Islamic fundamentalism in Iran

1774:"Our long years of negotiations with foreign countries... have yielded no results this far. With the oil revenues we could meet our entire budget and combat poverty, disease, and backwardness among our people. Another important consideration is that by the elimination of the power of the British company, we would also eliminate corruption and intrigue, by means of which the internal affairs of our country have been influenced. Once this tutelage has ceased, Iran will have achieved its economic and political independence. The Iranian state prefers to take over the production of petroleum itself. The company should do nothing else but return its property to the rightful owners. The nationalization law provide that 25% of the net profits on oil be set aside to meet all the legitimate claims of the company for compensation... It has been asserted abroad that Iran intends to expel the foreign oil experts from the country and then shut down oil installations. Not only is this allegation absurd; it is utter invention..." 2821:. This has been called the moment that turned agitation into revolution as "the entire opposition" from secular middle class to urban poor "rose in his defense". Khomeini "unleashed" his partisans, and the bazaars were closed down. Frustrated youth in Qom took to the streets, six were killed. On 40th day of deaths in Qom, Tabriz saw uprising and deaths. Mullahs who had hitherto withheld support from Khomeini and his doctrines "now fell in line", providing the resources of "over 20,000 properties and buildings throughout Iran", where Muslims "gathered to talk and receive orders". The chain-reaction started and led to uprisings in all cities, starting "a spiral of provocation, repression and polarization that rose steadily until the shah was forced to depart". Seizing the moment, Khomeini gave an interview to the French newspaper 4022:"We can see that in the world today there are nations with constitutions going back 200 to 300 years. The governments of these nations, which occasionally protest against the Islamic Republic, firmly safeguard their own constitutions. They clutch firmly to safeguard centuries-old constitutions to protect them frocem harm. However, when it comes to us and as we show commitment to our constitution and values, they accuse us of fundamentalism or describe us as reactionaries. In other words, the American fundameentalism is viewed as a positive virtue, whereas Islamic fundamentalism–based on logic, wisdom, experience and desire for independence–is condemned as some sort of debasement. Of course, they no longer use that term fundamentalism to describe us, instead they refer to us as conservatives." 1065: 2207: 2137: 2739:), according to which clerics may assume political leadership if the current government is found to rule against the interests of the public. Contrary to Khomeini, Shariatmadari adhered to the traditional Twelver Shiite view, according to which the clergy ought to serve society and remain aloof from politics. Furthermore, Shariatmadari strongly believed that no system of government can be coerced upon a people, no matter how morally correct it may be. Instead, people need to be able to freely elect a government. He believed a democratic government where the people administer their own affairs is perfectly compatible with the correct interpretation of the Leadership of the Jurists. Before the revolution, Shariatmadari wanted a return to the system of 1861:"especially after 1961, the crown encouraged the rapid growth of consumer-goods industries, pushed the acquisition of armaments even beyond what Iran's growing oil-rich budgets could stand, and instituted agrarian reforms that emphasized government control and investment in large, mechanized farms. Displaced peasants and tribespeople fled to the cities, where they formed a discontented sub-proletariat. People were torn from ancestral ways, the gap between the rich and the poor grew, corruption was rampant and well known, and the secret police, with its arbitrary arrests and use of torture, turned Iranians of all levels against the regime. And the presence and heavy influence of foreigners provided major, further aggravation. 4948:. Afrough stated, "If we do not actively seek cultural change, our national and ethnic cultures get destroyed. We must consciously choose to answer the questions confronting us. Today's question is civil society ... I believe we can easily reconstruct civil society here (in Iran) based on our own values and cultural characteristics. Civil society is a necessity, and the growing complexity of society requires it. Our historical past also supports it. In reality, in Iran, as in elsewhere in the Middle East, the only obstacle to civil society is the state." Mesbah-Yazdi, however, stated: "It doesn't matter what the people think. The people are ignorant sheep." 2940:(Islam Governs Life), and declared that joining Ba'ath party was prohibited. Khomeini responding by issuing public statements supporting his cause, that resulted in an uprising in Iraq. Sadr told his followers to call off demonstrations as he sensed the Sunni dominated Ba'ath party's preparations for a crackdown. The crackdown began by his arrest, in response to which the demonstrations spread nation-wide and the government had to release him the next day. The Ba'athists started to arrest and execute the second layer of leadership and killed 258 members of the Dawa party. Dawa party responded by violence and threw a bomb at 234: 2673:“As for wilayah (guardianship) of omour al-hesbiah (non-litigious affairs) such as the maintenance of properties of the missing and the orphans, if they are not addressed to preservation by a wali (guardian) or so, it is proven for the faqih jame'a li-sharaet and likewise waqf properties that do not have a mutawalli (trustee) on behalf of waqif (donor of waqf) and continuance pleadings, the judgement regarding litigation is in his hand and similar authorities, but with regards to the excess of that (guardianship) the most popular (opinion) among the jurists is on absence of its evidence, Allah knows best.” 2958:(September 1980 – August 1988). A combination of fierce resistance by Iranians and military incompetence by Iraqi forces soon stalled the Iraqi advance and, despite Saddam's internationally condemned use of poison gas, Iran had by early 1982 regained almost all of the territory lost to the invasion. The invasion rallied Iranians behind the new regime, enhancing Khomeini's stature and allowing him to consolidate and stabilize his leadership. After this reversal, Khomeini refused an Iraqi offer of a truce, instead demanding reparations and the toppling of Saddam Hussein from power. 1205:"At the beginning of the constitutional movement, when people wanted to write laws and draw up a constitution, a copy of the Belgian legal code was borrowed from the Belgian embassy and a handful of individuals (whose names I do not wish to mention here) used it as the basis for the constitution they then wrote, supplementing its deficiencies with borrowings from the French and British legal codes. True, they added some of the ordinances of Islam in order to deceive the people, but the basis of the laws that were now thrust upon the people was alien and borrowed." 2579: 1816: 2974:"At the religious seminaries, there are individuals who are engaged in activities against the revolution and the pure Islam (Persian: اسلام ناب محمدی). Today they are simply sanctimonious posers, some are undermining religion, revolution and system as if they have no other obligation. The menace of the foolish reactionaries and sanctimonious clerics at religious seminaries is not insignificant. ... The first and most significant move is the induction of the slogan of separation of religion from politics." 4562:, stated that the perceived threat of Islamic fundamentalism to world peace and security is based on a politically and ideologically motivated misinterpretation of the reformist nature of Islamic revival. He claimed that the portrayal of Iran as a terrorist state strengthened the extremists and weakened democratic reformists groups in Iran. Noorbaksh: "The spread of democracy and the introduction of socio-political reforms in the Middle East, especially in Iran, will undermine US domination over the region." 4815:

sixth parliament had fought. In July 2007, Khamenei criticized Iranian women's rights activists and CEDAW: "In our country ... some activist women, and some men, have been trying to play with Islamic rules in order to match international conventions related to women," Khamenei said. "This is wrong." However he was positive on interpreting Islamic law in a way that it is more favorable for women–but not by adopting Western conventions. Khamenei made these comments two days after women's right activist

2689: 3943:. Criticizing Mesbah-Yazdi and Haghani school, Beheshti said: "Controversial and provocative positions that are coupled with violence, in my opinion...will have the reverse effect. Such positions remind many individuals of the wielding of threats of ex-communication that you have read about in history concerning the age of the Inquisition, the ideas of the Church, and the Middle Ages". Motahhari, Khomeini's most notable student, was known as one of the revolution's main theoreticians (next to 2328: 1453:). during the occultation of the twelfth Imam, the governments can either be imperfectly just or oppressive. Limiting the sovereign's power through a constitution means limiting tyranny. Since it was the duty of the believer to fight injustice, they ought to work to strengthen the democratic process—reforming the economic system, modernizing the military, establishing an educational system. At the same time, constitutional government was the option of both "Muslims or unbelievers". 3768: 1001: 1796: 2081: 4070:"We will never surrender Islam in the face of human rights concerns ... During the adoption of these (human rights) laws, the world of Islam was in complete ignorance while liberals and secular parties formulated and imposed these laws onto the entire world ... We must elucidate punishment by stoning clearly to those who denounce it. We had a revolution so that Islamic laws would be implemented ... We will never give up Islam in the face of these challenges". 2999: 4877:

Mesbah-Yazdi stated that "the taboo–that every act of violence is bad and every act of tolerance is good–must be broken." Opponents of violence–"even some of the elite"–have been "deceived and entrapped" by "foreign propaganda," he said. Mesbah-Yazdi believes that "The enemies of Islam must also feel the harshness and violence of Islam." He also stated that "The culture of tolerance and indulgence means the disarming of society of its defense mechanism."

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theologians in criticizing the Husseinieh-i Ershad; by openly attacking the apolitical and the pro-regime `ulama; by stressing such themes as revolution, anti-imperialism, and the radical message of Muharram; and by incorporating into his public declarations such 'Fanonist' terms as the 'mostazafin will inherit the earth', 'the country needs a cultural revolution', and the 'people will dump the exploiters onto the garbage heap of history.'"

1560: 5048:, calling it self-defeating. Dissident seminarians have distanced themselves from relativism, calling themselves legitimate religious authorities. It is unclear how the dissidents reconcile the two seminary norms of open debate and scholarly authority, or what political ramifications might follow from such a reconciliation. The dissidents are creating an unprecedentedly rich documentary record of Islamic critique of the Islamic state. 2599: 869: 3029: 2408: 2799: 1644:"The country was saved by Islam and with the power of faith ... The Shah and prime minister and ministers have to be believers in and promoters of, shi'ism, and the laws that are in opposition to the divine laws of God ... must be nullified ... The intoxicants, the shameful exposure and carelessness of women, and sexually provocative music ... must be done away with and the superior teachings of Islam ... must replace them." 5204: 3780: 562: 9459: 76: 35: 2172:—who is perceived as a 'tyrant' by Shias and responsible for the death of Imam Ali—and the Shah, denouncing the Shah as a "wretched, miserable man," and warning him that if he did not change his ways the day would come when the people would no longer tolerate him. Two days later, Khomeini was arrested and transferred to Tehran. Following this action, there were three days of major riots throughout Iran, known as the 5218: 551: 4619: 2783: 4843:

Musa Al-reza who reasoned that at the time of marriage man has to pay something to woman and woman receives something, and that men are responsible for both their wives' and their own expenses but women have no such responsibility. Women, however, make up 27% of the Iranian labor force, and the percentage of all Iranian women who are economically active more than doubled from 6.1% in 1986 to 13.7% in 2000.

2936:, and to undermine Iranian Islamic revolutionary attempts to incite the Shi'a majority of his country. While Khomeini was in Paris, Baqir al-Sadr in Iraq had issued a long statement to the Iranians praising their uprising. After the 1979 revolution, he sent his students to Iran to show support and called on Arabs to support the newly born Islamist state. He published a collection of six essays titled 2042:

is their duty to develop their power and expel the colonialists ... American Islam is consulted on the issued of birth control, the entry of women into Parliament, and on matters that impair ritual ablutions. However, it is jot consulted on the matter of our social and economic affairs and fiscal system, nor is it consulted on political and national affairs and our connections with colonialism.

2681: 4371: 4976: 1513:"there are important similarities between much of the Fedāʾīān's basic views and certain principles and actions of the Islamic Republic of Iran: the Fedāʾīān and Ayatollah Khomeini were in accord on issues such as the role of clerics , morality and ethics, Islamic justice , the place of the underclass , the rights of women and religious minorities , and attitudes toward foreign powers ." 1628:"We are alive and God, the revengeful, is alert. The blood of the destitute has long been dripping from the fingers of the selfish pleasure seekers, who are hiding, each with a different name and in a different colour, behind black curtains of oppression, thievery and crime. Once in a while the divine retribution puts them in their place, but the rest of them do not learn a lesson ..." 1473:. Under his rule Iran was militarily united, a 100,000-man standing army created, uniform Persian culture emphasized, and ambitious development projects undertaken: 1300 km railway linking the Persian Gulf with the Caspian Sea was built, a university, and free, compulsory primary education for both boys and girls was established while private religious schools were shut down. 4496: 1854:

changes in their lives, decline of traditional feudal values, and industrialization, changing the socio-political atmosphere and created new questions. By 1976, 47% of Iran's total population was concentrated in large cities. Between 42 and 50% of the population of Tehran lived on rent, 10% owned private car and 82.7% of all national companies were registered in the Capital.

2540:, he was imprisoned on several occasions over the decades, "as a young preacher, as a mid-ranking cleric, and as a senior religious leader just before the revolution," and served a total of a dozen years in prison. In his time in prison he developed connections with leftist political prisoners and the influence of the left on his thinking was reflected in his famous book 2656:, the leading Shia ayatollah at the time the book was published rejected Khomeini's argument on the grounds that the authority of jurist in the age of occultation of the Infallible Imam, is limited to the guardianship of orphans and social welfare and most jurists believed there was an "absence of evidence" for extending it to the political sphere. 2951:, established firm control over the government. Those spared were given weapons and directed to execute their comrades. On 31 March 1980, the government passed a law sentencing all present and past members of the Dawa party to death. Sadr called on people to uprising. He and his vocal sister were arrested on 5 April 1980 and killed three days later. 1746:. Originally he and nationalization had mass support, with a core of "modern or politically literate middle-income or underprivileged segments of the urban population", but expanding to include "considerable support" from traditional sectors such as "guilds of restaurant owners, coffee and teahouse owners". He was overthrown on 19 August 1953, 1183:. But the alliance was based on common enemies rather than common goals. The ulama sought "to extend their own power and to have Shi'i Islam more strictly enforced"; the liberals and radicals desired "greater political and social democracy and economic development"; and the bazaaris "to restrict favored foreign economic status and competition". 2560:"Taleghani, you are the soul of the revolution! Down with the reactionaries!" Khomeini summoned Taleghani to Qom where he was given a severe criticism after which the press was called and told by Khomeini: "Mr. Taleghani is with us and he is sorry for what happened." Khomeini pointedly did not refer to him as Ayatollah Taleghani. 8990: 1424:, a close associate and student of Behbahani, agreed that in the absence of Imam Mahdi, all governments are doomed to be imperfect and unjust, and therefore people had to prefer the bad (democracy) over the worse (absolutism). He opposed both "tyrannical Ulema" and radical majoritarianism, supporting features of 1050:

resources, and other public works in exchange for a fixed sum and 60% of net revenue. This concession was rolled back after bitter local opposition. Other concessions to the British included giving the new Imperial Bank of Persia exclusive rights to issue banknotes, and opening up the Karun River to navigation.

