gold
351:Zinc
323:Iron
203:Neon
104:and
96:and
88:and
67:iron
56:iron
42:and
2860:doi
2814:doi
2732:hdl
2724:doi
2712:667
2679:doi
2644:doi
2495:doi
2366:doi
2344:550
2287:1/2
2041:1/2
1979:1/2
1156:to
1081:in
1077:by
1027:.
1013:CAS
497:Tin
84:In
38:In
4182::
4125:Og
4116:Ts
4107:Lv
4098:Mc
4089:Fl
4080:Nh
4071:Cn
4062:Rg
4053:Ds
4044:Mt
4035:Hs
4026:Bh
4017:Sg
4008:Db
3999:Rf
3990:Lr
3981:No
3972:Md
3963:Fm
3954:Es
3945:Cf
3936:Bk
3927:Cm
3918:Am
3909:Pu
3900:Np
3882:Pa
3873:Th
3864:Ac
3855:Ra
3846:Fr
3830:Rn
3821:At
3812:Po
3803:Bi
3794:Pb
3785:Tl
3776:Hg
3767:Au
3758:Pt
3749:Ir
3740:Os
3731:Re
3713:Ta
3704:Hf
3695:Lu
3686:Yb
3677:Tm
3668:Er
3659:Ho
3650:Dy
3641:Tb
3632:Gd
3623:Eu
3614:Sm
3605:Pm
3596:Nd
3587:Pr
3578:Ce
3569:La
3560:Ba
3551:Cs
3535:Xe
3517:Te
3508:Sb
3499:Sn
3490:In
3481:Cd
3472:Ag
3463:Pd
3454:Rh
3445:Ru
3436:Tc
3427:Mo
3418:Nb
3409:Zr
3389:Sr
3380:Rb
3364:Kr
3355:Br
3346:Se
3337:As
3328:Ge
3319:Ga
3310:Zn
3301:Cu
3292:Ni
3283:Co
3274:Fe
3265:Mn
3256:Cr
3238:Ti
3229:Sc
3218:Ca
3193:Ar
3184:Cl
3157:Si
3148:Al
3137:Mg
3128:Na
3112:Ne
3056:Be
3047:Li
3031:He
3006:18
3001:17
2996:16
2991:15
2986:14
2981:13
2976:12
2971:11
2966:10
2858:,
2848:63
2846:,
2812:.
2804:.
2792:80
2790:.
2784:.
2763:.
2740:,
2730:,
2722:,
2710:,
2706:,
2675:45
2673:.
2650:,
2642:,
2632:,
2624:,
2610:,
2598:^
2560:^
2507:^
2491:55
2489:,
2485:,
2464:12
2462:,
2458:,
2437:13
2435:,
2431:,
2372:.
2364:.
2356:.
2342:.
2338:.
2304:^
2196:Fe
2192:26
2175:Ni
2171:28
2141:Fe
2137:26
2110:Fe
2106:26
2079:Ni
2075:28
2020:Fe
2016:26
1995:Co
1991:27
1956:Co
1952:27
1931:Ni
1927:28
1914:.
1904:Fe
1900:26
1886:.
1862:Zn
1858:30
1837:He
1813:Ni
1809:28
1787:Ni
1783:28
1756:Ni
1752:28
1731:He
1707:Fe
1703:26
1684:Fe
1680:26
1659:He
1635:Cr
1631:24
1612:Cr
1608:24
1587:He
1563:Ti
1559:22
1539:Ti
1535:22
1514:He
1490:Ca
1486:20
1467:Ca
1463:20
1442:He
1418:Ar
1414:18
1395:Ar
1391:18
1370:He
1342:16
1319:16
1298:He
1274:Si
1270:14
1257::
1247:Si
1243:14
1222:He
1176:.
1144:.
1136:,
1132:,
1128:,
1124:,
1120:,
1054:.
112:.
69:,
23:,
3891:U
3839:7
3722:W
3544:6
3526:I
3400:Y
3373:5
3247:V
3209:K
3202:4
3175:S
3166:P
3121:3
3103:F
3094:O
3085:N
3076:C
3067:B
3040:2
3020:H
3013:1
2961:9
2956:8
2951:7
2946:6
2941:5
2936:4
2931:3
2924:2
2919:1
2896:e
2889:t
2882:v
2867:.
2862::
2854::
2832:.
2816::
2808::
2798::
2767:.
2734::
2726::
2718::
2685:.
2681::
2659:.
2646::
2628::
2618::
2612:1
2593:.
2591:.
2555:.
2530:.
2502:.
2497::
2468:.
2441:.
2418:.
2397:.
2380:.
2368::
2360::
2350::
2036:β
1973:β
1833:2
1727:2
1655:2
1583:2
1510:2
1438:2
1366:2
1346:S
1323:S
1294:2
1218:2
1096:.
35:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.