Islamic architecture

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new architectural style. The forms and conventions of Classical architecture were better understood in Syria than in the lands further east, and as a result some of the vocabulary of Umayyad architecture—of column and capital, pointed arch and dome, rib and vault—is familiar to a Western observer. These traditions declined in importance, however, as Muslim builders began to adopt the architectural styles of the newly conquered lands to the east—in Mesopotamia, Iran, Central Asia and even India. (...) The Abbasid dynasty of caliphs, founded in 749, ruled most of the Islamic lands from capital cities in Iraq during a golden age that lasted at least until the end of the 9th century. New styles of architecture were characterized by forms, techniques and motifs of Iraqi and Iranian origin. Some features of these styles, such as brick vaults and stucco renderings, had already appeared in buildings erected late in the Umayyad period (661–c. 750; see §III above), but they became increasingly widespread as a result of the power and prestige of the Abbasid court. In the Islamic lands around the Mediterranean, Late Antique traditions of stone construction roofed with wood continued, although new techniques and styles were eventually introduced from Iraq.

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Architecture is what is causing the style to lose its status. There are scholars that also believe that the distinguishing features of the Islamic Architecture style were not necessarily found within the architecture, but were rather environmental markers, such as the sounds of prayer, the city around it, the events that occurred there. The example given is that we can only truly know that a building is a mosque by what happens there, rather than by visual cues. Specific features that are notably related to Islamic Architecture – the Mihrab, the Minaret, and the Gate – are seen in multiple locations and do not always serve the same use, and symbolism for being Islamic in nature is seen to be demonstrated more culturally than it is architecturally. Islamic Architecture is also sometimes referred to as a 'hidden architecture', one that doesn't necessarily show the physical traits of the style, rather it is something that is experienced.

3145: 2956: 3814: 4543: 2300: 33: 3452: 4340:("bond of cohesion", or "family loyalty"), strictly separated from the "outside". In general, the morphology of an Islamic city is granting—or denying—access according to the basic concept of hierarchical degrees of privacy. The inhabitants move from public space to the living quarters of their tribe, and onwards to their family home. Within a family house, there are again to be found common and separate spaces, the latter, and most private, usually reserved for women and children. In the end, only the family heads have free and unlimited access to all rooms and areas of their private home, as opposed to the more European concept of interconnecting different spaces for free and easy access. The hierarchy of privacy thus guides and structures the entire social life in a city, from the ruler to the commoner, from the town to the house. 5187: 5242: 8438:

that express an Islamic architect's motives with their structures. Due to the wide geographic range of the Islamic religion, there is a large variation between thousands of existing mosques with little consistency between them. Lastly, since it is against the Islamic faith to idolize earthly beings, any depictions of earthly beings lack religious connection. These characteristics combine to make it difficult for historians to form symbolic connections from architecture in Islamic places of worship. Some authors have attempted to ascribe mystical or mathematical symbolisms to various aspects Islamic architecture. However, while these symbolic meanings may be plausible for certain specific buildings, they are not necessarily applicable to the rest of Islamic architecture.

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peninsula. In western scholarship, a traditional assumption was that the Arabs of the early 7th century, at the time of Muhammad, were nomadic pastoralists who did not have strong architectural traditions. Thanks to more recent studies and archeological investigations, this view has since been revised and is now considered obsolete. According to scholar Beatrice Saint Laurent, early academic investigations into the history of Islamic monumental architecture led to the "flawed view that saw the roots of an Early Islamic monumental architecture and art solely in the traditions of the conquered regions". Scholars now agree that a rich architectural tradition also preceded the appearance of Islam in Arabia and the first Islamic monuments.

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generations. It is, of course, true that the vast peninsula has not been as well investigated as it should be and that surprises may well await archeologists in the future. At this stage of scholarly knowledge, however, it is probably fair to say that Islam's Arabian past, essential for understanding the faith and its practices, and the Arabic language and its literature, is not as important for the forms used by Islamic art as the immensely richer world, from the Atlantic Ocean to Central Asia, taken over by Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries. Even later, after centuries of independent growth, new conquests in Anatolia or India continued to bring new local themes and ideas into the mainstream of Islamic art.

3004: 4747: 6230: 3763: 3125: 5892: 7713: 2605:), the central medallion of the apex and the ribs of the dome became separate structural elements: the ribs are more pronounced and connect to the central medallion, which also stands out more pronouncedly, so that the entire construction gives the impression as if ribs and medallion are separate from, and underpin, the proper shell of the dome. Elaborately decorated ceilings and dome interiors draw influence from Near Eastern and Mediterranean architectural decoration while also serving as explicit and symbolic representations of the heavens. These dome shaped architectural features could be seen at the early Islamic palaces such as Qusayr ῾amra (c.712–15) and Khirbat al-mafjar (c.724–43). 3340: 5821: 6161: 2984: 6726: 8303:. A difference to note is the appearance of mosques without domes, as in the past mosques for the most part all had them, but these new dome-less mosques seem to follow a function over form design, and are created by those not of the Islamic faith, in most cases. The influence of Islam still pervades the style of creation itself, and provides a 'conceptual framework', for the making of a building that exemplifies the styles and beliefs of Islam. It has also been influenced by the now meeting of many different cultures, such as European styles meeting Islamic styles, leading to Islamic architects incorporating features of other architectural and cultural styles. 6634: 1529: 3090: 3320: 7225: 4226:

Islamic facilities were inserted into the existing urban fabric after the conquest. In the case of Damascus and Aleppo, for example, the cities were largely of Roman-Byzantine heritage and their topography changed slowly. The Islamic presence was signaled at first only by the presence of a mosque (and, in Damascus, the royal palace). This transformation, which resulted in what is often regarded as the traditional "Islamic" city, occurred over a long period and was shaped by multiple social and economic causes that varied according to region and period. The arrival of Islamic rule was only one stage in a process that had already begun by the 6th century.

5768: 4706: 6215: 5941: 3695: 6703: 7338: 5926: 5805: 5513: 7385: 2662: 19694: 6778: 5565: 6609: 5430: 3503: 7283: 8218:, off the coast of Tanzania, hosts the remains of multiple historic mosques and palaces. The Great Mosque is most impressive, the largest in East Africa before the 19th century. It was built and modified in multiple phases, with the oldest surviving section dating possibly to the 11th century, to which was later added a courtyard with porticos of coral stone columns and a side chamber with the largest historic dome on the East African coast (5 meters in diameter). The courtyard is the only known medieval example of its kind in the region, though it was rebuilt and covered with domes and barrel vaults in the 15th century. 6145: 6308: 6181: 7373: 1441: 3024: 7648: 5533: 4775: 6246: 5872: 4874: 5911: 3659: 3752:, which doubled as a place for prayer. The first confirmed minarets in the form of towers date from the early 9th century under Abbasid rule and they did not become a standard feature of mosques until the 11th century. These first minaret towers were placed in the middle of the wall opposite the qibla wall. Among them, the minaret of the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia, dating from 836, is one of the oldest surviving minarets in the world and the oldest in North Africa. It has the shape of a massive tower with a square base, three levels of decreasing widths, and a total height of 31.5 meters. 3074: 5597: 2515:, located several bays before the mihrab. In sections which now supporting these domes, additional supporting structures were needed to bear the thrust of the cupolas. The architects solved this problem by the construction of intersecting arches. The domes themselves are built with eight intersecting stone ribs. Rather than meeting in the centre of the dome, the ribs intersect one another off-center, leaving the central space to be occupied by a smaller cupola. For the domes in front of the mihrab, the ribs form an eight-pointed star and an octagonal cupola in the centre. For the dome over the 5279: 3296: 261: 7316: 44: 7244: 6330: 7789: 5308: 7755: 2551: 1477: 7604: 3477: 3237: 5581: 8262: 6672: 5261: 2968: 3161: 1856: 6277: 5549: 4566:. The four-iwan plan revolutionised the form and function of the mosques in the region and introduced new types of buildings involving madrasas and caravanserais which spread through Iran, Anatolia, and Syria. Large caravanserais were built as a way to foster trade and assert Seljuk authority in the countryside. They typically consisted of a building with a fortified exterior appearance, monumental entrance portal, and interior courtyard surrounded by various halls, including iwans. Some notable examples, only partly preserved, are the caravanserais of 7445: 7264: 6929: 2108: 1757: 7675: 2647: 2319: 3830: 3794: 5227: 1675: 3628: 7404: 8205: 2677: 6793: 6687: 6125: 11323:

commercial needs of the new Islamic polity, a transformation that set a trajectory for medieval cities throughout the Middle East (and perhaps even Europe of the early Middle Ages). Thus an Arabian concept of urbanism lies at the foundation of the early Islamic city; the existence of a distinctive 'Islamic city' from the beginnings of Islam begins to take form with specific archaeological characteristics. This hypothesis is derived from 'Aqaba and other urban plans and can be tested on other sites in Arabia and the Levant.

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the entrance, as people move deeper into the building more significant religious areas are revealed. Hierarchy is also present because certain Islamic architects are tasked to design specifically for the presence of royalty, although in Islamic belief all Muslims in the mosque are equal. Designated locations had been carefully chosen in the mosque to highlight an individual's position in society. This emphasis could be made by being within view to all attendees, by being placed in the focal point of artistry, or with a

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Islamic city was the south Arabian city, such as Sana’a, to which type Mecca and Fustat belonged. Two urban types based on social organization have been proposed by Walter Dostal. The first is called the San'a-formation, developed from a market center and inhabited by groups of the same tribe with social differentiation based on his "farmer-craftsman" technological specializations. The second urban type is the Tarim-formation, in which quarter organization reflects the social structure of a multi-tribal settlement.

2472: 11683:, p. 84: "It was decisive for the future that the Umayyad caliphs were to some extent aware of their own cultural history." "The glory of the Himyarite kings (singular tubbaʿ ) was remembered, according to the Kitab al-Tijan fi muluk Himyar (The Book of Crowns on the Kings of Himyar) by Ibn Hisham (d. c. 833), as the "immediate predecessor and pattern of the Umayyads" (Retsö 2005–2006: 232). Perhaps their palaces were distant forerunners of the Umayyad palaces of Syria, such as that at Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi" 2331: 6653: 3640: 7358: 6261: 5038: 6293: 1336: 2395: 8020: 7487: 8075: 1266: 4932: 4383: 6819: 7741: 2631: 55: 4655: 3423: 20764: 4347: 4805: 2414: 2275: 7515:(normally marks the entrance to the most sacred precincts), balai nobat (a tower supposedly used to store royal musical instruments) and the sacred pyramidal roof was used for Islamic architecture. For centuries, Malay-Indonesian mosques lacked domes or minarets, both considered of Middle Eastern origin. Malay-Indonesian original mosques feature multi-layered pyramidal roofs and no minaret. Prayer is called by striking a prayer's drum known as 6887: 8150: 8901:

Islamic empire was moved to Syria immediately after the end of this period, the contribution of the building traditions of these two cities, and of pre-Islamic Arabia in general, to the development of Islamic architecture was limited. Only the Ka῾ba, the pre-Islamic sanctuary at Mecca that became the focus for Muslim prayer and pilgrimage, and the combined residence and mosque that the Prophet built in Medina seem to have made any impact.

2495: 2701: 2087:. Later-period vaults were erected using pre-formed lateral ribs modelled from gypsum, which served as a temporal formwork to guide and center the vault. These ribs, which were left in the structure afterwards, do not carry any load. The ribs were cast in advance on strips of cloth, the impression of which can still be seen in the ribs today. Similar structures are known from Sasanian architecture, for example from the palace of 1068:

in the 8th century the mosque was repeatedly expanded to include a large flat-roofed prayer hall supported by columns (a hypostyle hall) with a central courtyard. It became one of the main models for the early mosques built elsewhere. Scholars generally agree that aside from Muhammad's mosque/house, the architecture of the Arabian Peninsula seems to have had only a limited role in the formulation of later Islamic architecture.

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architecture was the earliest expression of Islamic art on a grand scale and the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus reproduced the hypostyle model at a monumental scale. Moreover, the Umayyads did not come from a cultural void and were aware of their own Arabian cultural history. Some scholars suggest they sought to continue the pre-Islamic Arabian architectural tradition of building tall palaces to symbolize the ruler's power.

8239: 17076: 8510: 4295:" Islamic town is based on cultural and sociological concepts which differ from those of European cities. In both cultures, a distinction is made between the areas used by the rulers and their government and administration, public places of everyday common life, and the areas of private life. While the structures and concepts of European towns originated from a sociological struggle to gain basic rights of freedom—or 17089: 8524: 971: 6863: 4365: 3779: 2030: 7476: 8711:, p. 30, Frameworks of Islamic Art and Architectural History: Concepts, Approaches, and Historiographies: "Thus, it is increasingly being recognized that the mutual Roman–Byzantine architectural heritage of the Mediterranean, which had played an important role in the formation of early Islamic art, continued to mediate the shared histories of European and Islamic art long after the medieval period." 2215:(both completed around 1404) were notable in their use of large double-shelled domes. These domes were composed of an inner shell which was visible from the interior and a larger outer shell, visible from the exterior and often of a slightly different shape. The Gur-i Amir Mausoleum's dome, the oldest one to have survived to the present day, features an exterior ribbed profile with a band of 5080:, or seven-colour style of tile burning, a process that enabled them to apply more colours to each tile, creating richer patterns, sweeter to the eye. The colours that the Persians favoured were golden, white and turquoise patterns on a dark- blue background. The extensive inscription bands of calligraphy and arabesque on most of the major buildings where carefully planned and executed by 4844: 15045:

meaning. Others have sought to explain all Islamic architecture with principles of geometric harmonization derived from mathematical treatises and the careful measurement of buildings. Although this may work in individual cases, such as the shrine of Ahmad Yasavi in Turkestan (see §VI, A, 2 below), these principles cannot be ascribed indiscriminately to all buildings at all times.

8016:(established in the 14th-15th centuries and rebuilt in the 16th century, with later additions), had a tapering minaret and a prayer hall with rows of arches. The presence of tapering minarets may also reflect cultural contacts with M'zab region to the north, while decoration found at Timbuktu may reflect contacts with Berber communities in what is now Mauritania. 1584:), from which later empires in the region would also emerge and contribute to its artistic evolution. The original Great Mosque of Cordoba was noted for its unique hypostyle hall with rows of double-tiered, two-coloured, arches, which were repeated and maintained in later extensions of the building. The mosque was expanded multiple times, with the expansion by 5699:

second, and a lantern structure with finial on the third level. Domes also transitioned from wooden or brick structures, sometimes of bulbous shape, to pointed stone domes with complex geometric or arabesque motifs carved into their outer surfaces. The peak of this stone dome architecture was achieved under the reign of Qaytbay in the late 15th century.

3559:) is the direction in which Mecca is from any given location, towards which Muslims face during prayers. Within Islamic architecture it is a major component of both the features and the orientation of the building itself. Mosques and religious structures are built to have one side aligned with this direction, usually marked by a visual feature called a 8127:, which was previously established in the 14th century but demolished in the early 19th century, was rebuilt in 1906–1907 under the direction of Ismaila Traoré and with guidance from French engineers. Now the largest earthen building in sub-Saharan Africa, it served as a model for the new style and for other mosques in the region, including the 7965:. Here, a mosque has been discovered which consisted of a courtyard, a prayer hall, and a square minaret, built in dry stone covered in red mud used as plaster. On both the exterior and interior of the mosque, this plaster was painted with floral, geometric, and epigraphic motifs. A similar stone mosque from the same period has been found at 1127:, who were clients of the Byzantines and protected their eastern borders. These two Arab dynasties were significant patrons of architecture in their respective regions. Their architecture is not well understood due to the scarcity of identifiable remains today, but they borrowed and adapted the architecture of their Byzantine and Sasanian 3255: 1254:

Umayyad patrons recruited craftsmen from across the empire and architects were allowed, or even encouraged, to mix elements from different artistic traditions and to disregard traditional conventions and restraints. Partly as a result of this, Umayyad architecture is distinguished by the extent and variety of decoration, including

6902:), stone, or a combination of both, with timber used for roofs and floors. While these structures are repaired and restored over time, this architectural style has remained generally unchanged for hundreds of years. The old city of Sanaa, a UNESCO World Heritage Site today, contains many examples. Some villages and towns, such as 3198:. This apparently near-simultaneous development in distant regions of the Islamic world has led to multiple scholarly theories about their origin and spread, with one current theory proposing that they originated in one region at least a century earlier and then spread from there. Some of the earliest surviving examples preserved 8054:). The eastern or Hausa style is generally more plain on the exterior of buildings, but is characterized by diverse interior decoration and the much greater use of wood. Mosques often have prayer halls with pillars supporting flat or slightly domed roofs of wood and mud. An exceptional example is the 19th-century Great Mosque of 10714:, "Balconies in Islamic Architecture" "Wooden balconies projecting at upper levels and constructed with latticed screens to ensure privacy but allow air circulation were a feature of Islamic domestic architecture in many countries, and specific types developed in particular areas over time, such as the wooden screen known as 1918:). The use of this space included the aesthetic effects of plants and water, the penetration of natural light, allowing breezes and air circulation into the structure during summer heat, as a cooler space with water and shade, and as a protected and proscribed place where the women of the house need not be covered in the 8629:, p. 295: "As the Arabs did not have an architectural tradition suited to the needs of a great empire, they adopted the building methods of the defeated Sassanian and Byzantine empires. Because they ruled from Syria, Byzantine influence was stronger, although Sassanian elements became increasingly important." 1375:, and both were influential in the design of later mosques elsewhere. The Dome of the Rock and the Umayyad Mosque are also notable for their extensive program of mosaic decoration that drew on late Antique motifs and craftsmanship. However, mosaic decoration eventually fell out of fashion in Islamic architecture. 5140:-like elements on its courtyard façade. The city walls of Diyarbakir also feature several towers built by the Artuqids and decorated with a mix of calligraphic inscriptions and figurative images of animals and mythological creatures carved in stone. One of the culminations of later Artuqid architecture is the 8869:

Ghumdān castle in South Arabia and the structures of Khawarnaq and Sadīr in North Arabia, buildings whose fame may have exceeded their architectural merit—Arabia does not seem to have possessed an important architectural tradition and was not a significant source for the development of Islamic architecture.

6582:) also has distinctive mosques and houses that are completely whitewashed, but built in rammed earth. Its structures also make frequent use of domes and barrel vaults. Unlike Jerba, the distinctive minarets here are tall and have a square base, tapering towards the end and crowned with "horn"-like corners. 8868:

Because Islam originated in western Arabia, scholars have looked to the architecture of that region for clues to understanding the earliest Islamic architecture. Overall, the results have been disappointing, for with the exception of the simple structure of the Kaʿba and a few other sites—such as the

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There are several aspects of Islamic architecture that to modern knowledge lack a symbolic religious meaning, but there are connections that do exist. A repeated and significant motif in mosques is calligraphy. Calligraphy plays a huge role in delivering religious connections through artistic design.

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All of these buildings show the influence of Islam over them, but also the movements of things like minimalism which are rising to popularity in the architectural field. Designers that use the aspects of both modern styles and the Islamic styles found a way to have the Western-inspired modernism with

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as the centerpiece of his new capital. The distinct feature of Persian domes, which separates them from those domes created in the Christian world or the Ottoman and Mughal empires, was the colorful tiles, with which they covered the exterior of their domes, as they would on the interior. These domes

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alignments of mosques built in different periods and locations do not all point to the same place. This is due to discrepancies in the calculations of the Islamic scientists in the past who determined where Mecca was from their individual locations. Scholars note that these differences come about for

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developed a specific form of monumental, representative building: wide central domes with huge diameters were erected on top of a centre-plan building. Despite their enormous weight, the domes appear virtually weightless. Some of the most elaborate domed buildings have been constructed by the Ottoman

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Some scholars refer to the early hypostyle mosque with courtyard as the "Arab plan" or "Arab-type" mosque. Such mosques were constructed mostly under the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties; subsequently, however, the simplicity of this type of plan limited the opportunities for further development, and as

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inscriptions, and rich stucco decoration featuring vine scrolls and acanthus leaves that draw from the earlier styles of Samarra. Another important architectural trend to arise in the 10th to 11th centuries is the development of mausolea, which took on monumental forms for the first time. One type of

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J. Allan's revised edition of K.A.C. Creswell's A Short Account of Early Muslim Architecture first characterized pre-Islamic Arabian architecture as consisting largely of mud huts, a point that he later revoked. Other colleagues were quick to join the criticism of this controversial, wide-spread but

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Although Syria remained the center of the Islamic empire for less than 90 years, its role in the development of Islamic architecture was crucial. The region's own ancient civilization, unified and transformed by Hellenization and overlaid with Roman and Christian elements, provided the basis for the

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A key feature of the mosque is the mihrab, a universal part of any Islamic place of worship. The mihrab is easily identifiable through a receding wall and a gable overhead often consisting of intricate patterns. Upon entering, the most crucial religious function the architecture of the mosque serves

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Islamic architecture varies vastly across the world. Specifically, some mosques have different goals and intentions than others. These intentions often highlighted religious and social hierarchies within the mosque. Mosques are designed to have the least significant portions of the layout closest to

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As Islamization progressed across the region, more variations developed in mosque architecture, including the adoption of traditional local forms not previously associated with Islamic architecture. Under Songhai influence, minarets took on a more pyramidal appearance and became stepped or tiered on

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Yemeni architecture can be characterized as "conservative", as it combines both pre-Islamic and Islamic features. In Antiquity, Yemen was home to several wealthy city-states and an indigenous tradition of South Arabian architecture. By the 5th century AD, there is evidence that the indigenous styles

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is a hall that is walled on three sides and open on one side. It is typically covered by a vault although this can vary. This feature was present in Sasanian architecture, though its exact origins are older and still debated. It was later incorporated into Islamic architecture. Its usage became more

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was changed to face towards Mecca in 624, a similar portico was added on the south side, facing towards that city. Muhammad and his family lived in separate rooms attached to the mosque, and Muhammad himself was buried in one of these rooms upon his death in 632. Over the rest of the 7th century and

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Altogether, the Arabian past seems to have played a relatively small role in the development of Islamic art, especially if forms are considered exclusively. Its importance was greater in the collective memories it created and in the Arabic vocabulary for visual identification it provided for future

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s), actually grew in number during the Ottoman period. In modern times, from the late 19th century onwards, a "neo-Mamluk" style was also used, partly as a nationalist response against Ottoman and European styles, in an effort to promote local "Egyptian" styles (though the architects were sometimes

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Mamluk architecture is distinguished in part by the construction of multi-functional buildings whose floor plans became increasingly creative and complex due to the limited available space in the city and the desire to make monuments visually dominant in their urban surroundings. Patrons, including

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in the 11th century, which conquered all of Iran and other extensive territories in Central Asia and the Middle East. The most important religious monument from the Great Seljuk period is the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan, which was expanded and modified by various Seljuk patrons in the late 11th century

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Some authors have found hidden mystical meanings in all the components of Islamic architecture, such as color, light and shade, and particular geometric shapes. Mysticism was an important element in Islamic society, but its practice was by no means universal, and all buildings do not have mystical

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in Mogadishu, dated to 1269, is the most architecturally sophisticated mosque in East Africa. It consists of a courtyard leading to a square hypostyle prayer of nine bays, with a dome over the central bay which resembles the conical domes of Anatolian Seljuk architecture. The mihrab is carved from

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The original mosque in Malaysia had a basic architectural style and structure: with four pillars for the foundation and palm fronds for the roof. In Malacca, the architectural design is a cross between local Malay, Indian and Chinese architecture. Traditionally, the minaret resembles a pagoda with

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was probably begun in the late pre-Islamic period and continued to grow during the Hinduism-to-Islam transitional period. The complex contains clues to the stages of the process of the gradual changes as Islam become incorporated into Indonesian architecture. Two of the Hindu features adopted into

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archipelago from the 12th century onwards, and especially during the 15th century as the Sultanate of Malacca dominated the region. The introduction of Islam was slow and gradual. The advent of Islam did not lead to the introduction of a new building tradition but saw the appropriation of existing

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in the late 16th century. Major mosques built by Mughal emperors and their family include the Jama Masjid (Friday Mosque) in Delhi, the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore, and other mosques of similar form which were often built near or within other imperial complexes. Even the Mughal nobility were able to

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were being influenced by Byzantine and Late Antique Mediterranean art. Yemen was Islamized in the 7th century, but few buildings from the early Islamic period have been preserved intact today. It is only from the 10th century onward that distinctive Islamic architectural styles can be documented.

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agreements that also served the secondary purpose of ensuring some form of income or property for the patrons' descendants. The cruciform or four-iwan floor plan was adopted for madrasas and became more common for new monumental complexes than the traditional hypostyle mosque, although the vaulted

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The origin of the minaret and its initial functions are not clearly known and have long been a topic of scholarly discussion. The earliest mosques lacked minarets, and the call to prayer was often performed from smaller tower structures. The early Muslim community of Medina gave the call to prayer

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to worshippers. It also acquired ritual and ceremonial importance over time, and its shape was even used as a symbol on some coinage. The very first mosques did not have mihrabs; the first known concave mihrab niche was the one added to the Prophet's Mosque in Medina by Caliph al-Walid I in 706 or

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One of the hallmarks of Persian gardens is the four-part garden laid out with axial paths that intersect at the garden's centre. This highly structured geometrical scheme, called the chahar bagh, became a powerful metaphor for the organization and domestication of the landscape, itself a symbol of

1147:. The culture and architecture of the Lakhmids and Ghassanids probably played a subsequent role in transmitting and filtering the architectural traditions of the Sasanian and the Byzantine/Roman worlds to the later Arab Islamic dynasties who established their political centers in the same regions. 131:

encompasses a wide geographic area historically ranging from western Africa and Europe to eastern Asia. Certain commonalities are shared by Islamic architectural styles across all these regions, but over time different regions developed their own styles according to local materials and techniques,

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Maintaining a sociological hierarchy within a mosque would typically represent a recognition by a higher being aware of a delegation of power. This hierarchy does exist but not with any sort of religious message as Hillenbrand points out, "in neither case is this hierarchy employed for especially

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Islamic architecture is a neglected subject within historical studies of world architecture. Many scholars that study historical architecture often gloss over, if not completely ignore Islamic structures. This is caused by multiple elements, one being that there are little historic literary works

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Urban design and the tradition of Islamic styled architecture have begun to combine to form a new 'neo-Islamic' style, where the efficiency of the urban style meshes with the spirituality and aesthetic characteristics of Islamic styles. Islamic Architecture in itself is a style that showcases the

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networks. While the Islamic architecture of this region shares a certain style, a wide variety of materials and local styles are evident across this wide geographic range. In the more arid western Sahara and northern Sahel regions, stone predominates as a building material and is often associated

7165:(1374–75), the largest mosque in the Indian subcontinent, though partially ruined today. Built of stone demolished from temples, it featured a monumental ribbed barrel vault over the central nave, the first such giant vault used anywhere in the subcontinent. The mosque was modeled on the imperial 6059:

and Edirne also contain a concentration of Ottoman monuments. Ottoman architecture is also found across the empire's provinces, ranging from Eastern Europe to the Middle East to North Africa. Major religious monuments, such as those sponsored by sultan and his family, were typically architectural

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is marked by its grand scale, prominent double-shelled domes, extensive use of ceramic tiles on the outside, and elaborate geometric vaulting on the inside. It drew on the previous developments of Ilkhanid architecture and refined them, developing an imperial style that was influential beyond its

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Starting in the 10th century and especially during the period of Seljuk domination, the eastern Islamic world – including Iran and Central Asia – generally shared a common architectural style. This style was characterized by the prominent use of brick as both construction material and decoration,

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itself, the fact that the geographic coordinates of the past do not line up with the coordinates of today, and that the determination of this direction was more an astronomical calculation, rather than a mathematical one. Early mosques were constructed according to either the calculations of what

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The "non-radial rib vault", an architectural form of ribbed vaults with a superimposed spherical dome, is the characteristic architectural vault form of the Islamic East. From its beginnings in the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan, this form of vault was used in a sequence of important buildings up to the

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and Byzantine art was still widely evident because political power and patronage was centered in Syria, a former Roman/Byzantine province. Some former Ghassanid structures also appear to have been reused and modified during this period. However, a significant amount of experimentation occurred as

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Especially significant is the identification of a major Arab Islamic contribution to the urban history of Syria-Palestine that originated in pre-Islamic practices in the Arabian Peninsula. The towns were, accordingly, not the product of a solitary lineal process carried forward from late antique

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References on Islamic architecture generally agree that pre-Islamic architecture in the Arabian Peninsula had only limited influence on the development of Islamic architecture, at least by comparison with the influences of existing architectural traditions in the conquered territories beyond the

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In particular, the regions of the newly conquered Byzantine Empire (Southwestern Anatolia, Syria, Egypt and the Maghreb) supplied architects, masons, mosaicists and other craftsmen to the new Islamic rulers. These artisans were trained in Byzantine architecture and decorative arts, and continued

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More often than founding new cities, the new Islamic rulers took over existing towns. Most of the new Arab settlers nonetheless settled into previously existing urban centers throughout the conquered territories. These cities were transformed according to the needs of the new Islamic society and

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is a three-dimensional sculpted motif created by the geometric subdivision of a vaulting structure into miniature, superimposed pointed-arch substructures or niches, also known as "honeycomb" or "stalactite" vaults. They can be made from different materials like stone, brick, wood or stucco. The

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windows. Capitals, the upper part or crowing feature of a column, serve as a transition piece and are often decoratively carved. They range greatly in design and shape in Islamic Architecture. Early Islamic buildings in Iran featured "Persian" type capitals which included designs of bulls heads,

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This perspective led to a flawed view that saw the roots of an Early Islamic monumental architecture and art solely in the traditions of the conquered regions, notably the Byzantium and Sasanian Iran. Thankfully this picture is changing with recent studies in textual re-evaluation, history, art

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During the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad (d. 632) and the rule of his immediate successors (632–61), the caliphs Abu Bakr, ῾Umar, ῾Uthman and ῾Ali, the political center of the Islamic world remained in western Arabia, in the cities of Mecca and Medina. However, because the capital of the new

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At this stage of scholarly knowledge, however, it is probably fair to say that Islam's Arabian past, essential for understanding the faith and its practices, and the Arabic language and its literature, is not as important for the forms used by Islamic art as the immensely richer world, from the

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were evident in these trends. Minarets, which were also elaborate, usually consisted of three tiers separated by balconies, with each tier having a different design than the others. Late mamluk minarets, for example, most typically had an octagonal shaft for the first tier, a round shaft on the

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was initially built with a system of double-arched arcades supporting the flat timberwork ceiling. The columns of the arcades are connected by horseshoe arches which support brick pillars, which are in turn interconnected by semicircular arches. This arcade system was copied during the mosque's

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The Muslim conquest initiated a conscious attempt to recreate specific morphological features that constituted an urban pattern characteristic of western and south-western Arabian culture. The institutional components of this south Arabian city were adapted to the religious, administrative and

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East African architecture lacks some features typical of Islamic architecture, such as the construction of hammams. Historic mosques were generally rectangular in plan, lacked courtyards, and featured side rooms. Along the East African coast, common construction materials included coral stone,

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in Sivas) or a central court covered by a dome (e.g. the Karatay and Ince Minareli madrasas in Konya). Monumental caravanserais were also built along trade routes, typically with a fortified exterior appearance, a tall entrance portal decorated with carved stone, and an interior courtyard that

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whose Arabian traditions contributed to the urban development of the early Islamic cities. Outside Arabia, the early military encampments of Kufa, Basra, Fustat, and Kairouan were rapidly transformed into permanent foundations and planned cities. One of the traditions contributing to the early

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Minarets have had various forms (in general round, squared, spiral or octagonal) depending on the period and architectural tradition. The number of minarets by mosques is not fixed; originally one minaret would accompany each mosque, but some architectural styles can include multiple minarets.

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domes, and thus are not visible from within the building. In the dome of the Hagia Sophia, the ribs and shell of the dome unite in a central medallion at the apex of the dome, the upper ends of the ribs being integrated into the shell; shell and ribs form one single structural entity. In later

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There are some who also debate whether Islamic Architecture can truly be called a style, as the religious aspect is seen as separate and having no bearing on the architectural style, while on the other side people also argue that the newfound trend and divergence from the style of old Islamic

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have a gabled roof and a minaret placed in the center of the mosque, above the roof, rather than at the side or corner of the building. Examples of such mosques survive from the 18th and 19th centuries and were restored in modern times. This style is also found among the wooden mosques of the

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The Ayyubids introduced domed mosque types as well as Sunni-syle madrasas to the region, but none of their buildings in Yemen have survived. The Rasulids who followed them (13th–15th centuries) were prolific patrons of architecture and perpetuated these new building types, influenced by their

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After the Ottoman conquest of 1517, new Ottoman-style buildings were introduced, however the Mamluk style continued to be repeated or combined with Ottoman elements in many subsequent monuments. Some building types from the late Mamluk period, such as sabil-kuttabs (a combination of sabil and

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inscriptions. The geometric or floral, interlaced forms, taken together, constitute an infinitely repeated pattern that extends beyond the visible material world. Figural motifs, such as animals, humans, and imaginary creatures, have a rich tradition in Islamic art, though they generally more

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rule consisted of a large cubic chamber with one entrance, which had antecedents in the pre-Islamic temple architecture of the region. Another type consisted of a rectangular chamber with a transverse orientation, with multiple entrances and supporting columns inside, sometimes preceded by a

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The importance of the written word in Islam ensured that epigraphic or calligraphic decoration played a prominent role in architecture. Epigraphic decoration can also indicate further political or religious messages through the selection of a textual program of inscriptions. For example, the

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palace, and became widely used in some regions at later periods. Samarra also saw the appearance of new decorative styles, particularly in stucco and plasterwork, which rendered the earlier vegetal motifs of late antique traditions into more abstract and stylized forms, as exemplified by the

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The major architectural contribution that took place in Arabia during the early Islamic period was the development of a distinctive Muslim mosque. The hypostyle mosque constructed by Muhammad in Medina served as a model for early mosque design throughout the Islamic world. Umayyad religious

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arches and a roof of shallow domes. The western or "Sudan" style is characterized by more elaborate and decorated exterior façades whose compositions emphasize verticality. They have tapering buttresses with cone-shaped summits, mosques have a large tower over the mihrab, and wooden stakes

1262:, non-figural decoration and more abstract scenes became highly favoured, especially in religious architecture. The Umayyad period thus played a crucial role in transforming and enriching existing architectural traditions during the formation of early Islamic society's visual culture. 5748: 4314:) and private living spaces rather coexist alongside each other. The buildings tend to be more inwardly oriented, and are separated from the surrounding "outside" either by walls or by the hierarchical ordering of the streets, or both. Streets tend to lead from public main roads to 7969:. Both mosques are dated generally between the 9th and 14th centuries. At Kumbi Saleh, locals lived in domed-shaped dwellings in the king's section of the city, surrounded by a great enclosure. Traders lived in stone houses in a section which possessed 12 mosques (as described by 7053:, which is placed off center in the crypt room below the main floor. This symmetry extended to the building of an entire mirror mosque in black marble to complement the Mecca-facing mosque placed to the west of the main structure. Another slightly later imperial mausoleum is the 1955:

s usually feature a central pool or fountain to aid with ablutions, sometimes sheltered under an open domed pavilion. Historically, because of the warm Mediterranean and Middle Eastern climates, the courtyard also served to accommodate larger numbers of worshippers during Friday

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In modern times, the architecture of Islamic buildings, not just religious ones, has gone through some changes. The new architectural style doesn't stick with the same fundamental aspects that were seen in the past, but mosques for the most part still feature the same parts—the

4916:. The Ilkhanate period provided several innovations to dome-building that eventually enabled the Persians to construct much taller structures. These changes later paved the way for Safavid architecture. The pinnacle of Ilkhanate architecture was reached with the construction of 4242:

The antique concept of the architecture of a metropolis is based on a structure of main and smaller roads running through the entire city, and dividing it into quarters. The streets are oriented towards public buildings like a palace, temple, or a public square. Two main roads,

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Die orientalische Stadt im islamischen Vorderasien und Nordafrika: Städtische Bausubstanz und räumliche Ordnung, Wirtschaftsleben und soziale Organisation. = The Oriental town in the Islamic Near East and North Africa. Urban building and spatial order, economic life and social

3674: 6118:(bathhouse), a cemetery with the founder's mausoleum, and eight madrasas along with their annexes. The buildings were arranged in a regular, partly symmetrical layout with the monumental mosque at its center, although not all the structures have survived to the present day. 5339:

Decoration in Anatolian Seljuk architecture was concentrated on entrance portals, windows, and mihrabs. Stone-carving was one of the most accomplished techniques, with motifs ranging from earlier Iranian stucco motifs to local Byzantine and Armenian motifs. The madrasas of

1722:. It is around this period that many of the distinctive features of subsequent Iranian and Central Asian architecture first emerged, including the use of baked brick for both construction and decoration, the use of glazed tile for surface decoration, and the development of 5168:, built many more madrasas, fortifications, hammams, and other charitable buildings in the cities of Syria. Unlike Seljuk and Iranian madrasas, the Syrian madrasas are smaller and more diverse in their layouts, adapted to the dense urban fabric of cities like Damascus and 6859:, origiinally commissioned by the Umayyad caliph al-Walid (r. 705–15) and reconstructed at later times, was one of the few mosques of this type in the region. The mosque's decoration reflects Yemeni techniques of carved and painted wood, carved stone, and carved stucco. 1515:

While the origins of the minaret are uncertain, it is believed that the first true minarets appeared in this period. Several of the Abbasid mosques built in the early ninth century had minaret towers which stood at the northern ends of the building, opposite the central

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Deeper meanings in Islamic architecture often take form as functional purposes. For example, mosques are built around the idea that it should not just be a place of mesmerizing aesthetics, but a place where the aesthetics' fluidity guide the person into proper worship.

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The principle of arranging buildings is known as "horizontal spread". Residencies and public buildings as well as private housing tend to be laid out separately, and are not directly related to each other architectonically. Archaeological excavations at the city of

1359:. Despite the religious and historical importance of the Dome of the Rock, its layout did not frequently serve as a model for major Islamic monuments after it. In hypostyle mosques, the Umayyads introduced the tradition of making the "nave" or aisle in front of the 8414: 5186: 1436:

and architecture during this time. During the Abbasid Caliphate's golden years in the 8th and 9th centuries, its great power and unity allowed architectural fashions and innovations to spread quickly to other areas of the Islamic world under its influence.

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or Bimaristan of Nur al-Din, which was highly influential in the Islamic world and is notable for the muqarnas vaulting of its entrance portal and a muqarnas dome of Mesopotamian influence over the vestibule. The Zengids and their successors, the Kurdish

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in the 10th century. Iwans were used in a variety of ways and arranged in varying positions in relation to the rest of the building. They are found in many types of buildings including mosques, madrasas, palaces, and caravanserais. A common layout is the

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ornamentation. One feature in the sultanate was the relative absence of minarets. Many small and medium-sized medieval mosques, with multiple domes and artistic niche mihrabs, were constructed throughout the region. The grand mosque of Bengal was the

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Atlantic Ocean to Central Asia, taken over by Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries. Even later, after centuries of independent growth, new conquests in Anatolia or India continued to bring new local themes and ideas into the mainstream of Islamic art.

4179:). This policy continued up to the Umayyad period. Like frontier colonies, these towns served as bases for further conquests. Initially, they appear to have been modest settlements consisting of an agglomeration of tents, perhaps similar to ancient 2932:

and to proclaim the triumph of Islam over Christianity and Judaism. Additionally, foundation inscriptions on buildings commonly indicate its founder or patron, the date of its construction, the name of the reigning sovereign, and other information.

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in 707. It seems to have represented the place where the Prophet stood when leading prayer. This almost immediately became a standard feature of all mosques. Several major early monuments of Islamic architecture built under the Umayyads include the

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with relatively few changes, while in Algeria and Tunisia it became blended with Ottoman architecture after the Ottoman conquest of the region in the 16th century. Much later, particularly in the 19th century, the Moorish style was frequently

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byroads and onwards into more private plots, and then end there. There are no, or very few, internal connections between different quarters of the city. In order to move from one quarter to the next, one has to go back to the main road again.

8170:. in the Somali coastal towns, local architecture reflected a certain degree of influence from Islamic architecture in other regions. New buildings were often built on the ruins of older structures, a practice that continued for centuries. 8328:

the classical cultural aspects of Islamic architecture. This concept though brings up the controversy of the identity of the Islamic community, of the traditional Islamic community, within a space that doesn't follow the way they knew it.