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differences, and all with impartiality". Neo-principalists gave a messianic interpretation to the concept, one that promised equal distribution of societal resources to all—including the "unequals." And finally, those with a liberal orientation related the notion of justice to the French revolutionary slogan of

2667:أما الولاية على الأمور الحسبية كحفظ أموال الغائب واليتيم إذا لم يكن من يتصدى لحفظها كالولي أو نحوه، فهي ثابتة للفقيه الجامع للشرائط وكذا الموقوفات التي ليس لها متولي من قبل الواقف والمرافعات، فإن فصل الخصومة فيها بيد الفقيه وأمثال ذلك، وأما الزائد على ذلك فالمشهور بين الفقهاء على عدم الثبوت، والله العالم 4799:

Factional conflict dominated Iranian economic politics under Khomeini. The two principal factions were a statist-reformist group that favored state control of the economy and a conservative group that favored the private sector. Both factions claimed Khomeini's support, but by 1987, he had sided with

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as legitimate under Islam. According to ALQRS, attaining "maximum welfare" in a neoclassical sense is the aim of an Islamic economic system. However, the system must establish the limits of individual rights. In accordance with this ideological-methodological manifesto of the ALQRS, in February 1984,

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and the role of people and elections are merely to discover the leader, whose legitimacy comes from God and not the people. In January 2007, Rafsanjani, who won the 2006 election for Assembly of Experts, rejected this idea and emphasized the fact that the leader and the cleric members of the Assembly

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Since Khatami's election in 1997, two outlooks toward the achievement of reform in Iran have predominated: "Reformists" within the regime (in-system reformers) claim that the Constitution has the capacity to lead the "Revolutionary" government of Iran toward "democracy." By contrast, secularists, who

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After the revolution and the subsequent liquidation of the and secular-leftist groups, two principal ideological camps became dominant in Iranian politics: the fundamentalists and the radicals. The radicals followed the Khomeini of the revolution rather than his incumbency or his theocratic vision of

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Meanwhile, in Iraq, since 1972, The Ba'ath regime in Iraq had started arresting and killing members of the Dawa party. Ayatullah Khoei, Baqir al-Sadr and Khomeini condemned the act. Sadr issued a fatwa forbidding students of religious schools and clerics from joining any political party. In 1977, the

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While in exile, Khomeini gave a series of 19 lectures to a group of his students from January 21 to February 8, 1970, on Islamic Government, and elevated Naraqi's idea of Jurist's absolute authority over imitator's personal life to all aspects of social life. Notes of the lectures were soon made into

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The Islam that America and its allies desire in the Middle East does not resist colonialism and tyranny, but rather resists Communism only. They do not want Islam to govern and can not abide it to rule because when Islam governs, it will raise a different breed of humans and will teach people that it

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was "ostensible neutral", but allied with the UK and worried about the influence of Iran's huge neighbor and leader of the communist bloc, the Soviet Union, the Truman administration "quietly abided by the boycott". As U.S. worries over Iran's political and economic deterioration increased, and that

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According to Fakhreddin Azimi, in the "modern Iranian historical and political consciousness" the 1953 coup "occupies an immensely significant place". The coup is "widely seen as a rupture, a watershed, a turning point when imperialist domination, overcoming a defiant challenge, reestablished itself,

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In 2007, Khamenei claimed that "Today, homosexuality is a major problem in the western world. They however ignore it. But the reality is that homosexuality has become a serious challenge, pain and unsolvable problem for the intellectuals in the west." Khamenei, however did not name any individuals.

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party from running. It did not allow 80 members of the 6th Iranian parliament (including the deputy speaker) to run. Apart from Khamenei, many conservative theorists such as Afrough supported the decision of the council and accused the reformist parliament members of "being liberal, secular and with

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Like many other Grand Ayatollahs, Khamenei believes that women should be wives and mothers. He publicly stated, "The real value of a woman is measured by how much she makes the family environment for her husband and children like a paradise." In July 1997 Khamenei said that the idea of women's equal

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Another important issue is the concept of "insider-outsider" introduced by Khamenei, later the supreme leader. In his administration outsiders have fewer rights compared to insiders and cannot assume administrative posts. He stated that "I mean, you must trust an insider as a member of your clique.

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Khomeini attacked the Shah not only for the White Revolution but for violating the constitution, the spread of moral corruption, submission to the United States and Israel, and in October 1964 for "capitulations" or diplomatic immunity granted by the Shah to American military personnel in Iran. The

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Mosaddeq was to his supporters struggling to "overcome orchestrated oppositional machinations through a consistently defiant, transparent, morally unassailable, principle-driven stance." In Iranian domestic politics, the legacy of the coup was the firmly held belief by many Iranians "that the United

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In March 1890 Naser al-Din Shah granted a concession to an Englishman for a 50-year monopoly over the distribution and exportation of tobacco. Iranians cultivated a variety of tobacco "much prized in foreign markets" that was not grown elsewhere, and the arrangement threatened the job security of a

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Islamic scholarship in Iran has a long tradition of debate and critique. This tradition poses a challenge to the constitutional order, as seminary-trained scholars studied basic issues of state legitimacy, in particular the state's right to insist on interpretive closure. For example, Mesbah-Yazdi,

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went up by eleven years between 1980 and 2000 for both men and women. With respect to family planning, "levels of childbearing have declined faster than in any other country," going from 5.6 births per woman in 1985 to 2.0 in 2000, a drop accomplished by a voluntary, but government-sponsored, birth

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The concept of "Islamic economics" disappeared soon after the revolutionary heat dissipated (the end of the 1980s and after Khomeini's death). It disappeared from Iranian political discourse for fifteen years. In the June 2005 presidential elections, neither Ahmadinejad, nor any of his reformist or

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In 2007, Javad Shamghadri, artistic advisor to President Ahmadinejad, publicly stated that: "Like many other countries in the world, Iran too can get along without a film industry." He added, "Only 20 percent of people go to the cinema, and their needs can be provided through the national radio and

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was the call for seminary-university unity. The original idea was a reconciliation between science and religion. Seminary-university unity was an attempted resolution of the historical conflict between science and religion. After the revolution, as clerics came to rule over the country, the idea of

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Iran's education system was "substantially superior" to that of its neighbors, and by 1979 had about 175,000 students, 67, 000 studying abroad away from the supervision of its oppressive security force the SAVAK. The early 1970s saw a "blossoming of Marxist groups" around the world including among

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Until the infallible Imam returned to establish an Islamic system of governance with himself governing, "human experience and careful reflection" indicated that democracy brought a set of "limitations and conditions" on the head of state and government officials keeping them within "boundaries that

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Furthermore, Nouri was an "Islamic traditionalist" or Fundamentalist rather than an Islamist. He opposed the Constitutionalists concept of limiting the powers of the monarchy, but not because he wanted monarchy abolished (like Khomeini and his followers) but because "obedience to the monarchy was a

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As in other parts of the Muslim world, the question of how to strengthen the homeland against foreign encroachment and exploitation divided religious scholars and intellectuals. While many Iranians saw constitutional representative government as a necessary step, conservative clerics (like Khomeini

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Fundamentalist scholars justify the different religious laws for men and women by referring to their biological and sociological differences. For example, regarding the inheritance law which states that women's share of inheritance is half that of men, Ayatollah Makarim Shirazi quotes Imam Ali ibn

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Principalists pushed traditional garb soon after the revolution of 1979, which had been outlawed by Pahlavi. Since then the police attack women who do not adhere to the tradition. Fighting such women is considered "fighting morally corrupt people" by principalists. In 2007 a national crackdown was

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The association is composed of conservative elements of Iran's political culture, including the nation's foremost politicized clerics, the Friday prayer leaders in most of Iran's metropolitan areas, the bazaar merchants, and the Supreme Leader. Not surprisingly, members of this faction support the

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Political Islam consists of an array of movements in the Muslim world that hold that political power is an essential instrument for constructing a God-fearing society. They believe that Muslims can fulfill their religious obligations only when public law sanctions and encourages pious behavior. To

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to an artisan's fashioning an everyday pot. Many principalists even seek a Qur'anic basis for modern man's dominion over and destruction of nature by referring to the injunction to 'dominate the earth'–misconstruing the idea of viceregency: that man is expected to be the perfect servant of God. An

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nearly a century earlier, the concept of justice was at the center of the debates among the followers of the three Islamic orientations. The principalists adhered to the traditional notion of Islamic justice that states "equals should be treated alike, but unequal proportionately to their relevant

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After one failed uprising, some of the young revolutionaries, realizing that the religious Iranian masses were not relating to Marxist concepts, began projecting "the Messianic expectations of communist and Third World peoples onto Revolutionary Shi'ism.", i.e. socialist Shi'ism. Ali Shariati was

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cultural identity, and a transformation of Iran into a passive market for Western goods and a pawn in Western geopolitics. Al-e-Ahmad "spearheaded" the search by Western educated/secular Iranians for "Islamic roots", and although he advocated a return to Islam his works "contained a strong Marxist

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Critics hold Mosaddegh and his supporters responsible for failing "to create an organization capable of mobilizing broad support for their movement"; refusing "to take the difficult steps necessary to settle the oil dispute; and not acting "forcefully against their various opponents, either before

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Shari'a covers all regulations of government, and specifies all obligations and duties, so the needs of the people of Iran in matters of law are limited to the business of government, which, by reason of universal accidents, has become separated from Shari'a. ... Now the people have thrown out the

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Khomeini, (though only a child at the time of the revolution), asserted later that the constitution of 1906 was the work of (Iranian) agents of imperialist Britain, conspiring against Islam who "were instructed by their masters to take advantage of the idea of constitutionalism in order to deceive

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Whether the protest demonstrated that Iran could not be free of foreign exploitation with a corrupt, antiquated dictatorship; or whether it showed that it was Islamic clerics (and not secular thinkers/leaders) that had the moral integrity and popular influence to lead Iran against corrupt monarchs

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This discourse was eventually tagged with the Persian neologism osulgarāi, a word that can be translated into English as "fundamentalist", since "osul" means "doctrine", "root", or "tenet". According to several Iranian journalists, state-funded media were aware of the negative connotation of this

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Iraq also targeted Iranian civilians with chemical weapons. Many thousands were killed in attacks on populations in villages and towns, as well as front-line hospitals. Many still suffer from the effects. In December 2006, Hussein said he would take responsibility "with honour" for any attacks on

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Principalists, irrespective of their gender, promote a strictly limited lifestyle for women. The women in the seventh Iranian parliament were against the proposal to join the Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), for which the female reformists in the

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was founded by Ayatollah Khomeini. In 1991, Ali Khamenei revised the organization's structure and plans to promote religious and moral ideas through art and literature. According to the Minister of Culture, Hossein Saffar Harandi, the funds for Qur'anic activities would increase fourfold by 2007.

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these groups operate arbitrary checkpoints around Tehran, while uniformed police refrain from confronting them. "Illegal prisons, which are outside of the oversight of the National Prisons Office, are sites where political prisoners are abused, intimidated, and tortured with impunity." On 8 March

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criticized Khomeini's system of government as not being compatible with Islam or representing the will of the Iranian people. He severely criticized the way in which a referendum was conducted to establish Khomeini's rule. In response, Khomeini put him under house arrest and imprisoned his family

2468:), who he and other leftist Shia believed were standing in the way of the revolutionary potential of the masses, by focusing on mourning and lamentation for the martyrs, awaiting the return of the messiah, when they should have been fighting "against the state injustice begun by Ali and Hussein". 1508:

Fada'ian-e Islam (in English, literally "Self-Sacrificers of Islam") was a Shia fundamentalist group in Iran founded in 1946 and crushed in 1955. The Fada'ian "did not compare either in rank, number or popular base" with the mainstream conservative and progressive tendencies among the clergy, but

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that seek a return to the original texts and the inspiration of the original believers of Islam. Issues of importance to the movement include the elimination of foreign, non-Islamic ideas and practices from Iran's society, economy and political system. It is often contrasted with other strains of

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in Tehran after the fall of Iran's interim government, In the late July 1979. He clashed with Khomeini in April 1979, warning the leadership against a 'return to despotism.'" After two of his sons were arrested by revolutionary Guards, thousands of his supporters marched in the streets chanting

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The newly emerged Islamic movement ... had a pressing need for codified ideological foundations ... Most writings on Islam at the time lacked any direct discussions of the ongoing struggles of the Muslim people ... Few individuals who fought in the fiercest skirmishes of that battlefield made up

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On 16 January 1979, Shah left the country "on vacation", never to return and to die of cancer a year and a half later. By 11 February 1979, the monarchy was officially brought down and Khomeini assumed leadership over Iran while guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed Pahlavi loyalists in armed

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showed greater flexibility and tolerance than Islamists in accommodating modern values, for example he considered non-Muslims as equal citizens of the nation-state, stopped the harsh punishments like stoning and favored the use of holy books other than Quran for oaths taken from non-Muslims. In

2222:, who tried to convince him to apologize for his harsh rhetoric and going forward, cease his opposition to the Shah and his government. When Khomeini refused, Mansur slapped him in the face in a fit of rage. Two months later, Mansur was assassinated on his way to parliament. Four members of the 1853:

started major projects of converting the capital into a metropolis. Between 1956 and 1966, the rapid industrialization coupled with land reforms and improved health systems, building of dams and roads, released some three million peasants from countryside into the cities. This resulted in rapid

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The AIOC management "immediately staged an economic boycott, with backing from the other major international oil companies, while the British government started an aggressive, semi-covert campaign to destabilize the Mosaddeq regime." The United States, the leader of the "Free world" bloc in the

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Iranians felt exploited by the British, whose Anglo-Iranian Oil Company paid Iran royalties of $ 45 million for its oil in 1950, while paying the British government "taxes of $ 142 million on profits from that crude and its downstream products." The Iranian operations of the Anglo-Iranian Oil

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and Khomeini's death, pragmatists under Rafsanjani's leadership sought to normalize relations with other countries, particularly those in the region, by playing down the export idea. After Ahmadinejad's victory in the 2005 elections and the defeat of pragmatists/reformists (under Khatami), the

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Abdolkarim Soroush stated that if a people's religious identity becomes more salient than its national identity, fundamentalism rises. In other words, fundamentalism can be seen as "identity-ism." Many of the religious remarks that are made in Iran, especially from official platforms, rest the

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chief had visited Iran with a suitcase stuffed with dollars to pay opinion-formers. He stated, "What is dangerous is that agents of the enemy, the CIA, have infiltrated the government and the cultural services." On top of its official budget for Iran, the CIA had given "hundreds of millions of

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The "phenomenal popularity" of Shari'ati among the "young intelligentsia" helped open up the "modern middle class" to Khomeini. Shari'ati was often anticlerical but Khomeini was able to "win over his followers by being forthright in his denunciations of the monarchy; by refusing to join fellow

1171:

It ended in December 1911 when deputies of the Second Majlis, suffering from "internal dissension, apathy of the masses, antagonisms from the upper class, and open enmity from Britain and Russia", were "roughly" expelled from the Majlis and threatened with death if they returned by "the shah's

4876:

as saying that "in cultural issues, a policy of tolerance and laxity is not acceptable." Mesbah-Yazdi, a member of the Assembly of Experts, said about Islam's enemies: "They presented principles such as tolerance and compromise as absolute values while violence was introduced as a non-value."

1049:

Perhaps worst of all the indignities Iran suffered from the superior militaries of European powers were "a series of commercial capitulations." In 1872, Nasir al-Din Shah negotiated a concession granting a British citizen control over Persian roads, telegraphs, mills, factories, extraction of

5340:

ideas", i.e. conservative revivalist Sunni ideas, have "gained a foothold", according to Peyman Asadzade of Manara magazine. There have also been Sunni Islamist/fundamentalist activity in the form of attacks by extremist groups such as ISIS, who the Islamic Republic regime suspects of having

4853:

Women are only allowed to sing in chorus, and are not allowed to attend sport stadiums. In 2006 Ahmadinejad surprisingly ordered the vice president to allocate half of the Azadi Soccer Stadium to women. Six Grand Ayatollahs and several MPs protested the move, and finally Khamenei ordered the

2645:(to deceive Iranian censors). This short treatise was smuggled into Iran and "widely distributed" to Khomeini supporters before the revolution. It was "the first time a leading Shiite cleric had thrown his full weight as a doctor of the law behind the ideas of modern Islamist intellectuals." 1296:

But the sincerity of his religious beliefs has been questioned. Nouri was a wealthy, well-connected court official responsible for conducting marriages and contracts. Before opposing the idea of democratic reform he had been one of the leaders of the constitutional movement, but reversed his

1217:"The Shiʿite state is confined to Persia, and their prestige and prosperity depended upon it. Why have you permitted the ruin of Persia and the utter humiliation of the Shiʿite state? ... You may reply that the mullahs did not allow . This is not credible. ... I can foresee that my country ( 1045:

In the late 19th century, like most of the Muslim world, Iran suffered from foreign (European) intrusion and exploitation, military weakness, lack of cohesion, corruption. Under the Qajar dynasty (1789–1925), foreign (Western) mass-manufactured products, undercut the products of the bazaar,

840:

Fundamentalists—Like Traditionalists and unlike Traditionists, Fundamentalists are against modernity and openly criticize it, Unlike both Traditionalists and Traditionists, fundamentalists believe that to revive the religion and put a stop to modernity they need to gain social and political

2755:

hoping to stop revolutionary protests. After a series of severe crack downs on the people and the clerics and the killing and arrest of many, Shariatmadari criticized the Shah's government and declared it non-Islamic, tacitly giving support to the revolution hoping that a democracy would be

1413:

Some of the religious arguments offered for the constitution were that rather than having superior status that gave them the right to rule over ordinary people, the role of scholars/jurists was to act as "warning voices in society" and criticize the officials who were not carrying out their

4074:

Larijani's remarks came while an investigation by the judiciary authorities was taking place as to whether the stoning ordered by a local judge and which Larijani was defending—violated a 2002 directive by judiciary head Ayatollah Mahmud Hashemi-Shahrudi against carrying out the practice.

4707:

by Ali Khamenei stating that music education corrupts the minds of young children, many music schools were closed and music instruction to children under the age of 16 was banned by public establishments (although private instruction continued). In 2010, Khamenei said that while music is

4123:

Some among Iran's leadership would accept accommodation with the West in exchange for economic and strategic concessions, while others accept isolation. Others favor a "Chinese model," which in Iran would open its economy to international investment while maintaining clerical dominance.

4512:

are diplomatically incompatible. Iran's diplomacy lost numerous opportunities provided by international or regional political developments over the country's focus on fundamental values over national interests. The model of realistic fundamentalism did not work in the diplomatic arena.

1552: 4295:), "the quasi-official organs of repression that have become increasingly open in crushing student protests, detaining activists, writers, and journalists in secret prisons, and threatening pro-democracy speakers and audiences at public events." Under the control of the Office of the 4744: 904:'s liberal-democratic Islam. The fourth discourse came from the socialist guerrilla groups of Islamic and secular variants, and the fifth was secular constitutionalism in socialist and nationalist forms. By a few years after the triumph of the revolution, the only discourse left was 6443: 1388:

forbidding his involvement in politics (December 30, 1907), and then calling for his expulsion (1908). In supporting the constitution, the three marja' established a model of religious secularity in government in the absence of Imam, that still prevails in (some) Shi'i seminaries.

4884:, which is governed by Khamenei, editorialized on 5 August 1999 that an Insider is "someone whose heart beats for Islam, the revolution and the Imam," while Outsiders are those who have "separated their path from the line of the Imam, the system, and the people who, by relying on 1894: 4428:

After the Revolution, the conservative and radical factions differed on foreign policy and cultural issues. The radicals adamantly opposed any rapprochement with the United States and, to a lesser extent, other Western countries, while seeking to expand Iran's relations with the

1268:, and by Khomeini as an "heroic figure", and some believe his own objections to constitutionalism and a secular government were influenced by Nuri's objections to the 1907 constitution. He was called the "Islamic movement's first martyr in contemporary Iran", and honored to have 4827:

newspaper: "These women who appear in public like decadent models endanger the security and dignity of young men". Mohammad Taqi Rahbar, a fundamentalist MP, agreed, saying, "Men see models in the streets and ignore their own wives at home. This weakens the pillars of family."

3914:

more openly. Broujerdi rejected that idea. He believed in the separation of religion from politics, and was Khomeini's senior in rank. Just before his death (1961) Boroujerdi expressed his opposition to the Shah's plans for land reform and women's enfranchisement. He issued a

3839:

While the principalists were generally suspicious of modern ideas and resistant to modern lifestyles at the time of the revolution, the neo-principalists were receptive to many aspects of modernity and willing to collaborate with secular intellectuals and political activists.

2471:

Shariati not only influenced young Iranians and young clerics, he influenced Khomeini. Shariati popularized a saying from the 19th century, 'Every place should be turned into Karbala, every month into Moharram, and every day into Ashara'. Later Khomeini used it as a slogan.

1288:

He led direct action against his opponents, such as an around-the-clock sit-in in the Shah Abdul Azim shrine by a large group of followers, from June 21, 1907, until September 16, 1907; recruiting mercenaries to harass the supporters of democracy, and leading a mob towards

2961:

Meanwhile, in traditional Usuli seminaries, the Islamists were facing passive resistance. In an attempt to present themselves as sole representatives of Shi'ism, the Islamists launched defamation campaign against the traditional Usuli clergy. In his "Charter of the Clergy"

4207:

status quo, including strict limits on personal freedoms and the continued primacy of the clergy in the nation's governance. Important constituents of the Militant Clergy Society include the Islamic Coalition Society and the Coalition of Followers of the Line of the Imam.

4918:'s article drew criticism from the theologians and clerics, particularly Khamenei, who warned that apostate journalists are subject to the death penalty, noting the article, adding that the judiciary warned against any acts or words that undermine the Islamic revolution. 5357:"In western usage, these words have a rather specific connotation; they suggest a certain type of religiosity- emotional indeed sentimental; not intellectual, perhaps even anti-intellectual; and in general apolitical and even anti-political. Fundamentalists are against 5036:. The regime responded with force, convening special clergy courts to silence and imprison scholars, in violation of seminary norms of scholarly debate. These conspicuous acts of discipline seem to have backfired, as each escalating punishment has generated new critics. 4972:: "...I have a special gratitude for Honorable Baqiyatullah (aj), whom when seven months ago during the Night of Power the Divine angels presented him with the list of the names and addresses of the members of the (new) parliament, His Eminency signed all of them...". 985:

mortmains and other properties), and generally in control of activities that in modern states are left to the government. The Usuli ulama were "frequently courted and even paid by rulers" but, as the nineteenth century progressed, also came into conflict with them.

1701:, Navvab Safavi was arrested and sentenced to death on 25 December 1955 under terrorism charges, along with three other comrades. The organization dispersed but after the death of Ayatullah Borujerdi, the Fada'ian-e Islam sympathizers found a new leader in Ayatullah 1664:"Our intention is to borrow from people. What we take is for establishing a government based on the model of Imam Ali's government. Our goal is sacred and prior to these tools. When we established an Aliid government-like state, then we give people their money back." 1877:

Government can only be legitimate when it accepts the rule of God and the rule of God means the implementation of the Sharia. All laws that are contrary to the Sharia must be dropped because only the law of God will stay valid and immutable in the face of changing

1140:

The Constitutional Revolution began in 1905 with protest against a foreign director of customs (a Belgian) enforcing "with bureaucratic rigidity" the tariff collections to pay (in large part) for a loan to another foreign source (Russians) that financed the shah's

5369:

are still central dogmas of the faith ... Unlike their Christian namesakes, the Islamic fundamentalists do not set aside but on the contrary embrace much of the post-scriptural scholastic tradition of their faith, in both its theological and its legal aspects."

4087:

dollars to our cultural officials and journalists," he added, continuing "He made contact with various newspaper chiefs and gave them dollars." Nasser Pourpirar claimed that a significant portion of recorded Iranian history was baseless fabrications by Jewish

2385:

At least one historian (Ervand Abrahamian) speculates Al-e-Ahmad may have been an influence on Khomeini's turning away from traditional Shi'i thought towards populism, class struggle and revolution. Fighting Gharbzadegi became part of the ideology of the 1979

2825:

and demanded that the regime should be overthrown. He started giving interviews to western media in which he appeared as a changed man, spoke of a 'progressive Islam' and did not mention the idea of 'political guardianship of the jurist'. At the end of 1978,

1493:, to help finance secular education, "build a modern hospital, improve the water supply of the city, and underwrite industrial enterprises." Khomeini focused his revolutionary campaign on the Pahlavi shah and all of his government's alleged shortcomings. 5043:

debates have political implications. Because the Islamic Republic stakes its legitimacy on the scholarly authority of its jurist-ruler, the regime takes such debates quite seriously. Through the Special Clergy Court, the regime has tried to clamp down on

1101:

The protest demonstrated to the Iranians "for the first time" that it was possible to defeat the Shah and foreign interests. And the coalition of the tobacco boycott formed "a direct line ... culminating in the Constitutional Revolution" and arguably the

4599:, a journal in the 1980s, used to include material by neofundamentalists. They attempted to prove that science is without a homeland, that it is not the case that it recognises no geography, and that it is therefore possible to create "Islamic science". 934:(and Ervand Abrahamian), insists it was a revolutionary advance developed by Imam Khomeini. Other theories are that the idea is not at all new, but has been accepted by knowledgeable Shia faqih since medieval times, but kept from the general public by 2046:

Maududi appreciated the power of modern state and its coercive potential that could be used for moral policing. He saw Islam as a religious-state that sought to mould its citizens and control every private and public expression of their lives, like

4898:

by constitution must be religious. While Jews, Christians and other minorities have the right to take part in University entrance exams and can become members of parliament or city councils, irreligious people are not granted even their rights.

4437:" throughout the world. The conservatives favored a more cautious approach, with the aim of normalizing Iran's economic relations with the rest of the world, so long as the West's political and cultural influence on the country could be curbed. 2624:, an ambitious cleric, used to deliver public speeches on gnosis and moral steadfastness. He had studied Ibn Arabi's gnosis and Mulla Sadra's theosophy, and taught and wrote books on it. His keen interest in Plato's ideas, especially those of a 1046:

bankrupting seller, cheap foreign wheat impoverish farmers. The lack of a standing army and inferior military technology, meant loss of land and indemnity to Russia. Lack of good governance meant "'large tracts of fertile land" went to waste.

4308:, was murdered by a Basij member at the university. The murderer reportedly said that what he did was according to his religious beliefs. Tohid Ghaffarzadeh was talking to his girlfriend when he was approached and knifed by the Basij member. 4190:

The school trains clerics with both a traditional and modern curriculum, including secular science, medicine, politics, and Western/non-Islamic philosophy (topics not taught in traditional schools). It was founded by Mesbah-Yazdi, Ayatollah

4010:

entitled "Satan Was the First Fascist." He was charged with defaming the Islamic Republic and tried in a closed court. His defense was later published under the title of "Fascism is one of the Mortal Sins". (Kian, Number 40, February 1997.)