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at Kilwa, dating possibly to the 13th century, which has an imposing entrance and multiple sections arranged around internal courtyards. Starting in the early 19th century, the Omanis introduced a new type of palace with multiple stories.

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subsequent expansions, but the expansion by al-Hakam II after 961 also introduced a series of ornate ribbed domes. Three domes span the vaults in front of the mihrab wall while another one covers an area now known by its Spanish name, the

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is a great example of Malay-Indonesian architecture. Malay-Indonesian mosque architecture also features strong influence from the Middle Eastern architecture styles. This style of architecture can be found on the design of mosques in

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Seldom emphasized however, is that the Umayyads did not come from a cultural void... They also cultivated a genuine culture with deep roots in the pre-Islamic heritage of the vast area they shared with other Arabs inside and outside

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under Shah Jahan. In the later Mughal period some local governors became semi-autonomous, prompting them to build their own monuments and embellish their own regional capitals with highly-creative local styles of architecture. The

4183:. They were established outside existing non-Muslim cities. They were often unfortified and the residents were organized according to tribal origins. Rather than maintaining their original purpose to serve as a military base, many 7923:

with Berber cultures. In the southern Sahel and savannah regions mud-brick and rammed earth are the main material and is now associated with the most monumental examples of West African Islamic architecture. In some places, like

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structure built in unbaked brick, with a rectangular, almost square, floor plan measuring about 53 by 56 meters. A shaded portico supported by palm trunks stood on the north side of the courtyard, in the direction of prayer (the

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compound, also in Jerusalem, was also rebuilt by al-Walid I, replacing an earlier simple structure built around 670. A number of palaces from this period have also partially survived or have been excavated in modern times. The

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follows two distinct architectural styles: While Umayyad architecture in the west continues Syrian traditions of the sixth and seventh century, eastern Islamic architecture was mainly influenced by Sasanian styles and forms.

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Anjar: spätantik oder frühislamisch? = Anjar: Late antique or early Islamic? In: Karin Bartl, Abd al-Razzaq Moaz (Eds.): Residences, castles, settlements. Transformation processes from late antiquity to early Islam in Bilad

7156:, which flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. It incorporated influences from Persia, Byzantium and North India, which were with blended indigenous Bengali elements, such as curved roofs, corner towers and complex 5767: 1150:

When the early Arab-Muslim conquests spread out from the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century and advanced across the Middle East and North Africa, new garrison cities were established in the conquered territories, such as

8122:

During the French colonial occupation of the Sahel, French engineers and architects had a role in popularizing a "Neo-Sudanese" style based on local traditional architecture but emphasizing symmetry and monumentality. The

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screen which projects from the side of a building and which protected privacy by allowed those inside to look outside without being visible from outside. Another type of lattice screen, not restricted to balconies, is the

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Calligraphy, in a mosque setting, is specifically used to reference excerpts from both the Qur'an and Muhammad's teachings. These references are one of the few religious connections architects include within their work.

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iwans of the early period were replaced with flat-roofed iwans in the later period. The decoration of monuments also became more elaborate over time, with stone-carving and colored marble paneling and mosaics (including

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In addition to the general Moorish style, some styles and structures in North Africa are distinctively associated with areas that have maintained strong Berber populations and cultures, including but not limited to the

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striped marble also appears on some entrance portals in Konya. Anatolian architecture innovated further in the use of tile revetments to cover entire surfaces independently of other forms of decoration, as seen in the

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soon numbered dozens in Isfahan, and the distinct, blue-colored shape came to dominate the skyline of the city. This distinct style of architecture was perfected during the Safavid period, which saw the advent of the

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of the squinches were split up into further subdivisions or systems of niches, resulting in a complex interplay of supporting structures forming an ornamental spatial pattern which hides the weight of the structure.

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Die Stadt als Haus. In: Hofhaus und Paradiesgarten. Architektur und Lebensformen in der islamischen Welt = The town seen as a house. In: Atrium house and paradise garden. Architecture and way of life in the Islamic

6757: 1937:) is the formal courtyard found in almost every mosque in Islamic architecture. The courtyards are open to the sky and surrounded on all sides by structures with halls and rooms, and often a shaded semi-open arcade 2451: 4746: 4562:

and early 12th century. Two major and innovative domed chambers were added to it in the late 11th century. Four large iwans were then erected around the courtyard around the early 12th century, giving rise to the

3813: 2624:(eight pillars with four diagonal semi-domes, 1567/8–1574/5). In the history of architecture, the structure of the Selimiye Mosque has no precedent. All elements of the building are subordinate to its great dome. 4421:

Mesopotamia and Persia, despite adopting elements of Hellenistic and Roman representative style, retained their independent architectural traditions, which derived from Sasanian architecture and its predecessors.

2955: 1671:, which was completed in 879. It was strongly influenced by Abbasid architecture in Samarra and remains one of the most notable and best-preserved examples of 9th-century architecture from the Abbasid Caliphate. 4488:. Among the most remarkable monuments of these two dynasties are a number of ornate brick towers and minarets that have survived as stand-alone structures and whose exact functions are unclear. They include the 3610:

evolved to become the usual focus of architectural decoration in the building. The details of its shape and materials varied from region to region. In congregational mosques, the mihrab was usually flanked by a

2983: 6362:". Scholars sometimes use "Western Islamic architecture" or "architecture of the Islamic west" as a more precise term for this subject. This architectural style developed primarily in Al-Andalus (present-day 3451: 5319:

The Anatolian Seljuks ruled a territory that was multi-ethnic and only newly settled by Muslims. As a result, their architecture was eclectic and incorporated influences from other cultures such as Iranian,

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Yemen is also notable for its historic tower-houses, built on two or more floors. These houses vary in form and materials from region to region. They are typically built of mud (rammed earth or sun-dried

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roof which protects from the rain. This type of roof was an existing feature of the traditional circular huts inhabited by the locals, re-adapted to cover new rectangular mosques when the mostly Muslim

5449: 5324:, and local Byzantine architecture. In contrast with Seljuk constructions further east, Anatolian architecture was largely built of stone. The golden age of their Anatolian empire, with its capital at 4590:) in 1139. More innovative, however, was the introduction of mausoleums with a square or polygonal floor plan, which later became a common form of monumental tombs. Early examples of this are the two 8829:

With the partial and possibly controversial exception of Muhammad's house, it is a question largely of moods and attitudes; forms and motifs came almost exclusively from the lands conquered by Islam.

6588: 5465: 4271:. Donald Whitcomb argues that the early Muslim conquests initiated a conscious attempt to recreate specific morphological features characteristic of earlier western and southwestern Arabian cities. 5332:. The Mongol Ilkhanids then ruled eastern Anatolia indirectly through Seljuk vassals until 1308, when they took direct control. Smaller principalities and local emirates, known collectively as the 3023: 7816:

built their mosques in a combination of eastern and western styles. The mosques are set in walled courtyards entered through archways and they feature flared roofs, miniature domes, and minarets.

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would become the tallest in the city when it was finished in 1629. It was built as a double-shelled dome, with 14 m spanning between the two layers, and resting on an octagonal dome chamber.

1496:

built by al-Mutawakkil measured 256 by 139 metres (840 by 456 ft), had a flat wooden roof supported by columns, and was decorated with marble panels and glass mosaics. The prayer hall of the

7337: 3319: 3108: 7204: 5871: 8450:, Islamic art tends to not depict living beings because it is viewed as a conflict with the Qur'an. From an Islamic viewpoint, anything created by God is under his order and thus should not be 6777: 7021:, mostly built between about 1560 and 1720. Early Mughal architecture developed from existing Indo-Islamic architecture but also followed the model of Timurid architecture, due in part to the 5820: 2967: 7881:, whose mosque architecture was influenced by the Kazan (Volga) Tatars. Another type of mosque, with a domed roof and a minaret standing above the entrance, appeared in the mid-19th century. 6574:

in Tunisia has a traditional mosque architecture featuring low-lying structures built in stone and covered in whitewash. Their prayer halls are domed and they have short, round minarets. The

4464:

began moving into the Middle East from the 8th century onward and, after converting to Islam, became major political and military forces in the region. The first major Turkic dynasty was the

11563:, p. 84: "The foundations of the "new" Islamic art were painting, sculpture, and above all architecture, and all of these were well established in the cultural life of the peninsula." 6737: 5663:), were especially prolific. While Cairo was the main center of patronage, Mamluk architecture also appears in other cities of their realm such as Damascus, Jerusalem, Aleppo, and Medina. 4429:(Levant region) of the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates. In this region, late antique, or Christian, architectural traditions merged with the pre-Islamic Arabian heritage of the conquerors. 7372: 5804: 5512: 4870:, or caravanserai) for travellers and their animals, generally displayed utilitarian rather than ornamental architecture, with rubble masonry, strong fortifications, and minimal comfort. 1623:

After its initial apogee of power, the Abbasid Caliphate became partly fragmented into regional states in the 9th century which were formally obedient to the caliphs in Baghdad but were

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Mimar Sinan solved the structural issues of the Hagia Sophia dome by constructing a system of centrally symmetric pillars with flanking semi-domes, as exemplified by the design of the

11341:

This is a reminder that the new masters of Syria and Palestine were not cameleers and pastoralists of nomadic origin. They were city dwellers of Mecca, Medina, Tayma, Ta'if and Duma.

6994:

in the region during the 14th and 15th centuries resulted in the emergence of a more distinctive Indo-Islamic style around this time, as exemplified by the monuments built under the

6883:

after 1538, Rasulid-style architecture continued to be the local norm in Sunni-controlled areas, but elements of Ottoman architecture began to be introduced in the late 16th century.

6354:

The architectural style which developed in the westernmost territories of the historic Muslim world is often referred to as "Moorish architecture". The term "Moorish" comes from the

5925: 5637:. Despite their often tumultuous and violent internal politics, the Mamluk sultans were prolific patrons of architecture and contributed enormously to the repertoire of monuments in 3089: 2299: 8131:

built by the French administration in 1935. Other 20th-century and more recent mosques in West Africa have tended to replicate a more generic style similar to that of modern Egypt.

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values, and the culture of Islam, but in modern times sticking to tradition is falling out of practice, so a combination style formed. Examples showing this are places such as the

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in Toledo was constructed with a similar, eight-ribbed dome, surrounded by eight other ribbed domes of varying design. Similar domes are also seen in the mosque building of the

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which can be read as the Saka equivalent of 1454 CE. Early Islamic palaces retain many features of pre-Islamic architecture which is apparent in the gates or drum towers. The

13936:

Michell, George and Mark Zebrowski. Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates (The New Cambridge History of India Vol. I:7), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999,

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and other local states. Among other features, this style made increased use of arches, vaulted spaces, domes, and water features, while also integrating them with indigenous

6528:

regions of Algeria, and southern Tunisia. They do not form one single style but rather a diverse variety of local vernacular styles. In Morocco, the largely Berber-inhabited

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period. They were mainly used to cover houses and cisterns. The architectural form of covering diaphragm arches with barrel vaults, however, was likely newly introduced from

8221:

Apart from mosques, the most common type of historic building to have survived, even if only partially, are palaces. Monumental palaces have been excavated at Shanga and at

2580:. The brickwork-and-mortar ribs and the spherical shell of the central dome of the Hagia Sophia were built simultaneously, as a self-supporting structure without any wooden 6910:), others were encircled by a high mud-brick wall (e.g. Shibam), and some were built so that the houses themselves formed an outer wall along the perimeter (e.g. Khawlan). 7647: 4774: 7315: 5485: 2522:

The ribbed domes of the Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba served as models for later mosque buildings in the Islamic West of Al-Andalus and the Maghreb. At around 1000 AD, the

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The Mamluks were a military corps recruited from slaves that served under the Ayyubid dynasty and eventually took over from that dynasty in 1250, ruling over Egypt, the

11695:, p. 98 "the palace of Muawiya...shows that the early Umayyad palaces continued the pre-Islamic Arabian tradition of tall palaces to signifying the ruler's power." 6229: 5136:, founded in the 7th century but rebuilt under the Seljuks and the Artuqids in the 12th century. It is similar in form to the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus and has ornate 3222:. From the 12th century onward its usage became common across the Islamic world and different local styles developed over time. In addition to serving as squinches and 3762: 2384:(completed around 1571–72), including its double-shelled dome, suggests that its architects were familiar with Timurid monuments in Samarqand. The central dome of the 1580:

in the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus). This style of architecture established in Al-Andalus was also largely shared with the architecture of western North Africa (the

1167:

format. In other cities, especially in Syria, new mosques were established by converting or occupying parts of existing churches in existing cities, as for example in

7384: 6633: 5596: 5429: 3160: 19912: 7068:

The Mughals also built monumental palaces and mosques. A famous example of the charbagh style of Mughal garden is the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore, where the domeless

5686:) replacing stucco as the most dominant architectural decoration. Monumental decorated entrance portals became common compared to earlier periods, often carved with 4897:(in present-day Turkmenistan), has preserved several structures from the Khwarazmian period (late 12th and early 13th century), including the so-called Mausoleum of 4425:

The transition process between late Antiquity, or post-classical, and Islamic architecture is exemplified by archaeologic findings in North Syria and Palestine, the

3400:

term applied to a balcony or lookout pavilion in Andalusi palaces like the Alhambra. Balconies also became an architectural element inside some mosques, such as the

2207:

The tradition of double-shelled brick domes in Iran has been traced back to the 11th century. At the beginning of the 15th century, major Timurid monuments like the

1596:, a new capital and monumental palace-city in the 10th century, also created an important complex of royal architecture and patronage. Smaller monuments such as the 1416:(750–1513) was particularly influenced by Sasanian architecture, which in turn featured elements present since ancient Mesopotamia. Other influences such as ancient 11650:

It is clear that many subsequent mosques, including the early great Umayyad mosque of Damascus that was first to reproduce the Prophet's model at a monumental scale

7800:

As in other regions, Chinese Islamic architecture reflects local architecture in its style. Some Chinese mosques, especially in eastern China, resemble traditional

6160: 5910: 5786: 4620:

After the decline of the Great Seljuks in the late 12th century various Turkic dynasties formed smaller states and empires. A branch of the Seljuk dynasty ruled a

4322:

Within a city quarter, byroads lead towards individual building complexes or clusters of houses. The individual house is frequently also oriented towards an inner

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marble from northern India. It also features the oldest known minaret in East Africa, a feature which did not become common in the region until the 19th century.

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St. Laurent, B (2020). "From Arabia to Bilad al-Sham: : Muawiya's Development of an Infrastructure and Monumental Architecture of Early Umayyad Statehood".

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is one of the surviving examples from this period. The last Ottoman period saw more influences from Western Europe, brought in by architects such those from the

5278: 6180: 3658: 15061: 2928:), and the role of Muhammad as the "Seal of the Prophets", which have been interpreted as an attempt to announce the rejection of the Christian concept of the 9806:

Petruccioli, Attilio. "House and Fabric in the Islamic Mediterranean City". In Jayyusi, Salma K.; Holod, Renata; Petruccioli, Attilio; Raymond, Andre (eds.).

5152:(1148 and 1170–1172), of which only the original minaret was preserved up to modern times. (The minaret and the rebuilt mosque were recently destroyed in the 5132:

in Arabic) became important centers of architectural development that had a long-term influence in the wider region. One of the most notable monuments is the

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The minaret is a tower that traditionally accompanies a mosque building. Its formal function is to provide a vantage point from which the call to prayer, or

3639: 2826: 1736:, one of the oldest surviving congregational mosques in Iran, contains some of the best-preserved features from this period, including decorative brickwork, 11306:

Whitcomb, Donald (2007). "An Urban Structure for the Early Islamic City: An archaeological hypothesis". In Bennison, Amira K.; Gascoigne, Alison L. (eds.).

7548:. Today, with increasing Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca, Malay-Indonesian mosques are developing a more standard, international style, with a dome and minaret. 6608: 14215: 7934: 5532: 3694: 1791:

in Egypt followed Tulunid techniques and used similar materials, but also developed its own features. The first Fatimid congregational mosque in Cairo was

13622:

Finster, Barbara (2009). "Arabian Peninsula, art and architecture". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).

11831: 5667:

sultans and high-ranking emirs, typically set out to build mausoleums for themselves but attached to them various charitable structures such as madrasas,

5370:

Anatolian Seljuk mosques included more conservative hypostyle constructions alongside less traditional floor plans. An important hypostyle example is the

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calligraphic inscriptions adorning the Dome of the Rock include quotations from the Qur'an that reference the miracle of Jesus and his human nature (e.g.

19693: 18478: 15097: 13401: 9927:

In: Proceedings of the second international congress on construction history Vol. I. Queens' College, Cambridge University 29.03.–02.04.2006, S. 195–220

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Balconies are a common feature of Islamic domestic architecture due to the warm climates in most countries. One of the mosque recognizable types is the

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in present-day Kenya, where a succession of mosques on one site were built and rebuilt from the 9th to 14th centuries. Other early mosques include the

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original borders, such as in the early Ottoman Empire to the west and the Mughal Empire on the Indian subcontinent. The monuments erected by Timur and

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political links with Egypt. During the same period, the Zaydi imams in northern Yemen were buried in richly-decorated domed tombs. With the advent of

6702: 5336:, progressively emerged. Despite this decline, the Seljuk tradition of architecture largely persisted and continued to evolve under these new rulers. 1091:. These two empires both cultivated their own major architectural traditions. Occupying the borderlands between these two empires – in the desert and 20703: 18615: 17202: 15865: 15014: 9739: 8038:

In the earthen (mud) architecture of the region, scholar Andrew Petersen distinguishes two main styles: a "western" style that may have its roots in

7444: 6276: 4145: 1732:. Hypostyle mosques continued to be built and there is also evidence of multi-domed mosques, though most were modified or rebuilt in later eras. The 1512:

in what is now Afghanistan was about 20 by 20 metres (66 by 66 ft) square, with three rows of three square bays, supporting nine vaulted domes.

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Under the Seljuks, the "Iranian plan" or four-iwan plan of mosque construction, with four axial iwans, appeared for the first time. Lodging places (

19090: 18500: 8454:. This leaves typical religious Western symbols out of the picture, and replaces them with an emphasis on complex geometrical shapes and patterns. 7603: 6394:), and contemporary artistic currents in the Islamic Middle East to elaborate a unique style over centuries with recognizable features such as the 6196: 4654: 4018: 10535: 7706:

the style of "Balai Nobat". An ancient cemetery also usually lies next to the mosque is where some notable preachers and missionaries are buried.

6329: 6214: 3236: 1363:

wider than the others, dividing the prayer room along its central axis. This innovation was probably inspired by the layout of existing Christian

13757: 5260: 1048:). It is usually described as his house, but may have been designed to serve as a community center from the beginning. It consisted of a simple 18302: 18044: 15954: 11139: 10390: 10362: 9985: 7812:. In western China, mosques resemble those of the Middle East, with slender minarets, arches, and domed roofs. In northwest China, the Chinese 5159:

Damascus regained some prominence after it came under Nur al-Din's control in 1154. That same year, Nur al-Din founded a hospital complex, the

13458: 11617:

As far as later architecture is concerned, the major contribution of early Islam in Arabia was the development of a specifically Muslim masjid

9821: 6144: 20698: 19872: 19573: 9931: 4804: 2342: 19852: 6410:). Major centers of this artistic development included the main capitals of the empires and Muslim states in the region's history, such as 1830:(r. 1073–1094), the city walls were rebuilt in stone along with several monumental gates, three of which have survived to the present-day: 7507:

architectural forms, which were reinterpreted to suit Muslim requirements. Existing architectural features in Malay-Indonesia such as the

6652: 1520:. Among the most famous of these is the Malwiyya minaret, a stand-alone tower with a "spiral" form built for the Great Mosque of Samarra. 18515: 17046: 12142:

Asher, Catherine B. (2020). "Mughal architecture". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).

11599:

A particularly rich repertoire of Arab myths and memories, as well as architecture preceded the appearance of the first Islamic monument.

4038: 3829: 2145:, means the entrance portal (sometimes an iwan) projecting from the façade of a building, often decorated with calligraphy bands, glazed 5374:

of Konya (built between 1156 and 1235, with later additions). Mosques in the later Beylik period were more diverse in form, such as the

3601:

wall (the wall standing in the direction of prayer) of a mosque or other prayer space. It symbolized and indicated the direction of the

2000:. In Islamic architecture, the hypostyle hall is the main feature of the hypostyle mosque. One of the earliest hypostyle mosques is the 18028: 13808:

O'Kane, Bernard (2017). "Architecture and Court Cultures of the Fourteenth Century". In Flood, Finbarr Barry; Necipoğlu, Gülru (eds.).

7297: 6404:

gardens (symmetrically divided courtyard gardens), and elaborate geometric and arabesque motifs in wood, stucco, and tilework (notably

3730:, is made. The call to prayer is issued five times each day: dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, and night. In most modern mosques, the 3627: 3194:

earliest monuments to make use of this feature date from the 11th century and are found in Iraq, North Africa, Iran, Central Asia, and

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built by the Ghurids (late 12th century). Around the same time, between the late 10th century and the early 13th century, the Turkic

4303:, an Islamic town or city is fundamentally influenced by the preservation of the unity of secular and religious life throughout time. 3476: 2912:, non-figural decoration remained more dominant overall and figural motifs were generally excluded from religious buildings entirely. 19177: 18505: 18307: 18131: 17336: 16474: 11909:

Tabbaa, Yasser (2011). "Aleppo, architecture". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).

7014:(1423), the latter of which is a particularly harmonious example of Islamic and indigenous Indian elements combined in one building. 6260: 4025: 2941: 2318: 1470: 1001: 9274:

Milwright, Marcus (2014). "Dome of the Rock". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).

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facing south, as that was the direction that Muhammad was facing when he prayed in Medina, which is a city directly north of Mecca.

2432: 19231: 18527: 18081: 10952: 16990: 15732: 9603:. Islamic Art in the Mediterranean. Museum With No Frontiers & Ministry of Culture, the National Institute of Heritage, Tunis. 9226:"The Dome of the Rock in Light of the Development of Concentric Martyria in Jerusalem: Architecture and Architectural Iconography" 6066:, which had multiple elements providing various charitable services. These complexes were governed and managed with the help of a 4542: 20800: 18483: 18443: 18001: 17278: 7712: 6686: 4058: 4013: 2394: 14011:

Hasan, Perween (2007). Sultans and Mosques:The Early Muslim Architecture of Bangladesh. United Kingdom: I.B. Tauris. pp. 23–27.

11523:

Yule, Paul (2007). "'Decadence', 'Decline' and Persistence: Zafar and Himyar, Yemen Bridging the Gap between Past and Present".

7570:, although this is not the oldest Islamic structure. The oldest Islamic structure in Indonesia are parts of the royal palace in 7263: 6124: 6040:. This period also saw the development of a new architectural style called neo-Ottoman or Ottoman revivalism, also known as the 5398:(1304). Madrasas were typically centered around either a traditional open courtyard bordered by a varying number of iwans (e.g. 4189:

developed into urbanized administrative and commercial centers. In particular, this happened in the case of the Iraqi cities of

18510: 17935: 14840:

ELARABY, KADRI M.G. (1996). "Neo-Islamic Architecture and Urban Design in the Middle East: From Threshold to Adaptive Design".

13788: 13786: 13784: 7494:, the construction of the mosque was started around 1552 and was completed in 1566, one of the few oldest mosques in Indonesia. 7403: 4925: 4893:

The decline of the Seljuks was followed by the rise of the Khwarazmian Empire in Central Asia. The former Khwarazmian capital,

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Gardens and water have for many centuries played an essential role in Islamic culture, and are often compared to the garden of

1424:

have also been noted. This was partly a result of the caliphate's political center shifting further east to the new capital of

159:

conquered in the seventh and eighth centuries. Later it developed distinct characteristics in the form of buildings and in the

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Vaughan, Philippa (2011). "Indian Subcontinent: from Sultanate to Mughal Empire". In Hattstein, Markus; Delius, Peter (eds.).

11490:

Finster, B (2009). "Arabia In Late Antiquity: An Outline Of The Cultural Situation In The Peninsula At The Time Of Muhammad".

5226: 4578:, respectively. The Seljuks also continued to build "tower tombs", an Iranian building type from earlier periods, such as the 2076:

in Syria. During the early period, the diaphragm arches are built from coarsely cut limestone slabs, without using supporting

1351:

The Dome of the Rock has a centralized floor plan with an octagonal layout. This was most likely modeled on earlier Byzantine

19199: 18608: 18522: 18465: 17499: 17405: 17125: 17051: 16690: 16022: 15799: 15712: 15691: 15670: 15630: 15588: 15559: 15519: 15500: 15400: 15377: 15308: 15233: 15212: 15141: 14630: 14175: 13100: 13067: 12996: 12259: 11997: 11474: 11449: 11423: 11290: 11176: 10623: 10413: 10054: 9908: 9722: 8844:

Tabbaa, Yasser (2007). "Architecture". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).

8585:

Tabbaa, Yasser (2007). "Architecture". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).

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In the newly-conquered areas of the early Muslim expansion, military settlements were often founded, known individually as a

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Walmsley, Alan (2020). "al-Mushattā". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).

3422: 2764:, comprises a rectangular irrigated space with elevated pathways, which divide the garden into four sections of equal size: 20483: 19095: 15891: 10496: 7754: 5634: 3286: 18790: 13359:

Giese, Francine; Varela Braga, Ariane; Lahoz Kopiske, Helena; Kaufmann, Katrin; Castro Royo, Laura; Keller, Sarah (2016).

12827: 11808: 5312: 4859:, glazed tile decoration on the outside of buildings, the privileged use of domes and vaulting, and the increasing use of 4382: 2330: 20643: 18802: 18008: 16985: 5878: 1367:

in the region. Both the al-Aqsa Mosque and the Great Mosque of Damascus feature a hypostyle hall in this fashion, with a

15660: 13057: 12986: 11983: 5492: 5399: 2646: 20657: 20555: 19333: 19122: 18797: 15947: 15763: 15489:

Hillenbrand, Robert (1999a). "Anjar and early Islamic urbanism". In Brogiolo, Gian Pietro; Perkins, Bryan Ward (eds.).

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in Cairo, which was built earlier in the 1350s and appears to have copied this same design from the Iranian tradition.

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Open access, online resource on architecture and art of Muslim societies, globally and throughout history to our times

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Abdullahi, Yahya; Bin Embi, Mohamed Rashid (2015). "Evolution Of Abstract Vegetal Ornaments on Islamic Architecture".

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and built monuments in northern India in the 12th and 13th centuries. The most notable monument of this period is the

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in the 9th century, which is now a major archeological site that has provided numerous insights into the evolution of

66: 19566: 18201: 18049: 17929: 17909: 17898: 15744: 15649: 15609: 15538: 15448: 15356: 15335: 15287: 15191: 15172: 15062:"Glossary of Terms | Lecture Notes | Religious Architecture and Islamic Cultures | Architecture | MIT OpenCourseWare" 15037: 14711: 14684: 14199: 14144: 14016: 13941: 13861: 13631: 13468: 13321: 13301: 12903: 12839: 12807: 12525: 12468: 12398: 12373: 12299: 12046: 11918: 11869: 11777: 11507: 11315: 10885: 10506: 9790: 9753: 9712: 9583: 9283: 9072: 8925: 8893: 8853: 8822: 8689: 8660: 8594: 7835:, does not replicate many of the features often associated with traditional mosques. Instead, it follows traditional 6855:

courtyard. The hypostyle mosque with courtyard, common elsewhere, was comparatively rare in early Islamic Yemen. The

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and the tallest masonry dome ever erected. The thin, double-shelled dome was reinforced by arches between the layers.

3995: 13360: 8714: 7033:. Mughal architecture's most prominent examples are the series of imperial mausolea, which started with the pivotal 6292: 4484:, of uncertain ethnic origin, replaced them as the major power in the region from northern India to the edge of the 2253:, the ribs were hidden behind additional architectural elements in later periods, as exemplified in the dome of the 1389: 1201: 20007: 19204: 19184: 19051: 18965: 18635: 18601: 18448: 18388: 18287: 17925: 17214: 16039: 11768:

Blair, Sheila; Bloom, Jonathan (2011). "The Friday Mosque at Isfahan". In Hattstein, Markus; Delius, Peter (eds.).

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In a Muslim city, palaces and residences as well as public places like charitable or religious complexes (mosques,

4131: 3898: 2072:. The earliest known example for barrel vaults resting on diaphragm arches from Umayyad architecture is known from 452: 314: 14249:"Identity of the architecture of mosques in Russia in the late XX-early XXI century (as exemplified by Tatarstan)" 12553: 8477:

portentous ends." Hierarchy exists in the church in different forms, but is meant for purely functional purposes.

2380:. Many monumental Mughal domes were also double-shelled and derived from the Iranian tradition. The design of the 20142: 19073: 18416: 17894: 16959: 11860:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Architecture; V. c. 900–c. 1250; A. Eastern Islamic lands.".

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Umayyad arches, vaults & domes: Merging and re-creation. Contributions to early Islamic construction history.

8111:, built in 1850 (with later restorations). Many others are attested in the same region overlapping with southern 7931:, both building materials are used together, with stone constructions either covered or bound with a mud plaster. 7049:

who died while giving birth to their 14th child. The Taj Mahal is completely symmetrical except for Shah Jahan's

6391: 5827: 5811: 5153: 4995: 4255:) cross each other at right angles in the center of the city. A few cities were founded during the early Islamic 3974: 3907: 3665: 14223: 12290:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Architecture; V. c. 900–c. 1250; B. Central Islamic lands".

3563:. The layout of some Muslim cities may have also been influenced by this orientation. In practice, however, the 2630: 20718: 20688: 20128: 19301: 19259: 19085: 19011: 18830: 18753: 17863: 17602: 17056: 16737: 13343: 13237: 13212: 10935: 10613: 10199: 8023: 6055:

While Istanbul was the main site of imperial patronage for most of the empire's history, the early capitals of

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Iran and Central Asia were conquered by the Mongols in the 13th century, which led to the establishment of the

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In Iran and Central Asia, a number of other local and regional dynasties held sway prior to the arrival of the

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Residences, castles, settlements. Transformation processes from late antiquity to early Islam in Bilad al-Sham

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with lintelled ceilings made of wood or stone beams, or, alternatively, with barrel vaults, were known in the

1488:

Abbasid mosques all followed the courtyard plan with hypostyle halls. The earliest was the mosque that Caliph

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around its drum. However, domes of this shape and style were likely constructed earlier, as evidenced by the

2184:

provides an overview over the experiments Islamic architects conducted with complicated vaulting structures.

994: 17268: 15410:

Grafman, Rafi; Rosen-Ayalon, Myriam (1999). "The Two Great Syrian Umayyad Mosques: Jerusalem and Damascus".

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in Guinea, first built in 1850, a hybrid of traditional mosque and local hut architecture (photo circa 1900)

6990:

temples and the complex became a prototype for many mosques built in the region afterwards. The progress of

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in Ottoman mosques, a separate and protected space where the sultan could perform his prayers (similar to a

2990: 2576:, they found a variety of Byzantine Christian churches, the largest and most prominent amongst them was the 20768: 20581: 20243: 20093: 20062: 19957: 19904: 19819: 19718: 19559: 19394: 19338: 19194: 19154: 19137: 19127: 19031: 19026: 18543: 18219: 18071: 18066: 17915: 17878: 17243: 17172: 17041: 17021: 17016: 16995: 16868: 16256: 16100: 15992: 11828: 9599:

Binous, Jamila; Baklouti, Naceur; Ben Tanfous, Aziza; Bouteraa, Kadri; Rammah, Mourad; Zouari, Ali (2010).

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elements. In the northwestern part of the subcontinent, some notable examples from this period include the

6491: 5946: 5731: 5723: 4952: 4834: 4505: 2044:

structures, Umayyad period buildings show a mixture of ancient Roman and Persian architectural traditions.

1655:

in much of their current forms, as well as for building numerous other structures in the region. In Egypt,

1258:, wall painting, sculpture and carved reliefs. While figural scenes were notably present in monuments like 741: 339: 133: 9759: 3778: 2542:

founded in 1082, has twelve slender ribs, the shell between the ribs is filled with filigree stucco work.

2534:. The architectural form of the ribbed dome was further developed in the Maghreb: the central dome of the 2191:, which is a construction filling in the upper angles of a square room so as to form a base to receive an 19296: 19164: 19112: 19021: 18758: 18663: 18488: 18438: 18421: 18378: 18373: 18277: 18229: 18039: 17951: 17883: 17197: 16017: 11268:

Market building at Jarash. Commercial transformation at the Tetrakionion in the 6th to 9th centuries C.E.

8916:

Grabar, Oleg (2011). "Art and Culture in the Islamic World". In Hattstein, Markus; Delius, Peter (eds.).

8680:

Grabar, Oleg (2011). "Art and Culture in the Islamic World". In Hattstein, Markus; Delius, Peter (eds.).

8265: 8094:, mosques were built with a traditional rectangular or square layout, but then covered by a huge conical 6447: 6187: 5863: 5843: 5084:, who was appointed head of the royal library and Master calligrapher at the Shah's court in 1598, while 3881: 152: 13444:, 6 (1989), document A264, published online on December 1, 2012, accessed on April 10, 2020. URL : 9021:

Yāsamīn Zahrān. (2009). The Lakhmids of Hira: Sons of the Water of Heaven. Stacey International. p. 179.

5352:

is distinguished by some of the most eclectic and extravagant stone-carving in the region. Syrian-style

4346: 4217:), and a market were likely the first major constructions to appear, located at the center of the town. 1969:, i.e., an open hall supported by columns, is considered to be derived from architectural traditions of 1694:

in the 11th century. By the 10th century, central Iran and the Abbasid heartland of Iraq were under the

1131:. Some of their buildings are known from archeology or historical texts, such as the Lakhmid palaces of 725: 19760: 19745: 19450: 19274: 19254: 19209: 19172: 19117: 19006: 19001: 18703: 18698: 18321: 18176: 17967: 17794: 16419: 15164: 12972: 9576:

The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the Sixth to the Eleventh Century

8418: 6383: 5348:(c. 1265) in Konya are among the most notable examples, while the Great Mosque and Hospital complex of 4838: 3990: 2523: 2150: 1816: 1597: 1356: 1250: 304: 172: 18676: 15914: 15909: 14432:

Historical Society of Ghana. Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana, The Society, 1957, p. 81

13835: 13833: 13831: 4326:, and enclosed by walls, which mostly are unadorned, unlike European outward-oriented, representative 1573: 1543: 1528: 20100: 19661: 19508: 19491: 19455: 19311: 19147: 19080: 18895: 18870: 18855: 17977: 17905: 17192: 17182: 17118: 16012: 16002: 13361:"Resplendence of al-Andalus: Exchange and Transfer Processes in Mudéjar and Neo-Moorish Architecture" 12800:

Creating Medieval Cairo: Empire, Religion, and Architectural Preservation in Nineteenth-century Egypt

12516:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Architecture; VI. c. 1250–c. 1500; B. Anatolia".

12173:

Blake, Stephen P.; Half the World, The Social Architecture of Safavid Isfahan, 1590–1722, pp. 143–144

11970: 7653: 7344: 6947: 6919: 5974: 4456: 4121: 3387: 3377: 2854: 2458: 2250: 1609: 309: 11573:

Khoury, N (1993). "The Dome of the Rock, the Kaʿba, and Ghumdan: Arab Myths and Umayyad Monuments".

10780:

King, David (Aug 1, 1995). "The Orientation of Medieval Islamic Religious Architecture and Cities".

10573:"The Visual Construction of the Umayyad Caliphate in Al-Andalus through the Great Mosque of Cordoba" 10373: 9982: 8124: 7899: 1686:(10th century), built entirely of brick, is one of the oldest monumental tombs in the Islamic world. 20693: 20114: 18929: 18807: 18411: 18117: 16969: 16252: 16178: 13828: 12459:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Architecture; V. c. 900–c. 1250; C. Anatolia".

10515: 9863: 8313: 7828: 7793: 7230: 7003: 6439: 5931: 5882: 5792: 5675:, or mosques. The revenues and expenses of these charitable complexes were governed by inalienable 4715: 3903: 3853: 3769: 2974: 2704: 2413: 1870: 1640: 1269: 987: 676: 272:. The present-day building is the result of many reconstructions and expansions up to modern times. 86: 9928: 7740: 4364: 1440: 20417: 20107: 19750: 19631: 19525: 19399: 19068: 18825: 18720: 18640: 18624: 16327: 16027: 15885: 13578:

Finster, Barbara (1992). "An Outline of the History of Islamic Religious Architecture in Yemen".

8367: 7273: 7178: 6451: 6443: 6014: 5329: 3741: 3326: 2822: 2682: 2617: 2535: 2181: 2112: 1493: 1481: 1324:

appears for the first time in Umayyad architecture, later to evolve to its most advanced form in

1304: 74: 18681: 11549:

history and archaeology that reveal strong traditions of architecture in the pre-Islamic period.

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which date from before 1000 CE. The largest pre-19th-century palace along the coastal region is

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and is made of perforated stone. Other examples of balconies and related structures include the

3202:

are tripartite squinches used as transitional elements for domes and semi-domes, such as at the

2519:, the ribs leave a central square space between them, with an octagonal cupola added over this. 2498:

Ribbed dome in front of the mihrab in the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba, added in the 10th century

1592:

domes, which were imitated and elaborated in later monuments in the region. The construction of

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wall. Both of the Samarra mosques have spiral minarets, the only examples in Iraq. A mosque at

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local dynasties and patrons, different regional centers of artistic production, and sometimes

20589: 20563: 20411: 20390: 20232: 20149: 19977: 19932: 19858: 19809: 19616: 19498: 19481: 19476: 19343: 18835: 18740: 18708: 18688: 17994: 17474: 16722: 16125: 16083: 16063: 15859: 15298: 15223: 15131: 15008: 13895: 13766:, Architecture; IV. c. 750–c. 900; A. Eastern Islamic lands; 3. Iran, Central Asia and India. 10125: 8209: 8178: 8128: 7805: 7689: 7378:

The Red Fort in Delhi, built between 1639 and 1648 as the citadel of Shah Jahan's new capital

6999: 6856: 6813: 6708: 6693: 6482: 6151: 5602: 5345: 5321: 5232: 5160: 5089: 5041: 5031: 4856: 4370: 4323: 3151: 2899:, including mathematically complicated, elaborate geometric patterns, floral motifs like the 2814: 2290: 1808: 1501: 1469:

so-called "beveled" style. These decorative techniques quickly spread to other regions where

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Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan, V: Art and Technology throughout the Ages

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in the southern regions of the Indian subcontinent also developed their local Indo-Islamic

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Giralda tower in Seville: former Almohad minaret (12th century) converted into a Christian

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ALSAYYAD, NEZAR (1996). "Islamic Architecture and Urbanism: Middle Eastern Perspectives".