2288:"While adhering to and preserving our basic principles, we should try to constantly rectify and improve our methods. This is the meaning of real reformism. But U.S. officials define reformism as opposition to Islam and the Islamic system." 1392:

Nouri called on Shi'a to ignore the higher ranking of the marja' (the basis of Usuli Shi'ism) and their fatawa; he insisted that Shi'a were all "witnesses" that the marja' were obviously wrong in supporting the parliament. Another cleric,

883:

Iran was the first country in the post-World War II era in which political Islam became the rallying cry for a revolution, which was followed by formally adopting political Islam as its ruling ideology. The grand alliance assembled by

7597:

The CIA's history of the 1953 coup in Iran is made up of the following documents: a historian's note, a summary introduction, a lengthy narrative account written by Dr. Donald N. Wilber, and, as appendices, five planning documents he

1342: 2434:"the most outspoken representative of this group", and a figure without equivalent in "fame or influence" in Sunni Islam. He had come from a "strictly religious family" but had studied in Paris and been influenced by the writings of 2300:'s policies. The new faction was named "Faction of creative principalists" which is critical of Ahmadinejad's neo-principalist policies and to reject conservatism on matters related to government. The main leaders of the faction are 1873:, Khomeini attacked these liberal critics and writers as a "brainless" treacherous "lot" whose teeth the believers must 'smash ... with their iron fist’ and heads they should 'trample upon ... with courageous strides’. Furthermore 2033:, the Shah's regime in Iran tolerated this literature for its anti-Communist value, but an indication that the Western Cold War strategy for the Muslim world was not working out as planned was indicated by the coining of the term " 1972:

Their books were translated into Persian/Farsi, and helped to shape the ideology of Shi'i Islamists. Sayyid Qutb's works enjoyed remarkable popularity in Iran both before and after the revolution. Prominent figures such as current

1221:), my stature and prestige, my service to Islam are about to fall into the hands of enemies and all my stature gone. As long as I breathe, therefore, I will strive for the preservation of this country, be it at the cost of my life." 4046:(Vol.2 Page 242), he states: "We would like to act according to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. We would like to be free. We would like independence." However, Iran adopted an "alternative" human rights declaration, the 2834:

was chosen to help in the creation of a civilian government to replace the existing military one. He was appointed to the position of Prime Minister by the Shah, as a concession to his opposition. However his political party,

2125:(religious scholars). Khomeini denounced them as "an attack on Islam", and persuaded other senior marjas of Qom to decree a boycott of the referendum on the White Revolution. When Khomeini issued a declaration denouncing both 1026:

End of nineteenth century marked the end of the Islamic Middle Ages. New technological advances in printing press, telegraph and railways, etc., along with political reforms brought major social changes and the institution of

1936:

with the Socialist Bloc, should follow socialist economic development models, and keep their distance from former colonizers, alarmed anti-communists still further. In the Muslim world this led to an effort to compete with

1332:

and for "the murder of leading constitutionalists" by virtue of his denouncing them as "atheists, heretics, apostates, and secret Babis"—charges he knew would incite pious Muslims to violence. The Shah had fled to Russia.

744:

Academics have made a variety of distinctions between Fundamentalism, Islamism (political Islam) and other terms in Iran and other Islamic societies. Yahya Sadowski, for example, distinguishes Islamic fundamentalism from

5015:, called for a clampdown on Sufis in Qom. In 2006, Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad launched a plan to suppress what he called "indecent religious associations that work under the cover of spirituality and Sufism". 4026:

He distinguished what he called "extremism" and "fundamentalism": "There may be a handful of extremists here and there, but all the elements serving in various departments of our country are fundamentalists in essence."

4921:

In 2002, Ansar e Hezbollah, a group best known for disrupting reformist gatherings and beating up students, declared a "holy war" to rid Iran of reformers who promote Western democracy and challenge the Supreme Leader.

4034:(UDHR)and disparage those who disagree. In particular Mesbah-Yazdi is an aggressive defender of the supreme leader's absolute power, and holds that democracy and elections are not compatible with Islam. He once stated: 4823:

launched by the police in which thousands of women were warned and hundreds were arrested. Violators can be whipped, fined and imprisoned. Sae'ed Mortazavi, Tehran's public prosecutor, made this clear when he told the

4795:"On the economic field, we are dutybound to implement an Islamic economy and not a capitalistic economy. It is a false image to think that we will make equations and attitudes based on those in a capitalistic system". 5152:

in the seventh century AD. It is the event that gave birth to Shia Islam. Ashura is by far the most significant day in the Iranian religious calendar, commemorated as a slaughter of innocents by traitors and tyrants.

2747:. He encouraged peaceful demonstrations to avoid bloodshed. According to such a system, the Shah's power was limited and the ruling of the country was mostly in the hands of the people through a parliamentary system. 4491:

told the Iranian Arabic-language TV station al-Qawthar that all military actions in Lebanon must be approved by the Tehran authorities; in 2008 Iran issued a stamp commemorating a recently killed Hezbollah leader.

3955:

must be taught by a Marxist and a liberal, respectively. Both Motahhari and Beheshti were assassinated by terrorist groups shortly after the revolution. Motahhari introduced the concept of the "dynamism of Islam".

1418:

the laws and religion of every nation determines", reducing the tyranny of state", and preventing the corruption of power. All this meant it was "obligatory to give precedence" to this "lesser evil" in governance.

12467: 4503:

underground music band make open political references and criticize Iran's foreign policy: "Nothing for lunch or dinner to make, But let them eat Yellowcake, Scraped up the very last dime, Sent it straight to

787:

and a few other philosophers of law and politics have criticized the terminology of "conservatism", "fundamentalism" and "neo-fundamentalism" in the context of Iranian political philosophy, suggesting other

4111:

was a Jew. M.A. Ramin, Hassan Abbasi, Abbas Salimi Namin and others gave speeches about Jewish conspiracy theory, Iranian and western history following the establishment of Ahmadinejad's government in 2005.

4065:

called stoning "a feature of Shari'a law," "original and respectable punishment" and claimed that "Mr. Shahrudi is not opposed to the principle of a...verdict that is based on Islamic Sharia." He also said:

1784:

the country's economy was "near collapse", which would cause some combination of increased dependence on the Tudeh party leading to its eventual takeover, and or "collapse followed by a communist takeover."

4144:, a neo-fundamentalist cleric, founded the group. The group's aim was to transform Iran into an Islamic state. The group committed numerous terrorist acts. Notable among these was the 1946 assassination of 4038:"Democracy means if the people want something that is against God's will, then they should forget about God and religion ... Be careful not to be deceived. Accepting Islam is not compatible with democracy." 2037:", in 1952, by one of the authors—Sayyid Qutb—that were being translated with Saudi and Western funding. The term was later adapted by Ayatullah Khomeini after the 1979 Islamist revolution, who proclaimed: 675:—as in acting politically based on principles of the Islamic Revolution—which is an umbrella term for a variety of conservative circles and parties that (as of 2023) dominates politics in the country. (The 5059:, advocate of Islamic pluralism, claimed that fundamentalism will self-destruct as it is afflicted with an internal contradiction, which will shatter it from within. Similar ideas have been put forward by 3847:", many principalists accept its foundations, especially relating to science and technology. For traditionalists, nature expresses beauty that must be preserved in every aspect of life, from chanting the 9391:

1980 April 8 – Broadcast call by Khomeini for the pious of Iraq to overthrow Saddam Hussein and his regime. Al-Dawa al-Islamiya party in Iraqi is the hoped for catalyst to start rebellion. From: Mackey,

4328:"Appointed Mandate of Jurisconsult" in Religious Matters (Shar'iat) Along with the Monarchic Mandate of Muslim Potentates in Secular Matters (Saltanat E Mashrou'eh). Proponents: Mohammad Bagher Majlesi ( 1668:

Fada'ian-e Islam called for excommunication of Borujerdi and the defrocking of religious scholars who opposed their idea of Islam, Navvab Safavi did not like Broujerdi's idea of Shia-Sunni rapprochement

929:

There are different theories as to when the ruling concept of the Ayatollah Khomeini and Islamic Republic of Iran—that Islamic jurists ought to govern until the return of the Imam Mahdi—first appeared.

2394:

of industry, "self-sufficiency" in economics, independence in all areas of life from both the Western (and Soviet) world. He was also one of the main influences of the later Islamic Republic president

1316:

Also, unlike later Islamists, he preached against modern learning. Democracy was un-Islamic because it would lead to the "teaching of chemistry, physics and foreign languages", and result in spread of

4581:

seminary-university unity, gradually turned into submission to clerics and seminary teachers. It lost its logical/scholarly meaning and took on a political and practical dimension. The appointment of

7995: 4766:

Association of the Lecturers of Qom's Seminaries (ALQRS or Jame'eh-ye Modarresin-e Howzeh-ye 'Elmiyeh-ye Qom), published their description of an Islamic economy in 1984. It was based on traditional

4378:

Fundamentalists and in-system reformers on one side and neo-fundamentalists on the other side struggle over "Khomeini's Islamic Republic" versus "Mesbah's Islamic administration." Mesbah-Yazdi and

4291:, a political advisor to Khatami. Asagar was arrested and sentenced to 15 years in prison, but was released after a short interval. HRW stated that the Basij belong to the "Parallel institutions" ( 1461:

While the Constitutional Revolution did not succeed, the secular, modernizing authoritarianism of the two Pahlavi shahs had more success, ruling from Reza Shah's seizure of power in 1921, to his

3867:"I define Islamic fundamentalism or Islamism as a militant and anti-modernist movement ... not every militant Muslim is a fundamentalist. but an Islamic fundamentalist is necessarily a militant." 2494:

during the 1970s, had issued a fatwa prohibiting his followers from reading Ali Shariati's books and Islamist literature produced by young clerics. This fatwa was followed by similar fatwas from

1465:'s overthrow in 1979, and can be said to have combatting Iran's backwardness. Reza Shah, leader of the Iranian Cossack Brigade before his coup, was a secular, nationalist dictator in the vein of 4835:

in their rights campaigns. "In the process of raising women's issues and solving their problems, feminist inclinations and sexism should be avoided," he told a group of female parliamentarians.

2176:. Although they were crushed within days by the police and military, the Shah's regime was taken by surprise by the size of the demonstrations, and they established the importance and power of ( 5574:

particular word in Western countries. Preferring not to be lumped in with Sunni Salafism, the English-language media in Iran opted to use the term "principlist", which caught on more generally.

4995:

While Iran was quick to condemn attacks on Shia mosques and Shia holy places all over the world, it has been intolerant toward other religions. For instance in 2006, authorities in the city of

3860:. The neo-principalists' family policy is to increase the population dramatically. Ahmadinejad's call for increasing Iran's population from 70 to 120 million can be understood in that context. 1732: 4095:. "The whole existence of Pre-Islamic Iran is no more than a Jewish conspiracy and the most important key for analyzing today's world events is the analysis of the ancient "Jewish genocide of 3843:

Many of the neo-principalists, like Christian fundamentalists, extract a verse from the scriptures and give it a meaning contrary to traditional commentary. While denouncing modernism as the "

4551:

at CIA, the "United States had no problem with Islam or even Islamic fundamentalism as such. one of the closest American allies in the Middle East, Saudi Arabia, is a fundamentalist state."

2715:, Ayatullah Khoei's representative Syed Abul Hasan Shamsabadi gave sermons criticizing the Islamist interpretation of Shi'i theology, he was abducted and killed by the notorious group called 5365:. For the so call fundamentalists of Islam these are not and never have been the issues. Liberal theology have not hitherto made much headway in Islam, and the divinity and inerrancy of the 2902:

was a moderate Islamist and believed that a jurist only had a supervisory role and was not supposed to govern. In a 1978 treatise on modern Islamic movements, he warned against the ideas of

1509:

killed a number of important people, and at least one source (Sohrab Behdad) credits the group and Navvab Safavi with influence on the Islamic Revolution. According to Encyclopædia Iranica,

12212: 4740:, about the economy stating, "Economics is for donkeys!" However, on many occasions he advised his followers about justice and giving priority to the rights of the deprived and oppressed. 4656:

was closed down by the press supervisory board of the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance, presumably for insulting or criticizing the late Grand Ayatollah Kho'i, who had called the "

2426:

One element of Iran's revolution not found in Sunni Islamist movements was what came to be called "Socialist Shi'ism", (also "red Shiism" as opposed to the "black Shiism" of the clerics).

1231: 4787:

conservative opponents mentioned Islamic economy. However, after the establishment of Ahmadinejad's government, his neoconservative team took up the subject. For instance, vice-president

3803: 10895: 4686:(who later became Minister of Culture) were the editor and responsible chief of the newspaper. In 2006, British ambassador to Tehran met Hossein Shariatmadari acknowledged the role of 4589:

on 27 December 2005 can be understood in that context. Tehran University is the symbol of higher education in Iran. Abbasali Amid Zanjani holds no academic degree and was appointed by

4800:

the statist-reformists because he believed state capitalism to be the best way of heading off threats to Islam. Khomeini's death left the factions without their source of legitimacy.

4015:

We must consider as insiders those persons who are sympathetic toward our revolution, our state, and Islam. The outsiders are the ones who are opposed to the principle of our state."

4914:

stressed that writers of such articles must remember that Iran will not only never tolerate such follies but that the apostates will be given no opportunity to subvert the religion.

4444:, anti-Western attitudes among Iranian Islamists had its root in Marxism and Communism rather than Iranian Islam. Iran and the West had good relations with mutual respect after the 4283:

is a military fundamentalist network. In July 1999, Ezzat Ebrahim-Nejad was shot dead in a Tehran University dormitory by a member of Basij's military force. The event initiated a

1787:

Iran had difficulty finding trained non-British workers to run the industry and buyers to sell the oil to. but the government was not near bankruptcy nor inflation unmanageable.

13241:

Mashayekhi, Azadeh (December 2015). "Tehran, the Scene of Modernity in the Pahlavi Dynasty: Modernisation and Urbanisation Processes 1925–1979". In F. Arefian; S. Moeini (eds.).

2932:

leader, was eager to take advantage of Iran's weakened military and (what he assumed was) revolutionary chaos, and in particular to occupy Iran's adjacent oil-rich province of

2121:

in industry, and a literacy campaign in the nation's schools. Some of these initiatives were regarded as Westernizing trends by traditionalists and as a challenge to the Shi'a

4850:

control program. The fact that these changes occurred within an Islamic legal regime suggests that formal legal status may not be a key factor determining women's well-being.

5420: 10121: 1325:

because girls' schools were "brothels". Other liberal ideas he opposed included allocation of funds for modern industry, freedom of press, and equal rights for non-Muslims.

9112: 4736:

Shortly after the revolution Khomeini declared that Islam and not the economy was important. In one of his comments, he dismissed the concerns of his first prime minister,

4959:, half of whom are appointed by the Supreme Leader, disqualified thousands of candidates, including many of the reformist parliament members and all the candidates of the 1275:

Nouri declared the new constitution contrary to sharia law. Like Islamists decades later, preached the idea of sharia as a complete code of social life. In his newspaper

8162: 4198:

Many famous theologians and influential figures in Iran's politics after the revolution were associated (as teacher or student) with the Circle or follow its ideology.

1360:

There was no shortage of Islamic scholars in support of the constitution. Acting as a legitimising force for the constitution were three of the highest level clerics (

1075:

The Tobacco protest of 1891–1892 was "the first mass nationwide popular movement in Iran", and described as a "dress rehearsal for the ... Constitutional Revolution."

5071:

are notable critics of fundamentalism in Iran. Iranian neofundamentalists became a substantial minority in Qom seminaries. However, they enjoy support from two Grand

2851:". On 10 and 11 December 1978, the days of Tasu'a and Ashura, millions marched on the streets of Tehran, chanting 'Death to Shah', a display that political scientist 7710:

Homa Katouzian (2004). "1, "Mosaddeq's Government in Iranian History, Arbitrary Rule, Democracy and the 1953 Coup"". In Gasiorowski, Mark J.; Byrne, Malcolm (eds.).

7243:

Homa Katouzian (2004). "1, "Mosaddeq's Government in Iranian History, Arbitrary Rule, Democracy and the 1953 Coup"". In Gasiorowski, Mark J.; Byrne, Malcolm (eds.).

4335:"General Appointed Mandate of Jurisconsults" (Velayat E Entesabi Ye Ammeh) Proponents: Molla Ahmad Naraghi, Sheikh Mohammad Hassan Najafi (Saheb Javaher) Ayatollahs 5697:

Unity and Diversity in Islamic Fundamentalism, in M. Marty and R.S. Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms Comprehended, the University of Chicago Press, 1995, pp. 179–198.

2751:, the then Shah of Iran, and his allies, however, took the pacifism of clerics such as Shariatmadari as a sign of weakness. The Shah's government declared a ban on 2193:", stipulating that U.S. servicemen facing criminal charges stemming from a deployment in Iran, were to be tried before a U.S. court martial, not an Iranian court. 1869:

merchants). Among them were writers who started to criticize traditional interpretations of religion, and readers who agreed with them. In one of his first books,

1118:

points out that Shirazi, "stressed that he was merely opposed to bad court advisers and that he would withdraw from politics once the hated agreement was canceled.

973:. The latter change made the ulama "the primary educators" of society, dispensers most of the justice, overseers social welfare, and collectors of its funding (the 7179: 1305:, opposed constitutional monarchy. He took money and gave support to foreign (Russian) interests in Iran, while warning Iranians of the spread of foreign ideas. 8293: 4819:

was sentenced to 34 months of jail and 10 lashes. The Iranian judiciary operates under the control of the Supreme Leader and is independent from the government.

4701:

While promoting conforming art and literature, principalists rejected the development of art and literature that has no "valuable content." In 1996, following a

2369:

Al-e-Ahmad "was the only contemporary writer ever to obtain favorable comments from Khomeini", who wrote in a 1971 message to Iranian pilgrims on going on Hajj,

808:." But most of these words have specifically Christian connotations, and their use to denote Islamic religious phenomena depends at best on a very loose analogy. 5612: 2218:

In November 1964, after his latest denunciation, Khomeini was arrested and held for half a year. Upon his release, Khomeini was brought before Prime Minister

5952: 1766:

States bore responsibility for Iran's return to dictatorship, a belief that helps to explain the heavily anti-American character of the revolution in 1978."

1213:, a cleric and leader of pro-constitutional faction, saw the constitutional fight against the shah as tied to patriotism and patriotism tied to Shi'i Islam: 8003: 1309:

divine obligation". Monarchy was an Islamic institution and the monarch was accountable to no one other than God and any attempt to call him to account was

7831:

Mary Ann Heiss (2004). "5, "The International Boycott of Iranian Oil and the Anti-Mosaddeq Coup of 1953"". In Gasiorowski, Mark J.; Byrne, Malcolm (eds.).

7816:

Mary Ann Heiss (2004). "5, "The International Boycott of Iranian Oil and the Anti-Mosaddeq Coup of 1953"". In Gasiorowski, Mark J.; Byrne, Malcolm (eds.).

7786:

Mary Ann Heiss (2004). "5, "The International Boycott of Iranian Oil and the Anti-Mosaddeq Coup of 1953"". In Gasiorowski, Mark J.; Byrne, Malcolm (eds.).

4487:

in 2005 they had sent their fighters to Iran to train in field tactics and weapons technology. In an interview in 2007, Hezbollah Deputy Secretary-General

3002:

In 2006, a cleric with no university education was appointed as the head of Tehran University, Iran's symbol of modern scientific and secular institutions

4712:, it is not compatible with the values of the Islamic Republic, and promoted science and sport as alternatives. Khamenei and his followers claimed that " 4116:

described itself as a group of Islamic neo-principalists, that has control over the Iranian government. However, it lost the 2006 city council election.

1962: 10874: 6090: 5586: 13009: 2773: 1754:, and "directly or indirectly helped" by sections of the military, landlords, conservative politicians, and "the bulk of the religious establishment". 12428: 4042:

In contrast to neo-principalists, principalists accept the ideas of democracy and UDHR. During his lifetime, Khomeini expressed support for UDHR; in

11219: 1928:

of countries ruled by Communist parties (now including China), had become. As the peoples of Western colonial empires were given independence, the

13581: 12242: 11515: 10851: 10646: 7695:

Fakhreddin Azimi (2004). "2. "Unseating Mosaddeq, the Configuration and Role of Domestic Forces"". In Gasiorowski, Mark J.; Byrne, Malcolm (eds.).

7665:

Fakhreddin Azimi (2004). "2. "Unseating Mosaddeq, the Configuration and Role of Domestic Forces"". In Gasiorowski, Mark J.; Byrne, Malcolm (eds.).

7615:

Fakhreddin Azimi (2004). "2. "Unseating Mosaddeq, the Configuration and Role of Domestic Forces"". In Gasiorowski, Mark J.; Byrne, Malcolm (eds.).

7486:

Fakhreddin Azimi (2004). "2. "Unseating Mosaddeq, the Configuration and Role of Domestic Forces"". In Gasiorowski, Mark J.; Byrne, Malcolm (eds.).

5672: 4061:

states that the Q'uran sanctions stoning unequivocally and that since it is the word of God, it must be followed. In 2007, the Shahrudi directive,

2547:

Taleghani was instrumental in "shaping the groundswell movement" that led to the Iranian Revolution and served as the chair of powerful and secret

1648:

He enjoyed a close enough association with the government to be able to attend a 1954 Islamic Conference in Jordan and traveled to Egypt and meet

10620: 2947:

Saddam Hussain had become the fifth president of Iraq on 16 July 1979, and after publicly killing 22 members of Ba'ath party during the televised

2197: 800:

Even an appropriate vocabulary seemed to be lacking in western languages and writers on the subjects had recourse to such words as "revivalism", "

13360: 13346: 12220: 12166: 5667: 4933:

launched a tolerance policy ("Tasahol va Tasamoh"). This policy was criticized harshly by conservatives and ended in the minister's resignation.

3732: 48: 12855: 11126: 7514: 10892: 9757: 5144:

killed 40 Iranian pilgrims at Shia holy places in Iraq. Many others were injured in the blasts. Ashura commemorates the killing of the revered

3810: 2860: 6669: 1537:), have indicated what an "important formative impact of Nawwāb's charismatic appeal in their early careers and anti-government activities". 753:

A 2005 program on BBC Persian Service put Islamic movements among Iranians into three different categories: "traditionalists" (represented by

12051: 9538: 8819: 6610: 5121:

and killed some 275 people. 303 others were seriously injured. For years, Iranian pilgrims had attempted to stage peaceful demonstrations in

3530: 2536:

ideals in order to compete with leftist movements for youthful supporters" during the 1960s and 1970s. a veteran in the struggle against the

1758:

not only by restoring an enfeebled monarch but also by ensuring that the monarchy would assume an authoritarian and antidemocratic posture."

10858:

See the talks about "The Shiite south is governed by the Shiite religious parties who enforce an Iranian-style Islamic law with militias."

8888:

Martin, Vanessa (1996). "A Comparison Between Khumainī's "Government of the Jurist" and "The Commentary on Plato's Republic" of Ibn Rushd".

7740: 4720:-ism" have ravaged Western youth. According to the novelist and the first president of Iranian Association of Writers after the revolution, 12459: 11701: 11304: 10677: 4540: 1328:

Fazlullah Nouri was hanged by the constitutional revolutionaries on 31 July 1909 as a traitor, for playing pivotal role in coup d'état of

11441: 11320: 10936: 9480: 8260: 6127: 1747: 1137:) saw it as a British plot to undermine sharia, and part of foreign encroachment concerned Iranians were trying to protect Islam against. 11962: 2875: 17: 11074: 7402:

Islam, peace, and conflict: based on six events in the year 1979, which were harbingers of the present day conflicts in the Muslim world

4926:, an ideologue with the group, also said that Iranians who try to appease Iran's enemies such as the United States "should be stopped". 11980: 11936: 11409: 11030: 10387: 8577:"Message to the Pilgrims" (Message sent to Iranian pilgrims on Hajj in Saudi Arabia from Khomeini in exile in Najaf) February 6, 1971, 6210: 5395: 4577: 4571: 4047: 3923:. Khomeini remained silent while his seniors Ayatollah Haeri and Ayatolla Boroujerdi were alive. Thereafter he was promoted to a Grand 3871:

A major difference between Shia fundamentalism in Iran and mainstream Islamic fundamentalism is that the former has nothing to do with

2874:

In the early days after the revolution it was praised as "a completion" of the 1905–1911 Constitutional Revolution, "a fulfillment" of

2345:): A Plague from the West. Al-e-Ahmad, who was from a deeply religious family but had had a Western education and been a member of the 12750: 12148: 10579: 7269:

A. Ferdows, "Religion in Iranian Nationalism: The Study of the Fadaʾiyan-e Isalm," Ph. D. diss., Indiana University, 1967., pp. 243–53

6905: 6151: 4610:

criticized Iranian Universities, university students and Iranian Higher education system as secular, non-Islamic, indecent and cheap.

3967:. Mesbah-Yazdi rejected Khomeini's Islamic Republic and supported the idea of an Islamic government in which the people have no vote. 5723: 2457:), and his killer, the Sunni Umayyad Caliphate, the "analog" of the modern Iranian people's "oppression by the shah". His killing at 733:

non-Islamic influences should be eliminated from every part of a Muslims' life; and that the societies, economies, and governance of

12028: 11383: 11197: 10778: 10060: 9979: 8461: 6587:

Mackey, Sandra, The Iranians : Persia, Islam and the Soul of a Nation by Sandra Mackey, New York : Dutton, c1996, p.150-55

5909: 12372: 10958: 10696: 9703: 8491: 3320: 1241:

If praise and official histories from the Islamic Republic of Iran can stand in for the heroes of Islamist/Fundamentalist Shi'ism,

962: 924: 268: 10129: 7278:

A. Rahnema and F. Nomani, The Secular Miracle: Religion, Politics, and Economic Policy in Iran, London, 1990, pp. 73–96. pp. 83–84

6250:

Shah Ismail pursued a relentless campaign of forced conversion of the majority Sunni population in Iran to (Twelver) Shia Islam...

13010:""They Were Going Together with the Ikhwan": The Influence of Muslim Brotherhood Thinkers on Shi'i Islamists during the Cold War" 12193: 10976: 10439: 9276: 9122: 6375:

Mackey, Sandra, The Iranians : Persia, Islam and the Soul of a Nation by Sandra Mackey, New York : Dutton, c1996, p.143

5252: 3906:

Various clerics express significant differences in viewpoints and practical approaches. When Khomeini urged his mentor Ayatullah

637: 590: 288: 278: 12029:"بيانات رهبر معظم انقلاب اسلامى‏ در ديدار گروه كثيرى از زنان نخبه‏ در آستانه‏ى سالروز ميلاد حضرت زهراى اطهر (سلام‏اللَّه‏عليها)" 10809: 9678: 5758: 4910:, claiming that capital punishment is no cure for maladies afflicting modern society. In reaction to this article, conservative 4357:"Absolute Appointed Mandate of Jurisconsult" (Velayat e Entesabi ye Motlaghe ye Faghihan) Proponent: Khomeini (after revolution) 2878:'s attempt to establish an Iranian "sense of independence and self-direction", "a vindication" of the insurrection against the " 1064: 1040: 13084:

Fuchs, Simon Wolfgang (July 2014). "Third Wave Shi'ism: Sayyid Arif Husain al-Husaini and the Islamic Revolution in Pakistan".

12296: 11566: 11100: 857:

Fundamentalism in Iran as a reaction to Western technology, colonialism, and exploitation arose in the early 20th century, and

11663: 8160: 5125:. Iran claimed the slaughter was the first major attack by Sunni extremists on Shia Iranians. A few days before the massacre, 4724:, the Islamic Republic has been generally hostile toward Iranian writers and intellectuals in contrast to the Pahlavi regime. 4420:

Beyond these theoretical debates, advocates of the Islamic Administration are slowly replacing those of the Islamic Republic.