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including Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia (part of the Maghreb). It blended influences from

6283: 5247: 4234:, the Gerasa of Antiquity, have revealed how the Umayyads have transformed the city plan. 3345:

Muqarnas in the entrance portal of the Madrasa of 'Abd al-'Aziz in Bukhara (17th century,

260: 8: 20739: 20664: 20403: 20034: 19653: 19582: 19540: 19503: 19373: 19358: 19264: 19142: 19041: 18970: 18907: 18880: 18840: 18329: 18166: 17721: 17678: 17592: 17228: 17207: 17080: 16838: 16680: 16610: 16582: 16521: 16414: 16095: 16078: 16053: 16032: 15899: 14273: 14248: 14167: 14161: 14136: 14130: 13984: 10117: 8515: 8197: 8174: 8154: 8144: 7919: 7746: 7718: 7681: 7520: 7094: 7018: 6951: 6941: 6923: 6251: 6236: 6171: 6033: 5727: 5620: 5173: 4810: 4765: 4497: 4068: 3915: 3820: 3458: 3402: 3167: 3131: 3079:

Calligraphic inscriptions and arabesques carved in stucco in the Alhambra (14th century,

2904: 2834: 2773:

A Charbagh from Achaemenid time has been identified in the archaeological excavations at

2708: 2668: 2594: 2554: 2235:

four intersecting ribs, at times redoubled and intersected to form an eight-pointed star;

2064:

before the arrival of the Umayyads. However, this form was well known in Iran from early

1901: 1835: 1783:. In 970, the Fatimids moved their center of power to Egypt and founded another capital, 1668: 1554:

After the overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate in 750 by the Abbasids, a new branch of the

1448:(9th century), Iraq, exemplifying the "beveled" style that employed more abstract motifs. 1041: 736: 695: 387: 334: 265: 164: 108: 20055: 11646:

Cosmology and architecture in premodern islam an architectural reading of mystical ideas

10793: 10430: 5776:

in Cairo (built in 1284–85). It included a mausoleum, a madrasa, and a highly important

5391: 4873: 1888:

Residences and other secular buildings typically contain a central private courtyard or

1855: 1795:, founded at the same time as the city (970), which became the spiritual center for the 1588:(r. 961–976) introducing important aesthetic innovations such as interlacing arches and 1456:, and painted wall decoration, were continued and elaborated in the Abbasid period. The 1143:), and a Ghassanid audience hall incorporated into the later Umayyad rural residence at 20744: 20601: 20431: 20227: 20217: 20070: 19942: 19797: 19363: 19306: 18924: 18403: 18297: 18181: 18034: 17696: 17686: 17530: 17484: 17187: 16007: 15427: 14996: 14908: 14876: 14849: 14804: 14278: 13595: 13383: 11974: 11590: 11133: 10961: 10805: 10384: 9253: 8261: 8189:(rebuilt in the 18th century over 12th foundations), and three 13th-century mosques in 8086:

More hybrid styles also arose further south and on the edge of Islamized areas. In the

8043: 7692: 7567: 7563: 7557: 7215: 6967: 6783: 6748: 6744: 6563: 5916: 5284: 5141: 5011: 5002:, while most of the major monuments from Timur's reign are in Samarkand, including the 4917: 4886: 4641: 4477: 4076: 3876: 3836: 3701: 3346: 3310: 3302: 3266: 3215: 3203: 3080: 3060: 3030: 2909: 2598: 2589: 2349: 2286: 2266: 2212: 1994: 1978: 1639:) were notable patrons of architecture themselves, responsible for rebuilding both the 1100: 786: 781: 751: 746: 711: 681: 671: 652: 397: 140: 19937: 14899:

Al-Jasmi, Abdullah; Mitias, Michael H. (2004). "Does an Islamic Architecture Exist?".

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is necessary for proper Islamic worship, and is revealed through architectural means.

5436: 5371: 189:

were invented. Common or important types of buildings in Islamic architecture include

20465: 20439: 20321: 19982: 19520: 19513: 19321: 19061: 19046: 18975: 18919: 18244: 18239: 18211: 17668: 17663: 17645: 16777: 16189: 15795: 15781: 15759: 15740: 15708: 15687: 15666: 15645: 15626: 15605: 15584: 15565: 15555: 15534: 15515: 15496: 15477: 15467: 15444: 15396: 15373: 15352: 15331: 15304: 15283: 15264: 15254: 15229: 15208: 15187: 15168: 15137: 15033: 15000: 14823: 14707: 14680: 14626: 14282: 14195: 14171: 14140: 14012: 13937: 13857: 13627: 13464: 13339: 13317: 13297: 13233: 13208: 13096: 13063: 13002: 12992: 12899: 12835: 12803: 12521: 12464: 12394: 12369: 12295: 12255: 12147: 12042: 11993: 11914: 11865: 11773: 11503: 11470: 11445: 11419: 11311: 11286: 11249: 11172: 10947: 10931: 10809: 10619: 10594: 10502: 10409: 10195: 10050: 9904: 9874: 9786: 9749: 9718: 9579: 9279: 9245: 9068: 8921: 8889: 8859: 8849: 8818: 8685: 8656: 8590: 7938: 7878: 7583: 7363: 7288: 7269: 7174: 7125: 7090: 6975: 6662: 6643: 6595: 5739: 5642: 5333: 5123: 5068: 4906: 4847: 4633: 4575: 4256: 3964: 3064: 2846: 2751: 2727: 2588:, the ribs of the dome vault are fully integrated into the shell, similar to Western 2401: 2381: 2001: 1990: 1909: 1905: 1776: 1764: 1679: 1648: 1476: 1465: 1457: 1413: 1329: 1234: 1206: 1080: 1023: 796: 761: 756: 731: 716: 706: 661: 643: 495: 20453: 19996: 18098: 13387: 12606: 12582: 12570: 12407: 11978: 11841: 11786: 11737: 7766: 7257:(1423), which prominently combines Islamic and indigenous Indian architectural forms 6411: 6221: 5383: 4737:, south of present-day Tehran, Iran, built in 1139 as the tomb of the Seljuk sultan 4531:(1141), and several Qarakhanid mausoleums with monumental façades, such as those in 3247: 3099: 2172:

Because of its long history of building and re-building, spanning the time from the

1674: 20615: 20306: 20256: 20202: 20157: 20086: 19886: 19666: 19440: 19056: 18346: 18269: 17945: 17941: 17781: 17653: 17620: 17540: 17331: 16934: 16742: 16620: 16464: 16454: 16377: 16184: 15895: 15850: 15845: 15822: 15419: 14986: 14268: 13891: 13587: 13375: 12273: 12271: 11715: 11713: 11582: 11495: 10797: 10584: 10085: 9237: 8422: 8204: 8182: 8091: 8013: 8001: 7726: 7571: 7153: 7069: 6928: 6867: 6847: 6658: 6455: 6267: 6045: 5672: 5456: 5364: 5023: 4679:(prior to its destruction in 2013), built circa 1090 during the Great Seljuk period 4660: 4621: 4591: 4083: 3871: 3397: 3135: 3014: 2896: 2890: 2601:(formerly the Monastery of Christ Pantepoptes) or the Pantokrator Monastery (today 2136: 2107: 2084: 2073: 1593: 1497: 1464:, is first attested during the Abbasid period in monuments at Samarra, such as the 1340: 1300: 1084: 1015: 801: 776: 771: 686: 618: 579: 490: 476: 447: 226: 160: 124: 20311: 20136: 20122: 15915:

Tehranimages. Contemporary photos taken in some of the oldest districts of Tehran.

15279:

Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700-1800

12061: 7980: 7895: 6786:

in Tunis (17th century): an example of Ottoman influence blended with local styles

6547: 2754:, who shows the Greek his "Paradise at Sardis". The classical form of the Persian 1756: 422: 20749: 20477: 20366: 20281: 20261: 20212: 19802: 19708: 19683: 19621: 19036: 19016: 18580: 18196: 18140: 17972: 17853: 17848: 17843: 17658: 17494: 17461: 17378: 16909: 16727: 16577: 16572: 16567: 16439: 16199: 15926: 15789: 15785: 15702: 15681: 15599: 15578: 15549: 15490: 15460: 15367: 15327:

The Great Mosque of Damascus: Studies on the Makings of an Umayyad Visual Culture

15325: 15277: 15158: 15133:

The Arab Contribution to Islamic Art: From the Seventh to the Fifteenth Centuries

14297: 13090: 11835: 11812: 10950:(March 1926). "The Evolution of the Minaret, with Special Reference to Egypt-I". 10044: 10008: 9989: 9935: 9619: 9304: 9195: 9193: 9191: 9189: 9187: 9185: 8392: 7801: 7431: 7409: 7054: 7034: 7022: 6995: 6963: 6851: 6639: 6517: 5773: 5360: 5266: 5177: 5165: 5088:

oversaw the construction projects. Reaching 53 meters in height, the dome of the

5064: 5053: 4987: 4711: 4692: 4571: 4489: 4412: 4296: 4107: 3861: 3804: 3434: 3038: 2818: 2755: 2612:(four pillars with two flanking shield walls and two semi-domes, 1550–1557), the 2439: 2369: 2238:

the omission of a transition zone between the vault and the supporting structure;

2088: 2065: 2033: 1897: 1800: 1792: 1707: 1656: 1555: 1445: 1429: 1259: 1218: 1088: 923: 791: 377: 288: 20271: 12858: 12534: 12431: 12345: 12268: 12203: 11890: 11710: 8610: 8608: 8606: 4924:, Iran, which measures 50 m in height and 25 m in diameter, making it 4330:. Thus, the spatial structure of a Muslim city essentially reflects the ancient 2376:

domes, and even more so than Persian domes, domes in South Asia tend to be more

1179:, although small shelters may have been constructed on the roofs to protect the 20316: 20291: 20237: 20222: 20178: 20049: 20041: 19922: 19641: 19269: 18996: 18732: 18575: 18433: 18191: 18171: 17825: 17711: 17587: 17489: 17446: 17441: 16883: 16878: 16767: 16669: 16557: 16526: 16204: 16194: 15827: 15810: 15492:

The Idea and Ideal of the Town Between Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages

14029: 12828:""Jeux de miroir": Architecture of Istanbul and Cairo from Empire to Modernism" 11966: 10801: 10280: 10012: 9024: 8544: 8397: 8372: 8296: 8215: 8103:

settled the region in the 18th century. A good example is the Friday mosque of

8059: 7984: 7865: 7661: 7303: 7081: 7026: 6903: 6716: 6477:

in Spain, which made use of Moorish techniques and designs and adapted them to

6395: 6029: 5970: 5691: 5037: 4956: 4753: 4625: 4563: 4517: 4493: 4481: 4461: 4403:

Early Islamic architecture was influenced by two different ancient traditions:

4352: 4264: 4090: 3784: 3211: 2921: 2802: 2747: 2695: 2373: 2129: 2045: 1939: 1827: 1804: 1768: 1742: 1703: 1691: 1620:) demonstrate the prevalence of the same stylistic elements across the region. 1321: 1308: 1210: 1096: 623: 437: 372: 280: 186: 17356: 12072: 11805: 10358: 9241: 9182: 6768: 6474: 4557:

More significant was the arrival of the Seljuk Turks and the formation of the

1335: 20784: 20734: 20713: 20650: 20502: 20296: 20207: 20028: 19988: 19972: 19893: 19865: 19733: 19723: 19648: 19636: 19226: 19159: 19132: 18902: 18393: 18186: 17838: 17726: 17597: 17577: 17479: 16562: 16547: 15569: 15268: 12151: 11253: 10915: 10598: 9878: 9249: 8863: 8603: 8447: 8377: 8357: 8322: 8254: 8242: 8087: 8074: 8019: 7997: 7974: 7593:) which provides access to the public audience pavilion and the lintel gate ( 7486: 7451: 7189: 7114: 7103: 6495: 6473:

of Al-Andalus the legacy of Moorish architecture was still carried on in the

6400: 6037: 5796: 5638: 4894: 4878: 4730: 4579: 4558: 4547: 4426: 4102: 3681: 3095: 2945: 2937: 2778: 2602: 2177: 2124: 2092: 2061: 1889: 1699: 1644: 1601: 1428:, in present-day Iraq. The Abbasids also built other capital cities, such as 947: 937: 869: 839: 810: 593: 565: 462: 407: 238: 15481: 13006: 12120: 11242:"From Polis to Madina: Urban Change in Late Antique and Early Islamic Syria" 10632: 8632: 5251: 5111: 4516:. These include a great congregational mosque in Bukhara, of which only the 1745:(circa 1006–7), while the other main type was the domed square, such as the 20526: 20425: 20276: 20187: 20182: 20080: 20001: 19917: 19836: 19740: 19713: 19678: 19611: 19424: 19404: 19279: 18565: 18086: 17961: 17731: 17434: 17424: 17416: 17253: 17093: 16848: 16110: 13379: 11631:

Power, Patronage, and Memory in Early Islam: Perspectives on Umayyad Elites

11391:

Dostal, Walter (1984). "'Towards a Model of Cultural Evolution in Arabia".

8529: 8402: 8382: 8222: 8116: 8027: 7962: 7873: 7869: 7857: 7848: 7832: 7820: 7819:

The first Chinese mosque was established in the seventh century during the

7732: 7685: 7634: 7589: 7508: 7479: 7169:

style of Persia. Another exceptional example which survives in present-day

7162: 7046: 6991: 6962:

dating to 725 have been uncovered. The Ghurids laid the foundations of the

6880: 6824: 6818: 6543: 6478: 6419: 6371: 6105: 5998: 5710: 5085: 5057: 5007: 4931: 4882: 4795: 4614: 4567: 4356: 4263:. An example of a city planned according to such concepts was excavated at 3969: 3920: 3649: 3463: 2653: 2577: 2478: 2242: 2228: 1831: 1812: 1760: 1664: 1613: 1461: 1421: 1312: 1108: 975: 874: 864: 427: 344: 230: 128: 18593: 16214: 15879: 14991: 10856: 7641:, features a multi-layered roof typical of Indonesian mosque architecture. 6614: 6024:

Beginning in the 18th century, Ottoman architecture was influenced by the

5363:(1251–1252) in Konya and evidenced by the mosaic tiles recovered from the 2527: 2008:

a result, these mosques gradually fell out of popularity in some regions.

1294:

reportedly appeared at Muhammad's mosque in Medina when it was rebuilt by

20575: 20348: 20286: 20197: 20192: 19792: 19755: 19368: 19216: 18934: 18912: 18259: 18148: 17803: 17612: 17401: 17395: 17383: 17134: 16695: 16429: 16409: 13526: 8347: 8100: 8047: 7954: 7911: 7541: 7499: 7050: 6546:

and decorated with local geometric motifs, as with the famous example of

6502: 6499: 6470: 6206: 6002: 5990: 5859: 5411:

sometimes contained a cubic prayer room elevated in the center (e.g. the

5375: 5081: 5015: 4990:

are found across the region but concentrated especially in Samarkand and

4551: 4501: 4485: 4473: 4300: 4292: 4211:

in North Africa. Basic facilities like a mosque, a governor's residence (

4049: 3489: 3413: 3366: 3195: 2806: 2794: 2731: 2585: 2566: 2462: 2261:, until they finally disappeared completely behind the double shell of a 1970: 1839: 1715: 1585: 1547: 1433: 1404:) in Iraq, one of the earliest surviving examples of Abbasid architecture 1104: 1076: 608: 603: 598: 588: 457: 363: 17321: 14912: 14880: 14853: 14808: 13795:, Architecture; VI. c. 1250–c. 1500; A. Eastern Islamic lands; 3. India. 10589: 9257: 9225: 7192:

during the 17th and 18th centuries. The Mughals also copied the Bengali

6799: 6579: 6481:

patrons. In North Africa, the medieval Moorish style was perpetuated in

5606: 1265: 1249:

introduced new combinations of these styles. The reuse of elements from

54: 20396: 20301: 20251: 19831: 19626: 19236: 19221: 18092: 17451: 17306: 17291: 16893: 16853: 16664: 16399: 16312: 16248: 15932: 15431: 15127: 13599: 13253: 13039: 13037: 12650: 11594: 10923: 10716: 8554: 8387: 8104: 8079: 7958: 7942: 7813: 7614: 7579: 7435: 7390: 7218:

in Delhi, begun in the 1190s and expanded in the 13th to 14th centuries

7211: 7170: 7157: 7141: 7058: 7042: 6971: 6678: 6529: 6336: 6100: 5950: 5777: 5735: 5472: 5412: 5328:, was in the early 13th century. Seljuk authority declined after their 5145: 5003: 4999: 4948: 4921: 4761: 4536: 4465: 4411:

building and decorating in Byzantine style, which had developed out of

4315: 4311: 4274:

The Arab elite of the early Islam were city dwellers of Mecca, Medina,

4260: 4259:, the outlines of which were based on the Ancient Roman concept of the 3737: 3514: 3429: 3361: 3223: 3207: 3010: 2936:

These decorative motifs are expressed in a range of mediums, including

2870: 2786: 2774: 2637: 2539: 2507: 2388:

likewise features a bulbous profile and a double-shelled construction.

2377: 2306: 2208: 2053: 1605: 1325: 1295: 1128: 1124: 952: 914: 904: 613: 250: 120: 19551: 18076: 17000: 16914: 16752: 13747: 13745: 13743: 13741: 13721: 13484: 13358: 11241: 10965: 10894:, Chapter 1: The History of Scholarship and the Nature of the Problem. 10470: 8193:. Ruins of early mosques and other structures are also found at Gedi. 6254:, Istanbul (mid-18th century), an example of the Ottoman Baroque style 6062: 5349: 20360: 19947: 19927: 19596: 19445: 18950: 18453: 18156: 18054: 17789: 17391: 16685: 16643: 16625: 16394: 16317: 16262: 16209: 15297:

Ettinghausen, Richard; Grabar, Oleg; Jenkins-Madina, Marilyn (2001).

14701: 14674: 14533: 14074: 13967: 13965: 13692:

Architecture; VI. c. 1250–c. 1500; C. Central Islamic lands; 2. Yemen

8277: 8246: 8190: 8167: 8149: 8095: 7966: 7946: 7657: 7638: 7587:

Islam in the palace is the two types of gateways - the split portal (

7537: 7529: 7512: 7503: 7348: 7325: 7321: 7254: 7137: 7133: 7077: 7062: 7038: 6933: 6509: 6423: 6049: 5115: 5019: 5014:. After Timur, one of the most important patrons of architecture was 4944: 4913: 4902: 4734: 4583: 4513: 4336: 4251: 3568:

a multitude of reasons, such as some misunderstanding the meaning of

2949:

while Mediterranean structures displayed a more classical influence.

2925: 2900: 2850: 2838: 2420: 2385: 2310: 2249:

While intersecting pairs of ribs from the main decorative feature of

2096: 2077: 1986: 1966: 1881: 1779:

rose to power in Ifriqiya, where it built a new fortified capital at

1628: 1589: 1489: 1352: 1344: 1164: 1132: 1060: 1049: 932: 909: 849: 525: 515: 168: 15423: 13591: 13034: 12037:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Kunya-Urgench".

11586: 10572: 9781:

Edwards, Brian; Sibley, Magda; Land, Peter; Hakmi, Mohammad (2006).

9743:

Saracen Strongholds 1100–1500: The Central and Eastern Islamic Lands

9292: 8039: 7291:

in Delhi, the first fully developed Mughal imperial tomb (1560–1570)

6532:

valleys and oases of the Atlas and the south are marked by numerous

5387: 5063:

The renaissance in Persian mosque and dome building came during the

4327: 2961:

Carved marble capital from Caliphal period of Córdoba (10th century)

2494: 520: 20173: 19775: 19673: 19601: 19414: 19353: 19286: 18059: 17833: 17716: 17706: 17469: 17326: 16654: 16615: 16552: 16495: 16469: 16434: 16332: 16153: 15028:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Architecture".

14795:

OMER, SPAHIC (2008). "Towards Understanding Islamic Architecture".

13952: 13950: 13738: 13567:

Architecture; V. c. 900–c. 1250; B. Central Islamic lands; 4. Yemen

12108: 12018: 11878: 11749: 11725: 11698: 11444:(in German) (2nd ed.). München: C. H. Beck. pp. 244–255. 9128: 8884:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Architecture".

8651:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Architecture".

8468: 8451: 8250: 8186: 8163: 8071:

used for scaffolding but possibly also for some symbolic purpose.

7988: 7970: 7924: 7824: 7610: 7545: 7533: 7194: 7166: 7073: 6983: 6959: 6899: 6886: 6618: 6575: 6559: 6525: 6487: 6463: 6415: 6367: 6320: 6010: 5270: 5197: 4967: 4936: 4629: 4275: 4208: 3749: 3509: 3493: 3408: 3382: 3306: 3243: 3185: 3171: 2994: 2917: 2866: 2862: 2760: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2723: 2716: 2700: 2581: 2531: 2216: 2173: 2146: 1982: 1724: 1719: 1711: 1660: 1632: 1538: 1364: 1168: 1116: 1112: 1019: 540: 432: 222: 181: 112: 18109: 16817: 16163: 13962: 13918: 13254:"moor | Origin and meaning of moor by Online Etymology Dictionary" 12749: 12677: 12482: 12480: 12328:"Iraq begins rebuilding of Mosul landmark Great Mosque of al-Nuri" 7188:). Later, a provincial style influenced by North India evolved in 7080:

are huge castle-like fortified palaces, and the abandoned city of

6521: 3724: 2616:(eight pillars with four diagonal semi-domes, 1561–1563), and the 884: 550: 20075: 19814: 19728: 19606: 19291: 18548: 18366: 18361: 17757: 17736: 17316: 16964: 16787: 16772: 16762: 16747: 16600: 16444: 16342: 16272: 16219: 15662:

Historic Mosques in Sub-Saharan Africa: From Timbuktu to Zanzibar

15551:

The architecture of Alexandria and Egypt, c. 300 B.C. to A.D. 700

14703:

Architecture of the Islamic World: Its History and Social Meaning

14676:

Architecture of the Islamic World: Its History and Social Meaning

14298:"The architecture of the wooden mosques of the Lithuanian Tatars" 14052: 14050: 13908: 13906: 13875: 13873: 13186: 13184: 12200:

Hattstein M., Delius P.; Islam, Art and Architecture; pp. 513–514

9598: 8538: 8238: 8112: 8051: 7928: 7861: 7575: 7455: 7394: 7152:

region developed a distinct regional style under the independent

7145: 7118: 6987: 6459: 6435: 6431: 6427: 6406: 6375: 5986: 5901: 5668: 5653: 5587: 5496: 5476: 5420: 5403: 5395: 5049: 5027: 4940: 4757: 4738: 4528: 4509: 4374: 4334:

tradition of living in a family group or tribe, held together by

4307: 4268: 3800: 3715: 3597:

The mihrab is a niche or alcove, typically concave, set into the

3518: 3262: 3227: 2929: 2874: 2782: 2368:

The use of domes in South Asia started with the establishment of

2289:

of pre-Islamic Persia. Squinches are one of the most significant

2282: 2192: 2188: 1974: 1874: 1866: 1796: 1750: 1729: 1683: 1636: 1617: 1581: 1425: 1316: 1180: 1176: 899: 889: 859: 834: 829: 633: 560: 467: 214: 194: 176: 78: 20672:

Viewpoints: Mathematical Perspective and Fractal Geometry in Art

15296: 14007: 14005: 13947: 12667: 12665: 12612: 12588: 12576: 12540: 12437: 12413: 12351: 12277: 12209: 11896: 11847: 11792: 11743: 11719: 11648:. State University of New York Press, Albany. pp. 194–195. 10091: 10026: 10024: 10022: 9625: 9381: 9310: 9199: 9030: 8945: 8943: 8941: 8638: 6958:

in the 8th century, where remains of a congregational mosque at

6862: 6802:: an example of local architecture in the M'zab region (Algeria) 6315: 2944:, tilework, paint, glass mosaics, marble or stone paneling, and 1452:

Features from the late Umayyad period, such as vaulting, carved

19780: 18570: 18558: 18553: 18317: 18224: 17809: 17741: 17691: 17561: 17556: 17535: 17520: 17311: 16924: 16873: 16863: 16858: 16843: 16811: 16782: 16757: 16732: 16659: 16605: 16531: 16479: 16459: 16347: 16337: 16322: 16307: 15389:

Das islamische Rippengewölbe : Ursprung, Form, Verbreitung

15184:

Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of Architecture and its Culture

13088: 12737: 12594: 12492: 12477: 12419: 12364:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Damascus".

12308: 12215: 11927: 11221: 11197: 11185: 11001: 10999: 10873: 10821: 10819: 9601:

Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia

8549: 8426: 8331: 8108: 7853: 7809: 7525: 7475: 7234: 7149: 7098: 7007: 6979: 6890: 6571: 6542:(fortified villages), typically flat-roofed structures made of 6533: 6355: 6115: 6110: 6094: 6018: 5705: 5695: 5626: 5379: 5288: 5169: 5119: 4696: 4595: 4587: 4546:

Dome in the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan, Iran, added in 1088–89 by

4469: 4231: 4204: 4180: 3938: 3928: 3645: 3613: 3592: 3467: 3330: 3055: 3034: 2858: 2798: 2790: 2712: 2621: 2482: 2443: 2262: 2196: 2081: 2049: 2029: 1824: 1780: 1558:

succeeded in taking control of Al-Andalus in 756, creating the

1453: 1417: 1278: 1255: 1152: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1092: 1032: 1027: 957: 879: 844: 628: 555: 545: 535: 530: 505: 442: 412: 392: 269: 234: 210: 206: 202: 190: 94: 90: 17103: 17075: 15601:

The Europeans: A Geography of People, Culture, and Environment

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Muqarnas: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture. Volume 12

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Islamic art in the Metropolitan Museum: The Historical Context

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Ettinghausen, Richard; Grabar, Oleg; Jenkins, Marilyn (2001).

8791: 8789: 8509: 5997:

was a mixture of native Turkish tradition and influences from

5220:(before its destruction in 2017), dating from the 12th century 4663:, mausoleums of Seljuk princes, built in 1068 and 1093 in Iran 3150:

Arabesque and calligraphic decoration on tile-covered dome of

2908:

stylized than naturalistic. However, because of the religious

1815:(1125) with its richly-decorated street façade, and the domed 19765: 18426: 18356: 18339: 17799: 17762: 17701: 17515: 17429: 17286: 16939: 16919: 16807: 16802: 16797: 16792: 16510: 16500: 16449: 16404: 16389: 16383: 16357: 16352: 16301: 16296: 16291: 16267: 16148: 15903: 15838:

International Journal of Architectural Research: ArchNet-IJAR

14720: 14555: 14553: 14416: 14414: 14002: 13769: 13059:

Muqarnas: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture. Volume 3

12662: 12250:. In Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert M.; La Boda, Sharon (eds.). 11464: 10406:

The Age of Sinan. Architectural Culture in the Ottoman Empire

10019: 8938: 8273: 8055: 7953:

The earliest mosques discovered in sub-Saharan Africa are at

7915: 7906:(c. 1907), a large mud-brick building in "Neo-Sudanese" style 7516: 7307: 7089:

build relatively major monuments, as with the example of the

7085: 7030: 6955: 6835: 6712: 6623: 6363: 6359: 6343: 6135: 6056: 5738:, and numerous private and public buildings such as those of 5630: 5440: 5354: 5341: 5325: 5217: 5107: 4991: 4971: 4814: 4532: 4331: 4279: 4245: 4194: 4165: 3617:(pulpit), and some historical mosques also included a nearby 3544: 3522: 3442: 3438: 2878: 2489: 2405: 2162: 2069: 2024: 1997: 1993:

in Rome. The Roman type of building has developed out of the

1948: 1919: 1914: 1784: 1737: 1652: 1509: 1214: 1184: 1115:, who were clients of the Sasanians and had their capital at 1055: 1037: 819: 570: 510: 500: 485: 417: 382: 116: 70: 14756: 14744: 14387: 14375: 14098: 13114: 13112: 12875: 12713: 12640: 12638: 12636: 12252:

International Dictionary of Historic Places: Southern Europe

12006: 11838:- Rabah Saoud, Professor Salim Al-Hassani, Husamaldin Tayeh. 11610: 10996: 10816: 10727: 8967: 7148:(1656). In the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent, the 5196:, founded in the 7th century and rebuilt by the Seljuks and 5071:, in 1598 initiated the reconstruction of Isfahan, with the 2973:

Vegetal arabesques and inscriptions carved in stucco in the

19787: 19770: 18351: 18334: 18254: 18249: 17525: 17301: 17296: 16929: 16888: 16674: 16648: 16505: 16424: 16240: 15466:(Casebound ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. 15163:. The New Cambridge History of India, Part I. Vol. 4. 14949: 14947: 14945: 14943: 14941: 14939: 14937: 14935: 14656: 14654: 14504: 14502: 14500: 14498: 14496: 14494: 14492: 14184: 14086: 11339:. Arab Institute for Research and Publishing. p. 102. 11209: 11119:"The Misr of Ayla: New Evidence for the Early Islamic City" 10972: 10317:. Paris: Ernest Leroux. pp. 100–117, 178–188, 192–214. 10312: 10297: 10239: 10237: 10235: 10118:"ARCHITECTURE iii. Sasanian Period – Encyclopaedia Iranica" 10097: 10075: 10073: 9687: 9455: 9453: 9369: 9316: 9155: 9003: 8786: 8269: 8042:(present-day Mali), and an "eastern" style associated with 8009: 7903: 7061:(1678) which was commissioned by the sixth Mughal emperor, 6937: 6871: 6567: 6538: 6506: 6358:

designation of the Muslim inhabitants of these regions as "

6068: 5677: 4843: 4791: 4610: 4598:(northern Iran), which have octagonal forms, and the large 4450: 4445: 4190: 3950: 3530: 3484: 3372: 3270: 3219: 2842: 2830: 2810: 2424: 2258: 2119: 1944: 1929: 1861: 1799:

branch of Islam. Other notable monuments include the large

1368: 1172: 1156: 1120: 894: 854: 402: 198: 82: 15078: 14775: 14773: 14771: 14599: 14597: 14584: 14582: 14580: 14565: 14550: 14411: 14062: 12778: 12776: 12701: 12554:"Kubadabad Palace - Discover Islamic Art - Virtual Museum" 12191:

Canby, Sheila R.; Shah Abbas, The Remaking of Iran, p. 36.

12182:

Canby, Sheila R.; Shah Abbas, The Remaking of Iran, p. 30.

11633:. New York, NY : Oxford University Press. p. 52. 9946: 9944: 9862:

Hillenbrand, R. "Masdjid". In P.J. Bearman; Th. Bianquis;

9145: 9143: 9090: 9088: 9086: 9084: 8979: 8955: 6446:, the palace-city of Madinat al-Zahra (near Cordoba), the 6438:. Among the best-known monuments from these areas are the 5814:(built between 1356 and 1361), the largest Mamluk monument 5254:, built by Artuqid sultan Nasir al-Din Mahmud in 1208–1209 4994:, the main capitals. One of the earliest monuments is the 1504:

on rectangular brick piers running at right angles to the

1018:

began with the formation of Islam under the leadership of

18650: 15724:

Strolling Through Istanbul: The Classic Guide to the City

13144: 13142: 13129: 13127: 13109: 12912: 12633: 10341: 10339: 10287:. Paris: Librairie de la société anonyme. pp. 67–69. 10151: 9172: 9170: 8810: 8173:

The oldest known mosques in the region were excavated at

8005: 7366:

in Lahore (1635), notable for its tile-decorated surfaces

4699:(in present-day Afghanistan), from the early 12th century 1576:, built in 785–786, marks the earliest major monument of 824: 15898:-licensed photos, laser scans, panoramas), data from an 15758:(7th ed.). The American University in Cairo Press. 15225:

The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture

14932: 14927:

ISLAMIC INFLUENCE ON THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE MALAY WORLD

14732: 14651: 14639: 14489: 14465: 14253:

IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering

13531:

Riberana: digital library of the heritage of Ribera Alta

13446:

http://journals.openedition.org/encyclopedieberbere/2582

13024: 13022: 12936: 12623: 12621: 11334: 10739: 10232: 10070: 9465: 9450: 9359: 9357: 6731:

Bou Inania Madrasa in Fes (14th century, Marinid period)

6566:, typically built with loose stone bound by a mortar of 5985:

architecture along with architectural traditions of the

5144:

in Mardin, dating from 1385. In Mosul, the Zengid ruler

3736:

is made directly from the prayer hall and broadcast via

2989:

Figural imagery of lion and bull in carved stone at the

1026:. The first mosque was a structure built by Muhammad in 15892:

Fatimid-era Ayyubid Wall of Cairo Digital Media Archive

15642:

The Glory of the Sultans: Islamic Architecture in India

15533:. Translated by Mill, Adair. Antique Collectors' Club. 14768: 14594: 14577: 14514: 14477: 14453: 13803: 13801: 12958:, ed. Cyril M. Harris, (Dover Publications, 1977), 485. 12924: 12773: 12761: 12725: 12689: 12254:. Fitzroy & Dearborn Publishers. pp. 190–193. 12227: 11023: 11011: 10897: 10139: 9941: 9838: 9477: 9140: 9081: 8316:, the Islamic Cultural Center and Museum of Tolerance, 6846:

One type of mosque attested during the early period of

2895:

As a common feature, Islamic architecture makes use of

16:

Architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam

15030:

The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture

13139: 13124: 12802:. American University in Cairo Press. pp. 39–41. 12518:

The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture

12461:

The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture

12366:

The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture

12292:

The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture

12039:

The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture

11963:"Sald̲j̲ūḳids; VI. Art and architecture; 1. In Persia" 11862:

The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture

11829:

Muslim Architecture Under Seljuk Patronage (1038-1327)

11666:. Anthropology and Aesthetics, 43, 78–94. p. 80. 10693: 10370:

Muqarnas IV: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture

10336: 10249: 10208: 10046:

Die iranischen Feuerheiligtümer = Iranian Fire temples

9780: 9607: 9555: 9167: 8991: 8886:

The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture

8653:

The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture

7914:, Muslim merchants played a vital role in the western 6088:, built between 1463 and 1470, which also included: a 5554:

Stone-carved decoration in the entrance portal of the

4398: 3230:, portals, mihrabs, windows, arches, and entire domes. 2199:

dome, was already known in Sasanian architecture. The

85:); bottom: interior side view of the main dome of the 15345:

Flood, Finbarr Barry; Necipoğlu, Gülru, eds. (2017).

13816: 13316:

López Guzmán, Rafael. Arquitectura mudéjar. Cátedra.

13171: 13169: 13019: 12618: 9354: 9015: 8441: 7017:

The best known style of Indo-Islamic architecture is

5641:, their capital. Some long-reigning sultans, such as 4237: 2140: 268:, standing on the site of Muhammad's first mosque in 244: 15735:. In Flood, Finbarr Barry; Necipoğlu, Gülru (eds.). 13798: 12830:. In Necipoğlu, Gülru; Barry Flood, Finbarr (eds.). 11035: 9489: 8505: 7856:

architecture has evolved through the periods of the

7084:, 26 miles (42 km) west of Agra, was built for 6550:. Likewise, southern Tunisia is dotted with hilltop 6001:. One of the best representatives of this period is 5127: 5095: 4299:—from political or religious authorities during the 4220: 4212: 4198: 4184: 4174: 3731: 3722: 3633:

Mihrab of the Great Mosque of Cordoba (10th century)

2560:

Based on the model of pre-existing Byzantine domes,

1896:("middle of the house") in Arabic. The tradition of 15809:Abdullahi, Yahya; Bin Embi, Mohamed Rashid (2013). 15409: 14824:

Contemporary Islamic Architecture in the Arab World

14247:Nadyrova, Khanifa G.; Nadyrova, Dilyara A. (2020). 13082: 11822: 11615:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. p. 5. 11494:. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. pp. 61–114. 11055:"Qantara - Minaret of the Great Mosque of Kairouan" 10261: 10220: 9298: 7397:(1656), another example built by a Deccan sultanate 6462:(Seville), and the fortified palace-complex of the 4966:and city planning also reached an apogee under the 3652:

at the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan (early 14th century)

3134:in Nawabganj district of Bangladesh (15th century, 3029:Polychrome marble mosaic work on the mihrab of the 2324:

Non-radial rib vault in the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan

2091:. Umayyad-period vaults of this type were found in 2068:times, as exemplified in the Parthian buildings of 1355:in the region that had a similar form, such as the 1040:, which corresponds to the site of the present-day 20569:The Drawing of Geometric Patterns in Saracenic Art 15707:. Vol. 2 (Part 2). Harvard University Press. 15459: 13166: 12971:, Vol. 1, Ed. James Hastings and John Alexander, ( 11469:. Rahden/Germany: Marie Leidorf GmbH. p. XV. 8817:(2nd ed.). Yale University Press. p. 7. 8409: 7237:(circa 1335–1340), built under the Tughluq dynasty 6906:, were built around a fortified citadel (e.g. the 6319:, a residence constructed along the shores of the 5934:(1744), which combines Mamluk and Ottoman elements 4504:. This period is regarded as a "classical" age of 20704:Goudreau Museum of Mathematics in Art and Science 15835: 15808: 15791:Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture 15721: 15462:Islamic Architecture: Form, Function, and Meaning 15186:. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press. 13402:"Why Moorish? Synagogues and the Moorish Revival" 13279:A practical guide to Islamic Monuments in Morocco 13190: 13089:Gábor Ágoston; Bruce Alan Masters (21 May 2010). 11355:Early Islamic Syria: An Archaeological Assessment 10618:. Harvard University Press. pp. 91–95, 119. 9205: 8432: 8340: 7996:three levels, as exemplified by the tower of the 7482:One of the oldest surviving mosques in Indonesia. 6505:and also, notably, as a recurring choice for new 5919:(1505), example of an urban caravanserai in Cairo 3621:(a protected space for the ruler during prayers). 2167: 1823:of elaborately-carved stucco. Under the powerful 1135:and al-Sadir in al-Hira, a Ghassanid church with 20782: 15597: 15181: 15027: 14246: 13043: 12755: 12743: 12683: 12671: 12515: 12458: 12363: 12289: 12036: 11859: 11285:. Rahden: Marie Leidorf GmbH. pp. 229–242. 10189: 9710: 8883: 8650: 8320:, the concept for The Vanishing Mosque, and the 7562:The oldest surviving mosque in Indonesia is the 5475:caravanserai, built in 1229 on the road between 5296: 1667:) and a new congregational mosque, known as the 1565:and reaching the apogee of its power during the 1075:of the 7th century, the two major powers in the 15929:Islamic Art And Architecture designs worldwide. 15756:Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide 15598:Ostergren, Robert C.; Le Boss, Mathias (2011). 15439:Hattstein, Markus; Delius, Peter, eds. (2011). 15438: 15098:"Question 7: Why To Face The Qibla In Prayers?" 14534:"Archnet > Site > Friday Mosque at Zaria" 13842:, Architecture; VII. c. 1500–c. 1900; D. India. 13440:L. Golvin, « Architecture berbère », 13154: 12956:Illustrated Dictionary of Historic Architecture 12600: 12498: 12486: 12425: 12314: 12221: 12114: 12024: 11933: 11884: 11755: 11731: 11704: 11611:Ettinghausen, R; Grabar, O; Jenkins-Madina, M. 11418:(in German) (2nd ed.). Mainz: Von Zabern. 10650: 9387: 8949: 5609:(1297), an example of a wooden hypostyle mosque 4877:Mausoleum of Fakhr al-Din Razi or Il-Arslan in 4388:Figure-ground diagram of a European town (1819) 2837:. Large Paradise gardens are also found at the 2180:, and its excellent state of conservation, the 1884:are found in secular and religious structures. 18045:Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe 15639: 15344: 14898: 14116: 14056: 13924: 13912: 13879: 13775: 12825: 12613:Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001 12589:Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001 12577:Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001 12541:Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001 12438:Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001 12414:Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001 12352:Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001 12278:Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001 12210:Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001 12164:Savory, Roger; Iran under the Safavids, p. 155 12126: 11897:Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001 11848:Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001 11793:Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001 11744:Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001 11720:Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001 11680: 11560: 11465:Karin Bartl; Abd al-Razzaq Moaz, eds. (2009). 10459:, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008, p.39 10092:Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001 9714:Islamic Architecture in Cairo: An Introduction 9626:Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001 9311:Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001 9200:Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001 9031:Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001 8973: 8723:, Ch.s "Architecture", "Ornament and pattern". 8708: 8639:Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001 7198:roof tradition for mausoleums in North India. 6382:) culture in North Africa, pre-Islamic Spain ( 4158: 20699:European Society for Mathematics and the Arts 19873:Mathematica: A World of Numbers... and Beyond 19567: 18609: 18125: 17119: 15948: 15864:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2024 ( 15013:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2024 ( 13207:. New York: Thames & Hudson. p. 20. 11819:, Online Edition. Retrieved 28 November 2010. 11628: 11372:Mez, A (1922). "Die Renaissance des Islams". 6335:Traditional Ottoman domestic architecture in 6270:of Abdülhamid I, Istanbul (late 18th century) 5862:, built between 1415 and 1420 for the nearby 4850:, one of the oldest preserved mosques in Iran 4817:, Kyrgyzstan, second half of the 12th century 4480:. In the second half of the 12th century the 4139: 3748:from the doorway or the roof of the house of 1977:). This type of building originated from the 995: 139:Early Islamic architecture was influenced by 19853:List of works designed with the golden ratio 15920:10,000+ Architectural collections worldwide 15726:(Revised ed.). Tauris Parke Paperbacks. 15704:Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century 15683:Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century 15509: 15488: 15386: 14153: 14122: 13338:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 12826:Avcıoğlu, Nebahat; Volait, Mercedes (2017). 12012: 11227: 11215: 11203: 11191: 11152: 11101: 10243: 10190:Barrucand, Marianne; Bednorz, Achim (1992). 10030: 9894: 9892: 9890: 9888: 9693: 8655:. Oxford University Press. pp. 74, 78. 8332:Debates on status as a style of architecture 8290: 6893:, an example of a historic fortified village 6829: 5995:classical architecture of the Ottoman Empire 5795:(built in 1318 and modified in 1335) at the 4539:) from the second half of the 12th century. 3554: 3009:Stone carving in the entrance portal of the 2231:architecture. Its main characteristics are: 2004:in Iran, dating back to the eighth century. 1943:. A mosque courtyard is used for performing 18623: 15737:A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture 15457: 15348:A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture 15204:The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250–1800 15084: 14975:"Symbols and Signs in Islamic Architecture" 14972: 14953: 14295: 13930: 13810:A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture 13683: 13681: 12978: 12832:A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture 11960: 11798: 11541: 11168:Studies in Islamic History and Institutions 10940: 10879: 10756: 10754: 10551: 10549: 10547: 10540:. Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 3–4. 9983:Dictionary of Islamic architecture: Pishtaq 9903:. Milan: Electaarchitecture. pp. 7–9. 9857: 9855: 9853: 9783:Courtyard Housing: Past, Present and Future 7306:, a palatial complex begun in the 1560s by 6978:. The mosque's initial construction reused 5722:Europeans). Examples of this style are the 5106:Under Zengid and Artuqid rule, cities like 4644:ruled over Iran and Central Asia until the 4624:(also known as the Anatolian Seljuks), the 3261:Early example of basic tripartite muqarnas 1922:clothing traditionally necessary in public. 1107:and northern Arabia – were two Arab tribal 155:architecture and all other lands which the 19574: 19560: 18616: 18602: 18132: 18118: 18029:Islamic Art: Mirror of the Invisible World 17126: 17112: 15955: 15941: 15722:Sumner-Boyd, Hilary; Freely, John (2010). 15222:Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila (2009). 15221: 15201:Blair, Sheila; Bloom, Jonathan M. (1995). 15200: 14821: 14625:. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 102. 14444: 14440: 14438: 14366: 14362: 14360: 14328: 14324: 14322: 14320: 14318: 14296:Chervonnaya, Svetlana Mikhailovna (2014). 14104: 14092: 14080: 13971: 13956: 13839: 13807: 13792: 13763: 13751: 13705: 13701: 13699: 13687: 13669: 13665: 13663: 13651: 13647: 13645: 13643: 13617: 13615: 13613: 13611: 13609: 13562: 13558: 13556: 13554: 13552: 13550: 13548: 13546: 13510: 13160: 12918: 12719: 12656: 12644: 12099: 12095: 12093: 11984:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 11945: 11767: 11692: 11138:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 10840: 10836: 10834: 10760: 10711: 10684: 10680: 10678: 10676: 10674: 10662: 10638: 10555: 10521: 10389:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 10345: 10327: 10169: 10157: 10103: 10079: 10042: 9976: 9967: 9678: 9663: 9637: 9471: 9459: 9441: 9426: 9399: 9345: 9119: 9047: 8777: 8735: 8720: 8614: 7347:(1628–30), added by Shah Jahan inside the 6974:, which were begun in the 1190s by Sultan 6344:Iberian Peninsula and western North Africa 5953:, built in the 1940s in a neo-Mamluk style 4508:, with many constructions taking place in 4146: 4132: 3412:). A similar feature is also found in the 3214:(1006–1007) in northeastern Iran, and the 3102:in Istanbul (16th century, Ottoman period) 2490:Ribbed domes in Al-Andalus and the Maghreb 2025:Umayyad diaphragm arches and barrel vaults 1741:mausoleum was the tomb tower, such as the 1347:(late 7th century, with later renovations) 1002: 988: 19913:Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Assumption 15849: 15826: 15811:"Evolution of Islamic geometric patterns" 15733:"The Resurgence of the Baghdad Caliphate" 15393:Islamic rib vaults: Origins, form, spread 15253:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. 14990: 14618: 14358: 14356: 14354: 14352: 14350: 14348: 14346: 14344: 14342: 14340: 14272: 14166:. Singapore: Archipelago Press. pp. 14135:. Singapore: Archipelago Press. pp. 12984: 12967:"Architecture (Muhammadan)", H. Saladin, 12454: 12452: 12450: 12448: 12446: 11992:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 959–962. 11408: 11406: 10588: 10403: 9963: 9961: 9959: 9885: 9273: 9269: 9267: 8306: 6940:(1632–1647), the most famous building of 4492:near Ghazna (early 12th century) and the 3462:(prayer space for the sultan) inside the 3226:, muqarnas was also employed to decorate 3154:in Isfahan (17th century, Safavid period) 1985:with an adjacent courtyard surrounded by 18082:Oriental carpets in Renaissance painting 15962: 15780: 15753: 15686:. Vol. 2 (Part 1). Dumbarton Oaks. 15658: 15618: 15576: 15547: 14866: 14779: 14762: 14750: 14738: 14726: 14660: 14645: 14603: 14588: 14571: 14559: 14520: 14508: 14483: 14471: 14459: 14420: 14405: 14393: 14381: 14159: 14128: 14068: 13678: 13506: 13504: 13291: 13281:. Charlottesville, VA: The Baraka Press. 12991:. Leiden : E.J. Brill. p. 60. 12942: 12930: 12881: 12782: 12767: 12731: 12707: 12695: 12627: 12511: 12509: 12507: 12233: 11352: 11305: 11116: 11005: 10953:The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs 10946: 10825: 10751: 10745: 10733: 10544: 10533: 10428: 10145: 10049:(in German). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. 9950: 9866:; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). 9850: 9844: 9659: 9657: 9655: 9653: 9651: 9649: 9495: 9483: 9414: 9375: 9363: 9341: 9339: 9337: 9335: 9333: 9331: 9322: 9161: 9149: 9094: 9062: 8879: 8877: 8839: 8837: 8795: 8773: 8771: 8769: 8767: 8626: 8580: 8578: 8576: 8480: 8413: 8260: 8237: 8203: 8148: 8073: 8018: 7979: 7933: 7894: 7884: 7831:, whose current buildings date from the 7787: 7485: 7474: 6927: 6885: 6861: 6834:, Gate of the Yemen) in the Old City of 6817: 6747:at the Alhambra, Granada (14th century, 5306: 5036: 4930: 4872: 4842: 4822: 4541: 4451:Great Seljuks and early Turkic dynasties 4446:Regional styles (after the 10th century) 3531:Other elements of religious architecture 3354: 2742:relate the story of the Spartan general 2699: 2549: 2493: 2336:Dome of the tomb of Ahmed Sanjar in Merv 2106: 2028: 1880:In the architecture of the Muslim world 1854: 1763:in Cairo, one of the gates built by the 1755: 1673: 1527: 1523: 1492:built in Baghdad (since destroyed). The 1484:built by the Abbasids in the 9th century 1475: 1439: 1388: 1334: 1264: 1200: 259: 20459:Vier Bücher von Menschlicher Proportion 19581: 18002:Heaven on Earth: Art from Islamic Lands 15700: 15679: 15640:Porter, Yves; Degeorge, Gérard (2009). 15032:. Oxford University Press. p. 71. 14839: 14790: 14788: 14699: 14672: 14614: 14612: 14435: 14315: 14242: 14240: 14209: 14207: 13851: 13696: 13660: 13640: 13621: 13606: 13577: 13543: 13436: 13434: 13432: 13430: 13428: 13426: 13227: 13202: 12893: 12853: 12851: 12834:. Wiley Blackwell. pp. 1140–1142. 12797: 12793: 12791: 12245: 12137: 12135: 12090: 11939: 11902: 11489: 11432: 11357:. Bristol Classical Press. p. 83. 11279: 11270:In: Bartl & Moaz, 2009, pp. 115–124 11239: 11164: 11112: 11110: 10831: 10705: 10671: 10570: 10363:"The Style of Sinan's Domed Structures" 9995: 9861: 9805: 9737: 9573: 9522: 9518: 9516: 9514: 9512: 9510: 9508: 9506: 9504: 9420: 9393: 9134: 9115: 9113: 9111: 9109: 9107: 9105: 9103: 9043: 9041: 9039: 9009: 8997: 8985: 8961: 8888:. Oxford University Press. p. 72. 8765: 8763: 8761: 8759: 8757: 8755: 8753: 8751: 8749: 8747: 8731: 8729: 8461: 7132:, exemplified by monuments such as the 6763:Dome of the Hall of Ambassadors in the 6205:, Istanbul (16th century), designed by 5455:Seljuk mosaic tile decoration from the 4718:(northeastern Iran), built in 1114–1115 2060:, as similar vaulting was not known in 1659:established a short-lived dynasty, the 1276:The Umayyads were the first to add the 20783: 15882:(Half in English and half in Japanese) 15794:(20th ed.). Architectural Press. 15730: 15365: 15300:Islamic Art and Architecture: 650–1250 15136:. American University in Cairo Press. 15055: 15053: 15021: 14968: 14966: 14964: 14962: 14894: 14892: 14890: 14835: 14833: 14337: 14194:, 1997, Didier Millet, Paris, p. 207, 13460:Art et Architectures berbères du Maroc 13368:Asiatische Studien – Études Asiatiques 13276: 13148: 13133: 13055: 13028: 12821: 12819: 12443: 12030: 11908: 11661: 11572: 11438: 11403: 11390: 11308:Cities in the Pre-Modern Islamic World 10775: 10773: 10771: 10769: 10699: 10611: 10313:Jean Ebersoll; Adolphe Thiers (1913). 10298:Jean Ebersoll; Adolphe Thiers (1913). 10279: 10185: 10183: 10181: 9956: 9435: 9264: 9056: 8915: 8911: 8909: 8843: 8814:Islamic Art and Architecture: 650–1250 8679: 8584: 7609:Gate of Panembahan Senapati Mosque in 7041:in Agra, completed in 1648 by emperor 6913: 5932:Sabil-Kuttab of Abd ar-Rahman Katkhuda 3390:and Indo-Islamic architecture and the 3013:caravanserai in Turkey (13th century, 2357: 19555: 18597: 18113: 17107: 15936: 15910:Islamic Arts and Architecture website 15880:ARCHITECTURE OF ISLAM by Takeo Kamiya 15739:. Wiley Blackwell. pp. 307–326. 15528: 15323: 15275: 15248: 15156: 14213: 13822: 13501: 13333: 13270: 13175: 13118: 12504: 12388: 12357: 12141: 11853: 11761: 11613:Islamic art and architecture 650-1250 11412: 11337:The Umayyads: The rise of Islamic art 11041: 11029: 11017: 10990: 10978: 10903: 10891: 10763:, "Balconies in Islamic Architecture" 10524:, "Ornament and pattern; B. Figural". 10495:Canby, Sheila R. (October 27, 2005). 10494: 10357: 10267: 10255: 10226: 10214: 9706: 9704: 9702: 9672: 9646: 9631: 9613: 9561: 9550: 9546: 9544: 9542: 9540: 9538: 9536: 9534: 9328: 9223: 9176: 8874: 8834: 8806: 8804: 8644: 8573: 7991:(16th century with later renovations) 7918:region since the 9th century through 7330:architecture in the Deccan Sultanates 6554:and multi-story fortified granaries ( 6370:between 711 and 1249) and in western 6080:in Istanbul was part of a very large 6042:First National Architectural Movement 5590:(1276), the tomb of a Seljuk princess 3416:complex (late 15th century) in Delhi. 3325:Entrance portal with muqarnas at the 2726:. The comparison originates from the 2293:contribution to Islamic architecture. 14794: 14785: 14706:. Thames & Hudson. p. 278. 14679:. Thames & Hudson. p. 278. 14609: 14237: 14204: 13571: 13456: 13450: 13423: 13394: 13336:Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain 13327: 13285: 12969:Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics 12848: 12788: 12283: 12132: 11522: 11107: 10849: 10782:Journal for the History of Astronomy 10779: 10372:. Leiden. p. 77. Archived from 10163: 9898: 9738:Nicolle, David (22 September 2009). 9527:. Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques. 9501: 9100: 9036: 8744: 8726: 6492:Neo-Moorish or Moorish Revival style 4278:and the highly urbanized society of 3535: 123:and religious styles from the early 20644:Journal of Mathematics and the Arts 18139: 18009:Hajj: Journey to the Heart of Islam 15815:Frontiers of Architectural Research 15157:Asher, Catherine Blanshard (1992). 15126: 15050: 14979:European Review of Artistic Studies 14959: 14887: 14830: 14214:Cowen, Jill S. (July–August 1985). 13899:, Cambridge University Press, p. 29 13710:Vernacular architecture; VII. Yemen 13463:. Editions la Croisée des Chemins. 13095:. Infobase Publishing. p. 50. 12816: 12239: 11371: 10766: 10302:. Paris: Ernest Leroux. p. 69. 10178: 9525:L'architecture musulmane d'Occident 9211: 8906: 8673: 8291: 7470: 6830: 6598:at Madinat al-Zahra (10th century, 5694:, Ilkhanid Iran, and possibly even 5102:Ayyubid dynasty § Architecture 4885:, late 12th or early 13th century ( 4399:Greco-Roman and Sasanian influences 4286: 4170: 3844: 3555: 3333:(late 16th century, Ottoman period) 3118:in Istanbul (16th century, Ottoman) 2584:. In the early Byzantine church of 1934: 1663:, and built himself a new capital ( 1460:, a more sophisticated form of the 1221:in Berlin. The decoration displays 13: 20658:Making Mathematics with Needlework 16991:Influences on Western architecture 15774: 15622:Dictionary of Islamic Architecture 15059: 14822:Abdelmonem, Mohamed (2003-10-22). 14619:Abdullahi, Mohamed Diriye (2001). 13092:Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire 12104:Architecture (VI. c. 1250–c. 1500) 11643: 10468: 9699: 9531: 8801: 8620: 8541:, database of Islamic architecture 8442:Religious and societal connections 8233: 8067:) are often embedded in the walls 7012:congregational mosque of Ahmedabad 6642:in Marrakesh (early 12th century, 5879:Funerary complex of Sultan Qaytbay 5844:Khanqah-Mosque of Faraj ibn Barquq 5826:Projecting entrance portal of the 5269:in Aleppo (1236), built under the 4574:(12th century) in Transoxiana and 4238:Experiments with ideal city models 2465:pattern to represent the night sky 1845: 1710:, and the northeastern regions of 1163:of these cities were built in the 245:Early history (up to 10th century) 175:. New architectural elements like 14: 20812: 20484:I quattro libri dell'architettura 17910:Museum for Islamic Art, Jerusalem 15873: 15369:A History of Ottoman Architecture 13856:. h.f.ullmann. pp. 464–483. 13334:Dodds, Jerrilynn D., ed. (1992). 13294:The Almoravid and Almohad Empires 13232:. New York: Thames & Hudson. 13230:A History of Ottoman Architecture 13205:A History of Ottoman Architecture 12248:"Diyarbakır (Diyarbakır, Turkey)" 11772:. h.f.ullmann. pp. 368–369. 11664:Dialogic Dimension of Umayyad Art 11500:10.1163/ej.9789004176881.i-864.21 11335:Museum With No Frontiers (2000). 11310:. London: Routledge. p. 24. 10285:L'art de bâtir chez les Byzantins 10192:Moorish architecture in Andalusia 8058:(present-day Nigeria), which has 7597:) which leads to the frontcourt. 7566:which is the royal mosque of the 5367:(c. 1236 or early 13th century). 5096:Post-Seljuk Syria and Mesopotamia 4221:Transformation of conquered towns 2477:The interior of the main dome of 1960: 1702:, northern Iran was ruled by the 1159:in present-day Iraq. The central 20763: 20762: 20008:Self-portrait in a Convex Mirror 19692: 18308:Reception in early modern Europe 18303:Contributions to Medieval Europe 17355: 17087: 17074: 16162: 15604:(2nd ed.). Guilford Press. 15182:Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (2007). 15090: 14919: 14860: 14815: 14693: 14666: 14526: 14426: 14289: 14222:. pp. 30–35. Archived from 14163:Indonesian Heritage-Architecture 14132:Indonesian Heritage-Architecture 14030:"BENGAL – Encyclopaedia Iranica" 14022: 13977: 13885: 13845: 13714: 13519: 13477: 13352: 13310: 13246: 13221: 13196: 13049: 12961: 12948: 12887: 12546: 12382: 12320: 12194: 12185: 12176: 12167: 12158: 12073:"DOMES – Encyclopaedia Iranicam" 12065: 12055: 11954: 11686: 11674: 11655: 11637: 11622: 11604: 11566: 11554: 11535: 11516: 11483: 11458: 11393:Studies in the History of Arabia 11384: 11365: 11346: 11328: 11299: 11273: 11260: 11233: 11158: 11071: 11047: 10909: 10667:Capitals in Islamic Architecture 10656: 10605: 10564: 10527: 10488: 10332:Ceilings in Islamic Architecture 10115: 9711:Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (1992). 9668:Architecture (V. c. 900–c. 1250) 9350:Architecture (IV. c. 750–c. 900) 8522: 8508: 7765: 7753: 7739: 7725: 7711: 7673: 7646: 7622: 7602: 7578:. The palace complex contains a 7443: 7424: 7402: 7383: 7371: 7356: 7336: 7314: 7296: 7281: 7262: 7242: 7223: 7203: 7175:Sat Gumbaz ("Sixty-Dome") Mosque 6791: 6776: 6756: 6736: 6724: 6701: 6685: 6670: 6651: 6632: 6607: 6587: 6328: 6306: 6291: 6275: 6259: 6244: 6228: 6213: 6195: 6179: 6159: 6143: 6123: 5939: 5924: 5909: 5890: 5870: 5851: 5835: 5819: 5803: 5785: 5766: 5747: 5595: 5579: 5563: 5547: 5531: 5511: 5484: 5464: 5448: 5428: 5277: 5259: 5240: 5225: 5205: 5185: 4803: 4781:Mausoleum of Sultan Ahmad Sanjar 4773: 4745: 4723: 4704: 4684: 4668: 4653: 4381: 4363: 4345: 3828: 3823:in Istanbul (early 17th century) 3812: 3792: 3777: 3761: 3693: 3673: 3657: 3638: 3626: 3501: 3475: 3450: 3421: 3338: 3318: 3294: 3278: 3254: 3235: 3159: 3143: 3123: 3107: 3088: 3072: 3046: 3022: 3002: 2982: 2966: 2954: 2910:taboo on figural representations 2884: 2675: 2660: 2645: 2629: 2545: 2470: 2450: 2431: 2412: 2393: 2341: 2329: 2317: 2298: 2274: 2123:common and widespread under the 1807:but completed around 1013 under 1444:Panel of stucco decoration from 1371:above the space in front of the 1085:Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire 969: 134:different religious affiliations 53: 42: 31: 17133: 16960:Aga Khan Award for Architecture 15514:. New York: Thames and Hudson. 15387:Giese-Vögeli, Francine (2007). 14901:Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia 13812:. Wiley Blackwell. p. 610. 12859:"Neo-Mamluk Style Beyond Egypt" 12391:The Monuments of Syria: A Guide 10469:Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. 10462: 10446: 10422: 10397: 10351: 10321: 10306: 10291: 10273: 10109: 10036: 9917: 9814: 9799: 9774: 9731: 9592: 9567: 9299:Grafman & Rosen-Ayalon 1999 9217: 8920:. h.f.ullmann. pp. 36–37. 8684:. h.f.ullmann. pp. 36–37. 8410:Connections and deeper meanings 6239:, Istanbul (early 17th century) 6114:(primary school), a library, a 6092:(guesthouse for travelers), an 5842:Interior of a mausoleum in the 5828:Madrasa-Mosque of Sultan Barquq 5658: 5647: 5285:Zinciriye or Sultan Isa Madrasa 5142:Zinciriye or Sultan Isa Madrasa 4976: 4415:and ancient Roman architecture. 4203:, "the two forts"), as well as 3577:was approximately, or with the 1237:(661–750) combined elements of 1059:), which was initially towards 20801:Islamic architectural elements 20719:National Museum of Mathematics 20471:Regole generali d'architettura 15851:10.26687/archnet-ijar.v9i1.558 14622:Culture and Customs of Somalia 14274:10.1088/1757-899X/890/1/012023 14216:"Muslims in China: The Mosque" 13296:. Edinburgh University Press. 11629:George, A; Marsham, A (2018). 11544:Journal of Islamic Archaeology 10457:Islamic Gardens and Landscapes 9124:Architecture (III. 661–c. 750) 8702: 8433:Difficulty forming connections 8341:Contemporary Muslim architects 8134: 8024:Grand Mosque of Bobo-Dioulasso 7842: 7808:roofs and minarets resembling 7498:Islam spread gradually in the 7216:Quwwat al-Islam Mosque complex 6968:Quwwat al-Islam Mosque complex 6767:(14th century): an example of 6190:, Istanbul (late 15th century) 5812:Madrasa-Mosque of Sultan Hasan 4905:) and the Mausoleum of Sultan 4764:), built in 1127 as part of a 4640:) and nearby regions, and the 3666:Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hasan 2593:Byzantine buildings, like the 2364:History of domes in South Asia 2168:Domes in Iran and Central Asia 1900:was already widespread in the 1604:and the minarets added to the 1378: 1303:in Jerusalem (built by Caliph 1290:wall of the mosque. The first 1190: 1: 18876:Anatolian Seljuk architecture 17218: 16224: 16043: 15510:Hillenbrand, Robert (1999b). 15324:Flood, Finbarr Barry (2001). 14700:Michell, George, ed. (1978). 14673:Michell, George, ed. (1978). 13624:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three 13191:Sumner-Boyd & Freely 2010 12144:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three 12129:, pp. 734, 746, 805–806. 11911:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three 11165:Goitein, Shelomo Dov (2010). 10315:Les églises de Constantinople 10300:Les églises de Constantinople 9873:. Brill Academic Publishers. 9808:The City in the Islamic World 9276:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three 9065:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three 8846:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three 8587:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three 8561: 8034:1832, with later renovations) 7961:), the former capital of the 7459: 7413: 7182: 7107: 6174:in Bursa (early 15th century) 5846:(built between 1400 and 1411) 5830:(built between 1384 and 1386) 5761:in Damascus (built 1277–1281) 5570:Entrance and minarets of the 5500: 5459:(early 13th-century Anatolia) 5330:defeat by the Mongols in 1243 5303:Anatolian Seljuk architecture 5297:Anatolian Seljuks and Beyliks 5291:(1385), built by the Artuqids 4784: 4603: 4521: 4393: 3174:(17th century, Mughal period) 2977:(11th century, Seljuk period) 2265:dome, as seen in the dome of 1850: 1480:The walls and minaret of the 1398: 1175:. These early mosques had no 229:, commercial buildings (e.g. 20244:Garden of Cosmic Speculation 18544:Arab Agricultural Revolution 18067:Mathematics and architecture 17052:Sudano-Sahelian architecture 15512:Islamic art and architecture 15458:Hillenbrand, Robert (1994). 15160:Architecture of Mughal India 14973:Ghasemzadeh, Behnam (2013). 13726:UNESCO World Heritage Centre 13527:"CASTLE OF ALEDUA (LLOMBAI)" 13489:UNESCO World Heritage Centre 13408:. 2017-04-27. Archived from 13062:. Leiden : E.J. Brill. 13044:Ostergren & Le Boss 2011 12659:, pp. 70, 85–87, 92–93. 11961:Hillenbrand, Robert (1995). 10922:, pg. 201. Jubilee edition. 10501:. Harvard University Press. 10442:– via Gutenberg Press. 9137:, pp. 375–377, 387–389. 8566: 7891:Sudano-Sahelian architecture 7784:Chinese Islamic architecture 7760:Sultan Alaeddin Royal Mosque 7695:-like structure as a minaret 7551: 7130:Deccani architectural styles 7097:when he was governor of the 6661:in Marrakesh (12th century, 6494:which emerged in Europe and 5947:Abu al-Abbas al-Mursi Mosque 5864:Mosque of al-Mu'ayyad Shaykh 5732:Abu al-Abbas al-Mursi Mosque 4835:Architecture of Central Asia 4617:), which has a square base. 3787:, Afghanistan (12th century) 3287:Mausoleum of Zumurrud Khatun 3114:Stained glass window in the 3053:Complex geometric motifs in 2574:had conquered Constantinople 1282:to mosque design, a concave 7: 15754:Williams, Caroline (2018). 15659:Pradines, Stéphane (2022). 15441:Islam: Art and Architecture 15395:]. Berlin: Gebr. Mann. 15276:Bloom, Jonathan M. (2020). 15249:Bloom, Jonathan M. (2013). 15228:. Oxford University Press. 14190:Schoppert, P., Damais, S., 13854:Islam: Art and Architecture 13292:Bennison, Amira K. (2016). 12601:Hattstein & Delius 2011 12520:. Oxford University Press. 12499:Hattstein & Delius 2011 12487:Hattstein & Delius 2011 12463:. Oxford University Press. 12426:Hattstein & Delius 2011 12368:. Oxford University Press. 12315:Hattstein & Delius 2011 12294:. Oxford University Press. 12222:Hattstein & Delius 2011 12115:Hattstein & Delius 2011 12041:. Oxford University Press. 12025:Hattstein & Delius 2011 11934:Hattstein & Delius 2011 11885:Hattstein & Delius 2011 11864:. Oxford University Press. 11770:Islam: Art and Architecture 11756:Hattstein & Delius 2011 11732:Hattstein & Delius 2011 11705:Hattstein & Delius 2011 10857:"Mosque | place of worship" 10651:Hattstein & Delius 2011 10560:Architecture; X. Decoration 9578:(2nd ed.). Routledge. 9388:Hattstein & Delius 2011 8950:Hattstein & Delius 2011 8918:Islam: Art and Architecture 8682:Islam: Art and Architecture 8501: 8046:that may have its roots in 7700: 7093:in Lahore (1635), built by 6558:), such as the examples in 6220:One of the chambers of the 5881:(completed in 1474) in the 5793:Mosque of al-Nasir Muhammad 5759:Mausoleum of Sultan Baybars 5538:Tile decoration inside the 5128: 4213: 4199: 4185: 4175: 4159:Early Muslim garrison towns 3839:in Delhi (mid-17th century) 3732: 3723: 3704:in Delhi (mid-17th century) 3179: 2245:on top of the ribbed vault. 2141: 2011: 1902:ancient Mediterranean world 1892:. This was also called the 1311:(built by al-Walid I). The 67:Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba 10: 20817: 19761:Islamic geometric patterns 16420:Islamic geometric patterns 15828:10.1016/j.foar.2013.03.002 15577:Nuttgens, Patrick (1997). 15165:Cambridge University Press 15119: 14160:Tjahjono, Gunawan (1998). 14129:Tjahjono, Gunawan (1998). 14117:Porter & Degeorge 2009 14057:Porter & Degeorge 2009 13925:Porter & Degeorge 2009 13913:Porter & Degeorge 2009 13880:Porter & Degeorge 2009 13776:Porter & Degeorge 2009 12127:Flood & Necipoğlu 2017 11681:Flood & Necipoğlu 2017 11561:Flood & Necipoğlu 2017 11530:obsolete teaching opinion. 11128:. Amman. pp. 277–288. 10802:10.1177/002182869502600305 10408:. London: Reaktion Books. 10043:Schippmann, Klaus (1971). 9938:, accessed 1 February 2016 9745:. Osprey Publishing, p. 12 8974:Flood & Necipoğlu 2017 8709:Flood & Necipoğlu 2017 8419:Islamic geometric patterns 8138: 7888: 7864:and under the rule of the 7846: 7781: 7777: 7555: 7343:Room with fountain in the 6917: 6811: 6347: 6005:, whose works include the 5962: 5958: 5652:, with interruptions) and 5618: 5435:Hypostyle interior of the 5300: 5200:in the 11th–12th centuries 5194:Great Mosque of Diyarbakir 5134:Great Mosque of Diyarbakir 5099: 4839:Architecture of Azerbaijan 4832: 4826: 4506:Central Asian architecture 4454: 4432: 3713: 3709: 3606:707. In later mosques the 3590: 3542: 3183: 2991:Great Mosque of Diyarbakir 2888: 2693: 2689: 2361: 2160: 2080:, which were connected by 1817:Mashhad of Sayyida Ruqayya 1382: 1194: 1139:decoration at Nitil (near 1071:Prior to the start of the 255: 248: 20758: 20727: 20681: 20635: 20582:A Mathematician's Apology 20542: 20495: 20378: 20341: 20334: 20166: 20019: 19965: 19956: 19903: 19845: 19701: 19690: 19589: 19464: 19433: 19382: 19247: 18984: 18943: 18818: 18731: 18649: 18631: 18536: 18496:Geography and cartography 18464: 18402: 18316: 18268: 18210: 18202:Influences on Western art 18147: 18050:Influences on Western art 18018: 17986: 17862: 17824: 17780: 17750: 17677: 17644: 17635: 17570: 17549: 17508: 17460: 17415: 17371: 17364: 17353: 17277: 17150: 17141: 17065: 17009: 16978: 16952: 16902: 16854:Dar al-Shifa (Bimaristan) 16831: 16715: 16708: 16634: 16591: 16540: 16488: 16366: 16282: 16233: 16171: 16160: 16141: 16134: 15970: 15619:Petersen, Andrew (1996). 