3998:

to the reigning neoconservative clergymen (Ali Fallahian, Gholam Hossein Mohseni-Ejehei, and Mesbah-Yazdi) who had issued the

2258:

gave him access to the Persian broadcast of Radio Baghdad to address Iranians and made it easier for him to receive visitors.

1660:, who rejected his ideas and questioned him about the robberies that his organization committed on gun point, Safavi replied: 13450: 13436: 13258: 12900: 12764: 11914: 11592: 10335: 9037: 8097: 7922: 7641: 6915: 6840: 6679: 4031: 3947:). While Mesbah-Yazdi was an advocate of expelling secular University lecturers, Motahhari insisted that the philosophies of 3903:

this end, the majority of these movements work to take control of state power, whether by propaganda, plebiscite, or putsch.

3520: 2898:

which were quashed toward the end of January 1980, when under the orders of Khomeini tanks and the army moved into the city.

2357:) technology, culture, products, and so had become a victim of the West's "toxins" or disease. The adoption and imitation of 2206: 995: 11860: 11637: 2847:

he reminded the nation of the dangers of clerical despotism, and of how the fascism of the mullahs would be darker than any

2479:

Shariati was also influenced by anti-democratic Islamist ideas of Muslim Brotherhood thinkers in Egypt and he tried to meet

2080: 1477:

While his modernization efforts were significant, he was the bete noire of the clergy and pious Iranians, (not least of all

1018:; 1781 – 1864) was an Usuli Shia jurist who was the first scholar universally recognized as supreme authority in matters of 632:. In Iran, Islamic fundamentalism and Islamism is primarily associated with the thought and practice of the leader of the 9062: 7801:

Gasiorowski, Mark J. (2004). "7, "The 1953 Coup d'Etat Against Mosaddeq"". In Gasiorowski, Mark J.; Byrne, Malcolm (eds.).

7680:

Gasiorowski, Mark J. (2004). "7, "The 1953 Coup d'Etat Against Mosaddeq"". In Gasiorowski, Mark J.; Byrne, Malcolm (eds.).

5232: 2548: 2201: 1397:, defended the marja' ("the sources of emulation") and their "clear fatwas that uphold the necessity of the Constitution". 11276: 10483: 10461: 6089:

Mesbah-Yazdi, Mohammad-Taqi (2010). "1: Wilayat al-Faqih, Exigency and Presuppositions". In Husayni, Sayyid ‘Abbas (ed.).

2924:, including Iran's Arab neighbor Iraq, the one large state besides Iran with a Shia majority population. At the same time 2066:

In 1984 the Iranian authorities honoured Sayyid Qutb by issuing a postage stamp showing him behind the bars during trial.

12405: 12078: 11900: 11760: 10038: 6014: 4535:

Western countries have adopted various strategies with respect to fundamentalists. Their attitudes seem mainly driven by

4391: 4305: 3535: 1377: 54: 12564: 11153: 8527: 7176: 4483:

leaders, and aid to Iraq's Shiite political parties. Hamas leaders verified in 2008 that since Israel pulled out of the

12837: 12675: 10361: 9211: 8837: 8290: 5019:, disciple of Mesbah-Yazdi and moral advisor to President Ahmadinejad was the leader of a raid on Sufi mosques in Qom. 3245: 2573: 1865:

Rapid urbanization in Iran had created a modern educated, salaried middle class (as opposed to a traditional class of

1272:

named after him and postage stamps issued for him (the only figure of the Constitutional Revolution to be so honored).

1269: 9859: 4520:". Religious modernists in Iran have still some inclinations towards religious internationalism, while the concept of 3887:. It is not a very apt term, but it has gained currency. In the Sunni world, it is used for groups descended from the 741:. (The term fundamentalism has also been criticized as coming from Christianity and not truly appropriate for Islam.) 13550: 13537: 13519: 13501: 13468: 13408: 13383: 13332: 12877: 12789: 12739: 12720: 12694: 12641: 12603: 12578: 12515: 12359: 10714: 10505:

Sadri, Mahmoud (2001). "Sacral Defense of Secularism: The Political Theologies of Soroush, Shabestari, and Kadivar".

9340: 8445: 8380: 7562: 7192: 7159: 6272: 6243: 5651: 5620: 5566: 5297: 5114: 4509: 3828: 3615: 2653: 2136: 1127: 629: 198: 180: 119: 62: 12942:

Aziz, T. M. (May 1993). "The Role of Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr in Shi'i Political Activism in Iraq from 1958 to 1980".

5449: 4648:. These journals were among the main neo-principalist publications. Dehnamaki was one of the strongest opponents of 2483:

while visiting Saudi Arabia in 1969. A chain smoker, Shariati died of a heart attack while in self-imposed exile in

101: 13576: 12979:

Behdad, Sohrab (January 1997). "Islamic Utopia in Pre-Revolutionary Iran: Navvab Safavi and the Fada'ian-e Eslam".

10796: 4960: 4559: 4555: 4367:

remain outside the regime, claim that the Constitution contains impediments sufficient to block meaningful reform.

2495: 1997: 1341: 534: 9508: 2026: 1186:

Working to undermine the constitution and "exploit the divisions within the ranks of the reformers" were the shah

10217: 8192:"Organization, Leadership and Revolution: Religiously-Oriented Opposition in the Iranian Revolution of 1978–1979" 6071: 5282: 4386:

from a republic to an Islamic administration. They believe the institutions of the Islamic Republic, such as the

3970:

Contrary to Iranian traditionalists, neo-fundamentalists as well as Iranian liberals came under the influence of

3396: 3183: 1210: 529: 452: 147: 11489: 11237: 7949:

Unal, Yusuf (November 2016). "Sayyid Quṭb in Iran: Translating the Islamist Ideologue in the Islamic Republic".

5475: 3931:. Among Khomeini's students were notable clerics whose ideas were not compatible with their mentor, for example 1845:. In 1925 Iran was a thinly populated country with a population of 12 millions, 21% living in urban centers and 12814: 12546: 11536: 10261: 6218: 5956: 5358: 4783:

the council for cultural revolution proposed a national curriculum for economics for all Iranian Universities.

4698:"All of the ninth governments' cultural and artistic activities should conform to the Holy Book," he declared. 4148:, an intellectual who had criticized the Shia Islamic clergy. The group also assassinated two prime ministers ( 3651: 1924:, Western capitalist and other anti-Communist leaders were alarmed at how large, centralized and powerful the 1534: 688: 524: 343: 86: 3308: 1726: 938:(precautionary dissimulation) (Ahmed Vaezi); that it was "occasionally" interpreted during the reign of the 12126: 5590: 5257: 4548: 4284: 4269: 3796: 3010: 1992:. Muhammad Khamenei is currently head of Sadra Islamic Philosophy Research Institute, and holds positions at 1175:

The political base of the constitutionalist movement to control the power of the shah was an alliance of the

957:

Developments that might be called steps easing the path to theocratic rule were the 16th century rise of the

7579: 3043: 2129:

and his reform plan, the Shah took an armored column to Qom, and delivered a speech harshly attacking the

12775: 12502: 12436: 10904: 8338: 5815: 5399: 4301: 4211: 4058: 4018:

In another speech Khamenei compared what he called "American fundamentalism" and "Islamic fundamentalism":

3515: 2979: 2890: 2744: 2732: 2377:

penetrating to the depths of towns and villages throughout the Muslim world, displacing the culture of the

2284:(Osoulgaraiee eslah-talabaaneh) of his Islamic state in opposition to the perceived hostility of the West: 1439:

Another student of Akhund who too raised to the rank of Marja, Shaykh Isma'il Mahallati, wrote a treatise "

1168:) against the constitutional government, a short civil war, and a deposing of that shah some months later. 318: 13196: 11790: 9837: 7596: 4249:

As the foremost advocates of the status quo, the Association is not popular among rank-and-file Iranians.

3203: 2261:

By the time Khomeini was expelled from Najaf, discontent with the Shah had intensified. Khomeini visited

1988:, etc. translated Qutb's works into Persian. Hadi Khosroshahi was the first person to identify himself as 13352: 13338: 13316: 12213:"Democracy, Justice, Fundamentalism and Religious Intellectualism – An interview with Abdulkarim Soroush" 11817:

Kurzman, Charles (2001). "Critics within: Islamic Scholars' Protests against the Islamic State in Iran".

11223: 10848: 7518: 7177:

Islamic Values and World View: Farhang Khomeyni on Man, the State and International Politics, Volume XIII

5262: 5100: 4517: 4180: 3940: 2075: 2056: 1706: 1612:), emerged on political scene around 1945 when after only two years of study, he left the seminaries of 1369: 1161: 822:

Traditionists—who make up the majority of clerics, avoid modernity, neither accepting nor criticizing it.

770: 625: 583: 12246: 10650: 9433: 8191: 6640: 5427:), the Shah did not ask France to expel Khomeini for fear that the cleric should move to Syria or Libya. 5361:

and biblical criticism and in favor of a return to fundamentals-i.e. to the divine inerrant text of the

4417:

of Experts may make wrong decisions and the legitimacy of the leader comes from the people not the God.

2180:) religious opposition to the Shah, and the importance of Khomeini as a political and religious leader. 1384:' (a very severe condemnation in Shi'i Islam), and when parliament came under attack from Nuri issued 93: 13268:

Nouraie, Fereshte M. (1975). "The Constitutional Ideas of a Shi'ite Mujtahid: Muhammad Husayn Na'ini".

12507: 10624: 10009: 8086:

Keddie, Nikki R.; Matthee, Rudolph P.; Matthee, Unidel Distinguished Professor of History Rudi (2002).

4952: 2948: 2190: 2152:

After his arrest in Iran following the 1963 riots, leading Ayatullahs had issued a statement declaring

1636:. Despite his hatred of interfering infidel foreign powers, his group attempted to kill prime minister 1302: 1142: 931: 875:

led the Islamic revolution. It was the first step to found a constitution based on Islamic rules (see:

660: 308: 12170: 11001: 9956: 8553: 8025: 2782: 2461:

was not just an "eternal manifestation of the truth but a revolutionary act by a revolutionary hero".

1481:). His government required all non-clerical men to wear Western clothes, encouraged women to abandon 158: 13571: 13375: 12595: 11130: 9569: 7530: 5312: 5092: 1743: 734: 717:

Some of the beliefs attributed to Islamic fundamentalists are that the primary sources of Islam (the

250: 11523: 9765: 9651: 4332:), Mirza ye Ghomi, Seyed e Kashfi, Sheikh Fadl ollah Nouri, Ayatollah Abdolkarim Haeri Mesbah-Yazdi. 4218:. It was founded in 1977 by a group of clerics who intended to use a cultural approach to overthrow 1079:

significant portion of the Iranian population—hundreds of thousands in agriculture and the bazaars.

13508:

The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence

12861: 12406:"Iran: 'Forgotten Victims' Of Saddam Hussein Era Await Justice – RADIO FREE EUROPE / RADIO LIBERTY" 11467: 11256: 9787:

Jahanbakhsh, Forough (2004). "The Emergence and Development of Religious Intellectualism in Iran".

8268: 5978:

Bahramitash, Roksana (2003). "Islamic Fundamentalism and Women's Economic Role: The Case of Iran".

5287: 4456:

Neoconservatives who gained control of both parliament and government resurrected the export idea.

4434: 3562: 3391: 3145: 2525: 2012:

were translated to Persian and widely circulated in the 1960s. Reflecting on this import of ideas,

2001: 1808: 1581: 1526: 1402: 1365: 1346: 1279:, and published leaflets to spread anti-constitutional propaganda; and proclaim sentiments such as 1153: 471: 358: 13363:, Translation Unit, Cultural Affairs Department, The Ahl al-Bayt ('a) World Assembly (ABWA), 2008. 13349:, Translation Unit, Cultural Affairs Department, The Ahl al-Bayt ('a) World Assembly (ABWA), 2008. 12269: 12055: 10917: 10312: 9546: 8823: 4868:

Tolerance and civil rights are subjects of debates in Iran. Cleric and member of the conservative

2021:

their minds to compensate for this deficiency ... This text was translated with this goal in mind.

1466: 12756: 8411: 6700: 4869: 4062: 3737: 3525: 2740: 2465: 1819: 1329: 1298: 1187: 1165: 892:, adopting diverse ideological interpretations of Islam. The first three Islamic discourses were 233: 97: 12918: 11708: 11548: 11301: 11052: 10674: 9472: 6935: 5516: 5106:

In 1943, a Saudi religious judge ordered an Iranian pilgrim beheaded for allegedly defiling the

4633:

Both Iranian principle-ism and neo principle-ism are accompanied by art, cinema and literature.

2520:

cleric and contemporary of Khomeini and a leader in his own right of the movement against Shah

1414:

responsibilities properly. and to provide religious guidance in personal affairs of believers.

13586: 12800: 11445: 11328: 10944: 7515:

Clandestine Service history: overthrow of Premier Mossadeq of Iran, November 1952 – August 1953

5416: 5403: 5080: 5076: 5029: 5012: 4979:

On 11 November 2007, Clerics and Basij paramilitary force attacked people of Gonabadi faith in

4775: 4683: 4607: 4227: 3899:, in contrast to Sunni Islam as well as Christianity (referred to as "original Christianity"). 3577: 3065: 2987: 2983: 2868: 2591: 2499: 2173: 2113:

of the forests, the sale of state-owned enterprises to private interests, electoral changes to

1974: 1831: 1522: 1421: 1406: 1234: 858: 712: 676: 659:

In the 21st century, "fundamentalist" in the Islamic Republic of Iran generally refers to the

604: 576: 217: 151: 11966: 11963:"Iran: Speak Your Mind – If You Can by Afshin Molavi – The Globalist > > Global Culture" 10484:"توحید غفارزاده دانشجوی دانشگاه آزاد سبزوار به ضرب چاقوی یک دانشجوی عضو بسیج دانشجویی کشته شد" 7552: 6527:

Gilman, Sander, and Zhou Xun. Smoke: A Global History of Smoking. Reaktion Books, 2004, p. 60.