15583:. London: Phaidon Press. 15580:The Story of Architecture 15554:. Yale University Press. 15548:McKenzie, Judith (2007). 15303:. Yale University Press. 15282:. Yale University Press. 15207:. Yale University Press. 13406:Museum at Eldridge Street 13228:Goodwin, Godfrey (1971). 13203:Goodwin, Godfrey (1971). 12985:Necipoğlu, Gülru (1995). 12246:Huebner, Jeff W. (1995). 11280:Finster, Barbara (2009). 11117:Whitcomb, Donald (1995). 10511:– via Google Books. 10429:Xenephon (January 1998). 10404:Necipoğlu, Gülru (2005). 9717:. BRILL. pp. 58–75. 9523:Marçais, Georges (1954). 9242:10.1163/22118993_02701003 8078:The "circular" mosque of 7957:(in present-day southern 7945:(13th century), built of 7654:Baiturrahman Grand Mosque 7065:, in memory of his wife. 7037:. The most famous is the 6948:Indo-Islamic architecture 6920:Indo-Islamic architecture 6807: 6366:between 711 and 1492 and 6286:, Istanbul (19th century) 5917:Wikala of Sultan al-Ghuri 5877:Carved stone dome of the 5774:Complex of Sultan Qalawun 5614: 5522:in Konya (c. 1251), with 5415:southwest of Aksaray and 5378:congregational mosque in 5006:(Timur's mausoleum), the 4996:sanctuary of Ahmed Yasawi 4970:, the dynasty founded by 4527:), the nearby Minaret of 4457:Great Seljuk architecture 4291:The architecture of the " 4122:Islamization of knowledge 4005:Science in medieval times 3688:, Istanbul (16th century) 3584: 3378:Indo-Islamic architecture 3309:, Granada (14th century, 3059:(mosaic tilework) at the 2975:Friday Mosque of Ardestan 2897:specific ornamental forms 2459:Shah Jahan Mosque, Thatta 2438:The bulbous domes of the 2400:View of the main dome at 1775:In the 10th century, the 1572:in the 10th century. The 1546:, added to the mosque by 1473:played a prominent role. 24: 20694:The Bridges Organization 16970:Museum with No Frontiers 13944:, p. 14 & pp. 77–80. 13485:"Ksar of Ait-Ben-Haddou" 13277:Parker, Richard (1981). 12558:islamicart.museumwnf.org 11804:O'Kane, Bernard (1995). 11439:Bianca, Stefano (2001). 11079:"Minaret | architecture" 10571:Capilla, Susana (2018). 10534:Komaroff, Linda (1992). 10368:. In Oleg Grabar (ed.). 9785:. Taylor & Francis. 8314:Marrakesh Menara Airport 7629:The Grand Mosque of the 7231:Tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam 6578:region of Algeria (e.g. 6520:regions of Morocco, the 6503:interest in the "Orient" 6440:Great Mosque of Kairouan 6098:(charitable kitchen), a 6044:, by architects such as 5969:The architecture of the 5635:Ottoman conquest of 1517 5192:Courtyard façade of the 4939:is an ensemble of three 3819:Ottoman minarets of the 3770:Great Mosque of Kairouan 3130:Terracotta arabesque of 2461:has tiles arranged in a 2156: 2102: 2052:since the classical and 1973:Persian assembly halls ( 1871:Great Mosque of Kairouan 1819:(1133), notable for its 1641:Great Mosque of Kairouan 1309:Great Mosque of Damascus 1270:Great Mosque of Damascus 1030:in 622, right after his 127:to the present day. The 20556:The Grammar of Ornament 20508:Nature's Harmonic Unity 20418:De prospectiva pingendi 18641:History of construction 18625:History of architecture 17081:Architecture portal 15731:Tabbaa, Yasser (2017). 15701:Shahîd, Irfan (1995b). 15680:Shahîd, Irfan (1995a). 15418:. Boston: Brill: 1–15. 14995:(inactive 2024-04-25). 14265:2020MS&E..890a2023N 12973:Charles Scribner's Sons 12954:"Seljuk architecture", 12894:Raymond, André (1993). 12798:Sanders, Paula (2008). 11124:. In Bisheh, G. (ed.). 11083:Encyclopedia Britannica 10993:, p. xvii, 64, 72. 10861:Encyclopedia Britannica 8368:Abdulhusein M. Thariani 8181:(described below), the 7949:with a flat wooden roof 7450:The Asfi Mosque of the 7121:is an example of this. 6452:Great Mosque of Tlemcen 6444:Great Mosque of Cordoba 5977:, with influences from 5973:developed from earlier 5518:Entrance portal of the 5313:Great Mosque of Divriği 5022:, who commissioned the 4197:(which became known as 3744:system on the minaret. 3668:in Cairo (14th century) 3267:Duvazdah Imam Mausoleum 3246:quarter vault from the 3216:Duvazdah Imam Mausoleum 3166:Painted ceiling in the 2823:South Khorasan Province 2683:Selimiye Mosque, Edirne 2636:Schematic drawing of a 2538:, a masterpiece of the 2536:Great Mosque of Tlemcen 2517:Capilla de Villaviciosa 2513:Capilla de Villaviciosa 2504:Great Mosque of Córdoba 2182:Jameh Mosque of Isfahan 2113:Jameh Mosque of Isfahan 1951:for rest or gathering. 1912:houses (e.g. the Roman 1643:(originally founded by 1574:Great Mosque of Córdoba 1544:Great Mosque of Córdoba 1494:Great Mosque of Samarra 1482:Great Mosque of Samarra 20709:Institute For Figuring 20621:The 'Life' of a Carpet 20446:A Treatise on Painting 18636:Architectural timeline 18040:Indo-Saracenic Revival 16986:Indo-Saracenic Revival 16386:(multicoloured ashlar) 15854:(inactive 2024-04-24). 14445:Bloom & Blair 2009 14367:Bloom & Blair 2009 14329:Bloom & Blair 2009 14105:Bloom & Blair 2009 14093:Bloom & Blair 2009 14081:Bloom & Blair 2009 13972:Bloom & Blair 2009 13957:Bloom & Blair 2009 13840:Bloom & Blair 2009 13793:Bloom & Blair 2009 13764:Bloom & Blair 2009 13752:Bloom & Blair 2009 13706:Bloom & Blair 2009 13688:Bloom & Blair 2009 13670:Bloom & Blair 2009 13652:Bloom & Blair 2009 13563:Bloom & Blair 2009 13511:Bloom & Blair 2009 13380:10.1515/asia-2016-0499 13161:Bloom & Blair 2009 12919:Blair & Bloom 1995 12720:Blair & Bloom 1995 12657:Blair & Bloom 1995 12645:Blair & Bloom 1995 12100:Bloom & Blair 2009 11946:Bloom & Blair 2009 11693:Bloom & Blair 2009 11240:Kennedy, Hugh (1985). 11171:. Brill. p. 159. 10841:Bloom & Blair 2009 10761:Bloom & Blair 2009 10712:Bloom & Blair 2009 10685:Bloom & Blair 2009 10663:Bloom & Blair 2009 10639:Bloom & Blair 2009 10556:Bloom & Blair 2009 10522:Bloom & Blair 2009 10346:Blair & Bloom 1995 10328:Bloom & Blair 2009 10170:Bloom & Blair 2009 10158:Blair & Bloom 1995 10104:Blair & Bloom 1995 10080:Blair & Bloom 1995 9968:Bloom & Blair 2009 9899:Hoag, John D. (2004). 9871:Online, Second Edition 9869:Encyclopaedia of Islam 9741:David Nicolle (2009), 9679:Bloom & Blair 2009 9664:Bloom & Blair 2009 9638:Bloom & Blair 2009 9574:Kennedy, Hugh (2004). 9472:Bloom & Blair 2009 9460:Bloom & Blair 2009 9446:Stucco and plasterwork 9442:Bloom & Blair 2009 9427:Bloom & Blair 2009 9417:, pp. 24–25, 251. 9400:Bloom & Blair 2009 9346:Bloom & Blair 2009 9120:Bloom & Blair 2009 9048:Bloom & Blair 2009 8778:Bloom & Blair 2009 8736:Bloom & Blair 2009 8721:Bloom & Blair 2009 8615:Bloom & Blair 2009 8429: 8307:Urban design and Islam 8281: 8258: 8212: 8158: 8125:Great Mosque of Djenné 8083: 8035: 8002:Askia al-Hajj Muhammad 7992: 7950: 7907: 7900:Great Mosque of Djenné 7797: 7495: 7492:Great Mosque of Banten 7483: 7328:(1591), an example of 7045:in memory of his wife 6944: 6894: 6875: 6839: 6282:Entrance gates of the 6060:complexes, known as a 5724:Museum of Islamic Arts 5690:. Influences from the 5493:Çifte Minareli Medrese 5400:Çifte Minareli Medrese 5316: 5233:Hospital of Nur al-Din 5060: 4960: 4955:(left) dates from the 4901:(possibly the tomb of 4890: 4851: 4677:Great Mosque of Aleppo 4586:(south of present-day 4554: 4408:Greco-Roman tradition: 3803:(15th century) at the 3289:(before 1202, Abbasid) 3265:under the dome of the 3063:in Fez (14th century, 2809:), Dowlatabad Garden ( 2771: 2719: 2557: 2499: 2115: 2037: 2016:In Islamic buildings, 1877: 1803:(founded in 990 under 1772: 1687: 1551: 1485: 1449: 1405: 1357:Church of the Kathisma 1348: 1273: 1239:Byzantine architecture 1230: 1161:congregational mosques 273: 157:early Muslim conquests 119:. It encompasses both 20590:George David Birkhoff 20564:Ernest Hanbury Hankin 20432:De divina proportione 20412:Piero della Francesca 20391:Leon Battista Alberti 19978:Piero della Francesca 19617:Hyperboloid structure 19178:America and Australia 18798:Medieval Scandinavian 18479:Alchemy and chemistry 17995:Empire of the Sultans 16723:Congregational mosque 16181:(four-arch structure) 15529:Kuban, Doğan (2010). 15366:Freely, John (2011). 14992:10.37334/eras.v4i3.86 14408:, pp. 37, 53–55. 13457:Naji, Salima (2009). 13056:Grabar, Oleg (1985). 12756:Behrens-Abouseif 2007 12744:Behrens-Abouseif 2007 12684:Behrens-Abouseif 2007 12672:Behrens-Abouseif 2007 12389:Burns, Ross (2009) . 11817:Encyclopaedia Iranica 11492:The Qurʾan in Context 11413:Wirth, Eugen (2001). 10612:Grabar, Oleg (2006). 10498:Islamic Art in Detail 10126:Encyclopaedia Iranica 10122:www.iranicaonline.org 9923:Ignacio Arce (2006): 8481:Structural intentions 8417: 8266:Museum of Islamic Art 8264: 8241: 8210:Great Mosque of Kilwa 8207: 8179:Great Mosque of Kilwa 8152: 8139:Further information: 8129:Grand Mosque of Mopti 8077: 8022: 7983: 7937: 7898: 7885:Sahel and West Africa 7829:Great Mosque of Xi'an 7794:Great Mosque of Xi'an 7791: 7564:Great Mosque of Demak 7519:. The minaret of the 7489: 7478: 7072:is also located. The 6931: 6889: 6881:Ottoman rule in Yemen 6865: 6857:Great Mosque of Sanaa 6821: 6814:Architecture of Yemen 6483:Moroccan architecture 6154:(end of 14th century) 6152:Grand Mosque of Bursa 5556:Ince Minareli Medrese 5443:(12th-13th centuries) 5346:Ince Minareli Medrese 5310: 5250:in the city walls of 5040: 4934: 4876: 4846: 4823:Iran and Central Asia 4768:congregational mosque 4648:of the 13th century. 4622:Sultanate in Anatolia 4594:(1068 and 1093) near 4545: 4455:Further information: 4371:Figure-ground diagram 4181:Roman legionary camps 3376:, which is common to 3355:Balconies and screens 3301:Muqarnas dome in the 3285:Muqarnas dome in the 2835:UNESCO World Heritage 2813:), Abbasabad Garden ( 2766: 2703: 2652:Central domes of the 2553: 2497: 2110: 2032: 1858: 1759: 1734:Jameh Mosque of Na'in 1677: 1531: 1524:Early regional styles 1479: 1443: 1392: 1338: 1268: 1243:Sasanian architecture 1213:, from a palace near 1204: 1073:Arab-Muslim conquests 1042:Mosque of the Prophet 1022:in early 7th-century 266:Mosque of the Prophet 263: 251:Mosque § History 20791:Islamic architecture 20515:Frederik Macody Lund 20386:Filippo Brunelleschi 20267:Hamid Naderi Yeganeh 20129:La condition humaine 19420:Critical regionalism 17958:Arab World Institute 17768:Ottoman illumination 17047:Ottoman architecture 17037:Moorish architecture 17032:Islamic architecture 17027:Iranian architecture 16450:Sebka (Darj-wa-ktaf) 16304:(or müezzin mahfili) 15964:Islamic architecture 15906:research partnership 15531:Ottoman Architecture 14729:, pp. 190, 192. 13722:"Old City of Sana'a" 13442:Encyclopédie berbère 11353:Walmsley, A (2007). 10981:, p. 23-30, 46. 10928:Stacey International 10615:The Dome of the Rock 10471:"The Persian Garden" 10453:D. Fairchild Ruggles 9901:Islamic architecture 9224:Avner, Rina (2010). 9012:, pp. 391, 402. 8462:Status and hierarchy 8363:Kamran Afshar Naderi 8353:Abdel-Wahed El-Wakil 8318:Masjid Permata Qolbu 8141:Swahili architecture 8115:, western Mali, and 8012:). In Timbuktu, the 7837:Chinese architecture 7572:Sultanate of Cirebon 7000:Indian architectural 6866:Central dome of the 6350:Moorish architecture 6299:Istanbul High School 6076:). For example, the 6026:Baroque architecture 5965:Ottoman architecture 5709:) and multi-storied 5526:and ablaq decoration 5073:Naqsh-e Jahan Square 5046:Naqsh-e Jahan Square 5010:necropolis, and the 5004:Gur-e Amir Mausoleum 4983:Timurid architecture 4964:Iranian architecture 4829:Iranian architecture 4634:Northern Mesopotomia 4592:Kharraqan Mausoleums 3933:(Islamic monotheism) 3899:Early social changes 3894:Early historiography 3680:Ottoman mihrab with 2769:political territory. 2562:Ottoman architecture 2524:Bab al-Mardum Mosque 2307:Gur-i Amir Mausoleum 2255:Tomb of Ahmed Sanjar 2221:Sultaniyya Mausoleum 2209:Gur-i Amir Mausoleum 2058:Iranian architecture 1789:Fatimid architecture 1747:Tomb of the Samanids 1635:(roughly modern-day 1598:Bab al-Mardum Mosque 1578:Moorish architecture 1410:Abbasid architecture 1385:Abbasid architecture 1247:Umayyad architecture 1197:Umayyad architecture 109:architectural styles 105:Islamic architecture 20:Islamic architecture 20740:Mathematical beauty 20665:Rhythm of Structure 20608:Gödel, Escher, Bach 20404:De re aedificatoria 20035:The Ancient of Days 19654:Projective geometry 19583:Mathematics and art 19359:Stripped Classicism 19334:International style 19317:Rationalist-Fascist 18966:Portuguese Colonial 18716:Pre-Islamic Persian 18389:Early social change 18288:Early social change 17084: • 17071: • 17057:Yemeni architecture 17042:Mughal architecture 17022:Berber architecture 17017:Arabic architecture 16681:Salsabil (fountain) 16415:Islamic calligraphy 15900:Aga Khan Foundation 15351:. Wiley Blackwell. 14925:Nawawi, N. (2009). 14765:, pp. 249–250. 14753:, pp. 74, 151. 14396:, pp. 306–307. 14384:, pp. 306–308. 13046:, pp. 215–216. 12884:, pp. 172–173. 12416:, pp. 225–227. 12117:, pp. 416–417. 11059:www.qantara-med.org 10828:, pp. 186–187. 10794:1995JHA....26..253K 10736:, pp. 177–178. 10590:10.3390/arts7030036 10094:, pp. 268–269. 9378:, pp. 249–251. 9325:, pp. 365–367. 9164:, pp. 295–296. 8988:, pp. 277–280. 8964:, pp. 401–403. 8798:, pp. 195–197. 8516:Architecture portal 8198:Fakhr al-Din Mosque 8155:Fakhr al-Din Mosque 8145:Somali architecture 7973:), one centered on 7920:trans-Saharan trade 7868:. Many traditional 7747:Kampung Hulu Mosque 7719:Masjid Kampung Laut 7682:Menara Kudus Mosque 7521:Menara Kudus Mosque 7019:Mughal architecture 7004:Tomb of Rukn-i Alam 6952:Indian subcontinent 6942:Mughal architecture 6924:Mughal architecture 6914:Indian subcontinent 6696:(12th-13th century) 6490:or emulated in the 6471:Christian conquests 6252:Nuruosmaniye Mosque 6237:Sultan Ahmed Mosque 6138:(late 14th century) 6034:Nuruosmaniye Mosque 5989:and other parts of 5975:Seljuk architecture 5621:Mamluk architecture 4918:Uljaytu's mausoleum 4693:Tower of Mas'ud III 4675:The minaret of the 4600:Mausoleum of Sanjar 4570:(c. 1068–1080) and 4559:Great Seljuk Empire 4490:Tower of Mas'ud III 3821:Sultan Ahmed Mosque 3772:(early 9th century) 3686:Rüstem Pasha Mosque 3303:Palace of the Lions 3168:Mahabat Khan Mosque 3132:Khania Dighi Mosque 2833:, form part of the 2827:Pahlevanpour Garden 2730:. In his dialogue " 2711:paradise garden in 2669:Kalenderhane Mosque 2614:Rüstem Pasha Mosque 2595:Kalenderhane Mosque 2555:Sultan Ahmed Mosque 2372:in 1204 CE. Unlike 2358:Domes in South Asia 2251:Seljuk architecture 2201:spherical triangles 1550:(late 10th century) 1272:(early 8th century) 1081:Mediterranean world 1046:al-Masjid an-Nabawi 943:Karagöz and Hacivat 165:Islamic calligraphy 65:Top: arches of the 21: 20745:Patterns in nature 20602:Douglas Hofstadter 20228:Desmond Paul Henry 20218:Bathsheba Grossman 20150:The Swallow's Tail 20071:Giorgio de Chirico 19943:Sydney Opera House 19798:Croatian interlace 19364:Postconstructivism 19307:Streamline Moderne 18035:Aniconism in Islam 17973:Toronto (Aga Khan) 17930:Khalili Collection 17795:Geometric patterns 17203:Bahmani and Deccan 16758:Kuttab (or maktab) 15925:2020-05-07 at the 15782:Fletcher, Banister 15104:. 10 December 2012 14220:Saudi Aramco World 13927:, p. 282-285. 13656:Yemen, Republic of 13258:www.etymonline.com 13121:, p. 177-180. 12615:, p. 240-241. 12591:, p. 235-239. 12579:, p. 234-235. 12027:, p. 360-366. 11887:, p. 363-364. 11850:, p. 153-154. 11834:2022-01-28 at the 11811:2022-05-11 at the 11795:, p. 140-144. 11758:, p. 354-359. 11746:, p. 150-152. 11734:, p. 336-337. 11707:, p. 330-331. 11662:Rabbat, N (2003). 11246:Past & Present 11230:, pp. 82, 92. 11206:, pp. 75, 80. 11194:, pp. 80, 92. 11008:, p. 187-188. 10948:Creswell, K. A. C. 10882:, p. 129-137. 10007:2015-05-03 at the 9988:2011-06-29 at the 9934:2016-02-01 at the 9748:. Bloomsbury USA. 8490:to deliver is the 8430: 8282: 8259: 8213: 8159: 8084: 8044:Hausa architecture 8036: 7993: 7951: 7908: 7798: 7568:Sultanate of Demak 7558:Indonesian mosques 7496: 7484: 6945: 6895: 6876: 6840: 6798:Central mosque of 6784:Youssef Dey Mosque 6765:Alcazar of Seville 6745:Court of the Lions 6594:Reception Hall of 6564:Ksar Ouled Soltane 6203:Süleymaniye Mosque 6072:agreement (Arabic 6007:Süleymaniye Mosque 5558:in Konya (c. 1265) 5542:in Konya (c. 1251) 5417:another Sultan Han 5317: 5235:in Damascus (1154) 5061: 5024:Gawhar Shad Mosque 5012:Bibi Khanum Mosque 4961: 4891: 4887:Khwarazmian Empire 4852: 4642:Khwarazmian Empire 4555: 4478:Persianate culture 4419:Eastern tradition: 3799:Minaret of Sultan 3648:-carved mihrab of 3347:Khanate of Bukhara 3206:(977–978) in Tim ( 3204:Arab-Ata Mausoleum 3116:Süleymaniye Mosque 3061:Bou Inania Madrasa 3031:Al-Firdaws Madrasa 2720: 2610:Süleymaniye Mosque 2599:Eski Imaret Mosque 2572:When the Ottomans 2558: 2500: 2287:Palace of Ardashir 2241:a central dome or 2213:Bibi Khanum Mosque 2116: 2038: 1878: 1801:Mosque of al-Hakim 1773: 1718:were ruled by the 1688: 1552: 1486: 1450: 1406: 1395:al-Ukhaidir Palace 1349: 1274: 1231: 1183:while issuing the 378:Azerbaijani carpet 274: 19: 20778: 20777: 20631: 20630: 20595:Aesthetic Measure 20466:Sebastiano Serlio 20440:Leonardo da Vinci 20330: 20329: 20322:Margaret Wertheim 19983:Leonardo da Vinci 19549: 19548: 18591: 18590: 18559:elementary school 18177:Geometric pattern 18107: 18106: 17776: 17775: 17631: 17630: 17603:Hardstone carving 17500:Chinese influence 17351: 17350: 17337:Stucco decoration 17101: 17100: 16948: 16947: 16704: 16703: 16691:Shading Umbrellas 16475:Stucco decoration 16375:For overview, see 16190:Four-centred arch 15801:978-0-7506-2267-7 15714:978-0-88402-347-0 15693:978-0-88402-284-8 15672:978-90-04-47261-7 15632:978-0-203-20387-3 15590:978-0-7148-3615-7 15561:978-0-300-11555-0 15521:978-0-500-20305-7 15502:978-90-04-10901-8 15402:978-3-7861-2550-1 15379:978-1-84564-506-9 15330:. Boston: Brill. 15310:978-0-300-08869-4 15235:978-0-19-530991-1 15214:978-0-300-06465-0 15143:978-977-424-476-6 14869:Built Environment 14842:Built Environment 14632:978-0-313-07329-8 14574:, pp. 98–99. 14562:, pp. 96–99. 14423:, pp. 51–52. 14333:Mali, Republic of 14177:978-981-3018-30-3 14083:, Fatehpur Sikri. 14071:, pp. 33–35. 14034:Iranicaonline.org 13897:The Mughal Empire 13102:978-1-4381-1025-7 13069:978-90-04-07611-2 12998:978-90-04-10314-6 12758:, pp. 80–84. 12722:, pp. 83–84. 12710:, pp. 30–31. 12686:, pp. 73–77. 12261:978-1-884964-02-2 12077:Iranicaonline.org 12013:Hillenbrand 1999b 11999:978-90-04-09834-3 11476:978-3-89646-654-9 11451:978-3-406-48262-5 11425:978-3-8053-2709-1 11292:978-3-89646-654-9 11228:Hillenbrand 1999a 11216:Hillenbrand 1999a 11204:Hillenbrand 1999a 11192:Hillenbrand 1999a 11178:978-90-04-17931-8 11155:, pp. 79–80. 11153:Hillenbrand 1999a 11104:, pp. 59–98. 11102:Hillenbrand 1999a 10720:in Egypt and the 10625:978-0-674-02313-0 10415:978-1-86189-253-9 10258:, pp. 70–73. 10244:Giese-Vögeli 2007 10217:, pp. 69–70. 10106:, pp. 40–41. 10056:978-3-11-001879-0 10033:, pp. 66–88. 10031:Giese-Vögeli 2007 9910:978-1-904313-29-8 9724:978-90-04-09626-4 9694:Hillenbrand 1999b 9628:, pp. 31–32. 9616:, pp. 16–43. 9564:, pp. 51–81. 9390:, pp. 94–95. 9313:, pp. 25–26. 9301:, pp. 10–11. 9179:, pp. 22–24. 8617:, "Architecture". 8295:), the minarets, 8153:The 13th-century 7939:Chinguetti Mosque 7879:Lithuanian Tatars 7364:Wazir Khan Mosque 7270:Sixty Dome Mosque 7126:Deccan sultanates 7091:Wazir Khan Mosque 7076:in Delhi and the 6976:Qutb al-Din Aybak 6908:Citadel of Rada'a 6868:Ashrafiyya Mosque 6831:بَـاب ٱلْـيَـمَـن 6596:Abd ar-Rahman III 6536:(fortresses) and 6458:(Marrakesh), the 6448:Qarawiyyin Mosque 6284:Dolmabahçe Palace 6188:Bayezid II Mosque 6186:Courtyard of the 5883:Northern Cemetery 5858:Twin minarets of 5643:Al-Nasir Muhammad 5574:in Sivas (1271–2) 5471:Courtyard of the 5248:Yedi Kardeş Tower 5124:Upper Mesopotamia 5052:, Iran, built by 5032:her own mausoleum 4953:Ulugh Beg Madrasa 4899:Fakhr al-Din Razi 4848:Tarikhaneh Mosque 4468:, who ruled from 4257:Umayyad Caliphate 4156: 4155: 3908:Modern philosophy 2853:), in India; the 2777:. The gardens of 2752:Cyrus the Younger 2728:Achaemenid Empire 2457:The main dome of 2151:geometric designs 2002:Tarikhaneh Mosque 1971:Achaemenid period 1777:Fatimid Caliphate 1680:Samanid Mausoleum 1627:independent. The 1471:stucco decoration 1458:four-centred arch 1414:Abbasid Caliphate 1330:Iberian Peninsula 1235:Umayyad Caliphate 1036:(migration) from 1012: 1011: 163:of surfaces with 102: 101: 20808: 20766: 20765: 20616:Nikos Salingaros 20339: 20338: 20307:Hiroshi Sugimoto 20257:Robert Longhurst 20203:Helaman Ferguson 20158:Crockett Johnson 20087:Circle Limit III 20056:Danseuse au café 19963: 19962: 19933:Pyramid of Khufu 19696: 19576: 19569: 19562: 19553: 19552: 19441:Deconstructivism 19200:Spanish Colonial 18961:Spanish Colonial 18861:Western Chalukya 18669:Ancient Egyptian 18618: 18611: 18604: 18595: 18594: 18466:Medieval science 18134: 18127: 18120: 18111: 18110: 17946:Majorelle Garden 17642: 17641: 17475:Hispano-Moresque 17369: 17368: 17359: 17168:Anatolian Seljuk 17148: 17147: 17128: 17121: 17114: 17105: 17104: 17094:Islam portal 17092: 17091: 17090: 17079: 17078: 16713: 16712: 16378:Islamic ornament 16257:South Asian dome 16185:Discharging arch 16166: 16139: 16138: 15983:Anatolian Seljuk 15957: 15950: 15943: 15934: 15933: 15896:creative commons 15869: 15863: 15855: 15853: 15832: 15830: 15805: 15786:Cruickshank, Dan 15769: 15750: 15727: 15718: 15697: 15676: 15655: 15636: 15615: 15594: 15573: 15544: 15525: 15506: 15485: 15465: 15454: 15435: 15406: 15383: 15362: 15341: 15320: 15318: 15317: 15293: 15272: 15245: 15243: 15242: 15218: 15197: 15178: 15153: 15151: 15150: 15113: 15112: 15110: 15109: 15094: 15088: 15085:Hillenbrand 1994 15082: 15076: 15075: 15073: 15072: 15060:Nasser, Rabbat. 15057: 15048: 15047: 15025: 15019: 15018: 15012: 15004: 14994: 14970: 14957: 14954:Hillenbrand 1994 14951: 14930: 14923: 14917: 14916: 14896: 14885: 14884: 14864: 14858: 14857: 14837: 14828: 14827: 14819: 14813: 14812: 14792: 14783: 14777: 14766: 14760: 14754: 14748: 14742: 14736: 14730: 14724: 14718: 14717: 14697: 14691: 14690: 14670: 14664: 14658: 14649: 14643: 14637: 14636: 14616: 14607: 14601: 14592: 14586: 14575: 14569: 14563: 14557: 14548: 14547: 14545: 14544: 14530: 14524: 14518: 14512: 14506: 14487: 14481: 14475: 14469: 14463: 14457: 14451: 14442: 14433: 14430: 14424: 14418: 14409: 14403: 14397: 14391: 14385: 14379: 14373: 14364: 14335: 14326: 14313: 14312: 14302: 14293: 14287: 14286: 14276: 14244: 14235: 14234: 14232: 14231: 14211: 14202: 14188: 14182: 14181: 14157: 14151: 14150: 14126: 14120: 14114: 14108: 14102: 14096: 14090: 14084: 14078: 14072: 14066: 14060: 14054: 14045: 14044: 14042: 14040: 14026: 14020: 14009: 14000: 13999: 13997: 13995: 13981: 13975: 13969: 13960: 13954: 13945: 13934: 13928: 13922: 13916: 13910: 13901: 13892:John F. Richards 13889: 13883: 13877: 13868: 13867: 13849: 13843: 13837: 13826: 13820: 13814: 13813: 13805: 13796: 13790: 13779: 13773: 13767: 13761: 13755: 13749: 13736: 13735: 13733: 13732: 13718: 13712: 13703: 13694: 13685: 13676: 13667: 13658: 13649: 13638: 13637: 13619: 13604: 13603: 13575: 13569: 13560: 13541: 13540: 13538: 13537: 13523: 13517: 13508: 13499: 13498: 13496: 13495: 13481: 13475: 13474: 13454: 13448: 13438: 13421: 13420: 13418: 13417: 13398: 13392: 13391: 13374:(4): 1307–1353. 13365: 13356: 13350: 13349: 13331: 13325: 13314: 13308: 13307: 13289: 13283: 13282: 13274: 13268: 13267: 13265: 13264: 13250: 13244: 13243: 13225: 13219: 13218: 13200: 13194: 13188: 13179: 13173: 13164: 13158: 13152: 13146: 13137: 13131: 13122: 13116: 13107: 13106: 13086: 13080: 13079: 13077: 13076: 13053: 13047: 13041: 13032: 13026: 13017: 13016: 13014: 13013: 12982: 12976: 12965: 12959: 12952: 12946: 12940: 12934: 12928: 12922: 12916: 12910: 12909: 12891: 12885: 12879: 12873: 12872: 12870: 12869: 12855: 12846: 12845: 12823: 12814: 12813: 12795: 12786: 12780: 12771: 12765: 12759: 12753: 12747: 12741: 12735: 12729: 12723: 12717: 12711: 12705: 12699: 12693: 12687: 12681: 12675: 12669: 12660: 12654: 12648: 12642: 12631: 12625: 12616: 12610: 12604: 12598: 12592: 12586: 12580: 12574: 12568: 12567: 12565: 12564: 12550: 12544: 12538: 12532: 12531: 12513: 12502: 12496: 12490: 12484: 12475: 12474: 12456: 12441: 12435: 12429: 12423: 12417: 12411: 12405: 12404: 12386: 12380: 12379: 12361: 12355: 12349: 12343: 12342: 12340: 12339: 12324: 12318: 12312: 12306: 12305: 12287: 12281: 12275: 12266: 12265: 12243: 12237: 12231: 12225: 12219: 12213: 12207: 12201: 12198: 12192: 12189: 12183: 12180: 12174: 12171: 12165: 12162: 12156: 12155: 12139: 12130: 12124: 12118: 12112: 12106: 12097: 12088: 12087: 12085: 12083: 12069: 12063: 12059: 12053: 12052: 12034: 12028: 12022: 12016: 12010: 12004: 12003: 11975:Heinrichs, W. P. 11958: 11952: 11943: 11937: 11931: 11925: 11924: 11906: 11900: 11894: 11888: 11882: 11876: 11875: 11857: 11851: 11845: 11839: 11826: 11820: 11802: 11796: 11790: 11784: 11783: 11765: 11759: 11753: 11747: 11741: 11735: 11729: 11723: 11717: 11708: 11702: 11696: 11690: 11684: 11678: 11672: 11671: 11659: 11653: 11652: 11641: 11635: 11634: 11626: 11620: 11619: 11608: 11602: 11601: 11570: 11564: 11558: 11552: 11551: 11539: 11533: 11532: 11520: 11514: 11513: 11487: 11481: 11480: 11462: 11456: 11455: 11436: 11430: 11429: 11410: 11401: 11400: 11388: 11382: 11381: 11369: 11363: 11362: 11350: 11344: 11343: 11332: 11326: 11325: 11303: 11297: 11296: 11277: 11271: 11264: 11258: 11257: 11237: 11231: 11225: 11219: 11213: 11207: 11201: 11195: 11189: 11183: 11182: 11162: 11156: 11150: 11144: 11143: 11137: 11129: 11123: 11114: 11105: 11099: 11093: 11092: 11090: 11089: 11075: 11069: 11068: 11066: 11065: 11051: 11045: 11039: 11033: 11032:, p. 73-75. 11027: 11021: 11020:, p. 73-82. 11015: 11009: 11003: 10994: 10988: 10982: 10976: 10970: 10969: 10960:(276): 134–140. 10944: 10938: 10913: 10907: 10906:, p. 29-46. 10901: 10895: 10889: 10883: 10880:Hillenbrand 1994 10877: 10871: 10870: 10868: 10867: 10853: 10847: 10838: 10829: 10823: 10814: 10813: 10777: 10764: 10758: 10749: 10743: 10737: 10731: 10725: 10709: 10703: 10697: 10691: 10682: 10669: 10660: 10654: 10648: 10642: 10636: 10630: 10629: 10609: 10603: 10602: 10592: 10568: 10562: 10553: 10542: 10541: 10531: 10525: 10519: 10513: 10512: 10492: 10486: 10485: 10483: 10481: 10466: 10460: 10450: 10444: 10443: 10441: 10439: 10426: 10420: 10419: 10401: 10395: 10394: 10388: 10380: 10378: 10367: 10355: 10349: 10343: 10334: 10325: 10319: 10318: 10310: 10304: 10303: 10295: 10289: 10288: 10277: 10271: 10265: 10259: 10253: 10247: 10241: 10230: 10224: 10218: 10212: 10206: 10205: 10187: 10176: 10167: 10161: 10155: 10149: 10143: 10137: 10136: 10134: 10132: 10113: 10107: 10101: 10095: 10089: 10083: 10077: 10068: 10067: 10065: 10063: 10040: 10034: 10028: 10017: 9999: 9993: 9980: 9974: 9965: 9954: 9948: 9939: 9921: 9915: 9914: 9896: 9883: 9882: 9859: 9848: 9842: 9836: 9835: 9833: 9832: 9818: 9812: 9811: 9803: 9797: 9796: 9778: 9772: 9771: 9769: 9767: 9758:. Archived from 9735: 9729: 9728: 9708: 9697: 9691: 9685: 9676: 9670: 9661: 9644: 9635: 9629: 9623: 9617: 9611: 9605: 9604: 9596: 9590: 9589: 9571: 9565: 9559: 9553: 9548: 9529: 9528: 9520: 9499: 9493: 9487: 9481: 9475: 9469: 9463: 9457: 9448: 9439: 9433: 9424: 9418: 9412: 9406: 9397: 9391: 9385: 9379: 9373: 9367: 9361: 9352: 9343: 9326: 9320: 9314: 9308: 9302: 9296: 9290: 9289: 9271: 9262: 9261: 9221: 9215: 9209: 9203: 9197: 9180: 9174: 9165: 9159: 9153: 9147: 9138: 9132: 9126: 9117: 9098: 9092: 9079: 9078: 9060: 9054: 9045: 9034: 9028: 9022: 9019: 9013: 9007: 9001: 8995: 8989: 8983: 8977: 8971: 8965: 8959: 8953: 8947: 8936: 8935: 8913: 8904: 8903: 8881: 8872: 8871: 8841: 8832: 8831: 8808: 8799: 8793: 8784: 8775: 8742: 8733: 8724: 8718: 8712: 8706: 8700: 8699: 8677: 8671: 8670: 8648: 8642: 8636: 8630: 8624: 8618: 8612: 8601: 8600: 8582: 8532: 8527: 8526: 8525: 8518: 8513: 8512: 8423:Saint Petersburg 8294: 8293: 8208:Interior of the 8183:Kizimkazi Mosque 8092:Guinea Highlands 7769: 7757: 7743: 7729: 7715: 7677: 7650: 7626: 7606: 7584:Kasepuhan Palace 7471:Malay-Indonesian 7464: 7461: 7447: 7428: 7418: 7415: 7406: 7387: 7375: 7360: 7340: 7318: 7300: 7285: 7266: 7246: 7227: 7207: 7187: 7184: 7154:Bengal Sultanate 7112: 7109: 7070:Tomb of Jahangir 7025:ancestry of the 6833: 6832: 6795: 6780: 6760: 6740: 6728: 6705: 6689: 6674: 6659:Kutubiyya Mosque 6655: 6644:Almoravid period 6636: 6615:Aljaferia Palace 6611: 6591: 6570:. The island of 6456:Kutubiyya Mosque 6332: 6310: 6295: 6279: 6263: 6248: 6232: 6217: 6199: 6183: 6163: 6147: 6127: 6046:Mimar Kemaleddin 5943: 5928: 5913: 5898:Sabil of Qaytbay 5894: 5874: 5855: 5839: 5823: 5807: 5797:Citadel of Cairo 5789: 5770: 5751: 5728:Al-Rifa'i Mosque 5662: 5661: 1468–1496 5660: 5651: 5650: 1293–1341 5649: 5603:Eşrefoğlu Mosque 5599: 5586:Döner Kümbet in 5583: 5567: 5551: 5535: 5515: 5505: 5502: 5491:Interior of the 5488: 5468: 5457:Kubadabad Palace 5452: 5432: 5392:İlyas Bey Mosque 5390:(1374), and the 5365:Kubadabad Palace 5281: 5263: 5244: 5229: 5209: 5189: 5176:in Damascus and 5161:Maristan al-Nuri 5131: 5020:Sultan Shah Rukh 4980: 4979: 1370–1405 4978: 4807: 4794:(in present-day 4789: 4786: 4777: 4760:(in present-day 4749: 4727: 4714:caravanserai in 4708: 4688: 4672: 4661:Kharraqan Towers 4657: 4646:Mongol invasions 4608: 4605: 4526: 4523: 4385: 4367: 4349: 4287:Urban morphology 4216: 4202: 4188: 4178: 4172: 4148: 4141: 4134: 4093: 4086: 4084:Classical Arabic 3942: 3934: 3849: 3848: 3845:Towns and cities 3832: 3816: 3796: 3781: 3765: 3735: 3728: 3697: 3677: 3661: 3642: 3630: 3558: 3557: 3505: 3479: 3454: 3425: 3342: 3322: 3298: 3282: 3258: 3239: 3163: 3147: 3136:Bengal Sultanate 3127: 3111: 3092: 3076: 3050: 3026: 3015:Anatolian Seljuk 3006: 2986: 2970: 2958: 2903:, and elaborate 2891:Islamic ornament 2855:Shalimar Gardens 2746:'s visit to the 2705:Shalamar Gardens 2679: 2664: 2649: 2633: 2474: 2454: 2435: 2416: 2397: 2345: 2333: 2321: 2305:The dome of the 2302: 2278: 2144: 2046:Diaphragm arches 1936: 1898:courtyard houses 1865:(courtyard) and 1669:Ibn Tulun Mosque 1647:in 670) and the 1594:Madinat al-Zahra 1498:Abu Dulaf Mosque 1420:architecture in 1403: 1400: 1393:Interior of the 1341:Dome of the Rock 1301:Dome of the Rock 1119:(in present-day 1079:and the eastern 1004: 997: 990: 976:Islam portal 974: 973: 972: 276: 275: 237:), and military 209:(public baths), 187:multifoil arches 173:geometric motifs 125:history of Islam 115:associated with 57: 46: 35: 22: 18: 20816: 20815: 20811: 20810: 20809: 20807: 20806: 20805: 20781: 20780: 20779: 20774: 20754: 20750:Sacred geometry 20723: 20689:Ars Mathematica 20677: 20627: 20538: 20491: 20478:Andrea Palladio 20374: 20367:De architectura 20326: 20282:Antoine Pevsner 20262:Jeanette McLeod 20213:Susan Goldstine 20162: 20021: 20015: 19952: 19938:Sagrada Família 19899: 19841: 19709:Algorithmic art 19697: 19688: 19684:Wallpaper group 19622:Minimal surface 19585: 19580: 19550: 19545: 19460: 19429: 19378: 19312:Totalitarianism 19302:New Objectivity 19243: 19096:Serbo-Byzantine 19091:Russo-Byzantine 18980: 18939: 18814: 18791:Islamic Persian 18727: 18645: 18627: 18622: 18592: 18587: 18532: 18460: 18449:Early sociology 18398: 18362:decision-making 18312: 18293:Early conquests 18264: 18206: 18143: 18141:Islamic studies 18138: 18108: 18103: 18072:Moorish Revival 18020: 18014: 17982: 17899:Calligraphy Art 17865: 17858: 17820: 17772: 17746: 17673: 17637: 17627: 17593:Enamelled glass 17566: 17545: 17504: 17456: 17411: 17372:Regional styles 17360: 17347: 17273: 17244:Sudano-Sahelian 17151:Regional styles 17137: 17132: 17102: 17097: 17088: 17086: 17073: 17061: 17005: 16996:Moorish Revival 16974: 16944: 16910:Albarrana tower 16898: 16827: 16814:in modern Iran) 16728:Dar al-Muwaqqit 16700: 16651:(fountain type) 16636: 16630: 16593: 16587: 16578:Reflecting pool 16573:Persian gardens 16568:Paradise garden 16536: 16513:(entrance hall) 16484: 16440:Nagash painting 16362: 16284: 16278: 16229: 16200:Lambrequin arch 16167: 16158: 16130: 16101:Sudano-Sahelian 15966: 15961: 15927:Wayback Machine 15876: 15857: 15856: 15802: 15777: 15775:Further reading 15772: 15766: 15747: 15715: 15694: 15673: 15652: 15633: 15612: 15591: 15562: 15541: 15522: 15503: 15474: 15451: 15443:. h.f.ullmann. 15424:10.2307/1523262 15403: 15380: 15359: 15338: 15315: 15313: 15311: 15290: 15261: 15240: 15238: 15236: 15215: 15194: 15175: 15148: 15146: 15144: 15122: 15117: 15116: 15107: 15105: 15096: 15095: 15091: 15083: 15079: 15070: 15068: 15058: 15051: 15040: 15026: 15022: 15006: 15005: 14971: 14960: 14952: 14933: 14924: 14920: 14897: 14888: 14865: 14861: 14838: 14831: 14820: 14816: 14797:Islamic Studies 14793: 14786: 14778: 14769: 14761: 14757: 14749: 14745: 14737: 14733: 14725: 14721: 14714: 14698: 14694: 14687: 14671: 14667: 14659: 14652: 14644: 14640: 14633: 14617: 14610: 14602: 14595: 14587: 14578: 14570: 14566: 14558: 14551: 14542: 14540: 14538:www.archnet.org 14532: 14531: 14527: 14519: 14515: 14507: 14490: 14482: 14478: 14470: 14466: 14458: 14454: 14443: 14436: 14431: 14427: 14419: 14412: 14404: 14400: 14392: 14388: 14380: 14376: 14365: 14338: 14327: 14316: 14300: 14294: 14290: 14245: 14238: 14229: 14227: 14212: 14205: 14189: 14185: 14178: 14158: 14154: 14147: 14127: 14123: 14115: 14111: 14103: 14099: 14091: 14087: 14079: 14075: 14067: 14063: 14055: 14048: 14038: 14036: 14028: 14027: 14023: 14010: 14003: 13993: 13991: 13983: 13982: 13978: 13970: 13963: 13955: 13948: 13935: 13931: 13923: 13919: 13911: 13904: 13890: 13886: 13878: 13871: 13864: 13850: 13846: 13838: 13829: 13825:, pp. 1–2. 13821: 13817: 13806: 13799: 13791: 13782: 13774: 13770: 13762: 13758: 13754:, Architecture. 13750: 13739: 13730: 13728: 13720: 13719: 13715: 13704: 13697: 13686: 13679: 13668: 13661: 13650: 13641: 13634: 13620: 13607: 13592:10.2307/1523140 13576: 13572: 13561: 13544: 13535: 13533: 13525: 13524: 13520: 13509: 13502: 13493: 13491: 13483: 13482: 13478: 13471: 13455: 13451: 13439: 13424: 13415: 13413: 13400: 13399: 13395: 13363: 13357: 13353: 13346: 13332: 13328: 13315: 13311: 13304: 13290: 13286: 13275: 13271: 13262: 13260: 13252: 13251: 13247: 13240: 13226: 13222: 13215: 13201: 13197: 13189: 13182: 13174: 13167: 13159: 13155: 13147: 13140: 13132: 13125: 13117: 13110: 13103: 13087: 13083: 13074: 13072: 13070: 13054: 13050: 13042: 13035: 13027: 13020: 13011: 13009: 12999: 12983: 12979: 12966: 12962: 12953: 12949: 12941: 12937: 12929: 12925: 12917: 12913: 12906: 12892: 12888: 12880: 12876: 12867: 12865: 12857: 12856: 12849: 12842: 12824: 12817: 12810: 12796: 12789: 12781: 12774: 12766: 12762: 12754: 12750: 12742: 12738: 12730: 12726: 12718: 12714: 12706: 12702: 12694: 12690: 12682: 12678: 12670: 12663: 12655: 12651: 12643: 12634: 12626: 12619: 12611: 12607: 12599: 12595: 12587: 12583: 12575: 12571: 12562: 12560: 12552: 12551: 12547: 12539: 12535: 12528: 12514: 12505: 12497: 12493: 12485: 12478: 12471: 12457: 12444: 12436: 12432: 12424: 12420: 12412: 12408: 12401: 12393:. I.B. Tauris. 12387: 12383: 12376: 12362: 12358: 12350: 12346: 12337: 12335: 12326: 12325: 12321: 12313: 12309: 12302: 12288: 12284: 12276: 12269: 12262: 12244: 12240: 12232: 12228: 12220: 12216: 12208: 12204: 12199: 12195: 12190: 12186: 12181: 12177: 12172: 12168: 12163: 12159: 12140: 12133: 12125: 12121: 12113: 12109: 12098: 12091: 12081: 12079: 12071: 12070: 12066: 12060: 12056: 12049: 12035: 12031: 12023: 12019: 12011: 12007: 12000: 11967:Bosworth, C. E. 11959: 11955: 11944: 11940: 11932: 11928: 11921: 11907: 11903: 11895: 11891: 11883: 11879: 11872: 11858: 11854: 11846: 11842: 11836:Wayback Machine 11827: 11823: 11813:Wayback Machine 11803: 11799: 11791: 11787: 11780: 11766: 11762: 11754: 11750: 11742: 11738: 11730: 11726: 11718: 11711: 11703: 11699: 11691: 11687: 11679: 11675: 11660: 11656: 11644:Akkach, Samer. 11642: 11638: 11627: 11623: 11609: 11605: 11587:10.2307/1523172 11571: 11567: 11559: 11555: 11540: 11536: 11525:Heidelberg, IWH 11521: 11517: 11510: 11488: 11484: 11477: 11463: 11459: 11452: 11437: 11433: 11426: 11411: 11404: 11389: 11385: 11370: 11366: 11360:Syria-Palestine 11351: 11347: 11333: 11329: 11318: 11304: 11300: 11293: 11278: 11274: 11265: 11261: 11238: 11234: 11226: 11222: 11214: 11210: 11202: 11198: 11190: 11186: 11179: 11163: 11159: 11151: 11147: 11131: 11130: 11121: 11115: 11108: 11100: 11096: 11087: 11085: 11077: 11076: 11072: 11063: 11061: 11053: 11052: 11048: 11040: 11036: 11028: 11024: 11016: 11012: 11004: 10997: 10989: 10985: 10977: 10973: 10945: 10941: 10914: 10910: 10902: 10898: 10890: 10886: 10878: 10874: 10865: 10863: 10855: 10854: 10850: 10839: 10832: 10824: 10817: 10778: 10767: 10759: 10752: 10744: 10740: 10732: 10728: 10710: 10706: 10698: 10694: 10683: 10672: 10661: 10657: 10649: 10645: 10637: 10633: 10626: 10610: 10606: 10569: 10565: 10554: 10545: 10532: 10528: 10520: 10516: 10509: 10493: 10489: 10479: 10477: 10467: 10463: 10451: 10447: 10437: 10435: 10427: 10423: 10416: 10402: 10398: 10382: 10381: 10376: 10365: 10356: 10352: 10344: 10337: 10326: 10322: 10311: 10307: 10296: 10292: 10281:Choisy, Auguste 10278: 10274: 10266: 10262: 10254: 10250: 10242: 10233: 10225: 10221: 10213: 10209: 10202: 10188: 10179: 10168: 10164: 10156: 10152: 10144: 10140: 10130: 10128: 10114: 10110: 10102: 10098: 10090: 10086: 10078: 10071: 10061: 10059: 10057: 10041: 10037: 10029: 10020: 10009:Wayback Machine 10000: 9996: 9990:Wayback Machine 9981: 9977: 9966: 9957: 9949: 9942: 9936:Wayback Machine 9922: 9918: 9911: 9897: 9886: 9860: 9851: 9843: 9839: 9830: 9828: 9820: 9819: 9815: 9804: 9800: 9793: 9779: 9775: 9765: 9763: 9756: 9736: 9732: 9725: 9709: 9700: 9692: 9688: 9677: 9673: 9662: 9647: 9636: 9632: 9624: 9620: 9612: 9608: 9597: 9593: 9586: 9572: 9568: 9560: 9556: 9549: 9532: 9521: 9502: 9494: 9490: 9482: 9478: 9470: 9466: 9458: 9451: 9440: 9436: 9425: 9421: 9413: 9409: 9398: 9394: 9386: 9382: 9374: 9370: 9362: 9355: 9344: 9329: 9321: 9317: 9309: 9305: 9297: 9293: 9286: 9272: 9265: 9222: 9218: 9210: 9206: 9198: 9183: 9175: 9168: 9160: 9156: 9148: 9141: 9133: 9129: 9118: 9101: 9093: 9082: 9075: 9061: 9057: 9046: 9037: 9033:, pp. 4–5. 9029: 9025: 9020: 9016: 9008: 9004: 8996: 8992: 8984: 8980: 8972: 8968: 8960: 8956: 8948: 8939: 8928: 8914: 8907: 8896: 8882: 8875: 8856: 8842: 8835: 8825: 8809: 8802: 8794: 8787: 8776: 8745: 8734: 8727: 8719: 8715: 8707: 8703: 8692: 8678: 8674: 8663: 8649: 8645: 8637: 8633: 8625: 8621: 8613: 8604: 8597: 8583: 8574: 8569: 8564: 8559: 8528: 8523: 8521: 8514: 8507: 8504: 8483: 8464: 8444: 8435: 8412: 8407: 8393:Nayyar Ali Dada 8343: 8334: 8309: 8236: 8234:In modern times 8164:sundried bricks 8147: 8137: 8090:region, in the 7893: 7887: 7851: 7845: 7802:Chinese temples 7786: 7780: 7773: 7770: 7761: 7758: 7749: 7744: 7735: 7730: 7721: 7716: 7703: 7696: 7678: 7669: 7651: 7642: 7627: 7618: 7607: 7560: 7554: 7490:Minaret of the 7473: 7466: 7462: 7448: 7439: 7432:Bibi Ka Maqbara 7429: 7420: 7416: 7410:Badshahi Mosque 7407: 7398: 7388: 7379: 7376: 7367: 7361: 7352: 7341: 7332: 7319: 7310: 7301: 7292: 7286: 7277: 7267: 7258: 7247: 7238: 7228: 7219: 7208: 7185: 7110: 7055:Bibi Ka Maqbara 7035:Tomb of Humayun 6996:Tughluq dynasty 6964:Delhi Sultanate 6926: 6918:Main articles: 6916: 6816: 6810: 6803: 6796: 6787: 6781: 6772: 6761: 6752: 6741: 6732: 6729: 6720: 6715:(13th century, 6706: 6697: 6692:Alèdua castle, 6690: 6681: 6675: 6666: 6656: 6647: 6640:Almoravid Qubba 6637: 6628: 6621:(11th century, 6612: 6603: 6600:caliphal period 6592: 6498:as part of the 6469:Even after the 6352: 6346: 6339: 6333: 6324: 6311: 6302: 6296: 6287: 6280: 6271: 6264: 6255: 6249: 6240: 6233: 6224: 6218: 6209: 6200: 6191: 6184: 6175: 6164: 6155: 6148: 6139: 6128: 6015:Selimiye Mosque 5967: 5961: 5954: 5944: 5935: 5929: 5920: 5914: 5905: 5895: 5886: 5875: 5866: 5856: 5847: 5840: 5831: 5824: 5815: 5808: 5799: 5790: 5781: 5771: 5762: 5752: 5657: 5646: 5623: 5617: 5610: 5600: 5591: 5584: 5575: 5568: 5559: 5552: 5543: 5540:Karatay Madrasa 5536: 5527: 5520:Karatay Madrasa 5516: 5507: 5503: 5489: 5480: 5469: 5460: 5453: 5444: 5437:Alâeddin Mosque 5433: 5372:Alaeddin Mosque 5361:Karatay Medrese 5305: 5299: 5292: 5282: 5273: 5267:Firdaws Madrasa 5264: 5255: 5245: 5236: 5230: 5221: 5212:Minaret of the 5210: 5201: 5190: 5178:Firdaws Madrasa 5174:Adiliya Madrasa 5166:Ayyubid dynasty 5154:Battle of Mosul 5104: 5098: 5082:Ali Reza Abbasi 5065:Safavid dynasty 4998:in present-day 4975: 4959:(15th century). 4926:the 3rd largest 4920:(1302–1312) in 4841: 4831: 4825: 4818: 4808: 4799: 4787: 4778: 4769: 4750: 4741: 4728: 4719: 4709: 4700: 4689: 4680: 4673: 4664: 4658: 4606: 4524: 4472:in present-day 4459: 4453: 4448: 4435: 4401: 4396: 4389: 4386: 4377: 4368: 4359: 4350: 4297:town privileges 4289: 4240: 4223: 4161: 4152: 4097: 4096: 4089: 4082: 4042: 4036: 3989: 3940: 3932: 3925: 3886: 3862:Islamic studies 3847: 3840: 3835:Minaret at the 3833: 3824: 3817: 3808: 3805:al-Azhar Mosque 3797: 3788: 3782: 3773: 3768:Minaret of the 3766: 3718: 3712: 3705: 3698: 3689: 3678: 3669: 3662: 3653: 3643: 3634: 3631: 3595: 3589: 3547: 3541: 3533: 3526: 3515:Mehrangarh Fort 3506: 3497: 3480: 3471: 3455: 3446: 3435:Bayt al-Suhaymi 3426: 3357: 3350: 3343: 3334: 3327:Selimiye Mosque 3323: 3314: 3299: 3290: 3283: 3274: 3259: 3250: 3240: 3218:(1037–1038) in 3188: 3182: 3175: 3164: 3155: 3148: 3139: 3128: 3119: 3112: 3103: 3093: 3084: 3077: 3068: 3051: 3042: 3037:(13th century, 3027: 3018: 3007: 2998: 2993:(12th century, 2987: 2978: 2971: 2962: 2959: 2893: 2887: 2819:Akbarieh Garden 2756:Paradise garden 2698: 2692: 2685: 2680: 2671: 2665: 2656: 2650: 2641: 2634: 2618:Selimiye Mosque 2548: 2492: 2485: 2475: 2466: 2455: 2446: 2440:Badshahi Mosque 2436: 2427: 2417: 2408: 2398: 2382:Tomb of Humayun 2370:Delhi sultanate 2366: 2360: 2353: 2346: 2337: 2334: 2325: 2322: 2313: 2303: 2294: 2279: 2170: 2165: 2159: 2111:An iwan in the 2105: 2027: 2014: 1963: 1853: 1848: 1846:Characteristics 1793:al-Azhar Mosque 1657:Ahmad ibn Tulun 1556:Umayyad dynasty 1526: 1500:at Samarra had 1446:Abbasid Samarra 1401: 1387: 1381: 1251:classical Roman 1219:Pergamon Museum 1199: 1193: 1089:Sasanian Empire 1008: 970: 968: 340:Sudano-Sahelian 289:Islamic culture 258: 253: 247: 213:hospices (e.g. 98: 87:Selimiye Mosque 73:); centre: the 63: 62: 61: 60: 59: 58: 49: 48: 47: 38: 37: 36: 17: 12: 11: 5: 20814: 20804: 20803: 20798: 20793: 20776: 20775: 20773: 20772: 20759: 20756: 20755: 20753: 20752: 20747: 20742: 20737: 20731: 20729: 20725: 20724: 20722: 20721: 20716: 20711: 20706: 20701: 20696: 20691: 20685: 20683: 20679: 20678: 20676: 20675: 20668: 20661: 20654: 20647: 20639: 20637: 20633: 20632: 20629: 20628: 20626: 20625: 20624: 20623: 20613: 20612: 20611: 20599: 20598: 20597: 20587: 20586: 20585: 20573: 20572: 20571: 20561: 20560: 20559: 20546: 20544: 20540: 20539: 20537: 20536: 20535: 20534: 20532:The Greek Vase 20524: 20523: 20522: 20512: 20511: 20510: 20499: 20497: 20493: 20492: 20490: 20489: 20488: 20487: 20475: 20474: 20473: 20463: 20462: 20461: 20454:Albrecht Dürer 20451: 20450: 20449: 20437: 20436: 20435: 20423: 20422: 20421: 20409: 20408: 20407: 20400: 20388: 20382: 20380: 20376: 20375: 20373: 20372: 20371: 20370: 20358: 20357: 20356: 20345: 20343: 20336: 20332: 20331: 20328: 20327: 20325: 20324: 20319: 20317:Roman Verostko 20314: 20309: 20304: 20299: 20294: 20292:Alba Rojo Cama 20289: 20284: 20279: 20274: 20269: 20264: 20259: 20254: 20249: 20248: 20247: 20238:Charles Jencks 20235: 20230: 20225: 20223:George W. Hart 20220: 20215: 20210: 20205: 20200: 20195: 20190: 20185: 20176: 20170: 20168: 20164: 20163: 20161: 20160: 20155: 20154: 20153: 20146: 20134: 20133: 20132: 20120: 20119: 20118: 20111: 20104: 20097: 20090: 20078: 20073: 20068: 20067: 20066: 20059: 20050:Jean Metzinger 20047: 20046: 20045: 20038: 20025: 20023: 20017: 20016: 20014: 20013: 20012: 20011: 19999: 19997:Albrecht Dürer 19994: 19993: 19992: 19980: 19975: 19969: 19967: 19960: 19954: 19953: 19951: 19950: 19945: 19940: 19935: 19930: 19925: 19920: 19915: 19909: 19907: 19901: 19900: 19898: 19897: 19890: 19883: 19876: 19869: 19862: 19855: 19849: 19847: 19843: 19842: 19840: 19839: 19834: 19829: 19824: 19823: 19822: 19812: 19807: 19806: 19805: 19800: 19795: 19785: 19784: 19783: 19778: 19773: 19768: 19758: 19753: 19748: 19743: 19738: 19737: 19736: 19731: 19726: 19716: 19714:Anamorphic art 19711: 19705: 19703: 19699: 19698: 19691: 19689: 19687: 19686: 19681: 19676: 19671: 19670: 19669: 19664: 19656: 19651: 19646: 19645: 19644: 19642:Camera obscura 19639: 19629: 19624: 19619: 19614: 19609: 19604: 19599: 19593: 19591: 19587: 19586: 19579: 19578: 19571: 19564: 19556: 19547: 19546: 19544: 19543: 19538: 19533: 19528: 19523: 19518: 19517: 19516: 19506: 19501: 19496: 19495: 19494: 19489: 19479: 19474: 19468: 19466: 19462: 19461: 19459: 19458: 19453: 19448: 19443: 19437: 19435: 19431: 19430: 19428: 19427: 19422: 19417: 19412: 19407: 19402: 19397: 19392: 19386: 19384: 19380: 19379: 19377: 19376: 19371: 19366: 19361: 19356: 19351: 19346: 19341: 19336: 19331: 19330: 19329: 19324: 19319: 19309: 19304: 19299: 19297:Constructivism 19294: 19289: 19284: 19283: 19282: 19272: 19270:Prairie School 19267: 19262: 19257: 19251: 19249: 19245: 19244: 19242: 19241: 19240: 19239: 19234: 19229: 19224: 19214: 19213: 19212: 19207: 19202: 19197: 19192: 19187: 19182: 19181: 19180: 19175: 19167: 19162: 19157: 19152: 19151: 19150: 19145: 19140: 19130: 19125: 19120: 19115: 19110: 19105: 19100: 19099: 19098: 19093: 19078: 19077: 19076: 19066: 19065: 19064: 19059: 19054: 19049: 19044: 19039: 19034: 19029: 19024: 19019: 19014: 19009: 19004: 18999: 18988: 18986: 18982: 18981: 18979: 18978: 18973: 18968: 18963: 18958: 18953: 18947: 18945: 18941: 18940: 18938: 18937: 18932: 18927: 18922: 18917: 18916: 18915: 18905: 18900: 18899: 18898: 18893: 18888: 18883: 18878: 18873: 18865: 18864: 18863: 18858: 18853: 18845: 18844: 18843: 18838: 18833: 18822: 18820: 18816: 18815: 18813: 18812: 18811: 18810: 18803:Pre-Romanesque 18800: 18795: 18794: 18793: 18788: 18783: 18778: 18773: 18763: 18762: 18761: 18756: 18748: 18743: 18737: 18735: 18733:1st millennium 18729: 18728: 18726: 18725: 18724: 18723: 18713: 18712: 18711: 18706: 18701: 18691: 18686: 18685: 18684: 18679: 18671: 18666: 18661: 18655: 18653: 18647: 18646: 18644: 18643: 18638: 18632: 18629: 18628: 18621: 18620: 18613: 18606: 18598: 18589: 18588: 18586: 18585: 18584: 18583: 18578: 18573: 18563: 18562: 18561: 18556: 18546: 18540: 18538: 18534: 18533: 18531: 18530: 18525: 18520: 18519: 18518: 18508: 18503: 18498: 18493: 18492: 18491: 18481: 18476: 18470: 18468: 18462: 18461: 18459: 18458: 18457: 18456: 18446: 18441: 18436: 18431: 18430: 18429: 18419: 18414: 18408: 18406: 18400: 18399: 18397: 18396: 18391: 18386: 18381: 18376: 18371: 18370: 18369: 18364: 18359: 18357:use of analogy 18349: 18344: 18343: 18342: 18337: 18326: 18324: 18314: 18313: 18311: 18310: 18305: 18300: 18295: 18290: 18285: 18283:Historiography 18280: 18274: 18272: 18266: 18265: 18263: 18262: 18257: 18252: 18247: 18242: 18237: 18232: 18227: 18222: 18216: 18214: 18208: 18207: 18205: 18204: 18199: 18194: 18189: 18184: 18179: 18174: 18169: 18164: 18159: 18153: 18151: 18145: 18144: 18137: 18136: 18129: 18122: 18114: 18105: 18104: 18102: 18101: 18099:Topkapı Scroll 18096: 18089: 18084: 18079: 18074: 18069: 18064: 18063: 18062: 18057: 18047: 18042: 18037: 18032: 18024: 18022: 18016: 18015: 18013: 18012: 18005: 17998: 17990: 17988: 17984: 17983: 17981: 17980: 17975: 17970: 17965: 17954: 17949: 17938: 17933: 17922:British Museum 17918: 17913: 17906:Islamic Museum 17902: 17891: 17886: 17881: 17876: 17870: 17868: 17860: 17859: 17857: 17856: 17851: 17846: 17841: 17836: 17830: 17828: 17822: 17821: 17819: 17818: 17812: 17807: 17797: 17792: 17786: 17784: 17778: 17777: 17774: 17773: 17771: 17770: 17765: 17760: 17754: 17752: 17748: 17747: 17745: 17744: 17739: 17734: 17729: 17724: 17719: 17714: 17709: 17704: 17699: 17694: 17689: 17683: 17681: 17675: 17674: 17672: 17671: 17666: 17661: 17656: 17650: 17648: 17639: 17633: 17632: 17629: 17628: 17626: 17625: 17624: 17623: 17617:Stained glass 17615: 17610: 17605: 17600: 17595: 17590: 17588:Damascus steel 17585: 17580: 17574: 17572: 17568: 17567: 17565: 17564: 17559: 17553: 17551: 17547: 17546: 17544: 17543: 17538: 17533: 17528: 17523: 17518: 17512: 17510: 17506: 17505: 17503: 17502: 17497: 17492: 17487: 17482: 17477: 17472: 17466: 17464: 17458: 17457: 17455: 17454: 17449: 17444: 17439: 17438: 17437: 17427: 17421: 17419: 17413: 17412: 17410: 17409: 17399: 17381: 17375: 17373: 17366: 17362: 17361: 17354: 17352: 17349: 17348: 17346: 17345: 17339: 17334: 17329: 17324: 17319: 17314: 17309: 17304: 17299: 17294: 17289: 17283: 17281: 17275: 17274: 17272: 17271: 17266: 17261: 17256: 17251: 17246: 17241: 17236: 17231: 17226: 17221: 17212: 17211: 17210: 17205: 17200: 17190: 17185: 17180: 17175: 17170: 17165: 17160: 17154: 17152: 17145: 17139: 17138: 17131: 17130: 17123: 17116: 17108: 17099: 17098: 17066: 17063: 17062: 17060: 17059: 17054: 17049: 17044: 17039: 17034: 17029: 17024: 17019: 17013: 17011: 17010:Category pages 17007: 17006: 17004: 17003: 16998: 16993: 16988: 16982: 16980: 16976: 16975: 16973: 16972: 16967: 16962: 16956: 16954: 16950: 16949: 16946: 16945: 16943: 16942: 16937: 16932: 16927: 16922: 16917: 16912: 16906: 16904: 16900: 16899: 16897: 16896: 16891: 16886: 16884:Medina quarter 16881: 16876: 16871: 16866: 16861: 16856: 16851: 16846: 16841: 16835: 16833: 16829: 16828: 16826: 16825: 16820: 16815: 16805: 16800: 16795: 16790: 16785: 16780: 16775: 16770: 16765: 16760: 16755: 16750: 16745: 16740: 16735: 16730: 16725: 16719: 16717: 16710: 16706: 16705: 16702: 16701: 16699: 16698: 16693: 16688: 16683: 16678: 16672: 16670:Riwaq (arcade) 16667: 16662: 16657: 16652: 16646: 16640: 16638: 16632: 16631: 16629: 16628: 16623: 16618: 16613: 16608: 16603: 16597: 16595: 16589: 16588: 16586: 16585: 16580: 16575: 16570: 16565: 16560: 16558:Islamic garden 16555: 16550: 16544: 16542: 16538: 16537: 16535: 16534: 16529: 16524: 16519: 16514: 16508: 16503: 16498: 16492: 16490: 16486: 16485: 16483: 16482: 16477: 16472: 16467: 16462: 16457: 16452: 16447: 16442: 16437: 16432: 16427: 16422: 16417: 16412: 16407: 16402: 16397: 16392: 16387: 16381: 16370: 16368: 16364: 16363: 16361: 16360: 16355: 16350: 16345: 16340: 16335: 16330: 16325: 16320: 16315: 16310: 16305: 16299: 16294: 16288: 16286: 16280: 16279: 16277: 16276: 16270: 16265: 16260: 16237: 16235: 16231: 16230: 16228: 16227: 16222: 16217: 16212: 16207: 16205:Multifoil arch 16202: 16197: 16195:Horseshoe arch 16192: 16187: 16182: 16175: 16173: 16169: 16168: 16161: 16159: 16157: 16156: 16151: 16145: 16143: 16136: 16132: 16131: 16129: 16128: 16123: 16118: 16113: 16108: 16103: 16098: 16093: 16088: 16087: 16086: 16081: 16076: 16071: 16066: 16056: 16051: 16046: 16037: 16036: 16035: 16030: 16025: 16020: 16010: 16005: 16000: 15995: 15990: 15985: 15980: 15974: 15972: 15968: 15967: 15960: 15959: 15952: 15945: 15937: 15931: 15930: 15917: 15912: 15907: 15889: 15883: 15875: 15874:External links 15872: 15871: 15870: 15833: 15821:(2): 243–251. 15806: 15800: 15776: 15773: 15771: 15770: 15765:978-9774168550 15764: 15751: 15745: 15728: 15719: 15713: 15698: 15692: 15677: 15671: 15656: 15650: 15644:. Flammarion. 15637: 15631: 15616: 15610: 15595: 15589: 15574: 15560: 15545: 15539: 15526: 15520: 15507: 15501: 15486: 15473:978-0231101325 15472: 15455: 15449: 15436: 15407: 15401: 15384: 15378: 15363: 15357: 15342: 15336: 15321: 15309: 15294: 15288: 15273: 15260:978-0748637256 15259: 15246: 15234: 15219: 15213: 15198: 15192: 15179: 15173: 15154: 15142: 15123: 15121: 15118: 15115: 15114: 15089: 15077: 15049: 15038: 15020: 14958: 14931: 14918: 14907:(1): 197–214. 14886: 14859: 14848:(2): 138–150. 14829: 14814: 14803:(4): 483–510. 14784: 14767: 14755: 14743: 14741:, p. 151. 14731: 14719: 14712: 14692: 14685: 14665: 14663:, p. 192. 14650: 14648:, p. 227. 14638: 14631: 14608: 14593: 14576: 14564: 14549: 14525: 14513: 14511:, p. 308. 14488: 14476: 14474:, p. 307. 14464: 14452: 14434: 14425: 14410: 14398: 14386: 14374: 14336: 14314: 14288: 14236: 14203: 14183: 14176: 14152: 14145: 14121: 14119:, p. 285. 14109: 14097: 14085: 14073: 14061: 14059:, p. 120. 14046: 14021: 14001: 13985:"Architecture" 13976: 13974:, ῾Adil Shahi. 13961: 13946: 13929: 13917: 13915:, p. 250. 13902: 13884: 13882:, p. 277. 13869: 13862: 13844: 13827: 13815: 13797: 13780: 13768: 13756: 13737: 13713: 13695: 13677: 13659: 13639: 13632: 13605: 13570: 13542: 13518: 13500: 13476: 13469: 13449: 13422: 13393: 13351: 13344: 13326: 13309: 13302: 13284: 13269: 13245: 13238: 13220: 13213: 13195: 13180: 13165: 13153: 13151:, p. 393. 13138: 13136:, p. 355. 13123: 13108: 13101: 13081: 13068: 13048: 13033: 13018: 12997: 12977: 12960: 12947: 12945:, p. 230. 12935: 12923: 12911: 12904: 12886: 12874: 12847: 12840: 12815: 12808: 12787: 12772: 12760: 12748: 12736: 12724: 12712: 12700: 12688: 12676: 12661: 12649: 12632: 12617: 12605: 12603:, p. 373. 12593: 12581: 12569: 12545: 12543:, p. 241. 12533: 12526: 12503: 12501:, p. 370. 12491: 12489:, p. 371. 12476: 12469: 12442: 12440:, p. 234. 12430: 12428:, p. 192. 12418: 12406: 12399: 12381: 12374: 12356: 12354:, p. 227. 12344: 12319: 12317:, p. 381. 12307: 12300: 12282: 12280:, p. 218. 12267: 12260: 12238: 12226: 12224:, p. 380. 12214: 12212:, p. 217. 12202: 12193: 12184: 12175: 12166: 12157: 12131: 12119: 12107: 12089: 12064: 12054: 12047: 12029: 12017: 12015:, p. 109. 12005: 11998: 11971:van Donzel, E. 11953: 11938: 11936:, p. 110. 11926: 11919: 11901: 11899:, p. 146. 11889: 11877: 11870: 11852: 11840: 11821: 11797: 11785: 11778: 11760: 11748: 11736: 11724: 11722:, p. 134. 11709: 11697: 11685: 11673: 11654: 11636: 11621: 11603: 11565: 11553: 11534: 11515: 11508: 11482: 11475: 11457: 11450: 11431: 11424: 11402: 11383: 11364: 11345: 11327: 11316: 11298: 11291: 11272: 11259: 11232: 11220: 11208: 11196: 11184: 11177: 11157: 11145: 11106: 11094: 11070: 11046: 11034: 11022: 11010: 10995: 10983: 10971: 10939: 10908: 10896: 10884: 10872: 10848: 10830: 10815: 10788:(3): 253–274. 10765: 10750: 10748:, p. 131. 10738: 10726: 10704: 10702:, p. 312. 10692: 10670: 10655: 10643: 10641:, "Jerusalem". 10631: 10624: 10604: 10563: 10543: 10526: 10514: 10507: 10487: 10475:Whc.unesco.org 10461: 10445: 10421: 10414: 10396: 10379:on 2004-06-24. 10350: 10335: 10320: 10305: 10290: 10272: 10260: 10248: 10231: 10219: 10207: 10200: 10177: 10162: 10160:, p. 270. 10150: 10148:, p. 157. 10138: 10108: 10096: 10084: 10069: 10055: 10035: 10018: 10013:Britannica.com 9994: 9975: 9955: 9953:, p. 130. 9940: 9916: 9909: 9884: 9849: 9847:, p. 247. 9837: 9813: 9810:. Vol. 2. 9798: 9791: 9773: 9754: 9730: 9723: 9698: 9696:, p. 100. 9686: 9671: 9645: 9630: 9618: 9606: 9591: 9584: 9566: 9554: 9530: 9500: 9488: 9486:, p. 187. 9476: 9464: 9449: 9434: 9419: 9407: 9392: 9380: 9368: 9353: 9327: 9315: 9303: 9291: 9284: 9263: 9216: 9204: 9181: 9166: 9154: 9152:, p. 296. 9139: 9127: 9099: 9097:, p. 295. 9080: 9073: 9055: 9035: 9023: 9014: 9002: 9000:, p. 334. 8990: 8978: 8966: 8954: 8937: 8926: 8905: 8894: 8873: 8854: 8833: 8823: 8800: 8785: 8743: 8725: 8713: 8701: 8690: 8672: 8661: 8643: 8631: 8619: 8602: 8595: 8571: 8570: 8568: 8565: 8563: 8560: 8558: 8557: 8552: 8547: 8545:Gozo Farmhouse 8542: 8535: 8534: 8533: 8519: 8503: 8500: 8482: 8479: 8463: 8460: 8443: 8440: 8434: 8431: 8411: 8408: 8406: 8405: 8400: 8398:Habib Fida Ali 8395: 8390: 8385: 8380: 8375: 8373:Muzharul Islam 8370: 8365: 8360: 8355: 8350: 8344: 8342: 8339: 8333: 8330: 8308: 8305: 8297:four-iwan plan 8235: 8232: 8136: 8133: 8014:Sankoré Mosque 7985:Sankore Mosque 7889:Main article: 7886: 7883: 7866:Russian Empire 7847:Main article: 7844: 7841: 7806:Buddhist-style 7804:, with flared 7782:Main article: 7779: 7776: 7775: 7774: 7771: 7764: 7762: 7759: 7752: 7750: 7745: 7738: 7736: 7731: 7724: 7722: 7717: 7710: 7702: 7699: 7698: 7697: 7679: 7672: 7670: 7666:Dutch Colonial 7652: 7645: 7643: 7628: 7621: 7619: 7608: 7601: 7556:Main article: 7553: 7550: 7472: 7469: 7468: 7467: 7449: 7442: 7440: 7430: 7423: 7421: 7408: 7401: 7399: 7389: 7382: 7380: 7377: 7370: 7368: 7362: 7355: 7353: 7351:built by Akbar 7345:Muthamman Burj 7342: 7335: 7333: 7320: 7313: 7311: 7304:Fatehpur Sikri 7302: 7295: 7293: 7289:Humayun's Tomb 7287: 7280: 7278: 7268: 7261: 7259: 7248: 7241: 7239: 7229: 7222: 7220: 7209: 7202: 7082:Fatehpur Sikri 7027:Mughal dynasty 6915: 6912: 6812:Main article: 6809: 6806: 6805: 6804: 6797: 6790: 6788: 6782: 6775: 6773: 6762: 6755: 6753: 6742: 6735: 6733: 6730: 6723: 6721: 6707: 6700: 6698: 6691: 6684: 6682: 6676: 6669: 6667: 6663:Almohad period 6657: 6650: 6648: 6638: 6631: 6629: 6613: 6606: 6604: 6593: 6586: 6518:Atlas Mountain 6512:architecture. 6450:(in Fes), the 6396:"Moorish" arch 6348:Main article: 6345: 6342: 6341: 6340: 6334: 6327: 6325: 6312: 6305: 6303: 6301:(19th century) 6297: 6290: 6288: 6281: 6274: 6272: 6265: 6258: 6256: 6250: 6243: 6241: 6234: 6227: 6225: 6222:Topkapı Palace 6219: 6212: 6210: 6201: 6194: 6192: 6185: 6178: 6176: 6165: 6158: 6156: 6149: 6142: 6140: 6129: 6122: 6104:(hospital), a 6030:Western Europe 5971:Ottoman Empire 5963:Main article: 5960: 5957: 5956: 5955: 5945: 5938: 5936: 5930: 5923: 5921: 5915: 5908: 5906: 5896: 5889: 5887: 5876: 5869: 5867: 5857: 5850: 5848: 5841: 5834: 5832: 5825: 5818: 5816: 5809: 5802: 5800: 5791: 5784: 5782: 5772: 5765: 5763: 5753: 5746: 5726:in Cairo, the 5639:historic Cairo 5619:Main article: 5616: 5613: 5612: 5611: 5601: 5594: 5592: 5585: 5578: 5576: 5569: 5562: 5560: 5553: 5546: 5544: 5537: 5530: 5528: 5517: 5510: 5508: 5490: 5483: 5481: 5470: 5463: 5461: 5454: 5447: 5445: 5434: 5427: 5384:Isa Bey Mosque 5311:Portal of the 5301:Main article: 5298: 5295: 5294: 5293: 5283: 5276: 5274: 5265: 5258: 5256: 5246: 5239: 5237: 5231: 5224: 5222: 5214:al-Nuri Mosque 5211: 5204: 5202: 5191: 5184: 5150:al-Nuri Mosque 5097: 5094: 5058:Safavid period 5018:, the wife of 4988:his successors 4957:Timurid period 4827:Main article: 4824: 4821: 4820: 4819: 4813:Mausoleums in 4809: 4802: 4800: 4779: 4772: 4770: 4754:Kalyan Minaret 4751: 4744: 4742: 4729: 4722: 4720: 4712:Ribat-i Sharaf 4710: 4703: 4701: 4690: 4683: 4681: 4674: 4667: 4665: 4659: 4652: 4636:(known as the 4572:Ribat-i Sharaf 4564:four-iwan plan 4518:Kalyan Minaret 4494:Minaret of Jam 4476:and adopted a 4462:Turkic peoples 4452: 4449: 4447: 4444: 4434: 4431: 4423: 4422: 4416: 4400: 4397: 4395: 4392: 4391: 4390: 4387: 4380: 4378: 4369: 4362: 4360: 4353:Medina quarter 4351: 4344: 4288: 4285: 4239: 4236: 4222: 4219: 4160: 4157: 4154: 4153: 4151: 4150: 4143: 4136: 4128: 4125: 4124: 4118: 4117: 4113: 4112: 4111: 4110: 4105: 4099: 4098: 4095: 4094: 4087: 4079: 4075: 4072: 4071: 4066: 4061: 4053: 4052: 4046: 4045: 4044: 4043: 4032: 4029: 4028: 4022: 4021: 4016: 4008: 4007: 4001: 4000: 3999: 3998: 3993: 3987: 3982: 3977: 3972: 3967: 3962: 3954: 3953: 3947: 3946: 3945: 3944: 3936: 3926: 3924: 3923: 3921:Concept of God 3918: 3912: 3910: 3901: 3896: 3888: 3887: 3885: 3884: 3879: 3874: 3868: 3865: 3864: 3858: 3857: 3846: 3843: 3842: 3841: 3834: 3827: 3825: 3818: 3811: 3809: 3798: 3791: 3789: 3785:Minaret of Jam 3783: 3776: 3774: 3767: 3760: 3714:Main article: 3711: 3708: 3707: 3706: 3700:Mihrab of the 3699: 3692: 3690: 3679: 3672: 3670: 3664:Mihrab of the 3663: 3656: 3654: 3644: 3637: 3635: 3632: 3625: 3591:Main article: 3588: 3583: 3543:Main article: 3540: 3534: 3532: 3529: 3528: 3527: 3507: 3500: 3498: 3481: 3474: 3472: 3459:Hünkâr Mahfili 3456: 3449: 3447: 3427: 3420: 3403:hünkâr mahfili 3356: 3353: 3352: 3351: 3344: 3337: 3335: 3324: 3317: 3315: 3300: 3293: 3291: 3284: 3277: 3275: 3260: 3253: 3251: 3248:Topkapı Scroll 3241: 3234: 3212:Gunbad-i Qabus 3184:Main article: 3181: 3178: 3177: 3176: 3165: 3158: 3156: 3149: 3142: 3140: 3129: 3122: 3120: 3113: 3106: 3104: 3100:Topkapı Palace 3098:decoration at 3094: 3087: 3085: 3078: 3071: 3069: 3052: 3045: 3043: 3028: 3021: 3019: 3008: 3001: 2999: 2988: 2981: 2979: 2972: 2965: 2963: 2960: 2953: 2922:oneness of God 2889:Main article: 2886: 2883: 2847:Humayun's Tomb 2803:Shazdeh Garden 2696:Islamic garden 2694:Main article: 2691: 2688: 2687: 2686: 2681: 2674: 2672: 2666: 2659: 2657: 2651: 2644: 2642: 2635: 2628: 2547: 2544: 2491: 2488: 2487: 2486: 2476: 2469: 2467: 2456: 2449: 2447: 2437: 2430: 2428: 2418: 2411: 2409: 2402:Humayun's Tomb 2399: 2392: 2359: 2356: 2355: 2354: 2348:Upper dome of 2347: 2340: 2338: 2335: 2328: 2326: 2323: 2316: 2314: 2304: 2297: 2295: 2280: 2273: 2247: 2246: 2239: 2236: 2187:The system of 2169: 2166: 2158: 2155: 2130:four-iwan plan 2104: 2101: 2026: 2023: 2013: 2010: 1991:Trajan's Forum 1962: 1961:Hypostyle hall 1959: 1958: 1957: 1924: 1923: 1852: 1849: 1847: 1844: 1828:Badr al-Jamali 1771:(11th century) 1769:Badr al-Jamali 1753:(before 943). 