6177: 2544:

which argued in support of collective ownership "as if it were an article of faith in Islam."

2262: 1742:

was prime minister of Iran from 1951 to 1953 and led the nationalization of the British owned

13212:

Martin, V. A. (April 1986). "The Anti-Constitutionalist Arguments of Shaikh Fazlallah Nuri".

12869: 11981:"gooya news:: politics: عماد افروغ: تحصن مجلس ششم نه ريشه ليبراليستی داشت و نه هويت ملی، مهر" 11350: 11078: 10235: 8225: 6910:. Studies in Middle Eastern History. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. p. 181. 6830: 6262: 6233: 5272: 5242: 5126: 4767: 4679: 4603: 4590: 4582: 4351: 3995: 3911: 3582: 3451: 3446: 3386: 3140: 3053: 2836: 2748: 2707: 2569: 2521: 2305: 2247: 2141: 2126: 2085: 1490: 1462: 1394: 889: 476: 11984: 11940: 11611: 11416: 10395: 8596:

Winning Revolutions: The Psychosocial Dynamics of Revolts for Freedom, Fairness, and Rights

6207: 5797: 5780: 4448:

era. However, with the emergence of Communism in Iran, anti-Western attitudes proliferated.

13324: 12152: 12006: 10583: 5277: 5237: 5016: 4956: 4863: 4586: 4401:

over the institutions under his responsibility (e.g. Military forces, Judiciary system and

4397:

Khamenei has remained silent on the issue. However, he clearly rejected the supervision of

4383: 3863:

In Mehdi Mozaffan's chapter on comparative study of Islamism in Algeria and Iran, he says,

3436: 3085: 2761: 2752: 2528:, he has been described as a representative of the tendency of many "Shia clerics to blend 1954: 1938: 1933: 1617: 1503: 1433: 1380:'. In doing so they linked opposition to the constitutional movement to 'a war against the 1354: 1350: 1157: 491: 486: 461: 333: 258: 11205: 10743:

Ashraf, Ahmad; Banuazizi, Ali (2001). "Iran's Tortuous Path Toward "Islamic Liberalism"".

10096: 10039:"Iran Judiciary Official Defends Execution By Stoning – RADIO FREE EUROPE / RADIO LIBERTY" 9891: 5727: 5446:

Scheherezade Faramarzi, Iran’s Salafi Jihadis, Atlantic Council. May 17, 2018, quoted in

2735:

was at odds with Khomeini's interpretation of the concept of the "Leadership of Jurists" (

737:

should return to the fundamentals of Islam, which make up a complete system including the

162: 8: 13511: 13428: 13121:

Hermann, Denis (1 May 2013). "Akhund Khurasani and the Iranian Constitutional Movement".

13051:"A Direct Flight to Revolution: Maududi, Divine Sovereignty, and the 1979-Moment in Iran" 12712: 12036: 11387: 10825: 10782: 10173: 10125: 10064: 9987: 9913:

Sadri, Ahmad (2001). "The Varieties of Religious Reform: Public Intelligentsia in Iran".

8469: 5913: 5130: 5068: 4930: 4398: 4157: 3853: 3824: 3772: 3679: 3592: 3572: 3381: 3265: 3210: 2867:; several months later voters approved the new constitution and Khomeini emerged as the 2346: 2297: 1993: 1958: 1686: 1530: 1373: 834: 680: 13558:, By Ghoncheh Tazmini, Central Asian Survey, Volume 20, Issue 1 March 2001, pages 63–83. 12891:

America's Great Game: The CIA's Secret Arabists and the Making of the Modern Middle East

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a film about the rivalry between Teheran's two football teams, Esteqlal and Persepolis.

3722: 2920:

Shortly after assuming power, Khomeini began calling for Islamic revolutions across the

1770:

Company (English owned but operating in Iran) was nationalized in 1951. Mosaddeq stated

13293: 13229: 13183: 13154: 13146: 13109: 13101: 13072: 13037: 12996: 12967: 12959: 12889: 12631: 12621:

Byrne, Malcolm (2004). "Introduction". In Gasiorowski, Mark J.; Byrne, Malcolm (eds.).

11842: 11834: 11761:"Iran: Rift Emerging Between President And Clerics – RADIO FREE EUROPE / RADIO LIBERTY" 11257:

Representative Office of The National Council of Resistance of Iran (2 November 1995).

10779:"رادیو زمانه | انديشه زمانه | ما و غرب | "بی‌اعتمادی موجود، مصنوعی است"" 10760: 10561: 10522: 9930: 9864: 9796: 9633: 9438: 8913: 7970: 7966: 7909:

Adams, Charles J. (1983). "Maududi and the Islamic State". In Esposito, John L. (ed.).

7602: 6963: 6311: 5995: 5267: 5056: 4779: 4751: 4671:

Perhaps the most influential neo-conservative newspaper during the 1990s and 2000s was

4602:

In 2007 Mesbah-Yazdi called university people the most indecent people. In April 2008,

4464: 4265: 4215: 4153: 4100: 3971: 3962: 3892: 3490: 3401: 3298: 3240: 3048: 2933: 2886: 2855:

has dubbed the "climax" of "general submission to Islamist cultural hegemony" in Iran.

2807: 2633: 2614: 2552: 2387: 1913: 1722: 1637: 1103: 1007: 947: 762: 696: 633: 616: 368: 353: 313: 298: 273: 263: 11104: 10447: 10339: 9814: 9458: 8702: 7768:

Malcolm Byrne (2004). "Introduction". In Gasiorowski, Mark J.; Byrne, Malcolm (eds.).

4390:(Iran's Parliament), are contradictory to Islamic government which is centered around 1632:

In 1950, at 26 years of age, he presented his idea of an Islamic State in a treatise,

13546: 13533: 13515: 13497: 13464: 13446: 13432: 13404: 13379: 13328: 13285: 13254: 13158: 13138: 13113: 13076: 13041: 13029: 12971: 12896: 12873: 12833: 12826: 12810: 12785: 12760: 12735: 12716: 12690: 12671: 12637: 12609: 12599: 12574: 12570: 12542: 12535: 12521: 12511: 12497: 12355: 12323: 12101: 11846: 11733: 11258: 10764: 10598: 10565: 10417: 9934: 9637: 9625: 9620: 9336: 9207: 9070: 9043: 9033: 8905: 8667: 8665: 8639: 8637: 8441: 8376: 8346: 8312: 8229: 8093: 7918: 7911: 7647: 7637: 7558: 7522: 7188: 7155: 6967: 6955: 6911: 6836: 6675: 6492:

Poulson, Stephen. Social Movements in Twentieth-Century Iran. Lexington, 2005, p. 86.

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Lewis, Bernard(1993) Islam in history:ideas, people and events in the Middle East:402

5748:

Lewis, Bernard(1993) Islam in history:ideas, people and events in the Middle East:398

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quoted senior clerics in Qom as saying that Sufism should be eradicated there, while

4895: 4649: 4452: 4379: 4350:" (Velayat E Entesabi Ye Ammeh Ye Shora Ye Marje'eh Taghlid) Proponents: Ayatollahs: 4257: 4231: 4007: 4003: 3936: 3932: 3431: 3421: 2955: 2899: 2818: 2692: 2621: 2602: 2511: 2219: 2153: 2063:

published a piece criticizing the Shah and supporting the Islamist currents in Iran.

2051:

fascist and communist states. Iranian Shi'i Islamists had close links with Maududi's

1981: 1739: 1710: 1702: 1657: 1478: 1429: 1425: 1310: 1115: 1095: 885: 872: 692: 641: 516: 373: 241: 12300: 11570: 11005: 10526: 9596:"Religionization of politics in Iran: Shi'i seminaries as the bastion of resistance" 7301: 4524:

is not accepted. Such beliefs are mainly rooted in traditional thinking rather than

3198: 2198:

Iranian Revolution § 1970s: Pre-revolutionary conditions and events inside Iran

13327:& Azim Sarvdalir), Binghamton University & Brigham Young University, 1999, 13277: 13246: 13221: 13175: 13130: 13093: 13062: 13021: 12988: 12951: 12930: 12865: 11826: 11667: 11280: 10752: 10553: 10514: 10292: 9922: 9615: 9607: 8897: 8591: 7958: 6947: 6303: 5987: 5792: 5382: 4923: 4637: 4544: 4336: 3928: 3907: 3876: 3747: 3712: 3610: 3552: 3348: 3338: 3313: 3260: 3188: 2963: 2879: 2864: 2831: 2827: 2787: 2736: 2720: 2696: 2625: 2606: 2583: 2435: 2415: 2361:

models and Western criteria in education, the arts, and culture led to the loss of

2336: 2102: 1985: 1946: 1823: 1678: 1670: 1605: 1589: 1573: 1486: 1444: 1322: 1259: 1249: 1011: 1000: 780: 684: 481: 11596: 9611: 8841: 8662: 8634: 5032:, the founding member of the Qom Theology School, wrote a book about criticism of 4433:. They advocated active support for Islamic and liberation movements, pushing to " 1094:, issued a fatwa declaring the use of tobacco to be tantamount to war against the 13400: 13134: 12377: 11878: 11864: 11641: 11384:"داريوش آشورى / بحث بر سر نقش فرديد و پيروان او در فضاى فكرى و سياسى امروز ايران" 11308: 10899: 10855: 10681: 10297: 9512: 9484: 9330: 8297: 8166: 8087: 7183: 7149: 6214: 5247: 5181: 5107: 5060: 5040: 4846: 4721: 4660:" position unislamic, prior to his passing away. He turned to documentary films. 4657: 4529: 4329: 4288: 4261: 4137: 3665: 3620: 3587: 3567: 3557: 3466: 3358: 3303: 3058: 2662: 2391: 2381:, recruiting our youth en masse to the service of foreigners and imperialists..." 2358: 2292:

In January 2007, a new parliamentary faction announced its formation. The former

2251: 2223: 2110: 2052: 1901: 1850: 1800: 1690: 1245: 1194: 1148:

There were two different majlis (parliaments) endorsed by the leading clerics of

1134: 1068: 1059: 876: 774: 649: 13250: 13166:

Keddie, Nikki R. (June 1983). "Iranian Revolutions in Comparative Perspective".

Keddie, Nikki R. (June 1983). "Iranian Revolutions in Comparative Perspective".

6178:"Revisiting Ayatollah Khomeini's Doctrine of Wilayat al-Faqıh (Velayat-e Faqıh)" 5930: 5541: 4778:. They emphasized economic growth over social equity and declared the quest for 3018: 2990:

were among the most prominent clerics to face the wrath of the Islamist regime.

12752:

Iran's First Revolution: Shi'ism and the Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1909

12079:"Iran: Qom Authorities Crack Down on Sufis – RADIO FREE EUROPE / RADIO LIBERTY" 10491: 10469: 10280: 9451: 9117: 6907:

Iran's First Revolution: Shi'ism and the Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1909

6015:"ISLAMIC FORCES OF THE IRANIAN REVOLUTION: A CRITIQUE OF CULTURAL ESSENTIALISM" 5292: 5157: 5096: 5064: 4788: 4747: 4737: 4460: 4296: 4168: 3857: 3686: 3471: 3426: 3353: 3280: 3105: 2925: 2910: 2848: 2803: 2578: 2255: 2243: 2118: 1929: 1870: 1751: 1698: 951: 901: 801: 784: 13545:, by Ali Gheissari and Vali Nasr, Oxford University Press, USA (15 June 2006) 13281: 13225: 13097: 13067: 13050: 12992: 12955: 12934: 11830: 10756: 10518: 9926: 9357: 7554:

Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez, and Decolonization

6026: 5991: 4880:

Dividing Iranians into Insider and Outsider was first introduced by Khamenei.

4593:, the minister of Science, Research, and Technology in Ahmadinejad's cabinet. 4272:

halls of residence in the early hours of Friday 9 July 1999 by group members.

2954:

In September 1980, Iraq launched a full-scale invasion of Iran, beginning the

2226:, a Shia militia sympathetic to Khomeini, were later executed for the murder. 1815: 1731: 13565: 13289: 13142: 13033: 12613: 11371: 11157: 9629: 9074: 8909: 8350: 8221: 8089:

Iran and the Surrounding World: Interactions in Culture and Cultural Politics

7651: 6959: 6951: 6264:

Conversion and Islam in the Early Modern Mediterranean: The Lure of the Other

5910:"رادیو زمانه | انديشه زمانه | مقالات | در مصائب روشنفکری دینی" 5677: 5351: 5176:

of Islam". In March 1988, Hussein killed about 20,000 Iranian soldiers using

5137: 5011:

news agency reported that in September one hard-line cleric, Grand Ayatollah

4941: 4907: 4809: 4771: 4623: 4525: 4441: 4243: 4235: 4192: 4145: 3987: 3920: 3752: 3727: 3461: 3456: 3411: 3275: 3225: 3070: 2921: 2906: 2863:, in which Iranian voters overwhelmingly approved the country's becoming an 2728: 2556: 2480: 2009: 1888: 1694: 1601: 1546: 1091: 862: 792: 738: 653: 444: 225: 12664: 11537:

http://www.tehrantimes.com/Description.asp?Da=7/5/2007&Cat=2&Num=007

10418:"Letter to Ayatollah Seyyed Ali Khamenei (Human Rights Watch, 13 July 1999)" 10365: 9047: 7526: 5839:

online, Discussing reformism: an interview with Dr. Seyyed Javad Tabatabayi

5110:

with excrement supposedly carried into the mosque in his pilgrim's garment.

4831:

In October 2002, Ali Khamenei called on Iranian women to avoid feminism and

2982:

and his televised forced confessions, other Usuli sources of emulation like

2156:

a legitimate Marja. This is widely thought to have prevented his execution.