1743:Gunbad-i-Qabus 1649:Zaytuna Mosque 1525: 1522: 1383:Main article: 1380: 1377: 1322:horseshoe arch 1313:Al-Aqsa Mosque 1211:Mshatta Facade 1195:Main article: 1192: 1189: 1185:call to prayer 1010: 1009: 1007: 1006: 999: 992: 984: 981: 980: 979: 978: 963: 962: 961: 960: 955: 950: 945: 940: 935: 927: 926: 920: 919: 918: 917: 912: 907: 902: 897: 892: 887: 882: 877: 872: 867: 862: 857: 852: 847: 842: 837: 832: 827: 822: 814: 813: 807: 806: 805: 804: 799: 794: 789: 784: 779: 774: 769: 764: 759: 754: 749: 744: 739: 734: 729: 719: 714: 709: 704: 699: 689: 684: 679: 674: 669: 664: 656: 655: 649: 648: 647: 646: 641: 636: 631: 626: 621: 616: 611: 606: 601: 596: 591: 583: 582: 576: 575: 574: 573: 568: 563: 558: 553: 548: 543: 538: 533: 528: 523: 518: 513: 508: 503: 498: 493: 488: 480: 479: 473: 472: 471: 470: 465: 463:Turkish carpet 460: 455: 450: 445: 440: 438:Persian carpet 435: 430: 425: 420: 415: 410: 405: 400: 395: 390: 385: 380: 375: 373:Arabian carpet 367: 366: 360: 359: 358: 357: 352: 347: 342: 337: 332: 327: 322: 317: 312: 307: 299: 298: 292: 291: 285: 284: 257: 254: 246: 243: 239:fortifications 107:comprises the 100: 99: 64: 52: 51: 50: 41: 40: 39: 30: 29: 28: 27: 26: 25: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 20813: 20802: 20799: 20797: 20794: 20792: 20789: 20788: 20786: 20771: 20770: 20761: 20760: 20757: 20751: 20748: 20746: 20743: 20741: 20738: 20736: 20735:Droste effect 20733: 20732: 20730: 20726: 20720: 20717: 20715: 20714:Mathemalchemy 20712: 20710: 20707: 20705: 20702: 20700: 20697: 20695: 20692: 20690: 20687: 20686: 20684: 20682:Organizations 20680: 20674: 20673: 20669: 20667: 20666: 20662: 20660: 20659: 20655: 20653: 20652: 20651:Lumen Naturae 20648: 20646: 20645: 20641: 20640: 20638: 20634: 20622: 20619: 20618: 20617: 20614: 20610: 20609: 20605: 20604: 20603: 20600: 20596: 20593: 20592: 20591: 20588: 20584: 20583: 20579: 20578: 20577: 20574: 20570: 20567: 20566: 20565: 20562: 20558: 20557: 20553: 20552: 20551: 20548: 20547: 20545: 20541: 20533: 20530: 20529: 20528: 20525: 20521: 20518: 20517: 20516: 20513: 20509: 20506: 20505: 20504: 20503:Samuel Colman 20501: 20500: 20498: 20494: 20486: 20485: 20481: 20480: 20479: 20476: 20472: 20469: 20468: 20467: 20464: 20460: 20457: 20456: 20455: 20452: 20448: 20447: 20443: 20442: 20441: 20438: 20434: 20433: 20429: 20428: 20427: 20424: 20420: 20419: 20415: 20414: 20413: 20410: 20406: 20405: 20401: 20399: 20398: 20394: 20393: 20392: 20389: 20387: 20384: 20383: 20381: 20377: 20369: 20368: 20364: 20363: 20362: 20359: 20355: 20352: 20351: 20350: 20347: 20346: 20344: 20340: 20337: 20333: 20323: 20320: 20318: 20315: 20313: 20312:Daina Taimiņa 20310: 20308: 20305: 20303: 20300: 20298: 20297:Reza Sarhangi 20295: 20293: 20290: 20288: 20285: 20283: 20280: 20278: 20275: 20273: 20270: 20268: 20265: 20263: 20260: 20258: 20255: 20253: 20250: 20246: 20245: 20241: 20240: 20239: 20236: 20234: 20231: 20229: 20226: 20224: 20221: 20219: 20216: 20214: 20211: 20209: 20208:Peter Forakis 20206: 20204: 20201: 20199: 20196: 20194: 20191: 20189: 20186: 20184: 20180: 20177: 20175: 20172: 20171: 20169: 20165: 20159: 20156: 20152: 20151: 20147: 20145: 20144: 20140: 20139: 20138: 20137:Salvador Dalí 20135: 20131: 20130: 20126: 20125: 20124: 20123:René Magritte 20121: 20117: 20116: 20112: 20110: 20109: 20105: 20103: 20102: 20098: 20096: 20095: 20094:Print Gallery 20091: 20089: 20088: 20084: 20083: 20082: 20079: 20077: 20074: 20072: 20069: 20065: 20064: 20063:L'Oiseau bleu 20060: 20058: 20057: 20053: 20052: 20051: 20048: 20044: 20043: 20039: 20037: 20036: 20032: 20031: 20030: 20029:William Blake 20027: 20026: 20024: 20018: 20010: 20009: 20005: 20004: 20003: 20000: 19998: 19995: 19991: 19990: 19989:Vitruvian Man 19986: 19985: 19984: 19981: 19979: 19976: 19974: 19973:Paolo Uccello 19971: 19970: 19968: 19964: 19961: 19959: 19955: 19949: 19946: 19944: 19941: 19939: 19936: 19934: 19931: 19929: 19926: 19924: 19921: 19919: 19916: 19914: 19911: 19910: 19908: 19906: 19902: 19896: 19895: 19894:Pi in the Sky 19891: 19889: 19888: 19884: 19882: 19881: 19877: 19875: 19874: 19870: 19868: 19867: 19866:Mathemalchemy 19863: 19861: 19860: 19856: 19854: 19851: 19850: 19848: 19844: 19838: 19835: 19833: 19830: 19828: 19825: 19821: 19818: 19817: 19816: 19813: 19811: 19808: 19804: 19801: 19799: 19796: 19794: 19791: 19790: 19789: 19786: 19782: 19779: 19777: 19774: 19772: 19769: 19767: 19764: 19763: 19762: 19759: 19757: 19754: 19752: 19749: 19747: 19744: 19742: 19739: 19735: 19734:Vastu shastra 19732: 19730: 19727: 19725: 19724:Geodesic dome 19722: 19721: 19720: 19717: 19715: 19712: 19710: 19707: 19706: 19704: 19700: 19695: 19685: 19682: 19680: 19677: 19675: 19672: 19668: 19665: 19663: 19660: 19659: 19657: 19655: 19652: 19650: 19649:Plastic ratio 19647: 19643: 19640: 19638: 19637:Camera lucida 19635: 19634: 19633: 19630: 19628: 19625: 19623: 19620: 19618: 19615: 19613: 19610: 19608: 19605: 19603: 19600: 19598: 19595: 19594: 19592: 19588: 19584: 19577: 19572: 19570: 19565: 19563: 19558: 19557: 19554: 19542: 19539: 19537: 19534: 19532: 19529: 19527: 19524: 19522: 19519: 19515: 19512: 19511: 19510: 19507: 19505: 19502: 19500: 19497: 19493: 19490: 19488: 19485: 19484: 19483: 19480: 19478: 19475: 19473: 19470: 19469: 19467: 19463: 19457: 19454: 19452: 19451:New Classical 19449: 19447: 19444: 19442: 19439: 19438: 19436: 19432: 19426: 19423: 19421: 19418: 19416: 19413: 19411: 19408: 19406: 19403: 19401: 19398: 19396: 19395:Structuralism 19393: 19391: 19388: 19387: 19385: 19381: 19375: 19372: 19370: 19367: 19365: 19362: 19360: 19357: 19355: 19352: 19350: 19347: 19345: 19342: 19340: 19339:Functionalism 19337: 19335: 19332: 19328: 19325: 19323: 19320: 19318: 19315: 19314: 19313: 19310: 19308: 19305: 19303: 19300: 19298: 19295: 19293: 19290: 19288: 19285: 19281: 19278: 19277: 19276: 19275:Expressionism 19273: 19271: 19268: 19266: 19263: 19261: 19258: 19256: 19253: 19252: 19250: 19246: 19238: 19235: 19233: 19230: 19228: 19227:Liberty style 19225: 19223: 19220: 19219: 19218: 19215: 19211: 19208: 19206: 19203: 19201: 19198: 19196: 19193: 19191: 19188: 19186: 19183: 19179: 19176: 19174: 19171: 19170: 19168: 19166: 19163: 19161: 19160:Neo-Manueline 19158: 19156: 19153: 19149: 19146: 19144: 19141: 19139: 19136: 19135: 19134: 19133:Monumentalism 19131: 19129: 19126: 19124: 19123:Mediterranean 19121: 19119: 19116: 19114: 19111: 19109: 19106: 19104: 19101: 19097: 19094: 19092: 19089: 19088: 19087: 19084: 19083: 19082: 19079: 19075: 19072: 19071: 19070: 19067: 19063: 19060: 19058: 19055: 19053: 19050: 19048: 19045: 19043: 19040: 19038: 19035: 19033: 19030: 19028: 19025: 19023: 19020: 19018: 19015: 19013: 19010: 19008: 19005: 19003: 19000: 18998: 18995: 18994: 18993: 18990: 18989: 18987: 18983: 18977: 18974: 18972: 18969: 18967: 18964: 18962: 18959: 18957: 18954: 18952: 18949: 18948: 18946: 18942: 18936: 18933: 18931: 18928: 18926: 18923: 18921: 18918: 18914: 18911: 18910: 18909: 18906: 18904: 18903:Romano-Gothic 18901: 18897: 18894: 18892: 18889: 18887: 18884: 18882: 18879: 18877: 18874: 18872: 18869: 18868: 18866: 18862: 18859: 18857: 18854: 18852: 18849: 18848: 18846: 18842: 18839: 18837: 18834: 18832: 18829: 18828: 18827: 18824: 18823: 18821: 18817: 18809: 18806: 18805: 18804: 18801: 18799: 18796: 18792: 18789: 18787: 18784: 18782: 18779: 18777: 18774: 18772: 18769: 18768: 18767: 18764: 18760: 18757: 18755: 18752: 18751: 18749: 18747: 18744: 18742: 18739: 18738: 18736: 18734: 18730: 18722: 18719: 18718: 18717: 18714: 18710: 18707: 18705: 18704:Ancient Roman 18702: 18700: 18699:Ancient Greek 18697: 18696: 18695: 18692: 18690: 18687: 18683: 18680: 18678: 18675: 18674: 18672: 18670: 18667: 18665: 18662: 18660: 18657: 18656: 18654: 18652: 18648: 18642: 18639: 18637: 18634: 18633: 18630: 18626: 18619: 18614: 18612: 18607: 18605: 18600: 18599: 18596: 18582: 18579: 18577: 18574: 18572: 18569: 18568: 18567: 18564: 18560: 18557: 18555: 18552: 18551: 18550: 18547: 18545: 18542: 18541: 18539: 18535: 18529: 18526: 18524: 18521: 18517: 18516:ophthalmology 18514: 18513: 18512: 18509: 18507: 18504: 18502: 18499: 18497: 18494: 18490: 18487: 18486: 18485: 18482: 18480: 18477: 18475: 18472: 18471: 18469: 18467: 18463: 18455: 18452: 18451: 18450: 18447: 18445: 18442: 18440: 18437: 18435: 18432: 18428: 18425: 18424: 18423: 18420: 18418: 18415: 18413: 18410: 18409: 18407: 18405: 18401: 18395: 18392: 18390: 18387: 18385: 18382: 18380: 18377: 18375: 18372: 18368: 18365: 18363: 18360: 18358: 18355: 18354: 18353: 18352:Jurisprudence 18350: 18348: 18345: 18341: 18338: 18336: 18333: 18332: 18331: 18328: 18327: 18325: 18323: 18319: 18315: 18309: 18306: 18304: 18301: 18299: 18296: 18294: 18291: 18289: 18286: 18284: 18281: 18279: 18276: 18275: 18273: 18271: 18267: 18261: 18258: 18256: 18253: 18251: 18248: 18246: 18243: 18241: 18238: 18236: 18233: 18231: 18228: 18226: 18223: 18221: 18218: 18217: 18215: 18213: 18209: 18203: 18200: 18198: 18195: 18193: 18190: 18188: 18185: 18183: 18180: 18178: 18175: 18173: 18170: 18168: 18165: 18163: 18160: 18158: 18155: 18154: 18152: 18150: 18146: 18142: 18135: 18130: 18128: 18123: 18121: 18116: 18115: 18112: 18100: 18097: 18095: 18094: 18090: 18088: 18085: 18083: 18080: 18078: 18075: 18073: 18070: 18068: 18065: 18061: 18058: 18056: 18053: 18052: 18051: 18048: 18046: 18043: 18041: 18038: 18036: 18033: 18031: 18030: 18026: 18025: 18023: 18017: 18011: 18010: 18006: 18004: 18003: 17999: 17997: 17996: 17992: 17991: 17989: 17985: 17979: 17976: 17974: 17971: 17969: 17966: 17963: 17959: 17955: 17953: 17950: 17947: 17943: 17939: 17937: 17934: 17931: 17927: 17923: 17919: 17917: 17914: 17911: 17907: 17903: 17900: 17896: 17892: 17890: 17887: 17885: 17882: 17880: 17877: 17875: 17872: 17871: 17869: 17867: 17861: 17855: 17852: 17850: 17847: 17845: 17842: 17840: 17837: 17835: 17832: 17831: 17829: 17827: 17823: 17816: 17813: 17811: 17808: 17805: 17801: 17798: 17796: 17793: 17791: 17788: 17787: 17785: 17783: 17779: 17769: 17766: 17764: 17761: 17759: 17756: 17755: 17753: 17749: 17743: 17740: 17738: 17735: 17733: 17730: 17728: 17725: 17723: 17720: 17718: 17715: 17713: 17710: 17708: 17705: 17703: 17700: 17698: 17695: 17693: 17690: 17688: 17685: 17684: 17682: 17680: 17676: 17670: 17667: 17665: 17662: 17660: 17657: 17655: 17652: 17651: 17649: 17647: 17643: 17640: 17634: 17622: 17619: 17618: 17616: 17614: 17611: 17609: 17608:Ivory carving 17606: 17604: 17601: 17599: 17596: 17594: 17591: 17589: 17586: 17584: 17581: 17579: 17576: 17575: 17573: 17569: 17563: 17560: 17558: 17555: 17554: 17552: 17548: 17542: 17539: 17537: 17534: 17532: 17529: 17527: 17524: 17522: 17519: 17517: 17514: 17513: 17511: 17507: 17501: 17498: 17496: 17493: 17491: 17488: 17486: 17483: 17481: 17478: 17476: 17473: 17471: 17468: 17467: 17465: 17463: 17459: 17453: 17450: 17448: 17445: 17443: 17440: 17436: 17433: 17432: 17431: 17428: 17426: 17423: 17422: 17420: 17418: 17414: 17407: 17403: 17400: 17397: 17393: 17389: 17385: 17382: 17380: 17377: 17376: 17374: 17370: 17367: 17363: 17358: 17343: 17340: 17338: 17335: 17333: 17330: 17328: 17325: 17323: 17320: 17318: 17315: 17313: 17310: 17308: 17305: 17303: 17300: 17298: 17295: 17293: 17290: 17288: 17285: 17284: 17282: 17280: 17276: 17270: 17267: 17265: 17262: 17260: 17257: 17255: 17252: 17250: 17247: 17245: 17242: 17240: 17237: 17235: 17232: 17230: 17227: 17225: 17222: 17220: 17216: 17213: 17209: 17206: 17204: 17201: 17199: 17196: 17195: 17194: 17191: 17189: 17186: 17184: 17181: 17179: 17176: 17174: 17171: 17169: 17166: 17164: 17161: 17159: 17156: 17155: 17153: 17149: 17146: 17144: 17140: 17136: 17129: 17124: 17122: 17117: 17115: 17110: 17109: 17106: 17096: 17095: 17083: 17082: 17077: 17070: 17064: 17058: 17055: 17053: 17050: 17048: 17045: 17043: 17040: 17038: 17035: 17033: 17030: 17028: 17025: 17023: 17020: 17018: 17015: 17014: 17012: 17008: 17002: 16999: 16997: 16994: 16992: 16989: 16987: 16984: 16983: 16981: 16977: 16971: 16968: 16966: 16963: 16961: 16958: 16957: 16955: 16951: 16941: 16938: 16936: 16933: 16931: 16928: 16926: 16923: 16921: 16918: 16916: 16913: 16911: 16908: 16907: 16905: 16901: 16895: 16892: 16890: 16887: 16885: 16882: 16880: 16877: 16875: 16872: 16870: 16869:Hasht-Bihisht 16867: 16865: 16862: 16860: 16857: 16855: 16852: 16850: 16847: 16845: 16842: 16840: 16837: 16836: 16834: 16830: 16824: 16821: 16819: 16816: 16813: 16809: 16806: 16804: 16801: 16799: 16796: 16794: 16791: 16789: 16786: 16784: 16781: 16779: 16776: 16774: 16771: 16769: 16766: 16764: 16761: 16759: 16756: 16754: 16751: 16749: 16746: 16744: 16743:Jama'at Khana 16741: 16739: 16736: 16734: 16731: 16729: 16726: 16724: 16721: 16720: 16718: 16714: 16711: 16707: 16697: 16694: 16692: 16689: 16687: 16684: 16682: 16679: 16676: 16673: 16671: 16668: 16666: 16663: 16661: 16658: 16656: 16653: 16650: 16647: 16645: 16642: 16641: 16639: 16633: 16627: 16624: 16622: 16619: 16617: 16614: 16612: 16609: 16607: 16604: 16602: 16599: 16598: 16596: 16590: 16584: 16581: 16579: 16576: 16574: 16571: 16569: 16566: 16564: 16563:Mughal garden 16561: 16559: 16556: 16554: 16551: 16549: 16546: 16545: 16543: 16539: 16533: 16530: 16528: 16525: 16523: 16520: 16518: 16515: 16512: 16509: 16507: 16504: 16502: 16499: 16497: 16494: 16493: 16491: 16487: 16481: 16478: 16476: 16473: 16471: 16468: 16466: 16463: 16461: 16458: 16456: 16453: 16451: 16448: 16446: 16443: 16441: 16438: 16436: 16433: 16431: 16428: 16426: 16423: 16421: 16418: 16416: 16413: 16411: 16408: 16406: 16403: 16401: 16398: 16396: 16393: 16391: 16388: 16385: 16382: 16379: 16376: 16372: 16371: 16369: 16365: 16359: 16356: 16354: 16351: 16349: 16346: 16344: 16341: 16339: 16336: 16334: 16331: 16329: 16326: 16324: 16321: 16319: 16316: 16314: 16311: 16309: 16306: 16303: 16300: 16298: 16295: 16293: 16290: 16289: 16287: 16281: 16274: 16271: 16269: 16266: 16264: 16261: 16258: 16254: 16250: 16246: 16242: 16239: 16238: 16236: 16232: 16226: 16223: 16221: 16218: 16216: 16213: 16211: 16208: 16206: 16203: 16201: 16198: 16196: 16193: 16191: 16188: 16186: 16183: 16180: 16177: 16176: 16174: 16170: 16165: 16155: 16152: 16150: 16147: 16146: 16144: 16140: 16137: 16133: 16127: 16124: 16122: 16119: 16117: 16114: 16112: 16109: 16107: 16104: 16102: 16099: 16097: 16094: 16092: 16089: 16085: 16082: 16080: 16077: 16075: 16072: 16070: 16067: 16065: 16062: 16061: 16060: 16057: 16055: 16052: 16050: 16047: 16045: 16041: 16038: 16034: 16031: 16029: 16026: 16024: 16021: 16019: 16016: 16015: 16014: 16011: 16009: 16006: 16004: 16001: 15999: 15996: 15994: 15991: 15989: 15986: 15984: 15981: 15979: 15976: 15975: 15973: 15969: 15965: 15958: 15953: 15951: 15946: 15944: 15939: 15938: 15935: 15928: 15924: 15921: 15918: 15916: 15913: 15911: 15908: 15905: 15901: 15897: 15893: 15890: 15887: 15884: 15881: 15878: 15877: 15867: 15861: 15852: 15847: 15843: 15839: 15834: 15829: 15824: 15820: 15816: 15812: 15807: 15803: 15797: 15793: 15792: 15787: 15783: 15779: 15778: 15767: 15761: 15757: 15752: 15748: 15746:9781119068662 15742: 15738: 15734: 15729: 15725: 15720: 15716: 15710: 15706: 15705: 15699: 15695: 15689: 15685: 15684: 15678: 15674: 15668: 15664: 15663: 15657: 15653: 15651:9782080301109 15647: 15643: 15638: 15634: 15628: 15625:. Routledge. 15624: 15623: 15617: 15613: 15611:9781609181413 15607: 15603: 15602: 15596: 15592: 15586: 15582: 15581: 15575: 15571: 15567: 15563: 15557: 15553: 15552: 15546: 15542: 15540:9781851496044 15536: 15532: 15527: 15523: 15517: 15513: 15508: 15504: 15498: 15494: 15493: 15487: 15483: 15479: 15475: 15469: 15464: 15463: 15456: 15452: 15450:9783848003808 15446: 15442: 15437: 15433: 15429: 15425: 15421: 15417: 15413: 15408: 15404: 15398: 15394: 15390: 15385: 15381: 15375: 15372:. WIT Press. 15371: 15370: 15364: 15360: 15358:9781119068662 15354: 15350: 15349: 15343: 15339: 15337:90-04-11638-9 15333: 15329: 15328: 15322: 15312: 15306: 15302: 15301: 15295: 15291: 15289:9780300218701 15285: 15281: 15280: 15274: 15270: 15266: 15262: 15256: 15252: 15247: 15237: 15231: 15227: 15226: 15220: 15216: 15210: 15206: 15205: 15199: 15195: 15193:9789774160776 15189: 15185: 15180: 15176: 15174:9780521267281 15170: 15166: 15162: 15161: 15155: 15145: 15139: 15135: 15134: 15129: 15125: 15124: 15103: 15099: 15093: 15087:, p. 14. 15086: 15081: 15067: 15063: 15056: 15054: 15046: 15041: 15039:9780195309911 15035: 15031: 15024: 15016: 15010: 15002: 14998: 14993: 14988: 14984: 14980: 14976: 14969: 14967: 14965: 14963: 14955: 14950: 14948: 14946: 14944: 14942: 14940: 14938: 14936: 14928: 14922: 14914: 14910: 14906: 14902: 14895: 14893: 14891: 14882: 14878: 14874: 14870: 14863: 14855: 14851: 14847: 14843: 14836: 14834: 14825: 14818: 14810: 14806: 14802: 14798: 14791: 14789: 14782:, p. 75. 14781: 14780:Petersen 1996 14776: 14774: 14772: 14764: 14763:Pradines 2022 14759: 14752: 14751:Petersen 1996 14747: 14740: 14739:Petersen 1996 14735: 14728: 14727:Petersen 1996 14723: 14715: 14713:9780500278475 14709: 14705: 14704: 14696: 14688: 14686:9780500278475 14682: 14678: 14677: 14669: 14662: 14661:Petersen 1996 14657: 14655: 14647: 14646:Pradines 2022 14642: 14634: 14628: 14624: 14623: 14615: 14613: 14606:, p. 74. 14605: 14604:Petersen 1996 14600: 14598: 14591:, p. 73. 14590: 14589:Petersen 1996 14585: 14583: 14581: 14573: 14572:Pradines 2022 14568: 14561: 14560:Pradines 2022 14556: 14554: 14539: 14535: 14529: 14523:, p. 84. 14522: 14521:Pradines 2022 14517: 14510: 14509:Petersen 1996 14505: 14503: 14501: 14499: 14497: 14495: 14493: 14486:, p. 89. 14485: 14484:Pradines 2022 14480: 14473: 14472:Petersen 1996 14468: 14462:, p. 63. 14461: 14460:Pradines 2022 14456: 14450: 14446: 14441: 14439: 14429: 14422: 14421:Pradines 2022 14417: 14415: 14407: 14406:Pradines 2022 14402: 14395: 14394:Petersen 1996 14390: 14383: 14382:Petersen 1996 14378: 14372: 14368: 14363: 14361: 14359: 14357: 14355: 14353: 14351: 14349: 14347: 14345: 14343: 14341: 14334: 14330: 14325: 14323: 14321: 14319: 14310: 14306: 14299: 14292: 14284: 14280: 14275: 14270: 14266: 14262: 14259:(1): 012023. 14258: 14254: 14250: 14243: 14241: 14226:on 2006-03-22 14225: 14221: 14217: 14210: 14208: 14201: 14200:962-593-232-1 14197: 14193: 14187: 14179: 14173: 14169: 14165: 14164: 14156: 14148: 14146:981-3018-30-5 14142: 14138: 14134: 14133: 14125: 14118: 14113: 14106: 14101: 14094: 14089: 14082: 14077: 14070: 14069:Petersen 1996 14065: 14058: 14053: 14051: 14035: 14031: 14025: 14018: 14017:1-84511-381-0 14014: 14008: 14006: 13990: 13986: 13980: 13973: 13968: 13966: 13958: 13953: 13951: 13943: 13942:0-521-56321-6 13939: 13933: 13926: 13921: 13914: 13909: 13907: 13900: 13898: 13893: 13888: 13881: 13876: 13874: 13865: 13863:9783848003808 13859: 13855: 13848: 13841: 13836: 13834: 13832: 13824: 13819: 13811: 13804: 13802: 13794: 13789: 13787: 13785: 13778:, p. 36. 13777: 13772: 13765: 13760: 13753: 13748: 13746: 13744: 13742: 13727: 13723: 13717: 13711: 13707: 13702: 13700: 13693: 13689: 13684: 13682: 13675: 13671: 13666: 13664: 13657: 13653: 13648: 13646: 13644: 13635: 13633:9789004161658 13629: 13625: 13618: 13616: 13614: 13612: 13610: 13601: 13597: 13593: 13589: 13585: 13581: 13574: 13568: 13564: 13559: 13557: 13555: 13553: 13551: 13549: 13547: 13532: 13528: 13522: 13516: 13512: 13507: 13505: 13490: 13486: 13480: 13472: 13470:9782352700579 13466: 13462: 13461: 13453: 13447: 13443: 13437: 13435: 13433: 13431: 13429: 13427: 13412:on 2019-09-01 13411: 13407: 13403: 13397: 13389: 13385: 13381: 13377: 13373: 13369: 13362: 13355: 13347: 13341: 13337: 13330: 13323: 13322:84-376-1801-0 13319: 13313: 13305: 13303:9780748646821 13299: 13295: 13288: 13280: 13273: 13259: 13255: 13249: 13241: 13235: 13231: 13224: 13216: 13210: 13206: 13199: 13192: 13187: 13185: 13177: 13172: 13170: 13163:, p. 379 13162: 13157: 13150: 13145: 13143: 13135: 13130: 13128: 13120: 13115: 13113: 13104: 13098: 13094: 13093: 13085: 13071: 13065: 13061: 13060: 13052: 13045: 13040: 13038: 13031:, p. 35. 13030: 13025: 13023: 13008: 13004: 13000: 12994: 12990: 12989: 12981: 12975:, 1908), 753. 12974: 12970: 12964: 12957: 12951: 12944: 12943:Williams 2018 12939: 12933:, p. 78. 12932: 12931:Williams 2018 12927: 12921:, p. 82. 12920: 12915: 12907: 12905:9782213029832 12901: 12897: 12890: 12883: 12882:Williams 2018 12878: 12864: 12863:Rawi Magazine 12860: 12854: 12852: 12843: 12841:9781119068570 12837: 12833: 12829: 12822: 12820: 12811: 12809:9789774160950 12805: 12801: 12794: 12792: 12785:, p. 17. 12784: 12783:Williams 2018 12779: 12777: 12770:, p. 34. 12769: 12768:Williams 2018 12764: 12757: 12752: 12746:, p. 79. 12745: 12740: 12734:, p. 31. 12733: 12732:Williams 2018 12728: 12721: 12716: 12709: 12708:Williams 2018 12704: 12698:, p. 30. 12697: 12696:Williams 2018 12692: 12685: 12680: 12673: 12668: 12666: 12658: 12653: 12647:, p. 70. 12646: 12641: 12639: 12637: 12629: 12628:Williams 2018 12624: 12622: 12614: 12609: 12602: 12597: 12590: 12585: 12578: 12573: 12559: 12555: 12549: 12542: 12537: 12529: 12527:9780195309911 12523: 12519: 12512: 12510: 12508: 12500: 12495: 12488: 12483: 12481: 12472: 12470:9780195309911 12466: 12462: 12455: 12453: 12451: 12449: 12447: 12439: 12434: 12427: 12422: 12415: 12410: 12402: 12400:9781845119478 12396: 12392: 12385: 12377: 12375:9780195309911 12371: 12367: 12360: 12353: 12348: 12333: 12329: 12323: 12316: 12311: 12303: 12301:9780195309911 12297: 12293: 12286: 12279: 12274: 12272: 12263: 12257: 12253: 12249: 12242: 12236:, p. 66. 12235: 12234:Petersen 1996 12230: 12223: 12218: 12211: 12206: 12197: 12188: 12179: 12170: 12161: 12153: 12149: 12145: 12138: 12136: 12128: 12123: 12116: 12111: 12105: 12101: 12096: 12094: 12078: 12074: 12068: 12062: 12058: 12050: 12048:9780195309911 12044: 12040: 12033: 12026: 12021: 12014: 12009: 12001: 11995: 11991: 11987: 11985: 11980: 11976: 11972: 11968: 11964: 11957: 11951: 11947: 11942: 11935: 11930: 11922: 11920:9789004161658 11916: 11912: 11905: 11898: 11893: 11886: 11881: 11873: 11871:9780195309911 11867: 11863: 11856: 11849: 11844: 11837: 11833: 11830: 11825: 11818: 11814: 11810: 11807: 11801: 11794: 11789: 11781: 11779:9783848003808 11775: 11771: 11764: 11757: 11752: 11745: 11740: 11733: 11728: 11721: 11716: 11714: 11706: 11701: 11694: 11689: 11682: 11677: 11670: 11665: 11658: 11651: 11647: 11640: 11632: 11625: 11618: 11614: 11607: 11600: 11596: 11592: 11588: 11584: 11580: 11576: 11569: 11562: 11557: 11550: 11545: 11538: 11531: 11526: 11519: 11511: 11509:9789047430322 11505: 11501: 11497: 11493: 11486: 11478: 11472: 11468: 11461: 11453: 11447: 11443: 11435: 11427: 11421: 11417: 11409: 11407: 11398: 11394: 11387: 11379: 11375: 11368: 11361: 11356: 11349: 11342: 11338: 11331: 11324: 11319: 11317:9780415553810 11313: 11309: 11302: 11294: 11288: 11284: 11276: 11269: 11266:Ian Simpson: 11263: 11255: 11251: 11248:(106): 3–27. 11247: 11243: 11236: 11229: 11224: 11218:, p. 82. 11217: 11212: 11205: 11200: 11193: 11188: 11180: 11174: 11170: 11169: 11161: 11154: 11149: 11141: 11135: 11127: 11120: 11113: 11111: 11103: 11098: 11084: 11080: 11074: 11060: 11056: 11050: 11044:, p. 75. 11043: 11038: 11031: 11026: 11019: 11014: 11007: 11006:Petersen 1996 11002: 11000: 10992: 10987: 10980: 10975: 10967: 10963: 10959: 10955: 10954: 10949: 10943: 10937: 10933: 10929: 10925: 10921: 10917: 10916:Donald Hawley 10912: 10905: 10900: 10893: 10888: 10881: 10876: 10862: 10858: 10852: 10846: 10842: 10837: 10835: 10827: 10826:Petersen 1996 10822: 10820: 10811: 10807: 10803: 10799: 10795: 10791: 10787: 10783: 10776: 10774: 10772: 10770: 10762: 10757: 10755: 10747: 10746:Petersen 1996 10742: 10735: 10734:Petersen 1996 10730: 10723: 10719: 10718: 10713: 10708: 10701: 10696: 10690: 10686: 10681: 10679: 10677: 10675: 10668: 10664: 10659: 10653:, p. 64. 10652: 10647: 10640: 10635: 10627: 10621: 10617: 10616: 10608: 10600: 10596: 10591: 10586: 10582: 10578: 10574: 10567: 10561: 10557: 10552: 10550: 10548: 10539: 10538: 10530: 10523: 10518: 10510: 10508:9780674023901 10504: 10500: 10499: 10491: 10476: 10472: 10465: 10458: 10454: 10449: 10434: 10433: 10425: 10417: 10411: 10407: 10400: 10392: 10386: 10375: 10371: 10364: 10360: 10354: 10347: 10342: 10340: 10333: 10329: 10324: 10316: 10309: 10301: 10294: 10286: 10282: 10276: 10270:, p. 79. 10269: 10264: 10257: 10252: 10245: 10240: 10238: 10236: 10229:, p. 72. 10228: 10223: 10216: 10211: 10203: 10197: 10193: 10186: 10184: 10182: 10175: 10171: 10166: 10159: 10154: 10147: 10146:Nuttgens 1997 10142: 10127: 10123: 10119: 10112: 10105: 10100: 10093: 10088: 10082:, p. 84. 10081: 10076: 10074: 10058: 10052: 10048: 10047: 10039: 10032: 10027: 10025: 10023: 10015: 10014: 10010: 10006: 10003: 9998: 9991: 9987: 9984: 9979: 9973: 9969: 9964: 9962: 9960: 9952: 9951:Petersen 1996 9947: 9945: 9937: 9933: 9930: 9926: 9920: 9912: 9906: 9902: 9895: 9893: 9891: 9889: 9880: 9876: 9872: 9870: 9865: 9864:C.E. Bosworth 9858: 9856: 9854: 9846: 9845:Petersen 1996 9841: 9827: 9826:metmuseum.org 9823: 9817: 9809: 9802: 9794: 9792:9780415262729 9788: 9784: 9777: 9762:on 2 May 2016 9761: 9757: 9755:9781846033759 9751: 9747: 9746: 9742: 9734: 9726: 9720: 9716: 9715: 9707: 9705: 9703: 9695: 9690: 9684: 9680: 9675: 9669: 9665: 9660: 9658: 9656: 9654: 9652: 9650: 9643: 9639: 9634: 9627: 9622: 9615: 9610: 9602: 9595: 9587: 9585:9780582405257 9581: 9577: 9570: 9563: 9558: 9552: 9547: 9545: 9543: 9541: 9539: 9537: 9535: 9526: 9519: 9517: 9515: 9513: 9511: 9509: 9507: 9505: 9497: 9496:Petersen 1996 9492: 9485: 9484:Petersen 1996 9480: 9474:, p. 82. 9473: 9468: 9462:, p. 80. 9461: 9456: 9454: 9447: 9443: 9438: 9432: 9428: 9423: 9416: 9415:Petersen 1996 9411: 9405: 9404:Beveled style 9401: 9396: 9389: 9384: 9377: 9376:Petersen 1996 9372: 9365: 9364:Petersen 1996 9360: 9358: 9351: 9347: 9342: 9340: 9338: 9336: 9334: 9332: 9324: 9323:McKenzie 2007 9319: 9312: 9307: 9300: 9295: 9287: 9285:9789004161658 9281: 9277: 9270: 9268: 9259: 9255: 9251: 9247: 9243: 9239: 9235: 9231: 9227: 9220: 9214:, p. 35. 9213: 9208: 9202:, p. 24. 9201: 9196: 9194: 9192: 9190: 9188: 9186: 9178: 9173: 9171: 9163: 9162:Petersen 1996 9158: 9151: 9150:Petersen 1996 9146: 9144: 9136: 9131: 9125: 9121: 9116: 9114: 9112: 9110: 9108: 9106: 9104: 9096: 9095:Petersen 1996 9091: 9089: 9087: 9085: 9076: 9074:9789004161658 9070: 9066: 9059: 9053: 9049: 9044: 9042: 9040: 9032: 9027: 9018: 9011: 9006: 8999: 8994: 8987: 8982: 8976:, p. 58. 8975: 8970: 8963: 8958: 8952:, p. 36. 8951: 8946: 8944: 8942: 8934: 8929: 8927:9783848003808 8923: 8919: 8912: 8910: 8902: 8897: 8895:9780195309911 8891: 8887: 8880: 8878: 8870: 8865: 8861: 8857: 8855:9789004161641 8851: 8847: 8840: 8838: 8830: 8826: 8824:9780300088670 8820: 8816: 8815: 8807: 8805: 8797: 8796:Petersen 1996 8792: 8790: 8783: 8779: 8774: 8772: 8770: 8768: 8766: 8764: 8762: 8760: 8758: 8756: 8754: 8752: 8750: 8748: 8741: 8737: 8732: 8730: 8722: 8717: 8710: 8705: 8698: 8693: 8691:9783848003808 8687: 8683: 8676: 8669: 8664: 8662:9780195309911 8658: 8654: 8647: 8640: 8635: 8628: 8627:Petersen 1996 8623: 8616: 8611: 8609: 8607: 8598: 8596:9789004161658 8592: 8588: 8581: 8579: 8577: 8572: 8556: 8553: 8551: 8548: 8546: 8543: 8540: 8537: 8536: 8531: 8520: 8517: 8511: 8506: 8499: 8497: 8493: 8487: 8478: 8474: 8473: 8470: 8459: 8455: 8453: 8449: 8439: 8428: 8424: 8420: 8416: 8404: 8401: 8399: 8396: 8394: 8391: 8389: 8386: 8384: 8381: 8379: 8378:Nabih Youssef 8376: 8374: 8371: 8369: 8366: 8364: 8361: 8359: 8358:Vedat Dalokay 8356: 8354: 8351: 8349: 8346: 8345: 8338: 8329: 8326: 8324: 8323:Mazar-e-Quaid 8319: 8315: 8304: 8302: 8298: 8288: 8279: 8275: 8271: 8267: 8263: 8256: 8255:Vedat Dalokay 8252: 8248: 8244: 8243:Faisal Mosque 8240: 8231: 8228: 8224: 8219: 8217: 8211: 8206: 8202: 8199: 8194: 8192: 8188: 8184: 8180: 8176: 8171: 8169: 8165: 8156: 8151: 8146: 8142: 8132: 8130: 8126: 8120: 8118: 8114: 8110: 8106: 8102: 8097: 8093: 8089: 8088:Fouta Djallon 8081: 8076: 8072: 8070: 8066: 8061: 8057: 8053: 8050:(present-day 8049: 8045: 8041: 8033: 8029: 8025: 8021: 8017: 8015: 8011: 8008:(present-day 8007: 8003: 7999: 7990: 7986: 7982: 7978: 7976: 7975:Friday prayer 7972: 7968: 7964: 7960: 7956: 7948: 7944: 7940: 7936: 7932: 7930: 7926: 7921: 7917: 7913: 7905: 7901: 7897: 7892: 7882: 7880: 7875: 7872:built by the 7871: 7870:Tatar mosques 7867: 7863: 7859: 7855: 7850: 7840: 7838: 7834: 7830: 7826: 7822: 7817: 7815: 7811: 7807: 7803: 7795: 7790: 7785: 7768: 7763: 7756: 7751: 7748: 7742: 7737: 7734: 7728: 7723: 7720: 7714: 7709: 7708: 7707: 7694: 7691: 7687: 7683: 7676: 7671: 7667: 7663: 7659: 7655: 7649: 7644: 7640: 7636: 7632: 7625: 7620: 7616: 7612: 7605: 7600: 7599: 7598: 7596: 7592: 7591: 7585: 7581: 7577: 7573: 7569: 7565: 7559: 7549: 7547: 7543: 7539: 7535: 7531: 7527: 7522: 7518: 7514: 7510: 7505: 7501: 7493: 7488: 7481: 7477: 7457: 7453: 7452:Bara Imambara 7446: 7441: 7437: 7433: 7427: 7422: 7411: 7405: 7400: 7396: 7392: 7386: 7381: 7374: 7369: 7365: 7359: 7354: 7350: 7346: 7339: 7334: 7331: 7327: 7323: 7317: 7312: 7309: 7305: 7299: 7294: 7290: 7284: 7279: 7275: 7271: 7265: 7260: 7256: 7252: 7251:Friday Mosque 7245: 7240: 7236: 7232: 7226: 7221: 7217: 7213: 7206: 7201: 7200: 7199: 7197: 7196: 7191: 7190:Mughal Bengal 7180: 7176: 7172: 7168: 7164: 7159: 7155: 7151: 7147: 7143: 7139: 7135: 7131: 7127: 7122: 7120: 7116: 7115:Asaf al-Dawla 7105: 7104:Bara Imambara 7100: 7096: 7092: 7087: 7083: 7079: 7075: 7071: 7066: 7064: 7060: 7056: 7052: 7048: 7044: 7040: 7036: 7032: 7028: 7024: 7020: 7015: 7013: 7009: 7005: 7001: 6997: 6993: 6989: 6985: 6981: 6977: 6973: 6969: 6965: 6961: 6957: 6953: 6949: 6943: 6939: 6935: 6930: 6925: 6921: 6911: 6909: 6905: 6901: 6892: 6888: 6884: 6882: 6873: 6869: 6864: 6860: 6858: 6853: 6849: 6844: 6837: 6827: 6826: 6820: 6815: 6801: 6794: 6789: 6785: 6779: 6774: 6770: 6766: 6759: 6754: 6750: 6749:Nasrid period 6746: 6739: 6734: 6727: 6722: 6718: 6717:Hafsid period 6714: 6710: 6709:Kasbah Mosque 6704: 6699: 6695: 6688: 6683: 6680: 6673: 6668: 6664: 6660: 6654: 6649: 6645: 6641: 6635: 6630: 6626: 6625: 6620: 6616: 6610: 6605: 6601: 6597: 6590: 6585: 6584: 6583: 6581: 6577: 6573: 6569: 6565: 6561: 6557: 6553: 6549: 6548:Ait Benhaddou 6545: 6541: 6540: 6535: 6531: 6527: 6523: 6519: 6513: 6511: 6508: 6504: 6501: 6497: 6493: 6489: 6484: 6480: 6476: 6475:Mudéjar style 6472: 6467: 6465: 6461: 6460:Giralda tower 6457: 6453: 6449: 6445: 6441: 6437: 6433: 6429: 6425: 6421: 6417: 6413: 6409: 6408: 6403: 6402: 6397: 6393: 6389: 6385: 6381: 6377: 6373: 6369: 6365: 6361: 6357: 6351: 6338: 6331: 6326: 6323:near Istanbul 6322: 6318: 6317: 6309: 6304: 6300: 6294: 6289: 6285: 6278: 6273: 6269: 6262: 6257: 6253: 6247: 6242: 6238: 6231: 6226: 6223: 6216: 6211: 6208: 6204: 6198: 6193: 6189: 6182: 6177: 6173: 6169: 6162: 6157: 6153: 6146: 6141: 6137: 6133: 6126: 6121: 6120: 6119: 6117: 6113: 6112: 6107: 6103: 6102: 6097: 6096: 6091: 6087: 6083: 6079: 6075: 6071: 6070: 6065: 6064: 6058: 6053: 6051: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6038:Balyan family 6035: 6031: 6027: 6022: 6020: 6016: 6012: 6008: 6004: 6000: 5996: 5992: 5988: 5984: 5980: 5976: 5972: 5966: 5952: 5948: 5942: 5937: 5933: 5927: 5922: 5918: 5912: 5907: 5903: 5899: 5893: 5888: 5884: 5880: 5873: 5868: 5865: 5861: 5854: 5849: 5845: 5838: 5833: 5829: 5822: 5817: 5813: 5806: 5801: 5798: 5794: 5788: 5783: 5779: 5775: 5769: 5764: 5760: 5756: 5750: 5745: 5744: 5743: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5725: 5720: 5716: 5712: 5711:caravanserais 5708: 5707: 5700: 5697: 5693: 5692:Syrian region 5689: 5685: 5680: 5679: 5674: 5670: 5664: 5655: 5644: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5628: 5622: 5608: 5604: 5598: 5593: 5589: 5582: 5577: 5573: 5566: 5561: 5557: 5550: 5545: 5541: 5534: 5529: 5525: 5521: 5514: 5509: 5498: 5494: 5487: 5482: 5478: 5474: 5467: 5462: 5458: 5451: 5446: 5442: 5438: 5431: 5426: 5425: 5424: 5422: 5419:northeast of 5418: 5414: 5409: 5405: 5401: 5397: 5393: 5389: 5385: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5368: 5366: 5362: 5357: 5356: 5351: 5347: 5343: 5337: 5335: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5314: 5309: 5304: 5290: 5286: 5280: 5275: 5272: 5268: 5262: 5257: 5253: 5249: 5243: 5238: 5234: 5228: 5223: 5219: 5215: 5208: 5203: 5199: 5195: 5188: 5183: 5182: 5181: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5162: 5157: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5143: 5139: 5135: 5130: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5109: 5103: 5093: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5035: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4997: 4993: 4989: 4984: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4933: 4929: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4910: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4895:Kunya-Urgench 4888: 4884: 4880: 4879:Kunya-Urgench 4875: 4871: 4869: 4864: 4862: 4858: 4849: 4845: 4840: 4836: 4830: 4816: 4812: 4806: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4782: 4776: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4748: 4743: 4740: 4736: 4732: 4731:Toghrol Tower 4726: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4707: 4702: 4698: 4694: 4687: 4682: 4678: 4671: 4666: 4662: 4656: 4651: 4650: 4649: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4627: 4623: 4618: 4616: 4613:(present-day 4612: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4585: 4581: 4580:Toghrul Tower 4577: 4573: 4569: 4568:Ribat-i Malik 4565: 4560: 4553: 4549: 4544: 4540: 4538: 4535:(present-day 4534: 4530: 4519: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4487: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4458: 4443: 4439: 4430: 4428: 4427:Bilad al-Sham 4420: 4417: 4414: 4409: 4406: 4405: 4404: 4384: 4379: 4376: 4372: 4366: 4361: 4358: 4354: 4348: 4343: 4342: 4341: 4339: 4338: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4320: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4304: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4284: 4281: 4277: 4272: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4253: 4248: 4247: 4235: 4233: 4227: 4218: 4215: 4210: 4206: 4201: 4196: 4192: 4187: 4182: 4177: 4168: 4167: 4149: 4144: 4142: 4137: 4135: 4130: 4129: 4127: 4126: 4123: 4120: 4119: 4115: 4114: 4109: 4106: 4104: 4101: 4100: 4092: 4088: 4085: 4081: 4080: 4078: 4074: 4073: 4070: 4067: 4065: 4062: 4060: 4057: 4056: 4055: 4054: 4051: 4048: 4047: 4040: 4039:Ophthalmology 4035: 4031: 4030: 4027: 4024: 4023: 4020: 4017: 4015: 4012: 4011: 4010: 4009: 4006: 4003: 4002: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3988: 3986: 3983: 3981: 3978: 3976: 3973: 3971: 3968: 3966: 3963: 3961: 3958: 3957: 3956: 3955: 3952: 3951:Jurisprudence 3949: 3948: 3943: 3937: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3922: 3919: 3917: 3914: 3913: 3911: 3909: 3905: 3902: 3900: 3897: 3895: 3892: 3891: 3890: 3889: 3883: 3880: 3878: 3875: 3873: 3870: 3869: 3867: 3866: 3863: 3860: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3850: 3838: 3831: 3826: 3822: 3815: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3795: 3790: 3786: 3780: 3775: 3771: 3764: 3759: 3758: 3757: 3753: 3751: 3745: 3743: 3739: 3734: 3729: 3727: 3726: 3717: 3703: 3696: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3676: 3671: 3667: 3660: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3641: 3636: 3629: 3624: 3623: 3622: 3620: 3616: 3615: 3609: 3604: 3600: 3594: 3587: 3582: 3580: 3576: 3571: 3566: 3562: 3552: 3546: 3538: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3511: 3504: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3486: 3478: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3460: 3453: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3431: 3424: 3419: 3418: 3417: 3415: 3411: 3410: 3405: 3404: 3399: 3395: 3394: 3389: 3385: 3384: 3379: 3375: 3374: 3368: 3364: 3363: 3348: 3341: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3321: 3316: 3312: 3311:Nasrid period 3308: 3304: 3297: 3292: 3288: 3281: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3257: 3252: 3249: 3245: 3238: 3233: 3232: 3231: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3192: 3187: 3173: 3169: 3162: 3157: 3153: 3146: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3126: 3121: 3117: 3110: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3091: 3086: 3082: 3075: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3057: 3049: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3025: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3005: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2985: 2980: 2976: 2969: 2964: 2957: 2952: 2951: 2950: 2947: 2946:stained glass 2943: 2942:carved stucco 2940:, brickwork, 2939: 2938:stone carving 2934: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2920::33–35), the 2919: 2913: 2911: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2892: 2885:Ornamentation 2882: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2779:Chehel Sotoun 2776: 2770: 2765: 2763: 2762: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2697: 2684: 2678: 2673: 2670: 2663: 2658: 2655: 2648: 2643: 2639: 2632: 2627: 2626: 2625: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2606: 2604: 2603:Zeyrek Mosque 2600: 2596: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2570: 2568: 2563: 2556: 2552: 2546:Ottoman domes 2543: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2520: 2518: 2514: 2509: 2505: 2496: 2484: 2480: 2473: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2453: 2448: 2445: 2441: 2434: 2429: 2426: 2422: 2415: 2410: 2407: 2403: 2396: 2391: 2390: 2389: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2365: 2351: 2344: 2339: 2332: 2327: 2320: 2315: 2312: 2308: 2301: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2277: 2272: 2271: 2270: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2244: 2240: 2237: 2234: 2233: 2232: 2230: 2224: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2205: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2185: 2183: 2179: 2178:Qajar dynasty 2175: 2164: 2154: 2152: 2148: 2143: 2138: 2133: 2131: 2126: 2121: 2114: 2109: 2100: 2098: 2094: 2093:Amman Citadel 2090: 2086: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2062:Bilad al-Sham 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2035: 2031: 2022: 2019: 2009: 2005: 2003: 1999: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1941: 1932: 1931: 1926: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1916: 1911: 1908:, as seen in 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1890:walled garden 1887: 1886: 1885: 1883: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1863: 1857: 1843: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1811:), the small 1810: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1797:Ismaili Shi'a 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1726: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1700:Buyid dynasty 1697: 1693: 1685: 1681: 1676: 1672: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1645:Uqba ibn Nafi 1642: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1621: 1619: 1616:(present-day 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1568: 1564: 1561: 1557: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1540: 1535: 1530: 1521: 1519: 1513: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1483: 1478: 1474: 1472: 1467: 1466:Qasr al-Ashiq 1463: 1459: 1455: 1447: 1442: 1438: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1396: 1391: 1386: 1376: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1346: 1342: 1337: 1333: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1280: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1261: 1257: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1217:, now in the 1216: 1212: 1208: 1203: 1198: 1188: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1155:in Egypt and 1154: 1148: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1109:client states 1106: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1069: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1057: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1034: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1005: 1000: 998: 993: 991: 986: 985: 983: 982: 977: 967: 966: 965: 964: 959: 956: 954: 951: 949: 946: 944: 941: 939: 936: 934: 931: 930: 929: 928: 925: 922: 921: 916: 913: 911: 908: 906: 903: 901: 898: 896: 893: 891: 888: 886: 883: 881: 878: 876: 873: 871: 870:Mappilappattu 868: 866: 863: 861: 858: 856: 853: 851: 848: 846: 843: 841: 840:Gendang beleq 838: 836: 833: 831: 828: 826: 823: 821: 818: 817: 816: 815: 812: 809: 808: 803: 800: 798: 795: 793: 790: 788: 785: 783: 780: 778: 775: 773: 770: 768: 765: 763: 760: 758: 755: 753: 750: 748: 745: 743: 740: 738: 735: 733: 730: 727: 723: 720: 718: 715: 713: 710: 708: 705: 703: 700: 697: 693: 690: 688: 685: 683: 680: 678: 677:Crimean Tatar 675: 673: 670: 668: 665: 663: 660: 659: 658: 657: 654: 651: 650: 645: 642: 640: 637: 635: 632: 630: 627: 625: 622: 620: 617: 615: 612: 610: 607: 605: 602: 600: 597: 595: 592: 590: 587: 586: 585: 584: 581: 578: 577: 572: 569: 567: 564: 562: 559: 557: 554: 552: 549: 547: 544: 542: 539: 537: 534: 532: 529: 527: 524: 522: 519: 517: 514: 512: 509: 507: 504: 502: 499: 497: 494: 492: 489: 487: 484: 483: 482: 481: 478: 475: 474: 469: 466: 464: 461: 459: 456: 454: 451: 449: 446: 444: 441: 439: 436: 434: 431: 429: 426: 424: 421: 419: 416: 414: 411: 409: 408:Iznik pottery 406: 404: 401: 399: 396: 394: 391: 389: 386: 384: 381: 379: 376: 374: 371: 370: 369: 368: 365: 362: 361: 356: 353: 351: 348: 346: 343: 341: 338: 336: 333: 331: 328: 326: 323: 321: 318: 316: 313: 311: 308: 306: 303: 302: 301: 300: 297: 294: 293: 290: 287: 286: 282: 278: 277: 271: 267: 262: 252: 242: 240: 236: 232: 231:caravanserais 228: 224: 220: 216: 212: 208: 204: 200: 196: 192: 188: 184: 183: 178: 174: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 142: 137: 135: 130: 129:Islamic world 126: 122: 118: 114: 110: 106: 96: 92: 88: 84: 80: 76: 72: 68: 56: 45: 34: 23: 20767: 20670: 20663: 20656: 20649: 20642: 20636:Publications 20620: 20606: 20594: 20580: 20568: 20554: 20531: 20527:Jay Hambidge 20520:Ad Quadratum 20519: 20507: 20482: 20470: 20458: 20444: 20430: 20426:Luca Pacioli 20416: 20402: 20395: 20365: 20353: 20277:Hinke Osinga 20272:István Orosz 20242: 20233:Anthony Hill 20188:Scott Draves 20183:Erik Demaine 20167:Contemporary 20148: 20141: 20127: 20113: 20106: 20099: 20092: 20085: 20081:M. C. Escher 20061: 20054: 20040: 20033: 20006: 20002:Parmigianino 19987: 19918:Hagia Sophia 19892: 19885: 19878: 19871: 19864: 19857: 19741:Computer art 19719:Architecture 19679:Tessellation 19662:Architecture 19612:Golden ratio 19509:Mesoamerican 19456:Contemporary 19434:2000–present 19425:Neo-futurism 19405:Blobitecture 19232:Modern Style 19148:Neoclassical 18896:Indo-Islamic 18871:Great Seljuk 18856:Vijayanagara 18765: 18750:East Slavic 18664:Mesopotamian 18566:Sufi studies 18537:Other fields 18417:Contemporary 18340:consultation 18162:Architecture 18161: 18091: 18087:Pseudo-Kufic 18027: 18007: 18000: 17993: 17916:Kuala Lumpur 17814: 17341: 17193:Indo-Islamic 17183:Great Seljuk 17143:Architecture 17142: 17085: 17072: 17069:Islamic arts 16849:Caravanserai 16374: 16328:Loudspeakers 16253:Persian dome 16215:Pointed arch 16013:Indo-Islamic 16003:Great Seljuk 15963: 15860:cite journal 15841: 15837: 15818: 15814: 15790: 15755: 15736: 15723: 15703: 15682: 15661: 15641: 15621: 15600: 15579: 15550: 15530: 15511: 15491: 15461: 15440: 15415: 15411: 15392: 15388: 15368: 15347: 15326: 15314:. 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Retrieved 9760:the original 9744: 9740: 9733: 9713: 9689: 9682: 9674: 9667: 9641: 9633: 9621: 9609: 9600: 9594: 9575: 9569: 9557: 9524: 9491: 9479: 9467: 9445: 9437: 9431:Architecture 9430: 9422: 9410: 9403: 9395: 9383: 9371: 9366:, p. 1. 9349: 9318: 9306: 9294: 9275: 9233: 9229: 9219: 9207: 9157: 9135:Shahîd 1995a 9130: 9123: 9064: 9058: 9051: 9026: 9017: 9010:Shahîd 1995a 9005: 8998:Shahîd 1995a 8993: 8986:Shahîd 1995b 8981: 8969: 8962:Shahîd 1995a 8957: 8931: 8917: 8899: 8885: 8867: 8845: 8828: 8813: 8781: 8739: 8716: 8704: 8695: 8681: 8675: 8666: 8652: 8646: 8641:, p. 7. 8634: 8622: 8586: 8530:Islam portal 8495: 8491: 8488: 8484: 8475: 8471: 8465: 8456: 8448:Christianity 8445: 8436: 8403:Hassan Fathy 8383:Bashirul Haq 8335: 8321: 8317: 8310: 8300: 8286: 8283: 8276:designed by 8253:designed by 8227:Husuni Kubwa 8220: 8214: 8195: 8172: 8160: 8157:in Mogadishu 8121: 8117:Burkina Faso 8085: 8068: 8064: 8037: 8031: 8028:Burkina Faso 7994: 7963:Ghana Empire 7952: 7909: 7874:Volga Tatars 7860:, the Tatar 7858:Golden Horde 7852: 7849:Tatar mosque 7833:Ming dynasty 7821:Tang dynasty 7818: 7799: 7772:Paloh Mosque 7733:Masjid Zahir 7704: 7635:Central Java 7631:Masjid Agung 7594: 7590:candi bentar 7588: 7561: 7509:candi bentar 7497: 7480:Demak Mosque 7276:(circa 1450) 7193: 7163:Adina Mosque 7123: 7067: 7047:Mumtaz Mahal 7029:'s founder, 7016: 6992:Islamization 6946: 6896: 6877: 6874:(circa 1397) 6845: 6841: 6825:Bāb al-Yaman 6823: 6771:architecture 6622: 6555: 6551: 6544:rammed earth 6537: 6514: 6468: 6405: 6399: 6379: 6372:North Africa 6353: 6314: 6235:Interior of 6172:Green Mosque 6167: 6132:Green Mosque 6109: 6106:caravanserai 6099: 6093: 6089: 6081: 6078:Fatih Mosque 6073: 6067: 6061: 6054: 6023: 5999:Hagia Sophia 5968: 5754: 5718: 5714: 5704: 5701: 5687: 5683: 5676: 5665: 5624: 5523: 5382:(1371), the 5369: 5353: 5338: 5318: 5180:in Aleppo). 5158: 5105: 5086:Shaykh Bahai 5077: 5062: 5008:Shah-i-Zinda 4962: 4911: 4892: 4883:Turkmenistan 4867: 4865: 4860: 4853: 4796:Turkmenistan 4637: 4619: 4615:Turkmenistan 4556: 4460: 4440: 4436: 4424: 4418: 4407: 4402: 4357:Fez, Morocco 4335: 4321: 4305: 4290: 4273: 4250: 4244: 4241: 4228: 4224: 4214:dār al-imāra 4164: 4162: 4116:Other topics 4064:Architecture 4063: 3970:Etiquettical 3929: 3906: / 3754: 3746: 3721: 3719: 3618: 3612: 3607: 3602: 3598: 3596: 3585: 3578: 3574: 3569: 3564: 3560: 3550: 3548: 3536: 3508: 3483: 3464:Hagia Sophia 3457: 3428: 3407: 3401: 3391: 3381: 3371: 3360: 3358: 3242:Design of a 3199: 3190: 3189: 3054: 2935: 2930:Holy Trinity 2914: 2905:calligraphic 2894: 2865:) or at the 2772: 2767: 2759: 2721: 2667:Dome of the 2654:Hagia Sophia 2607: 2578:Hagia Sophia 2571: 2559: 2521: 2516: 2512: 2501: 2479:Shahi Hammam 2367: 2269:in Isfahan. 2248: 2243:roof lantern 2225: 2206: 2186: 2171: 2135:The related 2134: 2117: 2039: 2034:Qusayr 'Amra 2015: 2006: 1964: 1952: 1938: 1928: 1913: 1893: 1879: 1860: 1832:Bab al-Futuh 1820: 1813:Aqmar Mosque 1774: 1761:Bab al-Futuh 1723: 1698:rule of the 1695: 1689: 1624: 1622: 1610:Andalusiyyin 1567:Caliphate of 1553: 1542:area of the 1537: 1533: 1517: 1514: 1505: 1487: 1462:pointed arch 1451: 1422:Central Asia 1407: 1372: 1360: 1350: 1305:Abd al-Malik 1291: 1287: 1277: 1275: 1260:Qusayr 'Amra 1232: 1149: 1070: 1064: 1054: 1045: 1031: 1013: 865:Madih nabawi 428:Oriental rug 310:Indo-Islamic 296:Architecture 295: 180: 153:Mesopotamian 138: 104: 103: 75:Jameh Mosque 20796:Islamic art 20576:G. H. Hardy 20379:Renaissance 20349:Polykleitos 20287:Tony Robbin 20198:John Ernest 20193:Jan Dibbets 20143:Crucifixion 19966:Renaissance 19820:Mathematics 19793:Celtic knot 19756:Fractal art 19658:Proportion 19632:Perspective 19369:PWA Moderne 19255:Rationalism 19217:Art Nouveau 19205:Territorial 19185:Renaissance 19169:Queen Anne 19042:Elizabethan 18935:Plateresque 18930:Renaissance 18913:Sondergotik 18808:Carolingian 18754:Kievan Rus' 18506:Mathematics 18167:Calligraphy 18019:Principles, 17987:Exhibitions 17940:Marrakech ( 17936:Los Angeles 17904:Jerusalem ( 17866:collections 17817:Calligraphy 17697:Indo-Muslim 17679:Calligraphy 17613:Mosque lamp 17571:Other media 17490:Mina'i ware 17379:Bangladeshi 17135:Islamic art 16696:Windcatcher 16677:(courtyard) 16430:Mosque lamp 16410:Girih tiles 16367:Decorations 16245:Arabic dome 15251:The minaret 15128:Ali, Wijdan 15066:ocw.mit.edu 14039:30 December 13994:30 December 13989:Banglapedia 13586:: 124–147. 13149:Freely 2011 13134:Freely 2011 13029:Freely 2011 12082:30 December 11979:Lecomte, G. 11546:: 153–186. 10700:Tabbaa 2017 10480:30 December 10432:Oeconomicus 10194:. Taschen. 8348:Fazlur Khan 8135:East Africa 8101:Fula people 8030:(built 1817 7998:mosque–tomb 7955:Kumbi Saleh 7912:West Africa 7843:Volga Tatar 7668:influences. 7542:Philippines 7463: 1780 7454:complex in 7417: 1673 7412:in Lahore ( 7186: 1450 7140:(1591) and 7113:) built by 7111: 1780 7051:sarcophagus 6694:Ribera Alta 6500:Romanticist 6466:(Granada). 6313:A historic 6207:Mimar Sinan 6084:founded by 6003:Mimar Sinan 5991:Middle East 5904:, Jerusalem 5860:Bab Zuweila 5780:(hospital). 5572:Gök Medrese 5504: 1250 5408:Gök Medrese 5315:(1228–1229) 5090:Shah Mosque 5056:during the 5042:Shah Mosque 5016:Gawhar Shad 4788: 1127 4607: 1127 4552:Taj al-Mulk 4525: 1127 4502:Transoxiana 4498:Qarakhanids 4486:Caspian Sea 4474:Afghanistan 4413:Hellenistic 4301:Middle Ages 4069:Calligraphy 4026:Mathematics 3996:Theological 3916:Eschatology 3837:Jama Masjid 3702:Jama Masjid 3682:Iznik tiles 3539:orientation 3513:balcony at 3490:Lahore Fort 3433:balcony in 3414:Bara Gunbad 3365:, a wooden 3224:pendentives 3196:Upper Egypt 3152:Shah Mosque 2795:Eram Garden 2732:Oeconomicus 2586:Hagia Irene 2567:Mimar Sinan 2074:Qasr Harane 1910:Greco-Roman 1906:Middle East 1894:wast ad-dar 1840:Bab Zuweila 1836:Bab al-Nasr 1716:Transoxiana 1612:mosques in 1586:al-Hakam II 1548:al-Hakam II 1434:Islamic art 1379:Abbasid era 1229:influences. 1191:Umayyad era 1123:), and the 1105:Mesopotamia 1095:regions of 1077:Middle East 1063:. When the 1016:Islamic era 767:South Asian 667:Azerbaijani 599:Chaand Raat 458:Turkmen rug 388:Calligraphy 305:Azerbaijani 20785:Categories 20550:Owen Jones 20397:De pictura 20302:Oliver Sin 20252:Andy Lomas 20101:Relativity 19832:String art 19746:Fiber arts 19627:Paraboloid 19526:Portuguese 19400:Postmodern 19349:Organicism 19237:Modernisme 19222:Jugendstil 19081:Revivalism 19069:Industrial 19052:Portuguese 18826:Romanesque 18721:Achaemenid 18581:philosophy 18528:Psychology 18501:Inventions 18454:solidarity 18404:Philosophy 18384:Secularism 18298:Golden Age 18235:Capitalism 18182:Literature 18093:Stilfragen 18021:influences 17893:Istanbul ( 17826:The garden 17782:Decoration 17751:Other arts 17646:Miniatures 17531:Embroidery 17485:Lustreware 17344:Decoration 17307:Mashrabiya 17215:Indonesian 16979:Influences 16894:Well house 16665:Mashrabiya 16313:Hussainiya 16249:Onion dome 16040:Indonesian 16028:Qutb Shahi 15316:2013-03-17 15241:2013-03-15 15149:2013-03-17 15108:2018-07-25 15071:2018-07-25 14543:2023-01-04 14311:: 179–194. 14230:2006-04-08 14192:Java Style 13823:Asher 1992 13731:2022-06-10 13536:2023-02-20 13494:2020-04-16 13416:2019-11-17 13345:0870996371 13263:2020-06-09 13239:0500274290 13214:0500274290 13176:Kuban 2010 13119:Kuban 2010 13075:2007-08-20 13012:2007-08-20 12898:. Fayard. 12868:2021-06-10 12563:2021-10-03 12338:2021-10-02 11399:: 188–189. 11374:Heidleberg 11088:2018-12-12 11064:2021-06-09 11042:Bloom 2013 11030:Bloom 2013 11018:Bloom 2013 10991:Bloom 2013 10979:Bloom 2013 10936:0905743636 10924:Kensington 10904:Bloom 2013 10892:Bloom 2013 10866:2018-12-12 10717:mashrabiya 10268:Bloom 2020 10256:Bloom 2020 10227:Bloom 2020 10215:Bloom 2020 10201:3822876348 10062:23 January 9831:2020-11-23 9766:27 October 9614:Bloom 2020 9562:Bloom 2020 9551:Bloom 2020 9177:Flood 2001 8562:References 8555:Well House 8388:Zaha Hadid 8299:, and the 8292:مِـحْـرَاب 8105:Dinguiraye 8080:Dinguiraye 7959:Mauritania 7943:Mauritania 7684:employs a 7615:Yogyakarta 7580:chronogram 7436:Aurangabad 7391:Gol Gumbaz 7212:Qutb Minar 7171:Bangladesh 7158:terracotta 7142:Gol Gumbaz 7095:Wazir Khan 7059:Aurangabad 7043:Shah Jahan 6972:Qutb Minar 6679:bell tower 6392:Visigothic 6337:Safranbolu 5951:Alexandria 5900:(1482) at 5740:Heliopolis 5736:Alexandria 5633:until the 5629:, and the 5473:Sultan Han 5413:Sultan Han 5252:Diyarbakir 5148:built the 5146:Nur al-Din 5112:Diyarbakir 5100:See also: 5078:haft-rangi 5069:Shah Abbas 5000:Kazakhstan 4949:Uzbekistan 4922:Soltaniyeh 4855:extensive 4833:See also: 4811:Qarakhanid 4766:Qarakhanid 4762:Uzbekistan 4691:Ghaznavid 4537:Kyrgyzstan 4520:survives ( 4466:Ghaznavids 4394:Influences 4316:cul-de-sac 4261:ideal city 4077:Literature 4019:Inventions 3975:Hygienical 3939:Mysticism 3877:Philosophy 3738:microphone 3573:direction 3556:قِـبْـلَـة 3488:screen at 3430:Mashrabiya 3388:Rajasthani 3362:mashrabiya 3208:Uzbekistan 3096:Iznik tile 3011:Sultan Han 2926:Qur'an 112 2871:Generalife 2845:), and at 2787:Fin Garden 2775:Pasargadae 2638:pendentive 2565:architect 2540:Almoravids 2508:Al-Andalus 2362:See also: 2281:Dome with 2227:period of 2161:See also: 1987:colonnades 1882:courtyards 1851:Courtyards 1606:Qarawiyyin 1560:Emirate of 1402: 775 1326:al-Andalus 1307:) and the 1296:al-Walid I 1125:Ghassanids 915:Tambourine 692:Indonesian 653:Literature 614:Imamat Day 398:Embroidery 315:Indonesian 249:See also: 169:arabesques 161:decoration 20361:Vitruvius 20335:Theorists 20115:Waterfall 20020:19th–20th 19948:Taj Mahal 19928:Parthenon 19905:Buildings 19859:Continuum 19827:Sculpture 19803:Interlace 19597:Algorithm 19487:Dravidian 19446:Neomodern 19410:High-tech 19390:Brutalism 19383:1950–2000 19327:Stalinist 19260:Mycenaean 19248:1900–1950 19086:Byzantine 19062:Ukrainian 19047:Naryshkin 19012:Edwardian 18985:1750–1900 18956:Palladian 18951:Manueline 18944:1500–1750 18819:1000–1500 18759:Muscovite 18746:Byzantine 18694:Classical 18682:Mycenaean 18659:Neolithic 18576:cosmology 18571:mysticism 18549:Education 18489:cosmology 18484:Astronomy 18444:Astrology 18427:dialectic 18335:consensus 18330:Democracy 18245:Socialism 18212:Economics 18157:Arabesque 18055:Grotesque 17968:Singapore 17952:Melbourne 17790:Arabesque 17219:Malaysian 16953:Resources 16716:Religious 16686:Shabestan 16644:Hypostyle 16626:Shadirvan 16395:Arabesque 16318:Imamzadeh 16283:Religious 16263:Semi-dome 16210:Ogee arch 16179:Chahartaq 16142:Materials 16069:Almoravid 16044:Malaysian 15784:(1996) . 15665:. Brill. 15570:873228274 15495:. BRILL. 15269:856037134 15001:132531146 14826:(Report). 14283:225378507 13626:. Brill. 12152:1873-9830 12146:. Brill. 11913:. Brill. 11581:: 57–65. 11416:structure 11254:0031-2746 11134:cite book 10810:117528323 10722:shanashil 10599:2076-0752 10583:(3): 10. 10385:cite book 10116:Huff, D. 9879:1573-3912 9278:. Brill. 9250:0732-2992 9236:: 31–49. 9067:. Brill. 8864:1873-9830 8848:. Brill. 8589:. Brill. 8567:Citations 8278:I. M. Pei 8247:Islamabad 8191:Mogadishu 8168:limestone 8060:parabolic 7967:Awdaghust 7947:sandstone 7658:Indonesia 7639:Indonesia 7595:paduraksa 7552:Indonesia 7538:Singapore 7530:Indonesia 7513:paduraksa 7504:Indonesia 7349:Agra Fort 7326:Hyderabad 7322:Charminar 7255:Ahmedabad 7138:Hyderabad 7134:Charminar 7106:complex ( 7078:Agra Fort 7063:Aurangzeb 7039:Taj Mahal 6954:began in 6934:Taj Mahal 6900:mud-brick 6510:Synagogue 6479:Christian 6424:Marrakesh 6388:Byzantine 6321:Bosphorus 6101:darüşşifa 6086:Mehmed II 6050:Vedat Tek 5979:Byzantine 5479:and Konya 5376:Saruhanid 5138:Classical 5129:al-Jazira 5116:Hasankeyf 5034:in Herat. 4945:Samarkand 4914:Ilkhanate 4903:Il-Arslan 4632:ruled in 4582:built in 4514:Samarkand 4500:ruled in 4337:asabiyyah 4312:hospitals 4252:decumanus 4200:al-miṣrān 4169:(Arabic: 4059:Astrology 4014:Astronomy 3991:Political 3263:squinches 2901:arabesque 2851:New Delhi 2839:Taj Mahal 2829:, all in 2815:Abbasabad 2758:, or the 2528:Aljafería 2421:Taj Mahal 2386:Taj Mahal 2352:, Isfahan 2311:Samarqand 2283:squinches 2197:spherical 2193:octagonal 2189:squinches 2097:Qasr Amra 2089:Firuzabad 2078:falsework 2040:In their 2036:in Jordan 1967:hypostyle 1947:and as a 1945:ablutions 1933:(Arabic: 1730:squinches 1704:Bawandids 1665:Al-Qata'i 1629:Aghlabids 1490:al-Mansur 1365:basilicas 1345:Jerusalem 1223:Byzantine 1165:hypostyle 1145:ar-Rusafa 1133:Khawarnaq 1129:suzerains 1101:Palestine 1083:were the 1061:Jerusalem 1050:courtyard 933:Bangsawan 910:Talempong 722:Malaysian 594:al-Ghadir 526:Jellabiya 516:Headscarf 423:Miniature 223:fountains 145:Byzantine 113:buildings 20769:Category 20496:Romantic 20174:Max Bill 20108:Reptiles 19923:Pantheon 19880:Octacube 19846:Artworks 19788:Knotting 19776:Muqarnas 19674:Symmetry 19602:Catenary 19590:Concepts 19499:Japanese 19477:Colonial 19465:Regional 19415:Arcology 19354:Art Deco 19344:Futurism 19287:De Stijl 19190:Romanian 19108:Egyptian 19103:Colonial 19057:Siberian 18867:Islamic 18836:Ottonian 18831:Galician 18741:Sasanian 18709:Herodian 18689:Etruscan 18511:Medicine 18474:Timeline 18422:Theology 18379:Quietism 18347:Feminism 18322:politics 18278:Timeline 18060:Moresque 17920:London ( 17864:Museums, 17849:Paradise 17834:Charbagh 17815:See also 17717:Nastaliq 17707:Muhaqqaq 17638:the book 17550:Woodwork 17509:Textiles 17470:Fritware 17342:See also 17327:Muqarnas 17322:Mocárabe 17279:Elements 17067:Part of 16903:Military 16839:Baradari 16832:Civilian 16655:Jharokha 16616:Mechouar 16553:Charbagh 16496:Andaruni 16470:Socarrat 16435:Muqarnas 16333:Maqsurah 16225:Vaulting 16154:Tadelakt 16135:Elements 16084:Zayyanid 16064:Aghlabid 15923:Archived 15482:30319450 15412:Muqarnas 15130:(1999). 14913:40338415 14881:23288982 14854:23288987 14809:20839141 14449:Timbuktu 14305:Tatarica 14107:, Delhi. 13894:(1996), 13580:Muqarnas 13388:99943973 13007:33228759 12896:Le Caire 12332:BBC News 11981:(eds.). 11832:Archived 11809:Archived 11575:Muqarnas 10930:, 1995. 10724:in Iraq" 10689:Muqarnas 10361:(1987). 10283:(1883). 10131:16 March 10005:Archived 9986:Archived 9932:Archived 9258:25769691 9230:Muqarnas 9212:Ali 1999 8502:See also 8469:maqsurah 8452:idolized 8251:Pakistan 8187:Zanzibar 8096:thatched 7989:Timbuktu 7971:Al-Bakri 7925:Timbuktu 7862:khanates 7701:Malaysia 7690:Buddhist 7611:Kotagede 7546:Thailand 7534:Malaysia 7274:Bagerhat 7195:do-chala 7179:Bagerhat 7167:Sasanian 7074:Red Fort 7010:and the 6970:and the 6960:Banbhore 6848:Sulayhid 6800:Ghardaïa 6619:Zaragoza 6580:Ghardaïa 6560:Medenine 6488:imitated 6464:Alhambra 6416:Kairouan 6368:Portugal 6356:European 6013:and the 6011:Istanbul 5885:of Cairo 5778:maristan 5688:muqarnas 5669:khanqahs 5607:Beyşehir 5524:muqarnas 5406:and the 5344:and the 5322:Armenian 5271:Ayyubids 5198:Artuqids 4968:Timurids 4941:madrasas 4937:Registan 4861:muqarnas 4716:Khorasan 4630:Artuqids 4576:Khorasan 4308:madrasas 4293:oriental 4209:Kairouan 4034:Medicine 3985:Military 3965:Economic 3960:Criminal 3941:(Sufism) 3882:Theology 3854:a series 3852:Part of 3807:in Cairo 3750:Muhammad 3510:Jharokha 3494:Pakistan 3383:jharokha 3307:Alhambra 3273:(1037–8) 3244:muqarnas 3228:cornices 3191:Muqarnas 3186:Muqarnas 3180:Muqarnas 3172:Peshawar 2918:Quran 19 2867:Alhambra 2863:Pakistan 2761:charbagh 2744:Lysander 2740:Socrates 2736:Xenophon 2724:Paradise 2717:Pakistan 2582:centring 2532:Zaragoza 2463:stellate 2419:Dome of 2350:Ālī Qāpū 2291:Sasanian 2267:Ālī Qāpū 2217:muqarnas 2211:and the 2174:Abbasids 2147:tilework 2066:Parthian 2054:Nabatean 2042:vaulting 2018:vaulting 2012:Vaulting 1983:basilica 1956:prayers. 1809:al-Hakim 1805:al-'Aziz 1725:muqarnas 1720:Samanids 1712:Khurasan 1708:Ziyarids 1696:de facto 1661:Tulunids 1633:Ifriqiya 1625:de facto 1418:Soghdian 1353:martyria 1227:Sasanian 1169:Damascus 1113:Lakhmids 1087:and the 1020:Muhammad 737:Nigerian 702:Kashmiri 696:Javanese 619:New Year 589:Arba'een 580:Holidays 541:Keffiyeh 477:Clothing 433:Paan dan 281:a series 279:Part of 215:khanqahs 195:madrasas 182:muqarnas 177:minarets 20728:Related 20342:Ancient 20076:Man Ray 20022:Century 19958:Artists 19815:Origami 19729:Pyramid 19607:Fractal 19536:Spanish 19531:Russian 19472:Chinese 19292:Bauhaus 19195:Russian 19173:Britain 19155:Moorish 19138:Baroque 19128:Mission 19074:British 19037:Petrine 19032:Maltese 19027:Italian 19017:English 18992:Baroque 18891:Ottoman 18886:Timurid 18851:Hoysala 18847:Indian 18786:Fatimid 18781:Abbasid 18776:Moorish 18771:Umayyad 18766:Islamic 18673:Aegean 18523:Physics 18367:schools 18270:History 18260:Welfare 18240:Poverty 18230:Banking 18220:History 18197:Pottery 18172:Gardens 18077:Mudéjar 17978:Tripoli 17956:Paris ( 17926:V&A 17854:Persian 17844:Ottoman 17758:Muraqqa 17737:Thuluth 17722:Persian 17669:Persian 17664:Ottoman 17636:Arts of 17621:Shabaka 17495:Persian 17462:Pottery 17447:Turkish 17442:Persian 17417:Carpets 17406:Ottoman 17402:Turkish 17396:Safavid 17384:Persian 17317:Minaret 17292:Banna'i 17264:Umayyad 17259:Timurid 17249:Swahili 17239:Ottoman 17234:Moorish 17224:Iranian 17198:Bengali 17178:Fatimid 17173:Chinese 17163:Ayyubid 17158:Abbasid 17001:Mudéjar 16965:ArchNet 16915:Alcázar 16788:Musalla 16773:Maqbara 16763:Madrasa 16753:Külliye 16748:Khanqah 16738:Gongbei 16637:cooling 16635:Passive 16601:Chhatri 16594:objects 16592:Outdoor 16541:Gardens 16517:Mirador 16455:Shabaka 16445:Qashani 16400:Banna'i 16343:Minaret 16285:objects 16275:(eaves) 16273:Chhajja 16220:Squinch 16121:Umayyad 16116:Timurid 16106:Swahili 16091:Ottoman 16074:Almohad 16059:Moorish 16049:Iranian 16018:Bengali 15998:Fatimid 15993:Chinese 15988:Ayyubid 15978:Abbasid 15886:ARCHNET 15788:(ed.). 15432:1523262 15120:Sources 14261:Bibcode 14095:, Agra. 13600:1523140 11990:Ned–Sam 11595:1523172 11283:al-Sham 10790:Bibcode 10438:11 June 10002:Pishtaq 9642:Bukhara 9052:Minaret 8539:Archnet 8446:Unlike 8301:pishtaq 8113:Senegal 8052:Nigeria 7929:Oualata 7810:pagodas 7796:, China 7778:Chinese 7660:, with 7576:Cirebon 7456:Lucknow 7395:Bijapur 7173:is the 7150:Bengali 7146:Bijapur 7119:Lucknow 7023:Timurid 6950:on the 6852:Rasulid 6838:, Yemen 6769:Mudejar 6627:period) 6534:kasbahs 6496:America 6436:Tlemcen 6432:Granada 6428:Seville 6412:Cordoba 6380:Amazigh 6170:of the 6090:tabhane 6082:külliye 6063:külliye 5987:Balkans 5983:Iranian 5959:Ottoman 5902:Al-Aqsa 5757:of the 5654:Qaytbay 5588:Kayseri 5497:Erzurum 5477:Aksaray 5421:Kayseri 5404:Erzurum 5396:Miletus 5350:Divriği 5334:Beyliks 5067:, when 5054:Abbas I 5050:Isfahan 5028:Mashhad 4889:period) 4857:arcades 4758:Bukhara 4739:Tughril 4626:Zengids 4550:vizier 4529:Vabkent 4510:Bukhara 4482:Ghurids 4433:Arabian 4375:Algiers 4332:nomadic 4328:façades 4269:Lebanon 4108:Pottery 3980:Marital 3872:History 3801:Qaytbay 3742:speaker 3716:minaret 3710:Minaret 3684:in the 3650:Uljaytu 3619:maqsura 3519:Jodhpur 3482:Use of 3409:maqsura 3398:Spanish 3393:mirador 3367:lattice 3305:in the 3210:), the 3200:in situ 3138:period) 3083:period) 3067:period) 3065:Marinid 3041:period) 3039:Ayyubid 3017:period) 2997:period) 2995:Artuqid 2875:Granada 2783:Isfahan 2750:prince 2748:Persian 2690:Gardens 2378:bulbous 2374:Ottoman 2285:in the 2229:Safavid 2176:to the 2142:pishtaq 2137:Persian 2125:Seljuks 2095:and in 1989:, like 1981:-style 1975:apadana 1875:Tunisia 1869:of the 1867:minaret 1767:vizier 1765:Fatimid 1751:Bukhara 1692:Seljuks 1684:Bukhara 1637:Tunisia 1618:Morocco 1582:Maghreb 1570:Córdoba 1563:Córdoba 1539:maqsura 1502:arcades 1430:Samarra 1426:Baghdad 1412:of the 1317:Al-Aqsa 1315:on the 1286:in the 1256:mosaics 1207:Umayyad 1181:muezzin 1177:minaret 1117:al-Hira 953:Ta'zieh 924:Theatre 900:Qawwali 890:Nasheed 835:Gamelan 830:Dastgah 787:Turkmen 782:Turkish 752:Punjabi 747:Persian 712:Kurdish 682:Gambian 672:Bengali 644:Raghaib 639:Bara’at 634:Ramadan 624:al-Qadr 609:al-Adha 604:al-Fitr 561:Songkok 468:Zardozi 350:Swahili 330:Persian 325:Ottoman 320:Moorish 256:Origins 235:bazaars 219:zawiyas 207:hammams 203:palaces 191:mosques 149:Iranian 121:secular 79:Isfahan 20543:Modern 20179:Martin 20042:Newton 19837:Tiling 19781:Zellij 19751:4D art 19541:Somali 19521:Newari 19504:Korean 19482:Indian 19374:Googie 19280:Cubism 19265:Modern 19165:Pueblo 19143:Rococo 19113:Gothic 19022:French 18997:Andean 18971:Mughal 18908:Gothic 18881:Mamluk 18841:Norman 18677:Minoan 18554:Ijazah 18434:Ethics 18225:Agency 18192:Poetry 17962:Louvre 17942:Museum 17889:Ghazni 17874:Berlin 17839:Mughal 17810:Zellij 17742:Tughra 17692:Diwani 17687:Arabic 17659:Mughal 17654:Arabic 17562:Minbar 17557:Khatam 17541:Suzani 17536:Soumak 17521:Damask 17452:Prayer 17435:Motifs 17332:Sitara 17312:Mihrab 17269:Yemeni 17229:Mamluk 17208:Mughal 16925:Kasbah 16874:Kasbah 16864:Hammam 16859:Ghorfa 16844:Bazaar 16823:Zawiya 16812:takyeh 16783:Mosque 16733:Dargah 16660:Kucheh 16606:Eidgah 16532:Zenana 16480:Zellij 16465:Sitara 16460:Shamsa 16348:Minbar 16338:Mihrab 16323:Kiswah 16308:Gonbad 16172:Arches 16126:Yemeni 16096:Somali 16079:Hafsid 16054:Mamluk 16033:Mughal 16023:Deccan 15971:Styles 15844:: 31. 15798: 15762: 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The 8427:Russia 8287:miḥrāb 8175:Shanga 8166:, and 8109:Guinea 8040:Djenné 7827:. The 7693:temple 7662:Mughal 7540:, the 7526:Brunei 7511:gate, 7438:(1678) 7419:–1674) 7235:Multan 7099:Punjab 7008:Multan 6980:spolia 6904:Rada'a 6891:Shibam 6872:Ta'izz 6836:Sana'a 6808:Yemeni 6556:ghorfa 6507:Jewish 6454:, the 6442:, the 6407:zellij 6390:, and 6376:Berber 6168:mihrab 6166:Tiled 6116:hammam 6111:mektep 6095:imaret 6019:Edirne 5993:. The 5755:Mihrab 5730:, the 5715:wikala 5706:kuttab 5696:Venice 5673:sabils 5627:Levant 5615:Mamluk 5388:Selçuk 5380:Manisa 5289:Mardin 5172:(e.g. 5170:Aleppo 5120:Mardin 5118:, and 4951:. The 4907:Tekesh 4697:Ghazni 4638:Jazira 4596:Qazvin 4588:Tehran 4548:Seljuk 4470:Ghazna 4324:atrium 4310:, and 4232:Jerash 4205:Fustat 4173:, pl. 4091:Poetry 3930:Tawhid 3646:Stucco 3614:minbar 3608:mihrab 3593:Mihrab 3586:Mihrab 3579:mihrab 3561:mihrab 3551:qiblah 3468:Turkey 3331:Edirne 3081:Nasrid 3056:zellij 3035:Aleppo 2924:(e.g. 2859:Lahore 2799:Shiraz 2791:Kashan 2713:Lahore 2709:Mughal 2622:Edirne 2597:, the 2483:Lahore 2444:Lahore 2263:stucco 2149:, and 2139:term, 2085:mortar 2082:gypsum 2050:Levant 1838:, and 1825:vizier 1821:mihrab 1781:Mahdia 1602:Toledo 1590:ribbed 1534:mihrab 1518:mihrab 1454:stucco 1373:mihrab 1361:mihrab 1292:mihrab 1279:mihrab 1245:, but 1153:Fustat 1141:Madaba 1137:mosaic 1111:: the 1093:steppe 1033:Hijrah 1028:Medina 1024:Arabia 958:Wayang 845:Ghazal 797:Uyghur 762:Somali 757:Sindhi 742:Pashto 732:Malian 717:Kyrgyz 707:Kazakh 662:Arabic 629:Mawlid 566:Taqiya 556:Salwar 546:Kupiah 536:Kameez 531:Kaftan 521:Jilbab 506:Chador 496:Boubou 448:Suzani 443:Soumak 413:Khatam 393:Damask 355:Yemeni 335:Somali 270:Medina 227:sabils 185:, and 171:, and 151:, and 95:Turkey 91:Edirne 20354:Canon 19810:Music 19766:Girih 19702:Forms 19667:Human 19492:Hindu 19210:Tudor 19118:Mayan 19007:Dutch 19002:Czech 18925:Aztec 18920:Incan 18439:Logic 18412:Early 18394:State 18374:Peace 18255:Usury 18250:Trust 18187:Music 17879:Cairo 17804:tiles 17800:Girih 17763:Hilya 17732:Taliq 17712:Naskh 17702:Kufic 17598:Glass 17583:Brass 17578:Music 17516:Batik 17480:Iznik 17430:Kilim 17392:Qajar 17388:Early 17287:Ablaq 17254:Tatar 17188:Hausa 16940:Ribat 16935:Qalat 16920:Amsar 16879:Mahal 16818:Türbe 16808:Takya 16803:Surau 16798:Rauza 16793:Qubba 16778:Mazar 16768:Maqam 16709:Types 16621:Sebil 16511:Liwan 16501:Harem 16489:Rooms 16405:Girih 16390:Alfiz 16384:Ablaq 16358:Zarih 16353:Qibla 16302:Dikka 16297:Bedug 16292:Anaza 16268:Tajug 16234:Roofs 16149:Qadad 16111:Tatar 16008:Hausa 15904:CyArk 15428:JSTOR 15391:[ 14997:S2CID 14909:JSTOR 14877:JSTOR 14850:JSTOR 14805:JSTOR 14301:(PDF) 14279:S2CID 14168:88–89 14137:86–87 13674:San῾a 13596:JSTOR 13384:S2CID 13364:(PDF) 11965:. 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