813:

A 2007 post from Radiozamaneh offered five categories for Iranian thinkers:

13529: 12704: 12525: 11242: 9869: 9199: 9108: 6050:"New Left Review – Ervand Abrahamian: Khomeini: Fundamentalist or Populist" 5587:"Global Politician – Core members of Iran's council of Economic Governance" 5223: 5185: 5145: 4983:. Gonabadi's buildings and mosques were destroyed and many poor people and 4965: 4945: 4937: 4759: 4755: 4521: 4500: 4239: 4141: 4108: 3944: 3717: 3416: 3406: 3343: 3193: 3160: 3115: 3110: 2852: 2840: 2814: 2688: 2450: 2439: 2411: 2399:. The Islamic Republic issued a postage stamp honoring Al-e-Ahmad in 1981. 2301: 2277: 2270: 2048: 2030: 2013: 1977: 1925: 1921: 1842: 1518: 1107: 1086:, then, in December 1891, the most important religious authority in Iran, 1028: 958: 939: 897: 766: 758: 754: 679:

and the president are principalists, and principalists have control of the

664: 555: 303: 12591:

Iranian Constitutional Revolution and the Clerical Leadership of Khurasani

10557: 10195: 10122:"Iranian radio revives Papal-Jewish conspiracy theories Free Media Online" 9030:

Tortured Confessions : Prisons and Public Recantations in Modern Iran

8233: 7727:

Mackey, Sandra, The Iranians : Persia, Islam and the Soul of a Nation

7631: 4543:

rather than religious extremism per se. According to Graham Fuller of the

13490:, Edited by Abdel salam Sidahmed and Anoushiravan Ehteshami. Boulder, CO. 13460: 13367: 12806: 12589: 10675:

Review of the Elections to the Assembly of Experts (ROOZ :: English)

9735: 8901: 7425:رسول جعفریان، ”جریان ها و سازمان های مذهبی سیاسی ایران“، ص٢٧١ ، ١٣٩٤ شمسی 5885: 5870: 5855: 5840: 5209: 4891: 4816: 4536: 4488: 4149: 4088: 3991: 3844: 3784: 3742: 3540: 3165: 3135: 2929: 2903: 2537: 2484: 2443: 2396: 2374: 2341: 2327: 2322: 2114: 2106: 2005: 1950: 1897: 1795: 1649: 1640:, and he congratulated the shah after the 1953 coup deposed Mosaddegh: 1264: 1230: 943: 566: 363: 323: 13150: 13105: 12919:"Contending discourses in Shi'i law on the doctrine of Wilayat Al‐faqih" 12052:"ISNA – 07-22-2007 – 86/4/31 – سرويس: / تقريب مذاهب / شماره خبر: 964799" 11838: 9800: 8917: 7962: 6126:

Vaezi, Ahmed (2004). "What Is Wilayat al-Faqih. Historical background".

5394:

A practice alien to Shi'i Islam but realized after establishment of the

5184:

was obtained from firms in many countries, including the United States,

4894:

people in Iran have less rights then religious people. For example, the

2998: 2464:

Shariati was also a harsh critic of traditional Usuli clergy (including

2242:(from October 1965 to 1978, when he was expelled by then-Vice President 1685:) under Islamist agenda. Fada'ian-e Islam carried out assassinations of 13556:

The Islamic revival in Central Asia: a potent force or a misconception?

13494:

Overcoming Tradition and Modernity: The Search for Islamic Authenticity

13297: 13233: 13187: 13000: 10861: 9496: 8435: 6315: 5362: 5045: 4969: 4484: 4413: 4287:. In 2001, a member of the Basij, Saeed Asgar attempted to assassinate 4184: 3983: 3974:. Islamic neo-fundamentalists borrowed from Western countercurrents of 3952: 3363: 3215: 3155: 3150: 3080: 2941: 2145: 1290: 1082:

This led to unprecedented nationwide protest erupting first among the

905: 645: 328: 12963: 11238:"Music fails to chime with Islamic values, says Iran's supreme leader" 10718: 10221: 6075: 6049: 5884:

online, Fundamental liberalism and conservatism in Iran and the West.

5192:

Iran using conventional or chemical weapons during the 1980–1988 war.

4423: 4316:

Various theories of state based on divine legitimacy were proposed by

4300:

2004 the Basij initiated a violent crackdown on activists celebrating

2516:

Mahmoud Taleghani (1911–1979) was another politically active Iranian

12781: 12687:

Islam and Revolution : Writing and Declarations of Imam Khomeini

11490:"Iran's Supreme Leader signals limited flexibility on women's rights" 10922: 10879: 10797:"- Russia's Strategic Objectives in the Middle East and North Africa" 10541: 8300: 5881: 5866: 5851: 5836: 5177: 5072: 4468: 4430: 4374:

The Iranian parliament building as it appeared in the winter of 1956.

4321: 4223: 4113: 4104: 3979: 3924: 3883:

is one that has been invented by Western journalists by analogy with

3848: 3693: 3441: 3235: 3170: 3120: 2378: 1909: 1653: 1563: 1361: 1087: 1004: 830: 805: 434: 13179: 13025: 11638:"Khamenei advises Iranian women to avoid feminism in their campaign" 7908: 6307: 5385:

said that Ruhollah Khomeini was the leading "reformist" of our time.

4006:

and religious modernists. In May 1996, Ganji presented a lecture at

1697:. On 22 November 1955, after an unsuccessful attempt to assassinate 1559: 104:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. 13427:

Essays by Western Muslim Scholars (Perennial Philosophy Series) by

9204:

Eminent Persians: The Men and Women Who Made Modern Iran, 1941–1979

8601: 5337: 5141: 4980: 4713: 4340: 4219: 3975: 3896: 3888: 3872: 3672: 3270: 3220: 2844: 2822: 2598: 2517: 2165: 1780: 1201:

the people and conceal the true nature of their political crimes".

1197:, the leader of the anti-constitutionalists during the revolution. 1114:

and the foreign exploitation they allowed, was disputed. Historian

912: 893: 868: 826: 746: 608: 391: 338: 13526:

The Shia Revival: How Conflicts within Islam Will Shape the Future

9332:

Religious Secularity: A Theological Challenge to the Islamic State

9206:. Syracuse University Press and Persian World Press. p. 109. 5759:"Democracy, Justice, Fundamentalism and Religious Intellectualism" 4975: 2913:. Soon after the 1979 revolution, he was killed by a rival group, 2798: 2407: 2164:

In June of that year Khomeini delivered a speech at the Feyziyeh

5008: 4984: 4839:

participation in society was "negative, primitive and childish".

4480: 4445: 4361: 4092: 4079: 4054: 3948: 3130: 3028: 2777: 2712: 2533: 2491: 2458: 2169: 1942: 1866: 1318: 1083: 970: 915:, fundamentalist, Islamist, and a reformer by various observers. 825:

Traditionalists—who believe in eternal wisdom and are critics of

406: 401: 13475:

Democracy, Justice, Fundamentalism and Religious Intellectualism

11901:"Hard-Line Unit Vows War with Reformers; Associated Press, 2002" 11198:"سایت سازمان صدا و سیما | مرجع پخش زنده و جدول پخش شبکه ها" 10151: 8579:

Islam and Revolution: Writings and Declarations of Imam Khomeini

8462:"Leader Addresses University Students and Instructors in Kerman" 7287:

H. Enayat, Modern Islamic Political Thought, Austin, Tex., 1982.

6936:"Religious secularity: A vision for revisionist political Islam" 5022: 4618: 4459:

Following the Revolution, the government (with the patronage of

4304:

in Tehran. On 13 November 2006 Tohid Ghaffarzadeh, a student at

4214:

was the majority party in the 4th and 5th parliaments after the

1551: 1053: 729:), should be interpreted in a literal and originalist way; that 13484:(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), pp. 403–424. 11442:"An int'l bullying system for modern times a mirage: VP – Irna" 10621:"Mesbah Yazdi: Ahmadinejad will form an Islamic Administration" 10440:"Essential Background: Overview of human rights issues in Iran" 8590:

Avideh Mayville, "The Religious Ideology of Reform in Iran" in

8528:"'Westoxification' and Worse: Probing Iran's Turbulent History" 8373:

The great war for civilisation: the conquest of the Middle East

8331: 7839: 6929: 6927: 5173: 5165: 4832: 4743: 4717: 4673: 4627: 4476: 4467:), pursued an Islamic foreign policy that included creation of 4387: 4311: 4140:

was founded in 1946 as an Islamic fundamentalist organization.

3658: 3230: 2895: 2339:

published a book or pamphlet called of the book Occidentosis (

2234:

Khomeini spent more than 14 years in exile, mostly in the holy

1846: 1621: 1567: 1470: 1242: 1191: 1180: 935: 888:

that led to the 1979 revolution abandoned traditional clerical

833:. Unlike Fundamentalists, Traditionalists believe in religious 726: 722: 511: 416: 411: 396: 12709:

Religion and Rebellion in Iran: The Tobacco Protest of 1891–92

10116: 10114: 7851: 6812: 6810: 6808: 6806: 6426:

Religion and Rebellion in Iran: The Tobacco Protest of 1891–92

3827:

revivalisms of the twentieth century. As in the course of the

1893: 1121: 9319:, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2003, pp. 221–222 9160:, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2003, pp. 194–195 9147:, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2003, pp. 194–202 8991:"صراط النجاة – التبريزي، الميرزا جواد – کتابخانه مدرسه فقاهت" 8732: 8730: 7129: 5366: 5333: 5122: 5086: 4709: 4703: 4472: 4370: 4280: 4096: 3644: 3625: 2680: 2296:("principalist") faction split due to "lack of consensus" on 2266: 2239: 2211: 2130: 2122: 1966: 1613: 1482: 1385: 1381: 1176: 1149: 978: 974: 966: 730: 718: 621: 539: 439: 12652: 8624: 8622: 8620: 8618: 8616: 8509: 8507: 8505: 8106: 6924: 1949:

ideas by promoting works by the original Islamist thinkers,

12802:

An Islamic Utopian - A Political Biography of Ali Shari'ati

11915:"Resignation of Mr. Mohajerani Further Weakens Mr. Khatami" 10111: 9416: 9414: 8766: 8678: 7633:

Revolutionary Iran : a history of the Islamic republic

6803: 6712: 6710: 6438: 6436: 6434: 6383: 6381: 6359: 6357: 6119: 5559:

A Social Revolution: Politics and the Welfare State in Iran

5424: 5161: 5000: 4964:

no Iranian identity". Referring to 7th parliament members,

4640:

was the managing director and chief editor of the weeklies

4409: 4402: 4317: 4172: 4082:'s presidency, Mesbah-Yazdi claimed that an unnamed former 3125: 2684:

Syed Abulhassan Shamsabadi was killed by Islamists in 1976.

2529: 2453:

was not just a holy figure but the original oppressed one (

2362: 2235: 2177: 1912:

Sunni Islamist author and a leading member of the Egyptian

1838: 1336: 1258:) is the Fundamentalist hero of the era. He was praised by 1019: 989: 982: 612: 348: 11664:"Khatami and the Status of Women in Iran, Donna M. Hughes" 11321:"Preparing for War and Heading Towards an Economic Crisis" 8727: 8026:"President of Sadra Islamic Philosophy Research Institute" 7875: 7863: 6740: 6738: 6575:

The Iranians : Persia, Islam and the Soul of a Nation

5091:

A handful of Iranians were among the innocent dead in the

4495: 3895:." The concept of "Salaf" (السلف) does not exist in Shia 2794:), 5 January 1906 – 3 April 1986, died under house arrest. 2648:

The response from high-level Shi'a clerics to his idea of

2366:

flavor and analyzed society through a class perspective."

2069: 12689:. Translated by Algar, Hamid. Berkeley, CA: Mizan Press. 12102:"Middle East | Growing popularity of Sufism in Iran" 11593:"BBSNews – Iran Should End Arrests on Immorality Charges" 9329:

Ghobadzadeh, Naser; Qubādzādah, Nāṣir (1 December 2014).

9232: 8869: 8796: 8794: 8715: 8613: 8502: 7892: 7890: 7433: 7431: 7407: 7319: 7071: 7069: 7067: 7054: 7052: 7050: 5180:. According to Iraqi documents, assistance in developing 5169: 5118: 4996: 4944:, others such as Mesbah-Yazdi are opposed to the idea of 4176: 4083: 2089: 1284:

law of the Prophet and have set up their own law instead.

615:

has referred to various forms of Shi'i Islamic religious

13431:

and Seyyed Hossein Nasr, World Wisdom (23 October 2003)

12426: 11688:

Ayatollah Makarim Shirazi, Tafsir Nemoneh, on verse 4:12

9411: 9182: 9180: 9178: 9163: 9098:, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2003, p. 154 7384: 7382: 6832:

The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran

6791: 6757: 6755: 6753: 6707: 6554: 6542: 6481:

The Mantle of the Prophet: Religion and Politics in Iran

6461: 6431: 6393: 6378: 6354: 6107: 5925: 5923: 4175:

founded by a group of clerics based in the holy city of

2703:; 31 January 1919 – 1 May 1979) was a moderate Islamist. 963:

Twelver Shi'ism the state religion and belief compulsory

13496:, By ROBERT D. LEE. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997. 13457:

Roots of the Islamic Revolution in Iran (Four Lectures)

13445:

by Seyyed Hossein, Nasr Kegan Paul International(1995)

11819:

International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society

11784: 11782: 11516:"Latest news from around the world | The Guardian" 9594:

Ghobadzadeh, Naser; Akbarzadeh, Shahram (3 July 2020).

9277:"October 14th, 2019 | Vol. 194, No. 15 | International" 9256: 8754: 8394: 8392: 7494: 7093: 7081: 7035: 6987: 6885: 6861: 6849: 6779: 6735: 6602: 6152:"VELAYAT-E FAQIH Theory of governance in Shiʿite Islam" 4499:

In the song called "eshgh e sor'at" (crazy for speed),

4408:

Neo-fundamentalists believe that the supreme leader is

2617:

was a student of mystic Sheikh Muhammad Ali Shah-Abadi.

2563: 1485:. He expropriated land and real estate from shrines at 1372:—who defended constitutional monarchy in the period of 1293:

December 22, 1907 to attack merchants and loot stores.

1098:. Bazaars shut down, Iranians stopped smoking tobacco, 13419: