2288:
4087:), also called the Sharia court. Qadis were trained in Islamic law, though not necessarily to a level required to issue fatwas. Court personnel also included a number of assistants performing various roles. Judges were theoretically independent in their decisions, though they were appointed by the ruler and often experienced pressure from members of the ruling elite where their interests were at play. The role of qadis was to evaluate the evidence, establish the facts of the case, and issue a verdict based on the applicable rulings of Islamic jurisprudence. The qadi was supposed to solicit a fatwa from a mufti if it was unclear how the law should be applied to the case. Since Islamic legal theory does not recognize the distinction between private and public law, court procedures were identical for civil and criminal cases, and required a private plaintiff to produce evidence against the defendant. The main type of evidence was oral witness testimony. The standards of evidence for criminal cases were so strict that a conviction was often difficult to obtain even for apparently clear-cut cases. Most historians believe that because of these stringent procedural norms, qadi's courts at an early date lost their jurisdiction over criminal cases, which were instead handled in other types of courts.
4064:
1396:
4156:(religious scholars) were involved in management of communal affairs and acted as representatives of the Muslim population vis-à-vis the ruling dynasties, who before the modern era had limited capacity for direct governance. Military elites relied on the ulema for religious legitimation, with financial support for religious institutions being one of the principal means through which these elites established their legitimacy. In turn, the ulema depended on the support of the ruling elites for the continuing operation of religious institutions. Although the relationship between secular rulers and religious scholars underwent a number of shifts and transformations in different times and places, this mutual dependence characterized Islamic history until the start of the modern era. Additionally, since Sharia contained few provisions in several areas of public law, Muslim rulers were able to legislate various collections of economic, criminal and administrative laws outside the jurisdiction of Islamic jurists, the most famous of which is the
6633:. It was determined that it would "do away with the State's role as the guarantor of individual rights and freedoms" and "infringe the principle of non-discrimination between individuals as regards their enjoyment of public freedoms, which is one of the fundamental principles of democracy". In an analysis, Maurits S. Berger found the ruling to be "nebulous" and surprising from a legal point of view, since the Court neglected to define what it meant by "Sharia" and would not, for example, be expected to regard Sharia rules for Islamic rituals as contravening European human rights values. Kevin Boyle also criticized the decision for not distinguishing between extremist and mainstream interpretations of Islam and implying that peaceful advocacy of Islamic doctrines ("an attitude which fails to respect ") is not protected by the European Convention provisions for freedom of religion.
5555:. Several countries, including Iran, Pakistan, Sudan, and some Nigerian states have incorporated hudud rules into their criminal justice systems, which, however, retained fundamental influences of earlier Westernizing reforms. In practice, these changes were largely symbolic, and aside from some cases brought to trial to demonstrate that the new rules were being enforced, hudud punishments tended to fall into disuse, sometimes to be revived depending on the local political climate. The supreme courts of Sudan and Iran have rarely approved verdicts of stoning or amputation, and the supreme courts of Pakistan and Nigeria have never done so. Nonetheless, Islamization campaigns have also had repercussions in several other areas of law, leading to curtailment of rights of women and religious minorities, and in the case of Sudan contributing to the breakout of a civil war.
6413:
contracts drafted with reference to such laws, as long as they do not violate secular law or the U.S. constitution. After failing to gather support for a federal law making observing Sharia a felony punishable by up to 20 years in prison, anti-Sharia activists have focused on state legislatures. By 2014, bills aimed against use of Sharia have been introduced in 34 states and passed in 11. A notable example of this would be 2010 Oklahoma State
Question 755, which sought to permanently ban the use of Sharia law in courts. While approved by voters, the Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals placed an injunction on the law. Citing the unconstitutionality of the law's impartial focus on a specific religion, the law was struck down and never took effect. These bills have generally referred to banning foreign or religious law in order to thwart legal challenges.
1942:: it is the consensus that could in principle elevate a ruling based on probable evidence to absolute certainty. This classical doctrine drew its authority from a series of hadiths stating that the Islamic community could never agree on an error. This form of consensus was technically defined as agreement of all competent jurists in any particular generation, acting as representatives of the community. However, the practical difficulty of obtaining and ascertaining such an agreement meant that it had little impact on legal development. A more pragmatic form of consensus, which could be determined by consulting works of prominent jurists, was used to confirm a ruling so that it could not be reopened for further discussion. The cases for which there was a consensus account form less than 1 percent of the body of classical jurisprudence.
4240:
cases or at all. This legal framework was implemented with varying degree of rigor. In some periods or towns, all inhabitants apparently used the same court without regard for their religious affiliation. The Mughal emperor
Aurangzeb imposed Islamic law on all his subjects, including provisions traditionally applicable only to Muslims, while some of his predecessors and successors are said to have abolished jizya. According to Ottoman records, non-Muslim women took their cases to a Sharia court when they expected a more favorable outcome on marital, divorce and property questions than in Christian and Jewish courts. Over time, non Muslims in the Ottoman Empire could be more or less likely to use Islamic courts. For example, in 1729 at the Islamic court in
6977:
7352:, "t no time did the classical jurists offer any approval or legitimacy to what we nowadays call terrorism" and the terrorist practice of suicide bombing "has no justification in terms of Islamic theology, law or tradition". In the modern era the notion of jihad has lost its jurisprudential relevance and instead gave rise to an ideological and political discourse. While modernist Islamic scholars have emphasized defensive and non-military aspects of jihad, some radicals have advanced aggressive interpretations that go beyond the classical theory. For al-Qaeda ideologues, in jihad all means are legitimate, including targeting Muslim non-combatants and the mass killing of non-Muslim civilians.
4008:
6297:, including Afghanistan (99%), Iraq (91%), Niger (86%), Malaysia (86%), Pakistan (84%), Morocco (83%), Bangladesh (82%), Egypt (74%), Indonesia (72%), Jordan (71%), Uganda (66%), Ethiopia (65%), Mali (63%), Ghana (58%), and Tunisia (56%). In Muslim regions of Southern-Eastern Europe and Central Asia, the support is less than 50%: Russia (42%), Kyrgyzstan (35%), Tajikistan (27%), Kosovo (20%), Albania (12%), Turkey (12%), Kazakhstan (10%), Azerbaijan (8%). Regional averages of support were 84% in South Asia, 77% in Southeast Asia, 74% in the Middle-East/North Africa, 64%, in Sub-Saharan Africa, 18% in Southern-Eastern Europe, and 12% in Central Asia .
4140:). In court disputes, qadis were generally less concerned with legal theory than with achieving an outcome that enabled the disputants to resume their previous social relationships. This could be accomplished by avoiding a total loss for the losing side or simply giving them a chance to articulate their position in public and obtain a measure of psychological vindication. Islamic law required judges to be familiar with local customs, and they exercised a number of other public functions in the community, including mediation and arbitration, supervision of public works, auditing waqf finances, and looking after the interests of orphans.
6877:
6361:
4144:
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religious topics. At first, these circles were fluid in their membership, but with time distinct regional legal schools crystallized around shared sets of methodological principles. As the boundaries of the schools became clearly delineated, the authority of their doctrinal tenets came to be vested in a master jurist from earlier times, who was henceforth identified as the school's founder. In the course of the first three centuries of Islam, all legal schools came to accept the broad outlines of classical legal theory, according to which
Islamic law had to be firmly rooted in the Quran and hadith.
4327:, was treated by the British as a model for legal reforms in their other colonies. Like the British in India, colonial administrations typically sought to obtain precise and authoritative information about indigenous laws, which prompted them to prefer classical Islamic legal texts over local judicial practice. This, together with their conception of Islamic law as a collection of inflexible rules, led to an emphasis on traditionalist forms of Sharia that were not rigorously applied in the pre-colonial period and served as a formative influence on the modern identity politics of the Muslim world.
2564:
4468:
3992:(legal opinions), generally free of charge, in response to questions from laypersons or requests for consultation coming from judges, which would be stated in general terms. Fatwas were regularly upheld in courts, and when they were not, it was usually because the fatwa was contradicted by a more authoritative legal opinion. The stature of jurists was determined by their scholarly reputation. The majority of classical legal works, written by author-jurists, were based in large part on fatwas of distinguished muftis. These fatwas functioned as a form of legal
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maturity was accepted in court, while marriage under the minimum age was forbidden. During the 20th century, most countries in the Middle East followed the
Ottoman precedent in defining the age of competence, while raising the minimum age to 15 or 16 for boys and 13–16 for girls. Marriage below the age of competence is subject to approval by a judge and the legal guardian of the adolescent. Egypt diverged from this pattern by setting the age limits of 18 for boys and 16 for girls, without a distinction between competence for marriage and minimum age.
6181:
4482:(1849–1905). Abduh viewed only Sharia rules pertaining to religious rituals as inflexible, and argued that the other Islamic laws should be adapted based on changing circumstances in consideration of social well-being. Following precedents of earlier Islamic thinkers, he advocated restoring Islam to its original purity by returning to the Quran and the sunna instead of following the medieval schools of jurisprudence. He championed a creative approach to ijtihad that involved direct interpretation of scriptures as well as the methods of
8305:"Another key principle that the early Islamic jurists developed was the concept of urf, or customary law. Urf is the customary practices of a particular community. The early jurists recognized that urf could be used to supplement or complement Islamic law. For example, if there was no clear ruling on a particular issue in the Quran or hadith, the jurists could look to urf for guidance." The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law; Emon, Anver M., and Rumee Ahmed, editors. The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law. Oxford University Press, 2018. p. 25.
5624:
6372:, Sharia has been called a source of "hysteria", "more controversial than ever", the one aspect of Islam that inspires "particular dread". On the Internet, "dozens of self-styled counter-jihadis" emerged to campaign against Sharia law, describing it in strict interpretations resembling those of Salafi Muslims. Also, fear of Sharia law and of the ideology of extremism among Muslims as well as certain congregations donating money to terrorist organizations within the Muslim community reportedly spread to mainstream conservative
6061:
of Sharia, particularly questions regarding religious rituals and everyday life. Modern fatwas deal with topics as diverse as insurance, sex-change operations, moon exploration and beer drinking. Most Muslim-majority states have established national organizations devoted to issuing fatwas, and these organizations to a considerable extent replaced independent muftis as religious guides for the general population. State-employed muftis generally promote a vision of Islam that is compatible with state law of their country.
7773:"...the essential features of old Muhammadan jurisprudence, such as the idea of the 'living tradition' of the ancient schools of law ; a body of common doctrine expressing the earliest effort to systematize; legal maxims which often reflect a slightly later stage, and an important nucleus of legal traditions... it is safe to say that Muhammadan legal science started in the later part of the Umaiyad period, taking the legal practice of the time as its raw material and endorsing, modifying, or rejecting it"
2044:
5679:
constitutions usually also refer to universal principles such as democracy and human rights, leaving it up to legislators and the judiciary to work out how these norms are to be reconciled in practice. Conversely, some countries (e.g., Algeria), whose constitution does not mention Sharia, possess Sharia-based family laws. Nisrine Abiad identifies
Bahrain, Iran, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia as states with "strong constitutional consequences of Sharia "on the organization and functioning of power".
4336:
6725:
5857:
6865:
5983:
swearing their innocence, refusal thereof can result in a verdict for the plaintiff. Taking an oath for
Muslims can be a grave act; one study of courts in Morocco found that lying litigants would often "maintain their testimony right up to the moment of oath-taking and then to stop, refuse the oath, and surrender the case." Accordingly, defendants are not routinely required to swear before testifying, which would risk casually profaning the Quran should the defendant commit perjury.
4421:(qadi's/Sharia court) were preserved, they generally came to mean judge and court in the Western sense. While in the traditional Sharia court all parties represented themselves, in modern courts they are represented by professional lawyers educated in Western-style law schools, and the verdicts are subject to review in an appeals court. In the 20th century, most countries abolished a parallel system of Sharia courts and brought all cases under a national civil court system.
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accounting. Such factors, according to Timur Kuran, have played a significant role in retarding economic development in the Middle East. However, the rise of monopoly wealth and corporations have proven to also be detrimental to the economic equality of a society. Ziauddin Sardar also suggests that the promotion of equitable wealth distribution and suppression of monopoly capital are a part of Islam's message that emphasises genuine equity and justice.
3914:
across the Muslim world without exclusive regional restrictions, but they each came to dominate in different parts of the world. For example, the Maliki school is predominant in North and West Africa; the Hanafi school in South and
Central Asia; the Shafi'i school in Lower Egypt, East Africa, and Southeast Asia; and the Hanbali school in North and Central Arabia. The first centuries of Islam also witnessed a number of short-lived Sunni madhhabs. The
1454:. The basis of this resolution was that a member from the tribe to which the murderer belonged was handed over to the victim's family for execution, equivalent to the social status of the murdered person. The "condition of social equivalence" meant the execution of a member of the murderer's tribe who was equivalent to the murdered person. For example, only a slave could be killed for a slave, and a woman for a woman. In other cases,
8561:: "Muslim fundamentalists claim that Shari’a and its sources constitute a divine law that regulates all aspects of Muslim life, as well as Muslim societies and Muslim states . Muslim modernists, on the other hand, criticize the old approaches to Shari’a by traditional Muslim jurists as obsolete and instead advocate innovative approaches to Shari’a that accommodate more pluralist and relativist views within a democratic framework."
1556:
6420:, "nthropological research shows that people in local communities often do not distinguish clearly whether and to what extent their norms and practices are based on local tradition, tribal custom, or religion. Those who adhere to a confrontational view of Sharia tend to ascribe many undesirable practices to Sharia and religion overlooking custom and culture, even if high-ranking religious authorities have stated the opposite."
4425:
Sharia-based laws are an authentic representation of the pre-modern legal tradition. In reality, they generally represent the result of extensive legal reforms made in the modern era. As traditional
Islamic jurists lost their role as authoritative interpreters of the laws applied in courts, these laws were codified by legislators and administered by state systems which employed a number of devices to effect changes, including:
4501:. He drafted the civil codes of Egypt (1949) and Iraq (1951) based on a variety of sources, including classical fiqh, European laws, existing Arab and Turkish codes, and the history of local court decisions. Sanhuri's Egyptian code incorporated few classical Sharia rules, but he drew on traditional jurisprudence more frequently for the Iraqi code. Sanhuri's codes were subsequently adopted in some form by most Arab countries.
3777:(social relations). Many jurists further divided the body of substantive jurisprudence into "the four quarters", called rituals, sales, marriage and injuries. Each of these terms figuratively stood for a variety of subjects. For example, the quarter of sales would encompass partnerships, guaranty, gifts, and bequests, among other topics. Juristic works were arranged as a sequence of such smaller topics, each called a "book" (
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1933:; however, the vast majority of hadiths were handed down by only one or a few transmitters and were therefore seen to yield only probable knowledge. The uncertainty was further compounded by ambiguity of the language contained in some hadiths and Quranic passages. Disagreements on the relative merits and interpretation of the textual sources allowed legal scholars considerable leeway in formulating alternative rulings.
4212:
9840:"short reports (sometimes just a line or two) recording what an early figure, such as a companion of the prophet or Muhammad himself, said or did on a particular occasion, preceded by a chain of transmitters". However, she adds that "nowadays, hadith almost always means hadith from Muhammad himself." Crone, Patricia (10 June 2008). "What do we actually know about Muhammad?". Open Democracy. Retrieved 16 April 2018.
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678:
11849:(Applications nos. 41340/98, 41342/98, 41343/98 and 41344/98), Judgment, Strasbourg, 13 February 2003, No. 123 (siehe S. 39): "sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy, since principles such as pluralism in the political sphere and the constant evolution of public freedoms have no place in it and a regime based on sharia clearly diverges from Convention values"; see Alastair Mowbray,
4367:, was produced for use in both Sharia and secular courts. It adopted the Turkish language for the benefit of the new legal class who no longer possessed competence in the Arabic idiom of traditional jurisprudence. The code was based on Hanafi law, and its authors selected minority opinions over authoritative ones when they were felt to better "suit the present conditions". The Mecelle was promulgated as a
1673:. It was an important area of debate among traditional fiqh scholars how much space should be given to rational methods in creating provisions such as extracting provisions from religious texts, as well as expanding, restricting, abolishing or postponing these provisions according to new situations, considering the purpose and benefit, together with new sociologies, in the face of changing conditions.
4276:
laws, which impeded colonial administration and were soon replaced by
European regulations. Islamic commercial laws were also replaced by European (mostly French) laws in Muslim states which retained formal independence, because these states increasingly came to rely on Western capital and could not afford to lose the business of foreign merchants who refused to submit to Islamic regulations.
3878:
1657:" to derive judgments for new situations by taking into account certain purposes and mesalih. Textual phrases usually dealt with under simple antithetical headings: general and particular, command and prohibition, obscure and clear, truth and metaphor. It also comprises methods for establishing authenticity of hadith and for determining when the legal force of a scriptural passage is
77:
2725:
2412:, there was a hierarchy and power ranking among the sources of Sharia; for example, a subcategory or an auxiliary source will not be able to eliminate a provision clearly stated in the main source or prohibit a practice that was not prohibited though it was known and practiced during the prophetic period. If we look at an example such as the abolition of the validity of
5970:) payable from a Muslim man to a Muslim woman. The brideprice is considered by a Sharia court as a form of debt. Written contracts were traditionally considered paramount in Sharia courts in the matters of dispute that are debt-related, which includes marriage contracts. Written contracts in debt-related cases, when notarized by a judge, is deemed more reliable.
8296:"Customary law has also been an important part of Islamic law. It was used to resolve disputes that were not covered by sharia, and it also helped to adapt sharia to the needs of men in different societies and cultures." Islamic Law: An Introduction by John Esposito (2019) Esposito, John. Islamic Law: An Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2019. Page 31
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objections from religious conservatives. Various procedural changes have been made in a number of countries to restrict polygamy, give women greater rights in divorce, and eliminate child marriage. Inheritance has been the legal domain least susceptible to reform, as legislators have been generally reluctant to tamper with the highly technical system of
4321:
the
Islamic legal system in India were supplanted by British law, with the exception of Sharia rules retained in family laws and some property transactions. Among other changes, these reforms brought about abolition of slavery, prohibition of child marriage, and a much more frequent use of capital punishment. The resulting legal system, known as
6908:
before the 11th century, but later jurists lowered the bar for applying the death penalty, allowing judges to interpret the apostasy law in different ways, which they did sometimes leniently and sometimes strictly. In the late 19th century, the use of criminal penalties for apostasy fell into disuse, although civil penalties were still applied.
9756:"well into the second century A.H. scholarly opinion on the birth date of the Prophet displayed a range of variance of 85 years. On the assumption that chronology is crucial to the stabilization of any tradition of historical narrative, whether transmitted orally or in writing, one can see in this state of affairs a clear indication that
4262:
where peasants "almost always" won cases against oppressive landowners, and non-Muslims often prevailed in disputes against Muslims, including such powerful figures as the governor of their province. In family matters the Sharia court was seen as a place where the rights of women could be asserted against their husband's transgressions.
4517:, which sought to reconcile universal human rights norms and the country's Islamic heritage, was drafted by a commission that included parliamentarians, religious scholars and feminist activists, and the result has been praised by international rights groups as an example of progressive legislation achieved within an Islamic framework.
6695:
human rights agenda would be to rectify the legal inequality of women, the suppression of political dissent, the curtailment of free expression, the persecution of ethnic minorities and religious dissenters—in short, protecting their citizens from egregious human rights violations. Instead, they are worrying about protecting Islam."
6119:, but its legal opinions are not binding. The vast amount of fatwas produced in the modern world attests to the importance of Islamic authenticity to many Muslims. However, there is little research available to indicate to what extent Muslims acknowledge the authority of different muftis or heed their rulings in real life.
7031:) forms and in part to prevailing social tolerance toward same-sex relationships. Historical instances of prosecution for homosexual acts are rare, and those which followed Sharia rules are even rarer. Public attitudes toward homosexuality in the Muslim world turned more negative starting from the 19th century through the
3818:, where the goal of punishment is correction or rehabilitation of the culprit and its form is largely left to the judge's discretion. In practice, since early on in Islamic history, criminal cases were usually handled by ruler-administered courts or local police using procedures which were only loosely related to Sharia.
7163:, the pillar of late medieval Sunni Hadith scholarship, concludes that, contrary to what seems to be an explicit command in the Qur'an, the Hadiths of the Prophet leave no doubt that striking one's wife to discipline her actually falls under the Shariah ruling of 'strongly disliked' or 'disliked verging on prohibited'.
2541:) 2.The expression of the text referring to the subject must be clear and precise enough not to allow other interpretations. The term wajib is used for situations that do not meet the second of these conditions. However, this understanding may not be sufficient to explain every situation. For example, Hanafis accept
4025:, which spread during the 10th and 11th centuries. Madrasas were institutions of higher learning devoted principally to study of law, but also offering other subjects such as theology, medicine, and mathematics. The madrasa complex usually consisted of a mosque, boarding house, and a library. It was maintained by a
4037:) certifying a student's competence in its subject matter. Students specializing in law would complete a curriculum consisting of preparatory studies, the doctrines of a particular madhhab, and training in legal disputation, and finally write a dissertation, which earned them a license to teach and issue fatwas.
6301:
who support making Sharia the law of the land, most do not believe that it should be applied to non-Muslims. In the Muslim-majority countries surveyed this proportion varied between 74% (of 74% in Egypt) and 19% (of 10% in Kazakhstan), as percentage of those who favored making Sharia the law of the land.
17100:
The religious requirement that new slaves be pagans and need for continued imports to maintain slave population made Africa an important source of slaves for the Islamic world. (...) In Islamic tradition, slavery was perceived as a means of converting non-Muslims. One task of the master was religious
7056:
is currently a legal punishment in Brunei, Iran, Mauritania, some northern states in Nigeria, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, parts of Somalia, and Yemen, all of which have Sharia-based criminal laws. It is unclear whether the laws of Afghanistan and United Arab Emirates provide for the death penalty
6808:
subjects free speech to unspecified Sharia restrictions: Article 22(a) of the Declaration states that "Everyone shall have the right to express his opinion freely in such manner as would not be contrary to the principles of the Shariah." Others, in contrast, consider blasphemy laws to violate freedom
6701:
states that Sharia is structured around the concept of mutual obligations of a collective, and it considers individual human rights as potentially disruptive and unnecessary to its revealed code of mutual obligations. In giving priority to this religious collective rather than individual liberty, the
6110:
In the internet age, a large number of websites provide fatwas in response to queries from around the world, in addition to radio shows and satellite television programs offering call-in fatwas. Erroneous and sometimes bizarre fatwas issued by unqualified or eccentric individuals in recent times have
6037:
for Muslims in 2004, though according to a 2006 US State Department report, the penal code still discriminates against other religious minorities and women. According to Human Rights Watch and the US State Department, in Saudi Arabia Jewish or Christian male plaintiffs are entitled to half the amount
5950:
cases in favor of eyewitnesses in some modern interpretations. In the case of regulations that were part of local Malaysian legislation that did not go into effect, this could cause severe difficulties for women plaintiffs in rape cases. In Pakistan, DNA evidence is rejected in paternity cases on the
5927:
According to classical jurisprudence, testimony must be from at least two free Muslim male witnesses, or one Muslim male and two Muslim females, who are not related parties and who are of sound mind and reliable character. Testimony to establish the crime of adultery, fornication or rape must be from
5696:
Countries in the Muslim world generally have criminal codes influenced by civil law or common law, and in some cases a combination of Western legal traditions. Saudi Arabia has never adopted a criminal code and Saudi judges still follow traditional Hanbali jurisprudence. In the course of Islamization
5542:
punishments are at the core of the divine Sharia because they are specified by the letter of scripture rather than by human interpreters. Modern Islamists have often rejected, at least in theory, the stringent procedural constraints developed by classical jurists to restrict their application. To the
4261:
Formal legal disabilities for some groups coexisted with a legal culture that viewed Sharia as a reflection of universal principles of justice, which involved protection of the weak against injustices committed by the strong. This conception was reinforced by the historical practice of Sharia courts,
4257:
Classical fiqh acknowledges and regulates slavery as a legitimate institution. It granted slaves certain rights and protections, improving their status relative to Greek and Roman law, and restricted the scenarios under which people could be enslaved. However, slaves could not inherit or enter into a
1928:
The body of hadith provides more detailed and practical legal guidance, but it was recognized early on that not all of them were authentic. Early Islamic scholars developed personal criteria for evaluating their authenticity by assessing trustworthiness of the individuals listed in their transmission
15635:
that regarding apostasy as a wrongdoing is not a sign of intolerance of other religions, and is not aimed at one's freedom to choose a religion or to leave Islam and embrace another faith, but that on the contrary, it is more correct to say that the punishment is enforced as a safety precaution when
6907:
writes that " a culture whose lynchpin is religion, religious principles and religious morality, apostasy is in some way equivalent to high treason in the modern nation-state". Early Islamic jurists set the standard for apostasy from Islam so high that practically no apostasy verdict could be passed
6657:
tradition", which could not be implemented by Muslims without trespassing the Islamic law. Islamic scholars and Islamist political parties consider 'universal human rights' arguments as imposition of a non-Muslim culture on Muslim people, a disrespect of customary cultural practices and of Islam. In
6451:
It has been argued that the extent to which Sharia is compatible with democracy depends on how it is culturally interpreted, with a cultural position that Sharia represents the human attempt to interpret God's message associated with a greater preference for democracy than an Islamist interpretation
5661:
The legal systems of most Muslim-majority countries can be classified as either secular or mixed. Sharia plays no role in secular legal systems. In mixed legal systems, Sharia rules are allowed to influence some national laws, which are codified and may be based on European or Indian models, and the
5517:
drew on leftist anticolonialist rhetoric by framing their call for Sharia as a resistance struggle. They accused secular leaders of corruption and predatory behavior, and claimed that a return to Sharia would replace despotic rulers with pious leaders striving for social and economic justice. In the
4320:
British administrators felt that Sharia rules too often allowed criminals to escape punishment, as exemplified by Hastings' complaint that Islamic law was "founded on the most lenient principles and on an abhorrence of bloodshed". In the course of the 19th century, criminal laws and other aspects of
4151:
Unlike pre-modern cultures where the ruling dynasty promulgated the law, Islamic law was formulated by religious scholars without involvement of the rulers. The law derived its authority not from political control, but rather from the collective doctrinal positions of the legal schools (madhhabs) in
2553:, who do not doubt that the Quran existing today is a religious source, infer from the same verses that it is clearly ordered to pray 2 or 3 times, not 5 times. In addition, in religious literature, wajib is widely used for all kinds of religious requirements, without expressing any fiqh definition.
1055:
by new jurisprudences. In Muslim majority countries, traditional laws have been widely used with or changed by European models. Judicial procedures and legal education have been brought in line with European practice likewise. While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references
9574:
Some are derived from the science of Aristotelian logic which the philosopher-theologian writers mutakallimun had become accustomed to discussing in the introductions to their works. ........... Some are derived from Ilm al Kalam Scholastic Theology, and include discussions of such questions as the
8502:
Islam has classified the values vis-a-vis the ahkams into two categories: an action or thing is considered to be bad (qabih) if it falls within the categories of makruh or haram. Those actions and things falling within the remaining three categories of mubah, mustahabb and halal are said to be good
7271:("that which your right hand owns") to refer to women slaves, seized as captives of war. Under Islamic law, Muslim men could have sexual relations with female captives and slaves. Sharia, in Islam's history, provided a religious foundation for enslaving non-Muslim women and men, but allowed for the
7158:
as well as a leading early scholar in Iran, collected all the Hadiths showing Muhammad's disapproval of beating in a chapter entitled 'The Prohibition on Striking Women'. A thirteenth-century scholar from Granada, Ibn Faras, notes that one camp of ulama had staked out a stance forbidding striking a
6694:
that wishes to prohibit any criticism of religion and would thus protect Islam's limited view of human rights. In view of the conditions inside the Islamic Republic of Iran, Egypt, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, the Sudan, Syria, Bangladesh, Iraq, and Afghanistan, we should expect that at the top of their
6309:
has argued that there is no single, shared understanding of the notions "Sharia" and "Islamic law" among the respondents. In particular, in countries where Muslim citizens have little experience with rigid application of Sharia-based state laws, these notions tend to be more associated with Islamic
6060:
The spread of codified state laws and Western-style legal education in the modern Muslim world has displaced traditional muftis from their historical role of clarifying and elaborating the laws applied in courts. Instead, fatwas have increasingly served to advise the general public on other aspects
5669:
Saudi Arabia and some other Persian Gulf states possess what may be called classical Sharia systems, where national law is largely uncodified and formally equated with Sharia, with ulema playing a decisive role in its interpretation. Iran has adopted some features of classical Sharia systems, while
4222:
Traditional Islamic law assumes a patriarchal society with a man at the head of the household. Different legal schools formulated a variety of legal norms which could be manipulated to the advantage of men or women, but women were generally at a disadvantage with respect to the rules of inheritance
1566:
According to this theory, most canonical hadiths did not originate with Muhammad but were actually created at a later date, despite the efforts of hadith scholars to weed out fabrications. After it became accepted that legal norms must be formally grounded in scriptural sources, proponents of rules
6672:
points to notable absences from the Cairo Declaration: provisions for democratic principles, protection for religious freedom, freedom of association and freedom of the press, as well as equality in rights and equal protection under the law. Article 24 of the Cairo declaration states that "all the
6300:
However, while most of those who support implementation of Sharia favor using it in family and property disputes, fewer supported application of severe punishments such as whippings and cutting off hands, and interpretations of some aspects differed widely. According to the Pew poll, among Muslims
6246:
In Egypt, a law based on the doctrine of hisba had for a time allowed a Muslim to sue another Muslim over beliefs that may harm society, though because of abuses it has been amended so that only the state prosecutor may bring suit based on private requests. Before the amendment was passed, a hisba
3938:
The transformations of Islamic legal institutions in the modern era have had profound implications for the madhhab system. Legal practice in most of the Muslim world has come to be controlled by government policy and state law, so that the influence of the madhhabs beyond personal ritual practice
2077:
as important legal principles, they held different views regarding the role they should play in Islamic law. Some jurists viewed them as auxiliary rationales constrained by scriptural sources and analogical reasoning. Others regarded them as an "independent" source of law, whose general principles
7217:
have been used by traditional jurists when discussing sexual assault and its punishment. Imam Al-Shāfi‘ī defined rape as: "Forcing a woman to commit zinā against her will". To the Ḥanafis, illegal intercourse is considered rape when there is no consent and no deliberate action from the victim. In
7120:
Islamic law granted Muslim women certain legal rights, such as property rights which women in the West did not possess until "comparatively recent times". Starting with the 20th century, Western legal systems evolved to expand women's rights, but women's rights in the Muslim world have to varying
5687:
Except for secular systems, Muslim-majority countries possess Sharia-based laws dealing with family matters (marriage, inheritance, etc.). These laws generally reflect influence of various modern-era reforms and tend to be characterized by ambiguity, with traditional and modernist interpretations
4412:
Westernization of legal institutions and expansion of state control in all areas of law, which began during the colonial era, continued in nation-states of the Muslim world. Sharia courts at first continued to exist alongside state courts as in earlier times, but the doctrine that sultanic courts
4275:
Starting from the 17th century, European powers began to extend political influence over lands ruled by Muslim dynasties, and by the end of the 19th century, much of the Muslim world came under colonial domination. The first areas of Islamic law to be impacted were usually commercial and criminal
4239:
tax. Dhimmi communities had legal autonomy to adjudicate their internal affairs. Cases involving litigants from two different religious groups fell under jurisdiction of Sharia courts, where (unlike in secular courts) testimony of non-Muslim witnesses against a Muslim was inadmissible in criminal
3913:
madhhabs. They emerged in the ninth and tenth centuries and by the twelfth century almost all jurists aligned themselves with a particular madhhab. These four schools recognize each other's validity and they have interacted in legal debate over the centuries. Rulings of these schools are followed
1589:
and modified other aspects, aiming to meet the practical need of establishing Islamic norms of behavior and adjudicating disputes arising in the early Muslim communities. Juristic thought gradually developed in study circles, where independent scholars met to learn from a local master and discuss
1584:
While the origin of hadith remains a subject of scholarly controversy, this theory (of Goldziher and Schacht) has given rise to objections, and modern historians generally adopt more cautious, intermediate positions, and it is generally accepted that early Islamic jurisprudence developed out of a
1551:
in the mid-20th century. Schacht and other scholars argued that having conquered much more populous agricultural and urban societies with already existing laws and legal needs, the initial Muslim efforts to formulate legal norms regarded the Quran and Muhammad's hadiths as just one source of law,
7782:
Islamic "law did not derive directly from the Koran but developed... out of popular and administrative practices under the Umayyads, and this practice often diverged from the intentions and even the explicit wording of the Koran... Norms derived from the Koran were introduced into Muhammadan law
6771:
or refusing to accept a religious commandment. Jurists of different schools prescribed different punishment for blasphemy against Islam, by Muslims and non-Muslims, ranging from imprisonment or fines to the death penalty. In some cases, sharia allows non-Muslims to escape death by converting and
5973:
In commercial and civil contracts, such as those relating to exchange of merchandise, agreement to supply or purchase goods or property, and others, oral contracts and the testimony of Muslim witnesses historically triumphed over written contracts. Islamic jurists traditionally held that written
4504:
Aside from the radical reforms of Islamic family law carried out in Tunisia (1956) and Iran (1967), governments often preferred to make changes that made a clear break from traditional Sharia rules by imposing administrative hurdles rather than changing the rules themselves, in order to minimize
3951:
as interpreters of the resulting laws. Global Islamic movements have at times drawn on different madhhabs and at other times placed greater focus on the scriptural sources rather than classical jurisprudence. The Hanbali school, with its particularly strict adherence to the Quran and hadith, has
17461:
In classical Muslim doctrine on war, likewise, genuine non-combatants are not to be harmed. These include women, minors, servants and slaves who do not take part in the fighting, the blind, monks, hermits, the aged, those physically unable to fight, the insane, the delirious, farmers who do not
6330:, stated that there was "no reason why sharia principles should not be the basis for mediation or other forms of alternative dispute resolution." A 2008 YouGov poll in the United Kingdom found 40% of Muslim students interviewed supported the introduction of sharia into British law for Muslims.
5513:, including the failure of authoritarian secular regimes to meet the expectations of their citizens, and a desire of Muslim populations to return to more culturally authentic forms of socio-political organization in the face of a perceived cultural invasion from the West. Shiite leaders such as
4135:
The social fabric of pre-modern Islamic societies was largely defined by close-knit communities organized around kinship groups and local neighborhoods. Conflicts between individuals had the potential to escalate into a conflict between their supporting groups and disrupt the life of the entire
2101:
While the latter view was held by a minority of classical jurists, in modern times it came to be championed in different forms by prominent scholars who sought to adapt Islamic law to changing social conditions by drawing on the intellectual heritage of traditional jurisprudence. These scholars
2039:
used maslaha and madasıd as equivalent terms. Synonyms for the term maqāṣid aš-šarīʿa are the expressions maqāṣid aš-šāriʿ (“intentions of the legislature”), maqāṣid at-tašrīʿ (“intentions of the legislature ”), ruḥ aš -šarīʿa (“Spirit of Sharia”), ḥikmat at-tašrīʿ (“Wisdom of Legislation”) and
6106:
and his associates issued a fatwa in 1998 proclaiming "jihad against Jews and Crusaders", many Islamic jurists, in addition to denouncing its content, stressed that bin Laden was not qualified to either issue a fatwa or proclaim a jihad. New forms of ijtihad have also given rise to fatwas that
4298:. Hastings' plan of legal reform envisioned a multi-tiered court system for the Muslim population, with a middle tier of British judges advised by local Islamic jurists, and a lower tier of courts operated by qadis. Hastings also commissioned a translation of the classic manual of Hanafi fiqh,
3847:
and could stretch to dozens of large volumes, recorded alternative rulings with their justifications, often accompanied by a proliferation of cases and conceptual distinctions. The terminology of juristic literature was conservative and tended to preserve notions which had lost their practical
7648:
of its managers, shareholders, and employees; exists beyond the lifetimes of its founders; and that can own assets, sign contracts, and appear in court through representatives. Interest prohibitions imposed secondary costs by discouraging record keeping and delaying the introduction of modern
7111:
distinguished between the age of competence for marriage, which was set at 18 for boys and 17 for girls, and the minimum age for marriage, which followed the traditional Hanafi limits of 12 for boys and 9 for girls. Marriage below the age of competence was permissible only if proof of sexual
6957:
rights. In the years 1985–2006, four individuals were legally executed for apostasy from Islam: "one in Sudan in 1985; two in Iran, in 1989 and 1998; and one in Saudi Arabia in 1992." While modern states have rarely prosecuted apostasy, the issue has a "deep cultural resonance" in some Muslim
6412:
allows family law disputes to be arbitrated only under Ontario law. In the U.S., opponents of Sharia have sought to ban it from being considered in courts, where it has been routinely used alongside traditional Jewish and Catholic laws to decide legal, business, and family disputes subject to
5982:
In lieu of written evidence, oaths are traditionally accorded much greater weight; rather than being used simply to guarantee the truth of ensuing testimony, they are themselves used as evidence. Plaintiffs lacking other evidence to support their claims may demand that defendants take an oath
5678:
Constitutions of many Muslim-majority countries refer to Sharia as a source or the main source of law, though these references are not in themselves indicative of how much the legal system is influenced by Sharia, and whether the influence has a traditionalist or modernist character. The same
4352:
under state control. This reform, passed in 1826, enriched the public treasury at the expense of the waqfs, thereby depleting the financial support for traditional Islamic legal education. Over the second half of the 19th century, a new hierarchical system of secular courts was established to
2502:
It is a sin or a crime to perform a forbidden action or not to perform a mandatory action. Reprehensible acts should be avoided, but they are not considered to be sinful or punishable in court. Avoiding reprehensible acts and performing recommended acts is held to be subject of reward in the
1834:
undertaken by competent jurists" The textual integrity and divinity of the Quran, which are considered primary sources in traditional Islam, cannot be questioned, taken lightly, or made a subject of criticism and comedy. The authenticity of hadiths can only be questioned through the chain of
6321:
courts should be integrated into the British legal system alongside ecclesiastical courts to handle marriage and divorce, subject to agreement of all parties and strict requirements for protection of equal rights for women. His reference to the sharia sparked a controversy. Later that year,
4424:
In most Muslim-majority countries, traditional rules of classical fiqh have been largely preserved only in family law. In some countries religious minorities such as Christians or Shia Muslims have been subject to separate systems of family laws. Many Muslims today believe that contemporary
1950:: it is the Analogical reasoning that is used to derive a ruling for a situation not addressed in the scripture by analogy with a scripturally based rule. In a classic example, the Quranic prohibition of drinking wine is extended to all intoxicating substances, on the basis of the "cause" (
6795:
Blasphemy laws were rarely enforced in pre-modern Islamic societies, but in the modern era some states and radical groups have used charges of blasphemy in an effort to burnish their religious credentials and gain popular support at the expense of liberal Muslim intellectuals and religious
5978:
states that the treatment of written evidence in religious courts in Islamic regions created an incentive for opaque transactions, and the avoidance of written contracts in economic relations. This led to a continuation of a "largely oral contracting culture" in Muslim-majority nations and
1915:
legislation today, according to some research, the opposite was true in the early Islamic society. Sunnah originally meant a tradition that did not contain the definition of good and bad. Later, “good traditions” began to be referred to as sunnah and the concept of "Muhammad's sunnah" was
5504:
of the late 20th century brought the topic of Sharia to international attention in the form of numerous political campaigns in the Muslim world calling for full implementation of Sharia. A number of factors have contributed to the rise of these movements, classified under the rubric of
7020:
Homosexual intercourse is illegal in classical Sharia, with different penalties, including capital punishment, stipulated depending on the situation and legal school. In pre-modern Islam, the penalties prescribed for homosexual acts were "to a large extent theoretical" according to the
7831:
Khomeini himself did not call this proclamation a fatwa, and in Islamic legal theory only a court can decide whether an accused is guilty. However, after the proclamation was presented as a fatwa in Western press, this characterization was widely accepted by both its critics and its
4018:
Islamic law was initially taught in study circles that gathered in mosques and private homes. The teacher, assisted by advanced students, provided commentary on concise treatises of law and examined the students' understanding of the text. This tradition continued to be practiced in
6242:
during their 1996–2001 and 2021– rule of Afghanistan. Religious police organizations tend to have support from conservative currents of public opinion, but their activities are often disliked by other segments of the population, especially liberals, urban women, and younger people.
6160:(market inspector), who was charged with preventing fraud, disturbance of public order and infractions against public morality. This office disappeared in the modern era everywhere in the Muslim world, but it was revived in Arabia by the first Saudi state, and later instituted as a
4312:
would be used as a basis for classroom commentary by a professor, and the doctrines thus learned would be mediated in court by judicial discretion, consideration of local customs and availability of different legal opinions that could fit the facts of the case. The British use of
1729:, and rational argumentation must draw its content from the body of transcendental knowledge revealed in the Quran and through the sunnah of Muhammad. In addition to the Quran and sunnah, the classical theory of Sunni fiqh recognizes two other sources of law: juristic consensus (
1741:). It therefore studies the application and limits of analogy, as well as the value and limits of consensus, along with other methodological principles, some of which are accepted by only certain legal schools. This interpretive apparatus is brought together under the rubric of
17065:
Islam imposed upon the Muslim master an obligation to convert non-Muslim slaves and become members of the greater Muslim society. Indeed, the daily observation of well defined Islamic religious rituals was the outward manifestation of conversion without which emancipation was
6515:
countries; most Muslims see no contradiction between democratic values and religious principles, desiring neither a theocracy, nor a secular democracy, but rather a political model where democratic institutions and values can coexist with the values and principles of Sharia.
5529:
Full implementation of Sharia theoretically refers to expanding its scope to all fields of law and all areas of public life. In practice, Islamization campaigns have focused on a few highly visible issues associated with the conservative Muslim identity, particularly women's
4113:), which took initiative in preventing and investigating crime, operated its own courts. Like the mazalim courts, police courts were not bound by the rules of Sharia and had the powers to inflict discretionary punishments. Another office for maintaining public order was the
12158:. "The Saudi law system differs in critically important respects from the system of legal thought employed by the common law countries, including the United States. Perhaps most significant is that Islamic law does not embrace the common law system of binding precedent and
9762:
studies in the second century were still in a state of flux" Conrad (June 1987). "Abraha and Muhammad: Some Observations Apropos of Chronology and Literary topoi in the Early Arabic Historical Tradition". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 50 (2): 239.
7051:
enacted under colonial rule. In recent decades, prejudice against LGBT individuals in the Muslim world has been exacerbated by increasingly conservative attitudes and the rise of Islamist movements, resulting in Sharia-based penalties enacted in several countries. The
6919:
containing "no compulsion in religion"; or that it was a man-made rule enacted in the early Islamic community to prevent and punish the equivalent of desertion or treason, and should be enforced only if apostasy becomes a mechanism of public disobedience and disorder
6702:
Islamic law justifies the formal inequality of individuals (women, non-Islamic people). Bassam Tibi states that Sharia framework and human rights are incompatible. Abdel al-Hakeem Carney, in contrast, states that Sharia is misunderstood from a failure to distinguish
1182:: This includes the entire body of all principles, rules, cases and interpretations developed and transmitted throughout a history of more than one thousand years across the entire Muslim world, since the closing of the gate of free interpretation up to the present.
15522:
There is a long-running debate in Islam over whether apostasy is a crime. Some liberal scholars hold the view that it is not (...), Others say apostasy is (...). The latter is the dominant view in conservative Muslim states such as Sudan, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan
7792:"In the time of Shafi’i, traditions from the Prophet were already recognized as one of the material bases of Muhammadan law. Their position in the ancient schools of law was, as we have seen, much less certain." Another example is that an early major works of fiqh—
7141:
The vast majority of the ulama across the Sunni schools of law inherited the Prophet's unease over domestic violence and placed further restrictions on the evident meaning of the 'Wife Beating Verse'. A leading Meccan scholar from the second generation of Muslims,
4100:(lit. wrongs, grievances) courts was to address the wrongs that Sharia courts were unable to address, including complaints against government officials. Islamic jurists were commonly in attendance and a judge often presided over the court as a deputy of the ruler.
1188:: This contains the full spectrum of principles, rules, cases and interpretations developed and applied at present. Migration, modernisation and new technologies of information and communication have decreased the dominance of the legal schools of classical sharia.
6541:(consultation between ruler and ruled). This perspective, which stresses comprehensive implementation of Sharia, was widespread in the 1970s and 1980s among various movements seeking to establish an Islamic state, but its popularity has diminished in recent years.
6082:
is credited with bringing the notion of fatwa to world's attention, although some scholars have argued that it did not qualify as one. Together with later militant fatwas, it has contributed to the popular misconception of the fatwa as a religious death warrant.
5919:
A confession, an oath, or the oral testimony of Muslim witnesses are the main evidence admissible in traditional sharia courts for hudud crimes, i.e., the religious crimes of adultery, fornication, rape, accusing someone of illicit sex but failing to prove it,
7218:
Mālik's view, rape refers to any kind of unlawful sexual intercourse by usurpation and without consent. This includes instances when the condition of the victims prevents them from expressing their resistance, such as insanity, sleep or being under age. The
1467:
178: "Believers! Retaliation is ordained for you regarding the people who were killed. Free versus free, slave versus slave, woman versus woman. Whoever is forgiven by the brother of the slain for a price, let him abide by the custom and pay the price well."
4353:
supplement and eventually replace most religious courts. Students hoping to pursue legal careers in the new court system increasingly preferred attending secular schools over the traditional path of legal education with its dimming financial prospects. The
1929:
chains. These studies narrowed down the vast corpus of prophetic traditions to several thousand "sound (seeming to collectors)" hadiths, which were collected in several canonical compilations. The hadiths which enjoyed concurrent transmission were deemed
7192:
Others believe that wife-beating is not consistent with a more modernist perspective of the Quran. Many Imams and scholars who learned Shariah in traditional Islamic seminaries object to the misuse of this verse to justify domestic violence. Muslims for
4250:
As it was illegal for non-Muslims to own Muslims and for non-Muslim men to marry Muslim women in the Ottoman empire, conversion to Islam would have been an option for non-Muslim women to free themselves of a spouse or master they did not want to subject
17182:
3996:, unlike court verdicts, which were valid only for the given case. Although independent muftis never disappeared, from the 12th century onward Muslim rulers began to appoint salaried muftis to answer questions from the public. Over the centuries,
2446:
Fiqh is concerned with ethical standards as much as with legal norms, seeking to establish not only what is and is not legal, but also what is morally right and wrong. Sharia rulings fall into one of five categories known as "the five decisions"
16413:
5570:, who have advocated both free-market and socialist economic models. The notion of "Sharia-compliant" finance has become an active area of doctrinal innovation and its development has had a major impact on business operations around the world.
6945:. As of 2014, apostasy from Islam was a capital offense in Afghanistan, Brunei, Mauritania, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. In other countries, Sharia courts could use family laws to void the Muslim apostate's
6809:
of speech, stating that freedom of expression is essential to empowering both Muslims and non-Muslims, and point to the abuse of blasphemy laws in prosecuting members of religious minorities, political opponents, and settling personal scores.
7813:"...a great many traditions in the classical and other collections were put into circulation only after Shafi'i's time; the first considerable body of legal traditions from the Prophet originated towards the middle of the second century..."
6607:
has argued for a "religious democracy" based on religious thought that is democratic, tolerant, and just. Islamic liberals argue for the necessity of constant reexamination of religious understanding, which can only be done in a democratic
6833:
which made it a "crime to disturb a religious assembly, trespass on burial grounds, insult religious beliefs or intentionally destroy or defile a place or an object of worship", with these laws being modified between 1980 and 1986 by the
6176:
as an individual obligation to police religious observance has become more widespread, which led to the appearance of activists around the world who urge fellow Muslims to observe Islamic rituals, dress code, and other aspects of Sharia.
7477:
in classical Sunni legal theory is both more explicitly permissive than Talmudic law with respect to authorizing individual reason as a source of law, and more implicitly restrictive, in excluding other, unauthorized forms of reasoning.
14759:
Wiederhold, Lutz (1997). "Blasphemy against the Prophet Muhammad and his companions (sabb al-rasul, sabb al-sahabah): The introduction of the topic into shafi'i legal literature and its relevance for legal practice under Mamluk rule".
7181:(disobedience, disloyalty, rebellion, ill conduct) in his wife only after admonishing and staying away from the bed does not work. These interpretations have been criticized as inconsistent with women's rights in domestic abuse cases.
4497:(1895–1971), who possessed expertise in both Islamic and Western law. Sanhuri argued that reviving Islamic legal heritage in a way that served the needs of contemporary society required its analysis in light of the modern science of
3960:
movements. Other currents, such as networks of Indonesian ulema and Islamic scholars residing in Muslim-minority countries, have advanced liberal interpretations of Islamic law without focusing on traditions of a particular madhhab.
13288:
6524:
Muslih and Browers identify three major perspectives on democracy among prominent Muslims thinkers who have sought to develop modern, distinctly Islamic theories of socio-political organization conforming to Islamic values and law:
1883:
verses. Therefore, deciding which verses of the Quran will be used, in addition to other knowledge and skills, may be the job of lawyers who know these issues in detail. Whether the Sunnah could limit the Quran remained a matter of
1118:
refers to religious regulations governing the lives of Muslims. For many Muslims, the word means simply "justice," and they will consider any law that promotes justice and social welfare to conform to Sharia. Sharia is the first of
2287:
1585:
combination of administrative and popular practices shaped by the religious and ethical precepts of Islam. It continued some aspects of pre-Islamic laws and customs of the lands that fell under Muslim rule in the aftermath of the
1462:
could be paid to the family of the murdered. On top of this pre-Islamic understanding added a debate about whether a Muslim can be executed for a non-Muslim during the Islamic period. The main verse for implementation in Islam is
6915:. A number of liberal and progressive Islamic scholars have argued that apostasy should not be viewed as a crime. Others argue that the death penalty is an inappropriate punishment, inconsistent with the Qur'anic verses such as
16435:
17101:
instruction and theoretically Muslims could not be enslaved. Conversion (of a non-Muslim to Islam) did not automatically lead to emancipation, but assimilation into Muslim society was deemed a prerequisite for emancipation.
10059:
4227:
and commonly gave the wife financial leverage in divorce proceedings. Women were active in Sharia courts as both plaintiffs and defendants in a wide variety of cases, though some opted to be represented by a male relative.
7629:(issuing of fatwas) omitted. He also argued that these systems shared fundamental freedoms: the freedom of a professor to profess his personal opinion and the freedom of a student to pass judgement on what he is learning.
7567:
Elements of Islamic law also have other parallels in Western legal systems. For example, the influence of Islam on the development of an international law of the sea can be discerned alongside that of the Roman influence.
3918:
school, which is commonly identified as extinct, continues to exert influence over legal thought. The development of Shia legal schools occurred along the lines of theological differences and resulted in formation of the
5763:
refers to personal rights of the individual and the right to generate and accumulate wealth. The various ways in which property can be acquired under Sharia are purchase, inheritance, bequest, physical or mental effort,
2622:
A special religious decision, which is "specific to" a person, group, institution, event, situation, belief and practice in different areas of life, and usually includes the approval/disapproval of a judgment, is called
18059:
14860:(or, A ready sword against those who insult the Messenger), Published in 1297 AD in Arabic, Reprinted in 1975 and 2003 by Dar-ibn Hazm (Beirut), the book is on blasphemy/insulting Muhammad and the punishment per sharia
4455:
Changes in administrative law that grant the courts discretionary powers to restrict certain practices which are not forbidden by substantive law (e.g., polygamy), in some cases imposing penal sanctions as additional
6007:
for the death of a free Muslim man is twice as high as for Jewish and Christian victims according to the Maliki and Hanbali madhhabs and three times as high according to Shafi'i rules. Several legal schools assessed
5906:
in Sharia courts traditionally prioritize oral testimony, and witnesses must be Muslim. In criminal cases, women witnesses are unacceptable in stricter, traditional interpretations of Sharia, such as those found in
1892:, though other passages have been used as a source for general principles whose legal ramifications were elaborated by other means. Islamic literature calls the laws that can be associated with the Quran in Sharia "
16292:
14305:
16205:
6480:
Support for democratic procedures such as elections, combined with religious or moral objections toward some aspects of Western democracy seen as incompatible with sharia, as exemplified by Islamic scholars like
4343:
During the colonial era, Muslim rulers concluded that they could not resist European pressure unless they modernized their armies and built centrally administered states along the lines of Western models. In the
3848:
relevance. At the same time, the cycle of abridgement and commentary allowed jurists of each generation to articulate a modified body of law to meet changing social conditions. Other juristic genres include the
7125:
from other family members, and these rights are detailed in the Quran. A woman's inheritance can be unequal is she inherits from her father as a daughter's inheritance is usually half of that of her brother's.
6267:
Sharia also plays a role beyond religious rituals and personal ethics in some countries with Muslim minorities. For example, in Israel Sharia-based family laws are administered for the Muslim population by the
1954:) shared by these situations, which in this case is identified to be intoxication. Since the cause of a rule may not be apparent, its selection commonly occasioned controversy and extensive debate. Majority of
7367:
declared that suicide attacks in Chechnya were justified as a "sacrifice". Many prominent Islamic scholars, including al-Qaradawi himself, have issued condemnations of terrorism in general terms. For example,
6472:
Advocacy of democratic ideas, often accompanied by a belief that they are compatible with Islam, which can play a public role within a democratic system, as exemplified by many protestors who took part in the
6235:
6185:
6161:
4304:, from Arabic into Persian and then English, later complemented by other texts. These translations enabled British judges to pass verdicts in the name of Islamic law based on a combination of Sharia rules and
1724:
In this context, the formulation of the Sunni view can be summarized as follows; Human reason is a gift from God which should be exercised to its fullest capacity. However, use of reason alone is insufficient
1720:
example. Although the rationalists initially seemed to gain the upper hand in this conflict, with the rise of literalism, the Mutazila sank into history and literalism continued to live by gaining supporters.
5688:
often manifesting themselves in the same country, both in legislation and court decisions. In some countries (e.g., parts of Nigeria), people can choose whether to pursue a case in a Sharia or secular court.
1664:
The sources of judgment in classical fiqh are roughly divided into two: Manqūlāt (Quran and hadith) and Aqliyyāt (ijma, qiyas, ijtihad and others). Some of them (Aqliyyāt) are considered to be the product of
1538:
Modern historians have presented alternative theories of the formation of fiqh. At first Western scholars accepted the general outlines of the traditionalist account. In the late 19th century, an influential
6304:
In all of the countries surveyed, respondents were more likely to define Sharia as "the revealed word of God" rather than as "a body of law developed by men based on the word of God". In analyzing the poll,
5697:
campaigns, several countries (Libya, Pakistan, Iran, Sudan, Mauritania, and Yemen) inserted Islamic criminal laws into their penal codes, which were otherwise based on Western models. In some countries only
5546:
A number of legal reforms have been made under the influence of these movements, starting from the 1970s when Egypt and Syria amended their constitutions to specify Sharia as the basis of legislation. The
17179:
7347:
refers to armed struggle against oppressors. Classical jurists developed an elaborate set of rules pertaining to jihad, including prohibitions on harming those who are not engaged in combat. According to
7222:, similar to the Mālikites, consider the use of any kind of force as a denial of consent from the victim. The threat of starvation or suffering the cold of winter are also regarded as against one's will.
5588:, some of the classical sharia practices involve serious violations of basic human rights, gender equality and freedom of expression, and the practices of countries governed by sharia are criticized. The
2682:, and in trials, the judge is not expected to observe equality among those on trial, but is expected to act fairly or balanced. Traditional fiqh states that legal and religious responsibility begins with
9599:
So, it was in this way that the Ummah, those who had not become involved with either the Shi'ah or the Khawarij, was divided into two groups, Ahl al Hadith and Ahl al Ra'i; and the conflict between them
6803:
have petitioned the United Nations to condemn "defamation of religions" because "Unrestricted and disrespectful freedom of opinion creates hatred and is contrary to the spirit of peaceful dialogue". The
6346:, has argued that sharia courts can be integrated into the American religious arbitration system, provided that they adopt appropriate institutional requirements as American rabbinical courts have done.
5876:
represent themselves. In Saudi Arabia and Qatar, which have preserved traditional procedure in Sharia courts, trials are conducted solely by the judge, and there is no jury system. There is no pre-trial
16409:
4223:
and witness testimony, where in some cases a woman's witness testimony is effectively treated as half of that of a man. Various financial obligations imposed on the husband acted as a deterrent against
5951:
basis of legislation that favors the presumption of children's legitimacy, while in sexual assault cases DNA evidence is regarded as equivalent to expert opinion and evaluated on a case-by-case basis.
11893:
Gontowska, Luiza Maria, "Human Rights Violations Under the Sharia'a : A Comparative Study of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Islamic Republic of Iran" (2005). Honors College Theses. Paper 13.
11836:
Gontowska, Luiza Maria, "Human Rights Violations Under the Sharia'a : A Comparative Study of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Islamic Republic of Iran" (2005). Honors College Theses. Paper 13.
10322:
Gontowska, Luiza Maria, "Human Rights Violations Under the Sharia'a : A Comparative Study of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Islamic Republic of Iran" (2005). Honors College Theses. Paper 13.
6111:
sometimes given rise to complaints about a "chaos" in the modern practice of issuing fatwas. There exists no international Islamic authority to settle differences in interpretation of Islamic law. An
16227:
Schacht, J.; Layish, A.; Shaham, R.; Ansari, Ghaus; Otto, J.M.; Pompe, S.; Knappert, J.; Boyd, Jean (1995). "Nikāḥ". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).
7186:
6629:
determined that "sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy". Refah's Sharia-based notion of a "plurality of legal systems, grounded on religion" was ruled to contravene the
6272:
through the Sharia Courts. In India, the Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act provides for the use of Islamic law for Muslims in several areas, mainly related to family law. In England, the
16840:
9088:) // Cited: p. 39 (PDF p. 41/338) // ""Chéri" may sound ambiguous in French but the term, used in our context for Islamic law (Turkish: şer’(i), is widely used in the legal literature at that time."
5543:
broader Muslim public, the calls for Sharia often represent, even more than any specific demands, a vague vision of their current economic and political situation being replaced by a "just utopia".
4258:
contract, and were subject to their master's will in a number of ways. The labor and property of slaves were owned by the master, who was also entitled to sexual submission of his unmarried slaves.
6310:
ideals like equality and social justice than with prohibitions. Other polls have indicated that for Egyptians, the word "Sharia" is associated with notions of political, social and gender justice.
1236:
and its derivatives refers to watering animals at a permanent water-hole or to the seashore. One another area of use relates to notions of stretched or lengthy. The word is cognate with the Hebrew
17247:
10649:
And you are allowed to seek out wives with your wealth in decorous conduct, but not in fornication, but give them their reward for what you have enjoyed of them in keeping with your promise.(4:24)
7096:
report mentions that Sharia law provisions are different for women in financial matters than from general human rights provisions. In many countries, in legal proceedings relating to Sharia-based
13676:
10840:
10079:
4031:(charitable endowment), which paid salaries of professors, stipends of students, and defrayed the costs of construction and maintenance. At the end of a course, the professor granted a license (
6154:, refers to the duty of Muslims to promote moral rectitude and intervene when another Muslim is acting wrongly. Historically, its legal implementation was entrusted to a public official called
4136:
community. Court litigation was seen as a last resort for cases where informal mediation had failed. This attitude was reflected in the legal maxim "amicable settlement is the best verdict" (
1649:
Classical Islamic jurisprudence refers how to elaborate and interpret religious sources that are considered reliable within the framework of "procedural principles" within its context such as
6164:
responsible for supervising markets and public order. It has been aided by volunteers enforcing attendance of daily prayers, gender segregation in public places, and a conservative notion of
2066:
was God's general purpose in revealing the divine law, and that its specific aim was preservation of five essentials of human well-being: religion, life, intellect, offspring, and property.
4413:
should implement the ideals of Sharia was gradually replaced by legal norms imported from Europe. Court procedures were also brought in line with European practice. Though the Islamic terms
4208:
In both the rules of civil disputes and application of penal law, classical Sharia distinguishes between men and women, between Muslims and non-Muslims, and between free persons and slaves.
19272:
14171:
13239:
12162:. In Saudi Arabia, judicial decisions are not in themselves a source of law, and with minor exceptions, court decisions in Saudi Arabia are not published or even open to public inspection."
5721:
contain a general provision that certain crimes are to be punished according to Islamic law, without specifying the penalties. Some Nigerian states have also enacted Islamic criminal laws.
13831:
2432:, "according to his own opinion" and reliying on power. The Shiite sect did not accept the jurisprudence of Omar, whose political and religious authority they rejected from the beginning.
9917:
4063:
3790:. Jurists developed various restrictions which in many cases made them virtually impossible to apply. Other crimes involving intentional bodily harm are judged according to a version of
7189:, KAFA and other organizations have proposed ways to modify Sharia-inspired laws to improve women's rights in Muslim-majority nations, including women's rights in domestic abuse cases.
6029:
rules into their legal system treat them in different ways. The Pakistan Penal Code modernized the Hanafi doctrine by eliminating distinctions between Muslims and non-Muslims. In Iran,
16439:
16695:
15023:
9852:
quotes Schacht's maxim: `the more perfect the isnad, the later the tradition`, which he (Aslan) calls "whimsical but accurate" Future of Islam by Reza Aslan, (Random House, 2005) p.16
17360:
9328:
6962:, public support for capital punishment for apostasy among Muslims ranged from 78% in Afghanistan to less than 1% in Kazakhstan, reaching over 50% in 6 of the 20 countries surveyed.
1783:
17462:
fight, traders, merchants, and contractors. The main criterion distinguishing combatants from non-combatants is that the latter do not fight and do not contribute to the war effort.
13801:
6212:
as a "universal and reciprocal duty", incumbent upon both the government and the people. Its implementation has been carried out by official committees as well as volunteer forces (
4317:, which amounted to an inadvertent codification of Sharia, and its interpretation by judges trained in Western legal traditions anticipated later legal reforms in the Muslim world.
16148:
15214:
15138:
5558:
Advocates of Islamization have often been more concerned with ideology than traditional jurisprudence and there is no agreement among them as to what form a modern Sharia-based "
6259:. Hisba has also been invoked in several Muslim-majority countries as rationale for blocking pornographic content on the internet and for other forms of faith-based censorship.
3784:
Some historians distinguish a field of Islamic criminal law, which combines several traditional categories. Several crimes with scripturally prescribed punishments are known as
18051:
13579:
9423:
1252:), or "path to the water hole" and argue that its adoption as a metaphor for a divinely ordained way of life arises from the importance of water in an arid desert environment.
2603:
and is accepted in traditional Sunnis and Shi'ism. However, this understanding, along with expressions of respect and visits to the graves of saints, are seen as unacceptable
2560:
when in public; Muslim scholars have differed as how to understand these verses, with some stating that a Hijab is a command (fard) to be fulfilled and others say simply not.
14202:
13433:
1497:. These reports led first to informal discussion and then systematic legal thought, articulated with greatest success in the eighth and ninth centuries by the master jurists
12066:
Birnhack, Michael; Khoury, Amir (10 May 2017). "The Emergence and Development of Intellectual Property Law in the Middle East". In Dreyfuss, Rochelle; Pila, Justine (eds.).
4909:
4617:
1395:
16282:
13495:
7572:
has argued that the madrasa system of attestation paralleled the legal scholastic system in the West, which gave rise to the modern university system. The triple status of
7421:
which does not possess a body of revealed law, and where theology rather than law is considered to be the principal field of religious study. Both Islamic and Jewish law (
19373:
14302:
12576:
9587:
Legal acts are valid when they fulfill all the essential requirements (arkān), causes, conditions and hindrances. They are void when any of these is lacking or deficient.
1575:(died 820 CE/204 AH), who formulated this idea (that legal norms must be formally grounded in scriptural sources) and other elements of classical legal theory in his work
16871:
14043:
12032:
1208:, Islamic law), which was borrowed from European usage in the late 19th century, is used in the Muslim world to refer to a legal system in the context of a modern state.
1023:
Approaches to sharia in the 21st century vary widely, and the role and mutability of sharia in a changing world has become an increasingly debated topic in Islam. Beyond
16197:
13549:
9046:
13086:
4513:
through presidential decree, provoked an outcry and was annulled in 1985 by the supreme court on procedural grounds, to be later replaced by a compromise version. The
15011:, p. 74, Quote: "(In the case of blasphemy and Salman Rushdie) the death sentence it pronounced was grounded in a jurisprudential gloss on the Surah al-Ahzab (33:57)"
14961:
2420:, and not prohibited (Sunnis translate the words used in the relevant verse with terms used to describe the ordinary marriage event) according to Sunnis is banned by
2094:), which is often criticized in terms of today's values and seen as problematic, in terms of the purposes of sharia and social benefits will be replaced by new ones.
13936:
6098:), and some of them are issued by individuals who do not possess the qualifications traditionally required of a mufti. The most notorious examples are the fatwas of
16115:
13728:
9641:
9669:
Mirzaee, A. (2012). 'Decline of Mu'tazilite Thought: The Heritage of Conflict between Ahl Al-Hadith and Mu'tazilites', Journal of Seven Heavens, 14(54), pp. 7-26
9631:
Mirzaee, A. (2012). 'Decline of Mu'tazilite Thought: The Heritage of Conflict between Ahl Al-Hadith and Mu'tazilites', Journal of Seven Heavens, 14(54), pp. 7-26
4373:(sultanic code), which represented an unprecedented assertion of the state's authority over Islamic civil law, traditionally the preserve of the ulema. The 1917
17129:
The slave who bore her master's child became known in Arabic as an "umm walad"; she could not be sold, and she was automatically freed upon her master's death.
6625:
over its announced intention to introduce Sharia-based laws, ruling that it would change Turkey's secular order and undermine democracy. On appeal by Refah the
16644:
Brandt, Michele; Kaplan, Jeffrey A. (1995). "The Tension between Women's Rights and Religious Rights: Reservations to Cedaw by Egypt, Bangladesh and Tunisia".
13701:
13503:. Research: Alan Cooperman, Neha Sahgal, Jessica Hamar Martinez, et al. The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. pp. 15–19, 46, 147–48. Archived from
6383:
won ovations calling for a federal ban on Sharia law. The issue of "liberty versus Sharia" was called a "momentous civilisational debate" by right-wing pundit
16174:
1875:" to be beyond doubt on account of it having been handed down by many people in each generation, which is known as "recurrence" or "concurrent transmission" (
6930:, moderate Muslims do not believe that apostasy requires punishment. The death penalty or other punishment for apostasy in Islam is a violation of universal
6568:
provides the basis for representative government institutions that are similar to Western democracy, but reflect Islamic rather than Western liberal values.
6377:
6193:
4104:
verdicts were supposed to conform to the spirit of Sharia, but they were not bound by the letter of the law or the procedural restrictions of qadi's courts.
3855:
Classical jurisprudence has been described as "one of the major intellectual achievements of Islam" and its importance in Islam has been compared to that of
14347:
Christian Moe (2012), Refah Revisited: Strasbourg's Construction of Islam, in Islam, Europe and emerging legal issues (editors: W. Cole Durham Jr. et al.),
6003:
or blood money) is assessed differently for different classes of victims. For example, for Muslim women the amount was half that assessed for a Muslim man.
18890:
16832:
12479:
7061:. Criminalization of consensual homosexual acts and especially making them liable to capital punishment has been condemned by international rights groups.
6323:
15722:
14540:
Bielefeldt, Heiner (2000). "'Western' versus 'Islamic' Human Rights Conceptions?: A Critique of Cultural Essentialism in the Discussion on Human Rights".
12241:
8490:
In addition to encouraging religious violent behavior, textualism and Islamism also correlate positively with general violent behavior and state violence
17243:
14652:
Tibi, Bassam (2008). "The Return of the Sacred to Politics as a Constitutional Law The Case of the Shari'atization of Politics in Islamic Civilization".
11059:
10063:
9266:
7032:
6872:
as of 2020. Some Muslim-majority countries impose the death penalty or a prison sentence for apostasy from Islam, or ban non-Muslims from proselytizing .
6289:
A 2013 survey based on interviews of 38,000 Muslims, randomly selected from urban and rural parts in 39 countries using area probability designs, by the
4904:
4612:
4308:
doctrines, and eliminated the need to rely on consultation by local ulema, whom they mistrusted. In the traditional Islamic context, a concise text like
2387:
The classical process of ijtihad combined these generally recognized principles with other methods, which were not adopted by all legal schools, such as
1676:
In this context, in the Classical period, the ulema were divided into groups (among other divisions such as political divisions) regarding the place of "
18196:
13673:
16780:
6587:'s emphasis on the role of reason in understanding religion. It stresses democratic principles based on pluralism and freedom of thought. Authors like
16622:
14869:
Jerusha Lamptey (2014), Never Wholly Other: A Muslima Theology of Religious Pluralism, Oxford University Press, Chapter 1 with footnotes 28, 29 p. 258
7065:, the level of social acceptance for homosexuality ranges from 52% among Muslims in the U.S. to less than 10% in a number of Muslim-majority nations.
12002:
11959:
11531:
Baer, Marc (August 2004). "Islamic Conversion Narratives of Women: Social Change and Gendered Religious Hierarchy in Early Modern Ottoman Istanbul".
7201:
campaigns were held in many parts of the world to speak out against domestic violence and encourage Muslim congregants to eradicate domestic abuse.
16963:
5026:
4993:
2639:
laws, have not been codified, and their discretion and implementation are under the initiative and authority of the judge or political authority.
18246:
14322:
14163:
13967:
13220:
Nancy Gallagher (2005), Apostasy, Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures: Family, Law and Politics, Editors: Suad Joseph and Afsāna Naǧmābād,
2098:
goes further with an approach that prioritizes purpose and benefit among the sources of sharia and declares it to be the heart of "usul-al fiqh".
1171:: This is the body of Islamic rules, principles and cases compiled by religious scholars during the first two centuries after Muhammad, including
18780:
13910:
13827:
13759:
13371:
9077:
5038:
3947:(combining parts of different rulings on the same question). Legal professionals trained in modern law schools have largely replaced traditional
16810:
15456:
15042:
14117:
9921:
7159:
wife altogether, declaring it contrary to the Prophet's example and denying the authenticity of any Hadiths that seemed to permit beating. Even
6595:
have constructed Islamic justifications for full citizenship of non-Muslims in an Islamic state by drawing on early Islamic texts. Others, like
1158:
Jan Michiel Otto summarizes the evolutionary stages of understanding by distinguishing four meanings conveyed by the term sharia in discourses.
16725:
14938:
11868:
9068:
8964:
5328:
1552:
with jurist personal opinions, the legal practice of conquered peoples, and the decrees and decisions of the caliphs also being valid sources.
17278:
9575:
nature of the Sovereign Hakim, in the sense of whether it is the Shari'ah itself or reason which decides what is right and what is wrong;....
7209:
Rape is considered a serious crime in the Sharia law since the Islamic prophet Muhammad ordered rapists to be punished by stoning. The terms
2509:
covers the first three or the first four categories. The legal and moral verdict depends on whether the action is committed out of necessity (
1862:
books written in the early period of Islam, changes in sunnah and hadith terminologies and the chains of narration of hadith, respectively.
17773:
6293:
found that a majority—in some cases "overwhelming" majority—of Muslims in a number of countries support making "Sharia" or "Islamic law" the
5743:
has been implementing a "Sharia Penal Code", which includes provisions for stoning and amputation, in stages since 2014. The countries where
4978:
3655:
16687:
15020:
6903:
says "there is no compulsion in religion". Typically there is a waiting period to allow the apostate time to repent and to return to Islam.
6033:
for non-Muslim victims professing one of the faiths protected under the constitution (Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians) was made equal to
19351:
19325:
19141:
19100:
16863:
14724:
Siraj Khan, Blasphemy against the Prophet, in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture (Editors: Coeli Fitzpatrick and Adam Hani Walker),
14599:
Mayer, Ann Elizabeth (2016). "Islamic Law and Human Rights: Conundrums and Equivocations". In Gustafson, Carrie; Juviler, Peter H. (eds.).
12857:
12820:
9312:
7722:
7279:) could not be sold, becoming legally free upon her master's death, and the child was considered free and a legitimate heir of the father.
5063:
4988:
2575:
are considered as possessions in Sharia; Masters may sell, bequeath, give away, pledge, share, hire out or compel them to earn Money. See:
17558:
15403:. associate editors Patricia Crone, Wadid Kadi, Devin J. Stewart and Muhammad Qasim Zaman; assistant editor Mahan Mirza. Princeton, N.J.:
13785:
13622:
10379:
8010:
6763:
refers to any form of cursing, questioning or annoying God, Muhammad or anything considered sacred in Islam, including denying one of the
1232:
studies records two major areas of the word can appear without religious connotation. In texts evoking a pastoral or nomadic environment,
17920:
17512:
15966:
14518:
14281:
13541:
13056:
5014:
4377:
adopted an innovative approach of drawing rules from minority and majority opinions of all Sunni madhhabs with a modernizing intent. The
4291:
2027:(welfare or public interest) are two related classical doctrines which have come to play an increasingly prominent role in modern times.
19335:
19202:
19185:
19004:
18933:
18745:
Masud, Muhammad Khalid (2009). "Anglo-Muhammadan Law". In Kate Fleet; Gudrun Krämer; Denis Matringe; John Nawas; Everett Rowson (eds.).
18229:
18179:
18153:
17832:
Admiralty and Maritime Laws in the Mediterranean Sea (ca. 800–1050): The "Kitāb Akriyat al-Sufun" vis-à-vis the "Nomos Rhodion Nautikos"
17142:
15610:
15135:
15114:
14013:
12735:
10813:
10687:"According to the Bishair the fardh, is like the wajib but the wajib expresses occur and the fard, expresses a definitive assessment.
10626:
Subsequently, the sources of Islamic Law are clarified, showing their legal basis, binding force and position on the hierarchical chart
7985:
4090:
If an accusation did not result in a verdict in a qadi's court, the plaintiff could often pursue it in another type of court called the
19345:
16140:
16069:
15810:
15342:
15303:
15272:
15198:
14856:
9943:
9588:
9563:
8415:
6805:
6663:
6112:
5613:
5481:
2591:
As can be seen above and in many other examples, classification is subjective. For example, believing in the existence and miracles of
2584:
19309:
18849:
18831:
18814:
18763:
18299:
15760:
12795:
10414:
8061:
6092:, i.e. deriving legal rulings based on an independent analysis rather than conformity with the opinions of earlier legal authorities (
4459:
Modernist interpretation of Islamic scriptures without adherence to the rules or methodologies of traditional jurisprudence, known as
1716:) groups and sects regarding the Quran and hadith or the place of reason in understanding the Quran and hadith, as can be seen in the
18579:
13884:
13571:
12839:
12652:
10917:
Heinrichs, Wolfhart; Bosworth, Clifford Edmund; van Donzel, Emeri Johannes; Bianquis, Thierry, eds. (2012). "Encyclopedia of Islam".
9405:
5318:
4706:
15886:
14982:
13858:
11511:
Gocek, Fatma Muge (2005). "The Legal Recourse of Minorities in History: Eighteenth-Century Appeals to the Islamic Court of Galata".
6404:
Some countries and jurisdictions have explicit bans on sharia law. In Canada, for example, sharia law has been explicitly banned in
5966:
Marriage is solemnized as a written financial contract, in the presence of two Muslim male witnesses, and it includes a brideprice (
19020:
Schacht, Joseph; Layish, Aharon (2000). "Ṭalāḳ". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).
14194:
13430:
10130:
Lucas, Scott C. (2006). "The Legal Principles of Muhammad B. Ismāʿīl Al-Bukhārī and Their Relationship to Classical Salafi Islam".
6912:
4983:
18120:
16436:"Salhi and Grami (2011), Gender and Violence in the Middle East and North Africa, Florence (Italy), European University Institute"
15776:
13504:
7388:
of Egypt has stated that "attacking innocent people is not courageous; it is stupid and will be punished on the Day of Judgment".
7047:, and under the influence of sexual notions prevalent in Europe at that time. A number of Muslim-majority countries have retained
933:, in a wide range of topics. Its rulings are concerned with ethical standards as much as legal norms, assigning actions to one of
19081:
Thielmann, Jörn (2017). "Ḥisba (modern times)". In Kate Fleet; Gudrun Krämer; Denis Matringe; John Nawas; Everett Rowson (eds.).
13196:
9796:
7101:
6327:
5323:
4231:
Sharia was intended to regulate affairs of the Muslim community. Non-Muslims residing under Islamic rule had the legal status of
3939:
depends on the status accorded to them within the national legal system. State law codification commonly utilized the methods of
3546:
451:
19369:
15692:
15072:
12573:
4119:(market inspector), who was charged with preventing fraud in economic transactions and infractions against public morality. The
3988:. During the first few centuries of Islam, muftis were private legal specialists who normally also held other jobs. They issued
17410:
17180:
The Challenge of Fragmentation of International Humanitarian Law Regarding the Protection of Civilians – An Islamic Perspective
15791:
15487:
14878:
Carl Ernst (2005), "Blasphemy: Islamic Concept", Encyclopedia of Religion (Editor: Lindsay Jones), Vol 2, Macmillan Reference,
12864:
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, US State Department, 2011 Report on International Religious Freedom Report (2011)
12676:
M Kar (2005), Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures: Family, Law and Politics (Ed: Suad Joseph, Afsāna Naǧmābādī), Brill,
12024:
8600:
Hajjar, Lisa (2004). "Religion, State Power, and Domestic Violence in Muslim Societies: A Framework for Comparative Analysis".
7175:. According to some interpretations, Sharia condones certain forms of domestic violence against women, when a husband suspects
4203:
3931:
madhhabs, whose differences from Sunni legal schools are roughly of the same order as the differences among Sunni schools. The
1879:). According to classical mainstream jurists, the verses of the Quran that were "revealed later" in Islamic language may have
7328:, to justify acts of war and terror against Muslim as well as non-Muslim individuals and governments. The expert on terrorism
5963:
recommends written financial contracts with reliable witnesses, although there is dispute about equality of female testimony.
4509:. Some reforms have faced strong conservative opposition. For example, the 1979 reform of Egyptian family law, promulgated by
18708:
18477:
18342:
Gleave, R.M. (2012). "Maḳāṣid al-Sharīʿa". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).
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17658:
16040:
15754:
15547:
15380:
15266:
14424:
14252:
10928:
10611:
10563:
10427:
10396:
10114:
9778:
Juynboll, G. H. A. (1997). "Sunna". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.).
9618:
9122:
9103:
9030:
8341:
7486:
Early Islamic law developed a number of legal concepts that anticipated similar such concepts that later appeared in English
7369:
7121:
degree remained tied to the Quran, hadiths and their traditional interpretations by Islamic jurists. Sharia grants women the
6687:
6642:
6255:
led to the annulment of his marriage. The law was also invoked in an unsuccessful blasphemy suit against the feminist author
1005:
338:
18796:
Messick, Brinkley (2017). "Fatwā, modern". In Kate Fleet; Gudrun Krämer; Denis Matringe; John Nawas; Everett Rowson (eds.).
17536:
13078:
12131:
10713:
5551:
of 1979 represented a watershed for Shiism advocates, demonstrating that it was possible to replace a secular regime with a
3852:(succinct formulas meant to aid the student remember general principles) and collections of fatwas by a particular scholar.
1165:: In this sense, sharia is a rather abstract concept which leaves ample room for various concrete interpretations by humans.
16569:
Bakht, Natasha (2007). "Family Arbitration Using Sharia Law: Examining Ontario's Arbitration Act and its Impact on Women".
15517:
14958:
14582:
Anver M. Emon, Mark Ellis, Benjamin Glahn (2012), Islamic Law and International Human Rights Law, Oxford University Press,
14035:
12622:
12620:
Frank, Michael J. (April 2006). "Trying Times – The Prosecution of Terrorists in the Central Criminal Court of Iraq".
6843:
18467:
18436:
Hardy, P. (1991). "Djizya. iii. India". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).
13932:
13397:
10688:
6168:. Committee officers were authorized to detain violators before a 2016 reform. With the rising international influence of
4357:
reforms of the 19th century saw reorganization of both Islamic civil law and sultanic criminal law after the model of the
18216:
17803:(2 – Proceedings of an International Conference on Comparative Law, Salt Lake City, Utah, 24–25 February 1977): 187–98 .
16103:
13724:
10627:
7679:
7197:
was launched in 2010 with Imams and Muslim leaders committing to join with others to work to end violence against women.
6800:
6659:
6630:
6150:
6116:
5617:
2409:
2190:
1726:
1644:
1615:
989:
962:
824:
11902:
3534:
1888:
Only several verses of the Quran have direct legal relevance, and they are concentrated in a few specific areas such as
19075:
18922:
18903:
18689:
18510:
18429:
18387:
18369:
17914:
17718:
17506:
17473:
Bernard Lewis (with Buntzie Ellis Churchill) 'Islam: The Religion and the People' (2008). Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 151
17354:
17122:
17093:
17058:
16756:
16553:
16495:
16466:
15960:
15668:
15604:
15412:
15336:
15297:
15208:
15108:
15008:
14820:
14796:
14746:
14729:
14608:
14587:
14512:
14475:
14352:
14007:
13795:
13652:
13467:
13348:
13225:
13164:
13050:
12774:
12729:
12705:
12681:
12605:
12561:
12541:
12510:
12341:
12324:
12205:
12188:
11012:
10869:
9322:
8899:
8868:
8659:
8584:
8432:
7376:
has stated that "terrorizing innocent people constitute a form of injustice that cannot be tolerated by Islam", while
2954:
1704:
in theology (syncretists). In the classical age of Islam, there were violent conflicts between rationalists (aqliyyun;
17482:
Bernard Lewis (with Buntzie Ellis Churchill) 'Islam: The Religion and the People' (2008). Pearson Prentice Hall p. 153
7146:, counseled a husband not to beat his wife even if she ignored him but rather to express his anger in some other way.
6064:
Modern public and political fatwas have addressed and sometimes sparked controversies in the Muslim world and beyond.
4182:. This early attempt to turn Islamic law into semi-codified state legislation sparked rebellions against Mughal rule.
19174:
19121:
19046:
18993:
18966:
18870:
18612:
18567:
18540:
18289:
18135:
17014:
Sikainga, Ahmad A. (1996). Slaves Into Workers: Emancipation and Labor in Colonial Sudan. University of Texas Press.
12235:"MENA Gender Equality Profile – Status of Girls and Women in the Middle East and North Africa, UNICEF (October 2011)"
10796:
10586:
10073:
9715:
9417:
9195:
9147:
7971:
7088:
Shari'a is the basis for personal status laws in most Islamic-majority nations. These personal status laws determine
5841:
5175:
4963:
4506:
4382:
3519:
516:
16486:. In Grillo, Ralpho; Ballard, Roger; Ferrari, Alessandro; Hoekema, André J.; Maussen, Marcel; Shah, Prakash (eds.).
16170:
14501:"Progressive Muslims and Islamic jurisprudence: the necessity for critical engagement with marriage and divorce law"
13960:"Religious Arbitration in Ontario – Making the Case Based on the British Example of the Muslim Arbitration Tribunal"
13693:
9958:
6686:
summarized the criticism of the Cairo Declaration in an editorial: "We are deeply concerned with the changes to the
5823:
19446:
13018:
10864:
Jonathan E. Brockopp (2000), Early Mālikī Law: Ibn ʻAbd Al-Ḥakam and His Major Compendium of Jurisprudence, Brill,
7048:
6976:
6537:, condemns imitation of foreign ideas, drawing a distinction between Western democracy and the Islamic doctrine of
6373:
5579:
3104:
116:
6391:) declared his opposition to "any expansion of Sharia law in the UK." In Germany, in 2014, the Interior Minister (
6107:
support such notions as gender equality and banking interest, which are at variance with classical jurisprudence.
5932:
allowing substitution of up to three male with six female witnesses; however, at least one must be a Muslim male.
4244:
only two percent of cases involved non-Muslims whereas in 1789 non-Muslims were a part of thirty percent of cases.
4235:, which entailed a number of protections, restrictions, freedoms and legal inequalities, including payment of the
3839:
were short specialized treatises or general overviews that could be used in a classroom or consulted by judges. A
1838:
Some researchers however, suggests that primary sources may have also evolved, contrary to traditional knowledge;
17736:"The Influence of the Islamic Law of Waqf on the Development of the Trust in England: The Case of Merton College"
17686:
11994:
9732:
7632:
There are differences between Islamic and Western legal systems. For example, Sharia classically recognizes only
7053:
6829:, have been assassinated over their criticism of the blasphemy laws. The Pakistani blasphemy laws are based upon
2032:
976:
Over time with the necessities brought by sociological changes, on the basis of mentioned interpretative studies
708:
12556:
Timur Kuran (2012), The Long Divergence: How Islamic Law Held Back the Middle East, Princeton University Press,
12467:
7337:
5747:
penalties are legal do not use stoning and amputation routinely, and generally apply other punishments instead.
3161:
1362:
In older English-language law-related works in the late 19th/early 20th centuries, the word used for Sharia was
19426:
18915:
Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative Overview of the Legal Systems of Twelve Muslim Countries in Past and Present
17382:
Tyan, E. (2012). "D̲j̲ihād". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).
17036:
17019:
16943:
16246:
15714:
14883:
12234:
7464:
7172:
6626:
6618:
6339:
5808:
5589:
5474:
4389:, but Ottoman civil laws remained in force for several decades in Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, and Iraq.
3742:
3676:
3201:
2702:
2367:
1577:
1411:
1278:
was widely used by Arabic-speaking Jews during the Middle Ages, being the most common translation for the word
930:
653:
17031:
Tucker, Judith E.; Nashat, Guity (1999). Women in the Middle East and North Africa. Indiana University Press.
12171:
Tetley (1999), Mixed Jurisdictions: Common Law v. Civil Law (Codified and Uncodified), La. Law Review, 60, 677
11044:
9251:
8435:. Quote: "... by the ninth century, the classical theory of law fixed the sources of Islamic law at four: the
7596:("teacher"), conferred by the classical Islamic legal degree, had its equivalents in the medieval Latin terms
6218:). Elsewhere, policing of various interpretations of Sharia-based public morality has been carried out by the
4452:) of Sharia, which played a limited role in classical fiqh, but were now given wider utilitarian applications.
1240:שָׂרַע and is likely to be the origin of the meaning "way" or "path". Some scholars describe it as an archaic
13240:"Apostasy and Public Policy in Contemporary Egypt: An Evaluation of Recent Cases from Egypt's Highest Courts"
7684:
5592:
in Strasbourg (ECtHR) ruled in several cases that sharia is "incompatible with the fundamental principles of
5185:
2202:) are considered unambiguous with regard to the question, or where there is an existing scholarly consensus (
387:
18550:
Jokisch, Benjamin (2015). "Origins of and Influences on Islamic law". In Anver M. Emon; Rumee Ahmed (eds.).
16772:
13339:
Helmi Noman (2013), "In the name of God – Faith based internet censorship in majority Muslim countries", in
12269:
Fadel, Mohammad (2009). "Two Women, One Man: Knowledge, Power, and Gender in Medieval Sunni Legal Thought".
9601:
9576:
6499:
Belief that democracy requires restricting religion to private life, held by a minority in the Muslim world.
6276:
makes use of Sharia family law to settle disputes, though this limited adoption of Sharia is controversial.
5225:
4478:
The most powerful influence on liberal reformist thought came from the work of the Egyptian Islamic scholar
3781:). The special significance of ritual was marked by always placing its discussion at the start of the work.
1031:
advocate the complete and uncompromising implementation of "exact/pure sharia" without modifications, while
19431:
16612:
12444:
7363:, have supported attacks against Israeli army reservists and hence should be considered as soldiers, while
7340:". However, sharia-complaint financing actually requires a person to stay away from weapons manufacturing.
7235:
6269:
5722:
5538:
criminal punishments (whipping, stoning and amputation) prescribed for certain crimes. For many Islamists,
5375:
4011:
3408:
3363:
2990:
2580:
1439:
1024:
922:
419:
31:
18884:. Vol. Shari'a: Islamic Law in the Contemporary Context (Kindle ed.). Stanford University Press.
11951:
10841:"Opinion: As Muslim women, we actually ask you not to wear the hijab in the name of interfaith solidarity"
8491:
6662:, a group representing all Muslim-majority nations, met in Cairo to respond to the UDHR, then adopted the
4178:
fatwas as well as decisions of Islamic courts, and made it applicable to all religious communities on the
1571:
of the hadith back to Muhammad's companions. In his view, the real architect of Islamic jurisprudence was
19357:
18116:
16960:
10165:
8891:
7804:
and others, in contrast to later works by al-Bukhari, Muslim, etc. that contain only ahadith by Muhammad.
7373:
7333:
7078:
6273:
4650:
3476:
466:
293:
17:
18317:
Contemporary Muslim Reformist Thought and Maqāṣid cum Maṣlaḥa Approaches to Islamic Law: An Introduction
12336:
Philip Reichel and Jay Albanese (2013), Handbook of Transnational Crime and Justice, Sage publications,
8516:
4361:. In the 1870s, a codification of civil law and procedure (excepting marriage and divorce), called the
19391:
18892:
Sharia and National Law in Muslim Countries: Tensions and Opportunities for Dutch and EU Foreign Policy
18019:"Why the Middle East is Economically Underdeveloped: Historical Mechanisms of Institutional Stagnation"
17710:
15404:
15372:
14326:
13959:
13366:
10106:
8538:
Patricia Crone / Martin Hinds: God's Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam (1986)
7955:
6560:. Islamic leaders are considered to uphold justice if they promote public interest, as defined through
5295:
4958:
4772:
4574:
3641:
2919:
2188:
requires expertise in the Arabic language, theology, religious texts, and principles of jurisprudence (
1701:
926:
506:
50:
18788:
17225:
Pirates, Terrorists, and Warlords: The History, Influence, and Future of Armed Groups Around the World
15448:
14901:
N Swazo (2014). "The Case of Hamza Kashgari: Examining Apostasy, Heresy, and Blasphemy Under Sharia".
13906:
13751:
13361:
10638:
9074:
17627:
16802:
15039:
8424:
7701:
7503:
7364:
6876:
6810:
6488:
Rejection of democracy as a Western import and advocacy of traditional Islamic institutions, such as
5467:
5422:
4737:
4007:
3707:
3009:
1871:: in Islam, the Quran is considered to be the most sacred source of law. Classical jurists held its "
1855:
1486:
601:
313:
46:
16717:
15003:
Brian Winston (2014), The Rushdie Fatwa and After: A Lesson to the Circumspect, Palgrave Macmillan,
14935:
12152:
9589:
https://nou.edu.ng/coursewarecontent/ISL431%20Principles%20of%20Islamic%20Jurisprudence%20100713.pdf
9564:
https://nou.edu.ng/coursewarecontent/ISL431%20Principles%20of%20Islamic%20Jurisprudence%20100713.pdf
6959:
6603:, have justified pluralism and freedom through non-literalist approaches to textual interpretation.
6360:
5713:(monetary compensation). Iran subsequently issued a new "Islamic Penal Code". The criminal codes of
1754:
jurisprudence parallels that of Sunni schools with some differences, such as recognition of reason (
1747:, which refers to a jurist's exertion in an attempt to arrive at a ruling on a particular question.
19226:
18319:. Vol. Maqasid al-Shari’a and Contemporary Reformist Muslim Thought: An Examination. Springer.
17432:
17270:
17115:
Slavery and Sexual Ethics in Islam, in Beyond Slavery: Overcoming Its Religious and Sexual Legacies
15854:
Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P., eds. (2012). "Liwāṭ".
9085:
8751:
7231:
7097:
6137:
6038:
a Muslim male would receive, while for all other non-Muslim males the proportion is one-sixteenth.
4494:
4433:), potentially among multiple madhhabs or denominations, and combining parts of different rulings (
4199:
4004:
jurists in Iran progressively asserted an autonomous authority starting from the early modern era.
3551:
3385:
2651:
2576:
2503:
afterlife, while neutral actions entail no judgment from God. Jurists disagree on whether the term
2334:
985:
533:
333:
19113:
19038:
18532:
18424:. Frankfurt; New York City: Campus Verlag and Chicago: University of Chicago Press (distributor).
17346:
10761:"10. How Can we Observe the Sala Prayers by Following the Quran Alone? - Edip-Layth - quranix.org"
10504:"Ijtihād against Madhhab: Legal Hybridity and the Meanings of Modernity in Early Modern Daghestan"
4143:
2241:
prompted leading Sunni jurists to state that the main legal questions had been addressed and then
19149:
17735:
16898:
12533:
8529:
Robert G. Hoyland: In God's Path. The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire (2015)
7377:
7309:
6219:
5943:
5935:
5819:
5365:
3133:
2600:
2178:, or exertion of a jurist's mentality in finding a solution to a legal question in contrast with
796:(the practical application of sharia in a sense), elaborated and developed over the centuries by
128:
17866:
Makdisi, George (1989). "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West".
16545:
16539:
12854:
12817:
6941:
Twenty-three Muslim-majority countries, as of 2013, penalized apostasy from Islam through their
6645:(UDHR) for its perceived failure to take into account the cultural and religious context of non-
5107:
3646:
905:— developed methodologies for deriving rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as
19441:
19065:
Tellenbach, Silvia (2015). "Islamic Criminal Law". In Markus D. Dubber; Tatjana Hornle (eds.).
18882:
Islamic Law and Legal Change: The Concept of Maslaha in Classical and Contemporary Legal Theory
18639:
17554:
17085:
17079:
13614:
12574:"Explaining the Economic Trajectories of Civilizations – Musings on the Systemic Approach"
12391:
10919:
9016:
8852:
8014:
7885:
7727:
7711:
7381:
7324:
have used their interpretation of Islamic scriptures and Sharia, in particular the doctrine of
7036:
7023:
6835:
5240:
4656:
3882:
3557:
3182:
3109:
2595:
is presented as a "condition" for orthodox Islam by many prominent Sunni creed writers such as
1586:
1540:
1477:) Muslim view, the major precepts of Sharia were passed down directly from the Islamic prophet
1028:
582:
348:
42:
38:
18559:
17902:
17496:
16598:
16535:
16454:
15944:
14500:
14277:
13160:
13040:
12766:
12757:
Silvia Tellenbach (2014). "Islamic Criminal Law". In Markus D. Dubber; Tatjana Hörnle (eds.).
12306:
11854:
10786:
9137:
9005:
9001:
8572:
6496:(consensus), as exemplified by supporters of absolute monarchy and radical Islamist movements;
5895:, and unlike civil law, Sharia is left to the interpretation in each case and has no formally
2218:
1410:
Some articles that may be considered precursors of sharia law and rituals can be found in the
19234:
19210:
19193:
19012:
18941:
18237:
18187:
18161:
17334:
17150:
16912:
Noor, Azman Mohd (1 January 2010). "Rape: A Problem of Crime Classification in Islamic Law".
16483:
16396:
15594:
15326:
15287:
15098:
13997:
12719:
10817:
8860:
7931:
7664:
7194:
7160:
6468:
distinguish four attitudes toward Sharia and democracy prominent among contemporary Muslims:
5313:
5142:
4948:
2086:- rather than an auxiliary one - will pave the way for the re-critique and reorganization of
980:
have emerged, reflecting the preferences of particular societies and governments, as well as
911:(lit. mental effort). Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two principal branches of law,
577:
402:
186:
141:
19332:, via Bridging Cultures, National Endowment for the Humanities & George Mason University
18088:
Sharia, Muslim States and International Human Rights Treaty Obligations: A Comparative Study
16747:
Kusha, Hamid R. (2007). "Qur'anic Perspectives on Wife Abuse". In Jackson, Nicky Ali (ed.).
15807:
15254:
12075:
10890:
Jonathan A. C. Brown, "Faithful Dissenters: Sunni Skepticism about the Miracles of Saints",
9804:
8547:
8412:
8331:
6392:
2642:
Jurisdiction that concerns individuals is personal and, for example, in an Islamic Qisas or
2563:
1581:, but who was preceded by a body of Islamic law not based on primacy of Muhammad's hadiths.
1430:
inscriptions, and continuity can be observed in many details, especially in todays hajj and
19436:
19166:
18985:
18958:
18862:
18839:
18822:
18771:
18594:
18307:
15744:
13108:
Olaniyi, Rasheed Oyewole (2011). "Hisbah and Sharia Law Enforcement in Metropolitan Kano".
12791:
9642:"The Mihna. Deconstruction and reconsideration of the Mu'tazilite role in the "Inquisition"
9187:
8992:
8654:(Editors: David Garnham, Mark A. Tessler), Indiana University Press, see Chapters 5 and 6;
8407:
8069:
7155:
7062:
6534:
6465:
5718:
5230:
5147:
5019:
4579:
4493:
One of the most influential figures in modern legal reforms was the Egyptian legal scholar
4323:
4123:
took an active role in pursuing these types of offenses and meted out punishments based on
3756:
3624:
2036:
1457:
14894:
P Smith (2003). "Speak No Evil: Apostasy, Blasphemy and Heresy in Malaysian Syariah Law".
13880:
12836:
12637:
12217:
Etannibi E. O. Alemika (2005), "Human Rights and Shariah Penal Code in Northern Nigeria",
8652:
Arab and western conceptions of democracy; in Democracy, war, and peace in the Middle East
8504:
6416:
According to Jan Michiel Otto, Professor of Law and Governance in Developing Countries at
4247:
Ottoman court records also reflect the use of Islamic courts by formerly non-Muslim women.
1114:
can mean "our religion" in reference to any monotheistic faith. Within Islamic discourse,
8:
17228:
15878:
15656:
14978:
13854:
12394:(1998). "Punishment in Islamic Law: A Critique of the Hudud Bill of Kelantan, Malaysia".
12200:
Tahir Wasti (2009), The Application of Islamic Criminal Law in Pakistan, Brill Academic,
7927:
7134:
6927:
6760:
6719:
6669:
6600:
6573:
6508:
6438:
5410:
5360:
4559:
4179:
4080:
4046:
3219:
3168:
2115:
2095:
1859:
1791:
1666:
1074:
749:
701:
587:
221:
121:
16541:
Islam in Southeast Asia: Political, Social and Strategic Challenges for the 21st Century
16357:
Powers, David S. (1993). "The Islamic Inheritance System: a Socio-Historical Approach".
7171:, in the Quran, has been debated for domestic violence and also has been the subject to
5670:
also maintaining characteristics of mixed systems, like codified laws and a parliament.
18141:
17972:
17945:(Fall 2005). "The Absence of the Corporation in Islamic Law: Origins and Persistence".
17883:
17812:
17765:
17757:
16997:
16833:"Muslim Council of Britain urges Imams to speak out against domestic abuse this Friday"
16721:
16669:
16661:
16586:
16374:
16287:
16013:
15925:
15179:
14704:
14669:
14565:
14557:
14109:
13280:
13272:
13125:
12597:
12413:
12396:
12294:
12286:
11548:
10689:
https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789047400851/B9789047400851_s012.xml?language=en
10531:
10523:
10484:
10476:
9232:
9062:
8958:
8633:
8625:
8613:
7793:
7659:
7614:, respectively, although they all came to be used synonymously in both East and West.
7456:
7408:
6986:
6842:
to make them more severe. A number of clauses were added by the government in order to
6789:
6604:
6209:
6180:
6078:
6065:
5896:
5585:
5548:
5514:
5335:
5180:
5165:
4953:
4928:
4838:
4686:
4467:
4378:
4374:
4348:, the first such changes in the legal sphere involved placing the formerly independent
3735:
3380:
3122:
2926:
1751:
1670:
1451:
1044:
1009:
763:
611:
568:
538:
521:
496:
441:
397:
109:
17795:
Badr, Gamal Moursi (Spring 1978). "Islamic Law: Its Relation to Other Legal Systems".
16104:"Islam and Homosexuality: Religious Dogma, Colonial Rule, and the Quest for Belonging"
15684:
13542:"The World's Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society. Chapter 1: Beliefs About Sharia"
13186:
10628:
https://www.elevenjournals.com/tijdschrift/ejlr/2014/2/EJLR_1387-2370_2014_016_002_003
1544:
961:, which is frequently repeated in the Quran regarding the attributes of believers as "
19230:
19170:
19117:
19071:
19042:
18989:
18962:
18918:
18899:
18866:
18704:
18685:
18656:
18627:
18608:
18563:
18536:
18506:
18473:
18425:
18383:
18365:
18351:
18285:
18131:
17910:
17769:
17714:
17502:
17452:
17448:
17406:
17391:
17350:
17118:
17089:
17054:
17032:
17015:
16939:
16752:
16673:
16594:
16590:
16549:
16491:
16462:
16242:
16077:
16036:
16005:
15956:
15929:
15863:
15836:
15788:
15750:
15664:
15600:
15572:
15543:
15408:
15376:
15332:
15293:
15262:
15204:
15104:
15064:
15004:
14879:
14816:
14792:
14742:
14725:
14708:
14604:
14583:
14569:
14508:
14481:
14471:
14348:
14113:
14101:
14003:
13791:
13344:
13326:
13284:
13221:
13156:
13129:
13046:
12770:
12725:
12701:
12677:
12601:
12557:
12537:
12506:
12337:
12320:
12302:
12298:
12201:
12184:
12109:
11903:
https://rwi.lu.se/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/2020-OIC-Declaration-of-Human-Rights.pdf
11552:
11544:
11008:
10924:
10865:
10792:
10607:
10582:
10535:
10488:
10423:
10392:
10236:
10110:
10069:
9937:
9711:
9413:
9318:
9224:
9191:
9143:
8895:
8864:
8774:
8655:
8637:
8617:
8580:
8428:
8337:
7977:
7967:
7674:
7645:
7598:
7360:
7356:
7321:
7292:
7288:
7143:
7122:
7089:
6946:
6889:
6869:
6859:
6830:
6764:
6577:
6482:
6417:
6355:
6252:
6099:
5921:
5903:
5882:
5662:
central legislative role is played by politicians and modern jurists rather than the
5563:
5415:
5345:
5280:
5245:
5220:
5200:
5112:
5073:
5049:
4798:
4750:
4711:
4696:
4672:
4629:
4624:
4569:
4531:
4171:
3399:
3140:
3061:
2999:
2897:
2876:
2616:
2413:
2303:
2273:
2127:
2107:
2083:
1872:
1777:
1522:
1292:. A similar use of the term can be found in Christian writers. The Arabic expression
1048:
1032:
662:
648:
616:
563:
476:
436:
298:
19360:– anthropologist John R. Bowen explains the working of Britain's sharia courts in a
19090:
18805:
18754:
18219:. In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).
15479:
7240:
5620:
declared that human rights can only be respected if they are compatible with Islam.
3889:. One of the oldest literary manuscripts of the Islamic world, dated October 879 AD.
3812:
is imposed for non-intentional harm. Other criminal cases belong to the category of
2280:
movements. Among contemporary Muslims in the West there have emerged new visions of
2245:
was gradually restricted. In the modern era, this gave rise to a perception amongst
898:
19162:
19109:
19086:
19034:
18981:
18954:
18858:
18801:
18750:
18598:
18590:
18555:
18528:
18454:
18347:
18030:
17999:
17962:
17954:
17875:
17843:
17804:
17749:
17444:
17387:
17342:
17313:
16989:
16921:
16653:
16578:
16393:
Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy
16366:
16198:"Analysis – Here are the 10 countries where homosexuality may be punished by death"
16017:
15997:
15917:
15859:
15171:
14769:
14696:
14661:
14549:
14388:
14378:
14093:
13322:
13262:
13254:
13117:
12762:
12405:
12278:
12101:
12071:
11540:
10788:
Creative Conformity: The Feminist Politics of U.S. Catholic and Iranian Shi'i Women
10515:
10468:
10331:
10311:
10241:
10139:
9183:
8766:
8609:
7959:
7849:
7706:
7329:
6935:
6893:
6698:
6504:
6335:
6318:
6256:
5623:
5285:
5235:
4828:
4726:
4721:
4701:
4386:
3886:
3066:
2940:
2284:
which emphasize substantive moral values over traditional juridical undertandings.
2226:
1975:
1787:
1510:
1379:
842:
461:
456:
407:
392:
377:
286:
165:
18646:. Vol. The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press (Kindle edition).
18577:
Jones-Pauly, Cristina (2009). "Codes and Codification". In Stanley N. Katz (ed.).
17650:
16410:"Surah 4:34 (An-Nisaa), Alim – Translated by Mohammad Asad, Gibraltar (1980)"
15773:
14409:
14237:
14097:
12319:
Mohamed S. El-Awa (1993), Punishment In Islamic Law, American Trust Publications,
7544:) are also similar in both the Islamic and common law systems, as are the English
1990:
amongst the Sunnis. Twelver Shia jurisprudence also does not recognize the use of
19421:
19377:
18445:
Hendrickson, Jocelyn (2013). "Fatwa". In Gerhard Böwering, Patricia Crone (ed.).
18279:
17990:
Kuran, Timur (2005). "The logic of financial westernization in the Middle East".
17581:
The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World edited by Francis Robinson
17540:
17533:
17186:
16967:
15814:
15795:
15685:"UN rights office deeply concerned over Sudanese woman facing death for apostasy"
15509:
15142:
15046:
15027:
14965:
14942:
14309:
13787:
Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia
13680:
13572:"Conference Call Transcript: The World's Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society"
13437:
13191:
12861:
12843:
12824:
12580:
12127:
10721:
10661:
9308:
9081:
8419:
7963:
7900:
7876:
7633:
7316:
ideologues have used their interpretation of Sharia to justify terrorist attacks.
7304:
7040:
6799:
Blasphemy, as interpreted under Sharia, is controversial. Representatives of the
6768:
6654:
6596:
6592:
6569:
6512:
6294:
6103:
5878:
5567:
5510:
5501:
5457:
5390:
5195:
5102:
4933:
4843:
4767:
4607:
4602:
4564:
4498:
4358:
4295:
4283:
4254:
However, this would likely lead to them being shunned by their former community.
3718:
3268:
3047:
3026:
2525:
fiqh does not consider both terms as synonymous and makes a distinction between "
2311:
2257:
2209:
2028:
1843:
1403:
1245:
1229:
1057:
1040:
868:
856:
809:
740:
643:
596:
412:
372:
361:
343:
246:
191:
104:
19056:
Stewart, Devin J. (2013). "Shari'a". In Gerhard Böwering, Patricia Crone (ed.).
18052:"The Long Divergence: How Islamic Law Held Back the Middle East, By Timur Kuran"
14553:
14462:
Sajoo, Amyn B (Spring 1990). "Islam and Human Rights: Congruence or Dichotomy".
14081:
13121:
10548:
Sociology of religions: perspectives of Ali Shariati (2008) Mir Mohammed Ibrahim
9656:
5815:
2298:, Iran; Religious leaders who have the authority to interpret sharia sources in
1916:
established. Muhammad's sunnah gave way to the "hadiths of Muhammad" which were
1631:), which is devoted to elaboration of rulings on the basis of these principles.
1493:) and transmitted this information to the succeeding generations in the form of
996:
applications of laws and regulations. Although sharia is presented as a form of
19292:
18677:
18003:
17583:. Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 297–98 see Bibliography for Conclusion.
15636:
warranted if apostasy becomes a mechanism of public disobedience and disorder (
14813:
Religious Offence and Human Rights: The Implications of Defamation of Religions
13393:
12409:
10143:
8839:
7610:
7579:
7569:
7253:
7108:
7074:
7001:
6826:
6822:
6691:
6631:
European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms
6584:
6434:
6331:
6314:
6073:
6069:
5403:
5350:
5260:
5210:
5170:
5137:
5097:
5031:
4943:
4923:
4894:
4869:
4823:
4479:
4471:
4345:
4191:
3040:
2871:
2647:
1921:
1917:
1880:
1851:
1847:
1802:(1865–1935 CE) lists the four basic sources of Islamic law, agreed upon by all
1705:
1697:
1658:
1568:
1548:
1526:
1502:
1443:
1375:
816:, integrated with various economic, criminal and administrative laws issued by
694:
556:
543:
501:
446:
60:
19386:– manuscript in Arabic, from the late 19th or early 20th century about Sharia.
18281:
Islamic Law, Epistemology and Modernity. Legal Philosophy in Contemporary Iran
17318:
17301:
16949:
Brunschvig. 'Abd; Encyclopedia of Islam, Brill, 2nd Edition, Vol 1, pp. 13–40.
16316:
Ali, K. (2010). Marriage and slavery in early Islam. Harvard University Press.
16001:
14383:
14366:
13418:
Taher, Abul (14 September 2008). Revealed: UK’s first official sharia courts.
13021:. Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan (RAWA). Archived from
12638:"An Unjust Doctrine of Civil Arbitration: Sharia Courts in Canada and England"
12282:
12183:
Antoinette Vlieger (2012), Domestic Workers in Saudi Arabia and the Emirates,
12105:
10604:
The Iranian Constitutional Revolution and the Clerical Leadership of Khurasani
10519:
10472:
8752:"Path to the Universal Self in Haji Baktash Walî: Four Doors - Forty Stations"
7760:
Shia jurisprudence does not recognize the use of qiyas, but relies on reason (
6780:, and some countries prescribe punishments consisting of fines, imprisonment,
6673:
rights and freedoms stipulated in this Declaration are subject to the Islamic
5522:
these positions are often encapsulated in the slogan "Islam is the solution" (
4335:
2043:
1446:, also coincides with similar distinctions seen in pre-Islamic civilizations.
19415:
19362:
18660:
18631:
18035:
18018:
17847:
17456:
16925:
16081:
15840:
15590:
15576:
14847:
14164:"Most Muslims Want Democracy, Personal Freedoms, and Islam in Political Life"
14105:
12113:
9228:
8778:
8770:
8621:
8403:
7523:
7349:
6971:
6950:
6916:
6900:
6881:
6777:
6728:
6646:
6622:
6588:
6461:
6388:
6380:
6369:
6248:
5891:
5856:
5559:
5355:
5270:
5255:
5205:
5190:
5132:
5117:
5043:
4938:
4779:
4716:
4163:
4068:
3935:
legal school, distinct from Sunni and Shia madhhabs, is predominant in Oman.
3728:
2790:
2655:
2079:
1955:
1713:
1700:) and those who tried to find a middle way between the two attitudes such as
1685:
1572:
1518:
1514:
1506:
1481:
without "historical development" and the emergence of Islamic jurisprudence (
958:
755:
621:
526:
486:
19282:
19256:
Brockopp, Jonathan E. (2001). "Concubines". In Jane Dammen McAuliffe (ed.).
17958:
16370:
16226:
14773:
14665:
14485:
13644:
13455:
13145:"Religious Freedom Implications of Sharia Implementation in Aceh, Indonesia"
13144:
12698:
Religious Pluralism and Islamic Law: Dhimmis and Others in the Empire of Law
19225:
18502:
18494:
18266:
18197:"Stoning and Hand Cutting—Understanding the Hudud and the Shariah in Islam"
16582:
16278:
16009:
15638:
14700:
14629:
14624:
13828:"The War On Sharia Started Long Before You Ever Heard 'Ground Zero Mosque'"
13313:
Olsson, Susanne (2008). "Apostasy in Egypt: Contemporary Cases of Ḥisbah".
11851:
Cases, Materials, and Commentary on the European Convention on Human Rights
8936:
Wörterbuch der griechisch-arabischen Übersetzungen des neunten Jahrhunderts
7822:"What theology is for the Christian, law is for the Muslim." referenced in
7637:
7549:
7418:
6942:
6931:
6922:
6773:
6724:
6682:
6306:
5999:
5992:
5709:
5605:
5600:" have been categorically excluded by the governments of countries such as
5597:
5495:
5446:
5427:
5385:
5380:
5290:
5275:
5215:
5092:
4889:
4874:
4833:
4762:
4733:
4224:
4075:
go to settle their quarrel before a judge (16th century Persian miniature).
3860:
3804:
3792:
3357:
3348:
3325:
3277:
3154:
3033:
2975:
2667:
2643:
2534:
2533:"; In Hanafi fiqh, two conditions are required to impose the fard rule. 1.
2119:
1839:
1765:
1693:
1124:
1036:
779:
682:
628:
365:
97:
86:
18412:(2010). "Islamic Law: History and Transformation". In Robert Irwin (ed.).
15921:
15908:
Falaky, Fayçal (2018). "Radical Islam, Tolerance, and the Enlightenment".
13258:
6911:
Some Islamic jurists continue to regard apostasy as a crime deserving the
6864:
6813:
have been used to convict more than a thousand people, about half of them
6641:
Governments of several predominantly Muslim countries have criticized the
6086:
Modern fatwas have been marked by an increased reliance on the process of
4218:
child slave sentenced to transport logs by Arab master in Sultanate, 1890s
3952:
inspired conservative currents of direct scriptural interpretation by the
2351:
1194:
1016:
by most Muslims, not as a period when sharia was dominant, but a kind of "
18736:
Masters, Bruce (2009). "Dhimmi". In Gábor Ágoston; Bruce Masters (eds.).
18409:
18397:
18375:
17942:
16536:"Law-Making in the Name of Islam: Implications for Democratic Governance"
15364:
15259:
Peace-Building by, between, and beyond Muslims and Evangelical Christians
15255:"The Right to religious conversion: Between apostasy and proselytization"
15096:
14837:. Vol. 2. Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale. 2005. pp. 974–76.
12432:
10650:
10158:
Islamic Modernism, Nationalism, and Fundamentalism: Episode and Discourse
9602:
https://www.iefpedia.com/english/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/USUL-FIQH.pdf
9577:
https://www.iefpedia.com/english/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/USUL-FIQH.pdf
7801:
7641:
7385:
7272:
7168:
6954:
6904:
6885:
6530:
6474:
6408:
by a 2005 unanimous vote of the National Assembly, while the province of
5975:
5714:
5370:
5265:
5250:
5127:
5056:
4510:
4397:
4369:
4158:
3466:
2825:
2246:
2233:
continued to practise amongst Sunni Muslims. The controversy surrounding
2175:
2111:
1889:
1835:
narration. Acts to the contrary may be punished as denial and apostasy.
1803:
1799:
1289:
1099:
1017:
886:
424:
382:
306:
18603:
18107:
Amanat, Abbas (2009). "Preface". In Abbas Amanat; Frank Griffel (eds.).
17976:
17001:
15238:
14673:
13276:
13022:
10527:
10503:
9236:
9212:
9042:
8911:
7417:. In both religions, revealed law holds a central place, in contrast to
7027:, owing in part to stringent procedural requirements for their harsher (
6052:
5960:
5452:
2314:, which directly connect their identities to Allah or Islam, and gained
2237:
started with the beginning of the twelfth century. By the 14th century,
19405:
18523:(2014). "Sunni Schools of Jurisprudence". In Emad El-Din Shahin (ed.).
18520:
18171:
The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600-1800
17761:
17625:
Makdisi, John A. (June 1999), "The Islamic Origins of the Common Law",
16665:
16378:
15183:
14687:
Carney, ABD Al-Hakeem (2003). "The Desacralisation of Power in Islam".
12592:
Lippman, Matthew Ross; McConville, Seán; Yerushalmi, Mordechai (1988).
12417:
10253:
Abdeljelil: „Die Maximen der islamischen Jurisprudenz“. 2014, S. 68–70.
9849:
8922:
8629:
8492:
https://www.jurnalhunafa.org/index.php/hunafa/article/download/618/518/
7692:
7519:
7487:
7428:
6839:
6818:
6650:
6384:
6343:
6223:
5886:
5873:
5869:
5519:
5340:
5122:
4884:
4641:
4385:, abolished its Sharia courts and replaced Ottoman civil laws with the
4305:
4300:
3943:(selection of rulings without restriction to a particular madhhab) and
3906:
3095:
2646:
decisions, jurist must take into account "personal labels" such as the
2572:
2417:
2337:
2249:
scholars and sections of the Muslim public that the so-called "gate of
2055:
1983:
1979:
1650:
1498:
1144:
1120:
997:
783:
429:
18459:
The Venture of Islam, Volume 3: The Gunpowder Empires and Modern Times
17967:
17887:
17816:
16688:"Lebanon – IRIN, United Nations Office of Humanitarian Affairs (2009)"
14561:
14393:
13267:
12290:
10480:
6958:
societies and Islamists have tended to exploit it for political gain.
5768:
and donations. Certain concepts relating to property under Sharia are
3802:), but the victims or their heirs may accept a monetary compensation (
1450:
was a practice used as a resolution tool in inter-tribal conflicts in
1173:
19157:
Ziadeh, Farhat J. (2009). "Uṣūl al-fiqh". In John L. Esposito (ed.).
18422:
Democratization and Islamic Law – The Sharia Conflict in Nigeria
18095:
16993:
14280:. The International Journal of Not-for-Profit Law. 13 February 2003.
14132:
10760:
10456:
7951:
7796:(edited by Shaibani)—contains 429 ahadith by Muhammad but 750 by the
7717:
7604:
7545:
7531:
7256:
7147:
7044:
6290:
6231:
6169:
5885:
of witnesses. Unlike common law, judges' verdicts do not set binding
5731:) punishments for violation of Islamic norms, but explicitly exclude
5727:
5593:
5552:
4899:
4691:
4429:
Selection of alternative opinions from traditional legal literature (
4167:
3993:
3924:
3827:
3697:
2961:
2934:
2659:
2612:
2596:
2546:
2464:
2307:
2291:
2195:
2048:
1930:
1464:
1132:
1013:
942:
328:
19400:
18128:
Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives
17753:
16657:
15990:
The European Journal of Contraception & Reproductive Health Care
15175:
12792:"International Religious Freedom Report 2006, U.S. State Department"
12154:
Saudi Arabia Basic Industries Corp. v. Mobil Yanbu Petrochemical Co.
8577:
Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives
6821:. While none have been legally executed, two Pakistani politicians,
6247:
suit brought by a group of Islamists against the liberal theologian
5826:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
4162:
promulgated by Ottoman sultans beginning from the 15th century. The
17879:
17808:
16259:
Badawi, Jamal A. (September 1971). "The Status of Women in Islam".
15162:
Peters, Rudolph; Vries, Gert J. J. De (1976). "Apostasy in Islam".
10916:
10639:
https://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/AUFPPlatypus/2006/46.pdf
7737:
7527:
7491:
7431:) as well as less formal, orally transmitted prophetic traditions (
7313:
7300:
7151:
6781:
6156:
5506:
4879:
4755:
4597:
4539:
4514:
4354:
4215:
4115:
4058:
4000:
muftis were gradually incorporated into state bureaucracies, while
3856:
3635:
3592:
3494:
2806:
2675:
2608:
2537:, (only verses of the Qur'an can be accepted as evidence here, not
2421:
2401:
2395:
2389:
1782:
1764:
and extension of the notion of sunnah to include traditions of the
1681:
1654:
1555:
1478:
1473:
1427:
1399:
1351:
designates the laws or message of a prophet or God, in contrast to
1136:
1065:
1001:
970:
966:
918:
638:
606:
320:
254:
19383:
19286:
15945:"Oppression and Subalternity: Homosexual and Transgender in Islam"
14144:
14036:"Oklahoma International and Sharia Law, State Question 755 (2010)"
13999:
Scapegoating Islam: Intolerance, Security, and the American Muslim
11410:
11408:
10581:. Oxford, England: One World Publications Oxford. pp. 63–64.
9213:"Conflict and Conflict Resolution in the pre-Islamic Arab Society"
7981:
7589:
6236:
Committee for the Propagation of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice
5997:
In classical jurisprudence monetary compensation for bodily harm (
5562:" should take. This is particularly the case for the theorists of
4294:
were initiated in the late 18th century by the governor of Bengal
4279:
2268:, which they saw as a return to Islamic origins. The advocacy of
1623:), which studies the theoretical principles of jurisprudence, and
1423:
1419:
1402:
script with a figure of a camel on a red sandstone fragment, from
1056:
to sharia, its rules are largely retained only in family law. The
18361:
Legal Traditions of the World – Sustainable Diversity in Law
17204:
16618:
16035:(Kindle ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 361–362.
15853:
12923:
12921:
11444:
11201:
11199:
11197:
11195:
11193:
11191:
11189:
10161:
7948:
The Shari'a and Islamic Criminal Justice in Time of War and Peace
7797:
7757:
7732:
7535:
7423:
7414:
7402:
7219:
7198:
7182:
6785:
6546:
6409:
6239:
6088:
6013:
5908:
5861:
5609:
4864:
4636:
4363:
4211:
4092:
4072:
4050:
4021:
3979:
3957:
3928:
3920:
3910:
3872:
3613:
3501:
3449:
3246:
2947:
2799:
2744:
2550:
2425:
2371:
2315:
2139:
2123:
2015:
2011:
1997:
1966:
1830:
1756:
1743:
1677:
1531:
1249:
1152:
1078:
1000:
in addition to its other aspects (especially by the contemporary
977:
907:
902:
882:
817:
471:
148:
18976:
Rabb, Intisar A. (2009c). "Ijtihād". In John L. Esposito (ed.).
16338:
12503:
Intent in Islamic Law: Motive and Meaning in Medieval Sunnī Fiqh
11751:
11749:
11747:
11745:
10897:
10884:
9894:
9758:
7275:
of slaves. A slave woman who bore a child to her Muslim master (
2678:, etc. Islamic preachers constantly emphasize the importance of
1485:) also goes back to the lifetime of Muhammad. In this view, his
1131:
and in branches of Islam that are influenced by Sufism, such as
1102:
to designate a prophetic religion in its totality. For example,
17192:
14851:
14601:
Religion and Human Rights: Competing Claims?: Competing Claims?
13674:
Killing for religion is justified, say third of Muslim students
12889:
12887:
12818:
Saudi Arabia 2012, International Religious Freedom Report, p. 4
11492:
11420:
11405:
9031:"A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire: Translations of the
8832:
Understanding Islamic Law – From Classical to Contemporary
8459:
8457:
7560:
7460:
7439:
7433:
7247:
7177:
7093:
6847:
6814:
6405:
6317:, the Archbishop of Canterbury, has suggested that Islamic and
6144:
6131:
6094:
5942:, fingerprints, ballistics, blood samples, DNA etc.) and other
5740:
5701:
penalties were added, while others also enacted provisions for
4678:
4241:
4232:
4195:
4175:
4109:
4054:
3953:
3915:
3902:
3898:
3599:
3374:
3367:
3224:
3147:
2968:
2779:
2734:
2683:
2671:
2604:
2568:
2538:
2522:
2484:
2299:
2277:
2199:
2180:
1971:
1907:
1901:
1814:
1494:
1490:
1241:
1217:
1148:
1140:
1128:
950:
913:
894:
890:
837:
771:
491:
481:
238:
230:
215:
209:
93:
19029:
Schneider, Irene (2014). "Fiqh". In Emad El-Din Shahin (ed.).
18130:. Vol. 1. The Hague / Boston / London: Martinus Nijhoff.
17830:
Tai, Emily Sohmer (2007). "Book Reviews: Hassan S. Khalilieh,
17244:"Seven Prohibited Industries in Islamic Financial Investments"
16055:
Tilo Beckers, "Islam and the Acceptance of Homosexuality", in
15021:
Bad-mouthing: Pakistan’s blasphemy laws legitimise intolerance
12918:
11186:
10579:
REVIVAL AND REFORM IN ISLAM: A Study of Islamic Fundamentalism
9091:
8814:
8812:
8733:
8731:
8729:
8727:
8725:
8723:
8721:
7864:
7669:
7263:
Sharia authorized the institution of slavery, using the words
4096:
court, administered by the ruler's council. The rationale for
2435:
1272:
occur once each, with the meaning "way" or "path". The word
18949:
Rabb, Intisar A. (2009b). "Fiqh". In John L. Esposito (ed.).
18880:
Opwis, Felicitas (2007). Abbas Amanat; Frank Griffel (eds.).
17435:(2011). "Parity of Muslim and Western Concepts of Just War".
15817:
Oxford Islamic Studies Online, Oxford University Press (2012)
15235:
14791:. Burlington VT: Ashgate Publishing Company. pp. 38–39.
13079:"Iran's Basij Force – The Mainstay Of Domestic Security"
12025:"Brunei Shariah law applies death sentence for homosexuality"
11995:"Brunei to Punish Adultery and Gay Sex With Death by Stoning"
11974:
11788:
11786:
11784:
11782:
11780:
11778:
11776:
11742:
8941:
8366:
8364:
8362:
8360:
7584:
7574:
7540:
7325:
7296:
6649:
countries. Iran declared in the UN assembly that UDHR was "a
6489:
6442:
6214:
6197:
6189:
6165:
6047:
6018:
5947:
5911:
jurisprudence, which forms the basis of law in Saudi Arabia.
5703:
5663:
5531:
4804:
4792:
4744:
4554:
4236:
4153:
4033:
3997:
3989:
3985:
3975:
3948:
3932:
3814:
3798:
3786:
3760:
3691:
3684:
3606:
3585:
3578:
3564:
3508:
3442:
3435:
3428:
3416:
3314:
3303:
3257:
3213:
3088:
3079:
3072:
2892:
2885:
2866:
2845:
2772:
2765:
2753:
2663:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2557:
2542:
2530:
2519:), as expressed in the legal maxim "acts are to intention."
2515:
2505:
2492:
2476:
2441:
2376:("traditionalists") who emphasized on reports or traditions (
2361:
2346:
2330:
2091:
2087:
1960:
1946:
1912:
1893:
1867:
1824:
1808:
1790:. Possibly the oldest, best preserved and most comprehensive
1737:
1717:
1709:
1689:
1634:
1560:
1447:
1435:
1431:
1330:
1285:
1107:
1070:
1061:
993:
981:
954:
946:
934:
877:
832:
828:
801:
797:
793:
767:
759:
633:
511:
202:
160:
153:
76:
68:
15097:
Gerhard Böwering; Patricia Crone; Mahan Mirza, eds. (2013).
14410:"Human Rights, Religion and Democracy: The Refah Party Case"
14238:"Human Rights, Religion and Democracy: The Refah Party Case"
12884:
11732:
11730:
11728:
11726:
11724:
11722:
11709:
11707:
11648:
11646:
11644:
11642:
11333:
11331:
11329:
10746:. 2002, Bd. 26, S. 429.; Yüksel; al-Shaiban; Schulte-Nafeh:
10606:. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. p. 6.
9014:, of which the ultimate source is the Koran," – A review of
8454:
8034:
8032:
7625:, of which it is a word-for-word translation, with the term
4474:
exercised a powerful influence on liberal reformist thought.
3877:
17603:
17601:
16895:
Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law: A Fresh Interpretation
16030:
14192:
12874:
12872:
12870:
11378:
11376:
11374:
11372:
11370:
11246:
11244:
11216:
11214:
11112:
11052:
Loyola Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review
10986:
10984:
10982:
10969:
10967:
10965:
10963:
10961:
10184:
10182:
10180:
10178:
10176:
10174:
9259:
Loyola Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review
8971:
8809:
8797:
8718:
7867:
7855:
7554:
7511:
7495:
6493:
6446:
6397:
5967:
5929:
5601:
4405:
4349:
4027:
4001:
3571:
3487:
3455:
3286:
3235:
3175:
3015:
2854:
2836:
2818:
2710:
2592:
2526:
2452:
2429:
2356:
2322:
2238:
2204:
1938:
1819:
1731:
1609:
1603:
1489:
and followers took what he did and approved of as a model (
1415:
1354:
1052:
938:
847:
813:
788:
262:
170:
18720:
Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry
18324:
El Achi, Soha (2018). "Slavery". In Jonathan Brown (ed.).
17113:
Kecia Ali (15 October 2010). Bernadette J. Brooten (ed.).
17081:
Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa
14217:
13042:
In Custody: Law, Impunity and Prisoner Abuse in South Asia
11803:
11801:
11773:
11682:
11680:
11395:
11393:
11391:
11355:
11314:
11231:
11229:
11176:
11174:
11172:
11170:
11168:
11166:
11129:
11127:
10018:
10016:
10014:
10012:
10010:
9882:
9872:
9870:
9868:
9866:
9864:
9862:
9860:
9858:
9535:
9533:
9531:
8765:(2). Association for Spiritual Psychology and Counseling.
8357:
7852:
7092:
in matters of marriage, divorce and child custody. A 2011
5645: Sharia influences personal status and criminal laws.
2194:), and is not employed where authentic and trusted texts (
1567:
of jurisprudence supported by the hadith would extend the
19278:
18727:
Mack, Gregory (2018). "Ḥisbah". In Jonathan Brown (ed.).
18126:. In Witte, John Jr.; Van der Vyver, Johan David (eds.).
18090:. British Institute of International and Comparative Law.
15988:
Dialmy, Abdessamad (13 May 2010). "Sexuality and Islam".
12977:
12975:
12973:
12971:
12969:
12594:
Islamic Criminal Law and Procedure – An Introduction
11719:
11704:
11639:
11343:
11326:
10595:
10065:
Understanding Islamic Law: From Classical to Contemporary
9518:
9516:
8836:
Islamic Law – An Overview of its Origin and Elements
8548:
https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/1699430
8313:
8311:
8029:
7427:) are derived from formal textual revelations (Quran and
7336:) is a new weapon in the arsenal of what might be termed
6552:
6423:
4124:
2724:
2679:
2295:
1244:
word denoting "pathway to be followed" (analogous to the
805:
18247:"Saudi Arabia Moves to Curb Its Feared Religious Police"
17598:
16614:
CEDAW and Muslim Family Laws: In Search of Common Ground
16459:
What Men Owe to Women: Men's Voices from World Religions
15949:
Journal of the International Relations and Affairs Group
14278:"Refah Partisi (The Welfare Party) and Others v. Turkey"
12867:
11367:
11302:
11241:
11211:
10979:
10958:
10671:
10669:
10551:
10171:
9710:. Alexandria, VA: Al-Saadawi Publications. p. 127.
9687:
9139:
Speaking in God's Name: Islamic Law, Authority and Women
8474:
8472:
8387:
8385:
8383:
8381:
8379:
7617:
Makdisi suggested that the medieval European doctorate,
2607:
by puritanical and revivalist Islamic movements such as
2184:(conformity to precedent ijtihad). According to theory,
19358:"Private Arrangements: 'Recognizing Sharia' in Britain"
19319:
19058:
The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought
18447:
The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought
17586:
16326:
Hafez, Mohammed (September 2006). "Why Muslims Rebel".
15540:
The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought
15401:
The Princeton encyclopedia of Islamic political thought
15200:
The Middle East, a Brief History of the Last 2000 Years
15100:
The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought
12908:
12906:
12904:
12902:
12070:. Oxford Handbooks (online ed.). Oxford Academic.
11931:
11798:
11692:
11677:
11615:
11581:
11579:
11577:
11468:
11388:
11292:
11290:
11288:
11286:
11226:
11163:
11139:
11124:
11102:
11100:
11005:
The Middle East, a brief history of the last 2000 years
10948:
10946:
10944:
10942:
10940:
10293:
10281:
10040:
10007:
9855:
9677:
9675:
9528:
8505:
https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/10064
7714:– a court in the United Kingdom with no legal authority
7413:
Islamic legal tradition has a number of parallels with
6899:
According to Islam, apostasy from Islam is a sin while
5651: Regional variations in the application of sharia.
2689:
2090:
in the context of maqasid and maslaha, thus (including
1345:
in Greek in the New Testament ). In Muslim literature,
1151:. In each of these gates, there are 10 levels that the
18762:
Masud, Muhammad Khalid; Kéchichian, Joseph A. (2009).
18587:
The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Legal History
16773:"Canadian Muslims Launch Annual White Ribbon Campaign"
16455:"Islam and Gender Justice: Beyond Simplistic Apologia"
15779:
31 December 2017 at Wikiwix Library of Congress (2014)
15394:
15392:
15285:
14505:
Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender, and Pluralism
12966:
12956:
12954:
12952:
12950:
12948:
11952:"Greece Scraps Compulsory Shariah for Muslim Minority"
11919:
11847:
Refah Partİsİ (The Welfare Party) And Others V. Turkey
11820:
11818:
11816:
11627:
11564:
11562:
11256:
11151:
11098:
11096:
11094:
11092:
11090:
11088:
11086:
11084:
11082:
11080:
10214:
10212:
9782:. Vol. 9 (2nd ed.). Brill. pp. 878–879.
9545:
9513:
9291:
9289:
9287:
9177:
8308:
7391:
5639: Sharia influences personal status (family) laws.
4286:
initiated far-reaching legal reforms in British India.
4152:
their capacity as interpreters of the scriptures. The
3769:(lit. branches of fiqh) is traditionally divided into
1911::Although hadiths have largely replaced the sunnah in
1806:: "the sources of legislation in Islam are four: the
1359:, which refers to a scholar's interpretation thereof.
19389:
18223:. Vol. 9 (2nd ed.). Brill. pp. 321–26.
16980:
Mazrui, Ali A. (1997). "Islamic and Western Values".
16141:"How homosexuality became a crime in the Middle East"
16070:"How homosexuality became a crime in the Middle East"
15538:
Ibrahim, Hassan (2006). Abu-Rabi', Ibrahim M. (ed.).
15442:
15440:
15438:
15436:
15421:
15229:
14195:"Majorities See Religion and Democracy as Compatible"
13522:
12933:
12789:
12092:"Outlines of Muhammadan Law. By Asaf A. A. Fyzee. ".
11667:
11665:
11663:
11661:
11603:
11480:
10666:
10355:
10353:
10351:
10349:
10347:
10345:
10343:
10341:
10339:
10199:
10197:
10028:
9503:
9470:
9468:
9466:
9464:
9462:
9460:
9458:
9456:
9343:
8708:
8706:
8704:
8671:
8669:
8667:
8469:
8376:
8280:
8278:
8276:
8274:
8272:
8270:
8268:
8266:
8264:
8262:
8260:
8258:
8256:
8254:
8252:
8250:
8248:
8246:
8244:
7083:
4290:
The first significant changes to the legal system of
3796:
that prescribes a punishment analogous to the crime (
2005:
19133:
Between God and the Sultan: A History of Islamic Law
18651:
Khadduri, Majid; Liebesny, Herbert J., eds. (1955).
17189:
School of Law, University of Bedfordshire, pp. 18–25
15661:
The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists
15136:
Which countries still outlaw apostasy and blasphemy?
12899:
12465:
12381:. Karachi: International Islamic Publishers. p. 133.
12347:
12087:
12085:
11907:
11574:
11456:
11432:
11283:
11273:
11271:
10937:
10562:
harvnb error: no target: CITEREFNewman_in_Meri2006 (
10269:
10234:
Ed. Aḥmad Zakī Ḥammād. SIDRA, Riad, 2009?. S. 328. (
9672:
9501:
9499:
9497:
9495:
9493:
9491:
9489:
9487:
9485:
9483:
9382:
9367:
8785:
8702:
8700:
8698:
8696:
8694:
8692:
8690:
8688:
8686:
8684:
8242:
8240:
8238:
8236:
8234:
8232:
8230:
8228:
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8224:
8211:
8209:
8207:
8205:
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8201:
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8193:
8191:
8189:
8187:
8185:
8183:
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8179:
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8175:
8173:
8171:
8169:
8167:
8165:
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8161:
8159:
8157:
8155:
8153:
8151:
8149:
8147:
8145:
8143:
8141:
8139:
8137:
8135:
8133:
8131:
8129:
8127:
8125:
8123:
8121:
8119:
8117:
8115:
8113:
8111:
8109:
8107:
7890:
7861:
6772:
becoming a devout follower of Islam. In the modern
6022:) at one-fifteenth the value of a free Muslim male.
5868:
Sharia courts traditionally do not rely on lawyers;
4170:(r. 1658–1707) issued a hybrid body of law known as
1922:
systematized and purified within following centuries
1352:
1346:
1293:
1279:
1273:
1267:
1261:
17302:"Shariah-compliant FinTech in the banking industry"
17048:
15389:
14058:
13497:
The World's Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society
12945:
12721:
The Application of Islamic Criminal Law in Pakistan
12359:
12156:, Supreme Court of Delaware, January 14, 2005 p. 52
11813:
11559:
11513:
Interdisciplinary Journal of Middle Eastern Studies
11077:
10209:
9438:
9284:
9135:
8397:
8105:
8103:
8101:
8099:
8097:
8095:
8093:
8091:
8089:
8087:
7858:
7107:The 1917 codification of Islamic family law in the
6544:The moderate Islamic view stresses the concepts of
6364:
Protest against Sharia in the United Kingdom (2014)
2350:) until the Shiite embrace of various doctrines of
1593:
1035:argue that it can/should be brought into line with
19099:
18848:
18578:
18332:
16892:
16538:. In Nathan, K S; Kamali, Mohammad Hashim (eds.).
15433:
15257:. In Mohammed Abu-Nimer; David Augsburger (eds.).
14919:
14150:
14138:
14082:"Sharīʻa, Islamism and Arab support for democracy"
13038:
12047:
11761:
11658:
11591:
11450:
10784:
10413:
10378:
10336:
10240:is available for free viewing and download at the
10194:
9995:
9617:harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFBlankinship2008 (
9453:
8664:
8575:. In Witte, John; van der Vyver, Johan D. (eds.).
8552:
7695:school – each used to illustrate a fundamental of
6636:
5633: Sharia plays no role in the judicial system.
3964:
2424:towards the end of his lifetime, and according to
2040:falsafat at-tašrīʿ (“Philosophy of Legislation”).
30:"Islamic law" redirects here. For other uses, see
19322:– information and misconceptions about sharia law
19209:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
19192:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
19011:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
18940:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
18838:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
18821:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
18813:Messick, Brinkley; Kéchichian, Joseph A. (2009).
18812:
18787:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
18770:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
18493:
18363:(5th edition) ed.). Oxford University Press.
18333:Esposito, John L.; DeLong-Bas, Natana J. (2018).
18306:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
18297:
18236:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
18186:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
17210:
17198:
17149:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
16864:"Imams rally against domestic violence in the UK"
16544:. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp.
16457:. In Raines, John C.; Maguire, Daniel C. (eds.).
16344:
15625:
15533:
15531:
15157:
15155:
15153:
15151:
15059:
15057:
15055:
14936:"The Invented Islam – 'Punishment for Blasphemy'"
14786:
14364:
13951:
13821:
13819:
13600:Jonathan A.C. Brown, Misquoting Muhammad, p. 131.
12999:
12987:
12927:
12756:
12082:
11268:
11205:
10839:Nomani, Asra Q.; Arafa, Hala (21 December 2015).
10701:Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan 1857–1964
10601:
10448:
10058:
9480:
9035:and Other Official Texts into Minority Languages"
8681:
8221:
8068:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
8013:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
6612:
6401:), "Sharia law is not tolerated on German soil."
6387:. In 2008 in Britain, the future Prime Minister (
2082:. Taking maqasid and maslaha as an "independent"
1039:and other contemporary issues such as democracy,
19413:
18650:
18264:
18109:Shari'a: Islamic Law in the Contemporary Context
17216:
17140:
16231:. Vol. 8 (2nd ed.). Brill. p. 29.
16108:Journal of Civil Rights and Economic Development
15398:
15324:
14464:Temple International and Comparative Law Journal
14193:Magali Rheault; Dalia Mogahed (3 October 2017).
12816:State Department of the U.S. Government (2012),
12430:
12068:The Oxford Handbook of Intellectual Property Law
11949:
10411:
10376:
10332:https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1128456.pdf
10312:https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1128456.pdf
9397:
9182:. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World.
9110:
8463:
8084:
8059:
4440:Appeal to the classical doctrines of necessity (
2545:as fard. However, some religious groups such as
2253:" was closed at the start of the classical era.
2174:refers to independent reasoning by an expert in
18761:
18703:. Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition).
18698:
18684:. Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition).
18461:. University of Chicago Press (Kindle edition).
18298:Dallal, Ahmad S.; Hendrickson, Jocelyn (2009).
18121:"Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights"
18049:
17992:Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization
17648:
16803:"Call to Action to Eradicate Domestic Violence"
16325:
15471:
15190:
14903:The Review of Faith & International Affairs
13779:
13777:
13343:(Editors: Monroe E. Price, et al.), Routledge,
12893:
12468:"DNA Evidence in Pakistani Courts: An Analysis"
12431:Mohd Noor, Azman; Ibrahim, Ahmad Basri (2008).
11498:
11426:
11414:
10372:
10370:
10368:
9167:. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 15.
8573:"Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights"
8329:
7490:. Similarities exist between the royal English
6428:
2069:Although most classical-era jurists recognized
1680:" vis-à-vis naql: those who rely on narration (
875:) – a consensus by religious authorities), and
18404:. Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition).
18265:Coulson, Noel James; El Shamsy, Ahmed (2019).
18215:Calder, Norman; Hooker, Michael Barry (2007).
17907:Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia
17494:
16101:
15528:
15148:
15052:
14979:"University of Minnesota Human Rights Library"
13873:
13816:
13722:
12229:
12227:
12065:
11021:
10714:"Ek 15 – Dini Görevler: Tanrı'dan Bir Armağan"
10662:https://sunnah.com/search?q=temporary+marriage
10557:
9317:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 18–24.
9314:Rethinking tradition in modern Islamic thought
8834:(edited by Aminah Beverly McCloud). Chapter 1
7451:both mean literally "the path to follow". The
2329:until the 12th century. With the exception of
1771:
1712:) and traditionalist (naqliyyun, literalists,
1284:in the 10th-century Arabic translation of the
19384:Explanation of "The Reward of the Omnipotent"
19330:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics
19146:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics
19106:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics
19031:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics
19019:
18830:Muslih, Muhammad; Browers, Michaelle (2009).
18829:
18525:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics
18158:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics
18111:. Stanford University Press (Kindle Edition).
17861:
17859:
17857:
17707:Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice
17644:
17642:
17543:BBC article, by Agdi Abdelhadi on 7 July 2004
17490:
17488:
17404:
17339:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics
17174:
17172:
17170:
17168:
16517:Transnational Law & Contemporary Problems
16195:
16135:
16133:
15589:
15369:Sharī'a: Theory, Practice and Transformations
15318:
15145:Pew Research Center, United States (May 2014)
14920:Juan Eduardo Campo, ed. (2009). "Blasphemy".
14452:: Vol. 1, Oxford University Press, pp. 239–45
14303:Hearing of the European Court of Human Rights
14223:
13456:"How could English courts recognize Shariah?"
13216:
13214:
11869:"EuGH - Gegen Scheidungen nach Scharia-Recht"
11755:
11036:
10996:
9156:
9037:. In Herzog, Christoph; Malek Sharif (eds.).
8851:
6529:The rejectionist Islamic view, elaborated by
6519:
6025:Modern countries which incorporate classical
5475:
4185:
4147:Manuscript copy of al-Fatawa al-'Alamgiriyyah
3736:
2106:to include such aims of Sharia as reform and
1382:
1068:for full implementation of sharia, including
702:
19352:Sharia Law in the International Legal Sphere
19340:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
19274:Islamic Law and the Transfer of European Law
19207:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
19190:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
19159:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
19009:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18978:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18951:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18938:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18855:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18836:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18819:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18785:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18768:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18315:Duderija, Adis (2014). Adis Duderija (ed.).
18304:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18234:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18214:
18184:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18115:
16643:
16350:
16196:Bearak, Max; Cameron, Darla (16 June 2016).
15876:
15870:
15655:
15092:
15090:
13774:
13489:
13487:
13485:
12530:Sharia and the Making of the Modern Egyptian
12433:"The rights of a rape victim in Islamic Law"
12271:International Journal of Middle East Studies
11992:
10791:. Georgetown University Press. p. 118.
10699:Zum Beispiel Sayyid Ahmad Khan. Vgl. Ahmad:
10461:International Journal of Middle East Studies
10365:
9243:
9102:sfn error: no target: CITEREFAl-Jallad2022 (
8977:
8947:
8882:
8880:
8818:
8803:
8737:
8570:
7723:Principle of legality in French criminal law
6994: Death penalty on books but not applied
6690:by a coalition of Islamic states within the
6580:have advocated different forms of this view.
6452:that Sharia law is the literal word of God.
6262:
6208:was enshrined in the constitution after the
6148:, associated with the Quranic injunction of
6056:Turkish mufti (17th-century Spanish drawing)
5656:
5573:
5027:Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
1613:is traditionally divided into the fields of
1369:
1314:
1299:
1201:
863:) – a whole Islamic community consensus, or
19370:Division of Inheritance According to Qur'an
18576:
18499:What Is Islam? A Comprehensive Introduction
18444:
17620:
17618:
17616:
17552:
17501:. Cambridge University Press. p. 335.
17431:
15715:"Saudi Arabia: Writer Faces Apostasy Trial"
15357:
15161:
14407:
14235:
13608:
13606:
12878:
12717:
12645:Stanford Journal of International Relations
12505:. Brill Academic. pp. 97–110, 125–41.
12500:
12224:
11382:
11045:"Islamic Law; the impact of Joseph Schacht"
10910:
10838:
9773:
9771:
9769:
9724:
9705:
9612:
9358:
9252:"Islamic Law; the impact of Joseph Schacht"
9142:. Oneworld Publications. pp. 525–526.
9010:, Number LXXXIV "The religious law of the
8323:
8005:
8003:
7922:
7920:
3843:, which usually provided a commentary on a
2436:Ahkam al-shar'iyya (Decision types; labels)
2316:tutelage over people and the administration
2149:
2080:inferences based on the letter of scripture
19064:
18416:. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press.
18402:Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations
17854:
17639:
17498:Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations
17485:
17332:
17262:
17235:
17165:
17051:Uncovering the History of Africans in Asia
16938:* Bernard Lewis (2002), What Went Wrong?,
16751:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 595–602.
16130:
16059:, ed. Samar Habib, 64–65 (Praeger, 2009).
15248:
15246:
15103:. Princeton University Press. p. 72.
14968:Nina Shea, National Review (31 March 2011)
14758:
14627:, and Tom Flynn. "Defaming Human Rights".
14539:
13991:
13989:
13987:
13985:
13727:. Volokh Conspiracy, via Washington Post.
13211:
12552:
12550:
12524:
12522:
11980:
10832:
10508:Comparative Studies in Society and History
9406:"Origins of and influences on Islamic Law"
9067:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
8963:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
8593:
7102:woman's testimony is worth half of a man's
6806:Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam
6664:Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam
6583:The liberal Islamic view is influenced by
5725:provide for application of discretionary (
5608:under sharia, claiming that it belongs to
5482:
5468:
4130:
4083:(qadi) was in charge of the qadi's court (
3808:) or pardon the perpetrator instead; only
3743:
3729:
2585:History of concubinage in the Muslim world
1139:. It is necessary to reach from Sharia to
1098:is used by Arabic-speaking peoples of the
963:those who command ma’ruf and forbid munkar
957:. Some have argued that the definition of
709:
695:
19148:. Oxford University Press. Archived from
19114:10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001
19080:
19039:10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001
19028:
18602:
18533:10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001
18160:. Oxford University Press. Archived from
18034:
17966:
17534:Controversial preacher with 'star status'
17347:10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001
17317:
17112:
17049:Jean Pierre Angenot; et al. (2008).
16220:
15827:Zwemer, Samuel M. "The Law of Apostasy".
15563:Zwemer, Samuel M. "The Law of Apostasy".
15542:. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 167–69.
15502:
15477:
15087:
14392:
14382:
14323:"ECHR press release Refah Partisi (2001)"
13933:"Quebec gives thumbs down to Shariah law"
13482:
13266:
12981:
12790:U.S. State Department (17 October 2008).
12616:
12614:
12264:
12262:
10744:Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslâm Ansiklopedisi
10454:
10100:
9654:
9171:
9097:
9039:The First Ottoman Experiment in Democracy
8877:
8391:
7926:
7443:). According to some scholars, the words
6279:
5842:Learn how and when to remove this message
5319:Liberal and reform movements within Islam
2384:would become a mainstream Shia practice.
1255:
792:, which refers to its interpretations by
19255:
18729:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Law
18699:Lapidus, Ira M.; Salaymeh, Lena (2014).
18621:
18326:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Law
18314:
17868:Journal of the American Oriental Society
17733:
17704:
17613:
17381:
17117:. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 107–119.
16312:
16310:
16271:
16241:Bernard Lewis (2002), What Went Wrong?,
16049:
16024:
14720:
14718:
13907:"Germany won't tolerate 'Sharia police'"
13603:
12692:
12690:
12466:Shahbaz Ahmad Cheema (30 January 2017).
12128:"Qatar: The Duality of the Legal System"
10188:
10103:The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law
10052:
9777:
9766:
9412:. Oxford University Press. p. 393.
9408:. In Anver M. Emon; Rumee Ahmed (eds.).
9178:El Guindi, Fadwa; Sherifa Zahur (2009).
8000:
7917:
7481:
7308:
7259:, painting by Gustav Richter (1823–1884)
7239:
6975:
6875:
6863:
6723:
6359:
6179:
6051:
5855:
5622:
4466:
4396:
4334:
4278:
4210:
4142:
4062:
4006:
3984:Sharia was traditionally interpreted by
3876:
2562:
2302:used assertive names and titles such as
2286:
2042:
1781:
1554:
1513:, who are viewed as the founders of the
1406:, currently housed in the British Museum
1394:
754:'path (to water)') is a body of
19200:
19183:
19097:
19055:
18846:
18795:
18735:
18676:
18667:
18560:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199679010.001.0001
18549:
18453:
18396:
18323:
17947:The American Journal of Comparative Law
17900:
17865:
17797:The American Journal of Comparative Law
17679:
17651:"Is English law related to Muslim law?"
17624:
17592:
17299:
17222:
17084:. Cambridge University Press. pp.
17077:
16277:
16095:
15981:
15782:
15649:
15599:. Oxford University Press. p. 74.
15596:What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam
15537:
15446:
15331:. Oxford University Press. p. 22.
15243:
14896:UC Davis Journal Int'l Law & Policy
14857:al-Sārim al-Maslūl ‘ala Shātim al-Rasūl
14789:Freedom of Religion, Apostasy and Islam
14455:
13982:
13612:
13107:
12912:
12767:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199673599.001.0001
12635:
12547:
12519:
12179:
12177:
11867:Janisch, Wolfgang (14 September 2017).
11866:
11807:
11792:
11698:
11686:
11621:
11585:
11474:
11462:
11438:
11399:
11361:
11320:
11296:
11235:
11180:
11145:
11007:. NY: Simon and Schuster. p. 223.
10952:
10805:
9989:The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence
9986:
9959:"A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic"
9828:The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence
9825:
9791:
9789:
9551:
9522:
9447:The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence
9444:
9403:
9391:The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence
9388:
9376:The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence
9373:
9354:. Oxford University Press. p. 190.
9352:The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence
9349:
9295:
9210:
9121:sfn error: no target: CITEREFDost2023 (
9028:
8933:
8845:
8317:
7783:almost invariably at a secondary stage"
7636:, and never developed the concept of a
7518:in classical Maliki jurisprudence. The
6960:In a 2008–2012 Pew Research Center poll
6455:
6328:Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales
5723:Laws in the Indonesian province of Aceh
4265:
2399:(consideration of public interest) and
2054:They were first clearly articulated by
1854:reached these conclusions by examining
1661:by a passage revealed at a later date.
851:(lit. consensus) (may be understood as
812:. Applied in courts by ruler-appointed
14:
19414:
19156:
18670:A Bibliography of Islamic Criminal Law
18638:
18519:
18408:
18374:
18341:
18277:
18230:"Law. Legal Thought and Jurisprudence"
18227:
18168:
18151:
18106:
17680:Hussain, Jamila (2001). "Book Review:
17661:from the original on 27 September 2008
17555:"Islamic Statements Against Terrorism"
16979:
16515:: The Clitoris, Culture and the Law".
16510:
16416:from the original on 27 September 2013
16356:
16258:
16177:from the original on 14 September 2017
16031:Ira M. Lapidus; Lena Salaymeh (2014).
15987:
15907:
15749:. Psychology Press. 1997. p. 64.
15510:"Sudan woman faces death for apostasy"
15480:"What Islam says on religious freedom"
14959:An Anti-Blasphemy Measure Laid to Rest
14787:Saeed, Abdullah; Hassan Saeed (2004).
14686:
14633:. February/March 2009, Vol. 29, No. 2.
14592:
14079:
14075:
14073:
13995:
13957:
13913:from the original on 22 September 2015
13830:. Talking Points Memo. TPM Muckraker.
13825:
13655:from the original on 21 September 2008
13528:
13493:
13312:
13237:
13071:
13045:. Sage Publishing India. p. 437.
12960:
12611:
12390:
12259:
11736:
11713:
11652:
11633:
11609:
11526:
11524:
11522:
11349:
11337:
11308:
11262:
11250:
11220:
11157:
11133:
11118:
11106:
10990:
10973:
10858:
10811:
10778:
10675:
10651:https://www.britannica.com/topic/mutah
10576:
10218:
10082:from the original on 20 September 2021
10046:
10034:
10022:
9991:. Oxford University Press. p. 58.
9942:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
9888:
9876:
9830:. Oxford University Press. p. 58.
9730:
9693:
9681:
9648:
9539:
9474:
9393:. Oxford University Press. p. 22.
9378:. Oxford University Press. p. 40.
9136:Khaled Abou El Fadl (1 October 2014).
8599:
8564:
8558:
8478:
8370:
8284:
8038:
7049:criminal penalties for homosexual acts
7015: Prison on books but not enforced
6424:Contemporary debates and controversies
5928:four Muslim male witnesses, with some
4339:An Ottoman courtroom (1879 AD drawing)
4270:
4204:History of slavery in the Muslim world
2272:has been particularly associated with
1896:" (meaning the limits set by Allah).
1084:
19139:
19130:
19024:. Vol. 10 (2nd ed.). Brill.
19002:
18975:
18948:
18879:
18778:
18744:
18717:
18435:
18358:
18194:
18177:
18085:
18016:
17989:
17941:
17923:from the original on 12 December 2016
17741:University of Pennsylvania Law Review
17649:Mukul Devichand (24 September 2008).
17607:
17515:from the original on 12 December 2016
17333:Peters, Rudolph; Cook, David (2014).
17326:
17281:from the original on 27 December 2020
17250:from the original on 27 December 2020
17241:
16932:
16905:
16874:from the original on 27 December 2020
16843:from the original on 27 December 2020
16813:from the original on 27 December 2020
16783:from the original on 27 December 2020
16746:
16728:from the original on 26 February 2017
16568:
16533:
16488:Legal Practice and Cultural Diversity
16452:
16328:Al-Ittihad Journal of Islamic Studies
16307:
16295:from the original on 16 November 2012
16261:Al-Ittihad Journal of Islamic Studies
16208:from the original on 11 November 2016
15942:
15910:Studies in Eighteenth-Century Culture
15763:from the original on 11 January 2016.
15490:from the original on 11 February 2017
15427:
15345:from the original on 12 December 2013
15306:from the original on 12 December 2013
15275:from the original on 11 January 2016.
15217:from the original on 27 December 2020
15196:
15065:"What are Pakistan's blasphemy laws?"
14888:
14715:
14642:Glenn, H. Patrick (2014), pp. 199–205
14598:
14521:from the original on 12 December 2016
14461:
14284:from the original on 29 November 2014
14120:from the original on 27 December 2020
14016:from the original on 13 December 2016
13861:from the original on 10 December 2015
13834:from the original on 10 December 2015
13804:from the original on 27 December 2020
13783:
13762:from the original on 10 December 2015
13453:
13142:
13059:from the original on 27 December 2020
12939:
12687:
12447:from the original on 27 December 2020
12268:
12076:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198758457.013.19
12053:
12005:from the original on 25 February 2021
11937:
11767:
11671:
11568:
11510:
11486:
11042:
11027:
11002:
10501:
10359:
10299:
10287:
10275:
10203:
10129:
10001:
9507:
9449:. Oxford University Press. p. 4.
9426:from the original on 27 December 2020
9249:
9162:
8749:
8743:
8712:
8215:
8055:
8053:
8051:
8049:
8047:
8011:"British & World English: sharia"
7899:
7370:Abdul-Aziz ibn Abdullah Al ash-Sheikh
6846:and deny the Muslim character of the
6688:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
6643:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
6291:Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life
5673:
1390:
1089:
19167:10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001
18986:10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001
18959:10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001
18931:
18912:
18888:
18863:10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001
18726:
18595:10.1093/acref/9780195134056.001.0001
18440:. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). Brill.
18335:Shariah: What Everyone Needs to Know
18244:
17823:
17794:
17363:from the original on 23 January 2017
17071:
16911:
16571:Muslim World Journal of Human Rights
16481:
15847:
15556:
15459:from the original on 11 January 2016
15363:
15279:
15261:. Lexington Books. pp. 179–94.
15252:
14985:from the original on 3 November 2018
14651:
14064:
13852:
13826:Slajda, Rachel (23 September 2010).
13749:
13460:University of St. Thomas Law Journal
13400:from the original on 16 January 2013
13187:"Who are Islamic 'morality police'?"
13149:University of St. Thomas Law Journal
13089:from the original on 10 January 2012
13005:
12993:
12738:from the original on 11 October 2017
12623:Florida Journal of International Law
12365:
12353:
12174:
11950:Niki Kitsantonis (10 January 2018).
11925:
11913:
11824:
11530:
11277:
9786:
9606:
9188:10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001
9129:
9116:
9049:from the original on 11 October 2019
8824:
8791:
8675:
7988:from the original on 17 October 2021
7129:
5974:commercial contracts may be forged.
5791:
1368:. It, along with the French variant
1123:and the lowest level on the path to
19316:, via Oxford Islamic Studies Online
19161:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
19067:The Oxford Handbook of Criminal Law
18980:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
18953:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
18589:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
18581:Codes and Codification. Islamic Law
18554:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
18100:Marriage and Slavery in Early Islam
18094:
18050:Ziauddin Sardar (28 January 2011).
17829:
17413:from the original on 16 August 2016
17405:Bernard Lewis (27 September 2001).
17341:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
16861:
16698:from the original on 12 August 2013
16189:
14741:R Ibrahim (2013), Crucified Again,
14498:
14070:
13939:from the original on 9 October 2017
13899:
13887:from the original on 2 October 2015
13881:"Cameron steps into Sharia law row"
13470:from the original on 21 August 2016
12837:Migrant Communities in Saudi Arabia
12759:The Oxford Handbook of Criminal Law
12658:from the original on 18 August 2016
11597:
11519:
10422:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
10391:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
10264:Der Diskurs über maqāṣid aš-šarīʿa.
8948:
8759:Spiritual Psychology and Counseling
7880:
7680:Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists
7392:Comparison with other legal systems
7059:as they have never been carried out
6888:) on the grounds of leaving Islam (
6801:Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
6776:, the laws pertaining to blasphemy
6660:Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
6151:enjoining good and forbidding wrong
6117:Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
5787:
5618:Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
2513:) and on the underlying intention (
1881:restricted or abolished the earlier
1645:Principles of Islamic jurisprudence
1315:
1300:
973:is hidden in this classification.
872:
860:
744:
24:
19219:
18738:Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire
18552:The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law
18414:The New Cambridge History of Islam
17776:from the original on 29 March 2018
17734:Gaudiosi, Monica M. (April 1988).
17561:from the original on 10 April 2019
16718:"UAE: Spousal Abuse never a Right"
16171:"The Death Penalty in Afghanistan"
15826:
15725:from the original on 17 April 2017
15695:from the original on 17 April 2017
15562:
15520:from the original on 19 May 2014.
15478:Abdelhadi, Magdi (27 March 2006).
14430:from the original on 21 April 2018
14371:Journal of Law, Religion and State
14367:"Understanding Sharia in the West"
14258:from the original on 21 April 2018
14205:from the original on 17 April 2019
14174:from the original on 17 April 2019
13958:Choski, Bilal M. (14 March 2012).
13625:from the original on 27 April 2019
13582:from the original on 18 April 2019
13552:from the original on 23 March 2019
13374:from the original on 25 March 2019
13294:from the original on 18 April 2019
13199:from the original on 13 April 2019
12482:from the original on 25 March 2019
12035:from the original on 31 March 2019
11962:from the original on 16 April 2019
11065:from the original on 20 April 2018
10814:"Is Hijab a Qur'anic Commandment?"
10062:(2006). Ramadan, Hisham M. (ed.).
9410:The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law
9331:from the original on 21 March 2019
9272:from the original on 20 April 2018
8614:10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00329.x
8330:Corinna Standke (30 August 2008).
8044:
7621:was modeled on the Islamic degree
7332:wrote that the "Sharia's finance (
7115:
7084:Personal status and child marriage
6192:on 26 August 2001, as reported by
6113:International Islamic Fiqh Academy
5924:, drinking intoxicants and theft.
5039:Principles of State and Government
5015:The Caliphate or the Grand Imamate
4515:2003 reform of Moroccan family law
2567:13th century slave market, Yemen.
2006:Aims of Sharia and public interest
1374:, was used during the time of the
25:
19458:
19303:
18624:War and Peace in the Law of Islam
18465:
16749:Encyclopedia of Domestic Violence
16625:from the original on 24 June 2016
16151:from the original on 7 April 2019
16118:from the original on 4 April 2019
16057:Islam and Homosexuality, Volume 1
15889:from the original on 9 April 2019
15613:from the original on 11 June 2020
15447:Elliott, Andrea (26 March 2006).
15286:Kecia Ali; Oliver Leaman (2008).
15203:. Touchstone Books. p. 229.
15117:from the original on 6 April 2019
15075:from the original on 5 April 2019
14080:Berger, Lars (17 February 2019).
13970:from the original on 4 March 2016
13704:from the original on 15 July 2017
13645:"Sharia law 'could have UK role'"
10812:Hameed, Shahul (9 October 2003).
10602:Mohammad Farzaneh, Mateo (2015).
10457:"Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?"
9900:
9307:
7946:. In Bassiouni, M. Cherif (ed.).
7463:, with fatwas being analogous to
7054:death penalty for homosexual acts
6041:
5914:
5755:Sharia recognizes the concept of
4964:List of Islamic political parties
4383:dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
4330:
3866:
3831:(concise summary of law) and the
3773:(rituals or acts of worship) and
2260:began calling for abandonment of
2023:(aims or purposes) of Sharia and
1760:) as a source of law in place of
1471:According to the traditionalist (
19399:
19260:. Vol. 1. pp. 396–397.
18420:Harnischfeger, Johannes (2008).
18352:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_8809
18169:Berkey, Jonathan Porter (2003).
18043:
18023:Journal of Economic Perspectives
18010:
17983:
17935:
17894:
17788:
17727:
17698:
17673:
17573:
17546:
17527:
17476:
17467:
17449:10.1111/j.1478-1913.2011.01384.x
17425:
17398:
17392:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0189
17375:
17300:Todorof, Maria (1 August 2018).
17293:
17268:
17134:
17106:
17042:
17025:
17008:
16973:
16954:
16886:
16855:
16825:
16795:
16765:
16740:
16710:
16680:
16637:
16605:
16562:
16527:
16504:
16475:
16446:
16428:
16402:
16385:
16319:
16252:
16235:
16163:
16062:
15969:from the original on 14 May 2021
15936:
15901:
15864:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_4677
15820:
15801:
15767:
15737:
15707:
15677:
15583:
15129:
15033:
15030:The Economist (29 November 2014)
15014:
14997:
14971:
14952:
14928:
14913:
14872:
14863:
14841:
14826:
14805:
14780:
14752:
14735:
14680:
14645:
14636:
14617:
14576:
14533:
14492:
14442:
14401:
14358:
14341:
14315:
14296:
14270:
14229:
14186:
14156:
14046:from the original on 18 May 2021
14028:
13925:
13853:West, Diana (23 February 2008).
13846:
13743:
13731:from the original on 1 July 2017
13716:
13686:
13667:
13637:
13594:
13564:
13534:
13447:
13424:
13412:
13386:
13354:
13333:
13327:10.1111/j.1478-1913.2008.00212.x
13306:
13231:
13179:
13167:from the original on 28 May 2016
13136:
13101:
13032:
13011:
12848:
12829:
12810:
12798:from the original on 25 May 2019
12783:
12750:
12711:
12670:
12629:
12586:
12567:
12494:
12459:
12424:
12384:
12371:
12330:
12313:
12247:from the original on 5 June 2012
12211:
12194:
12165:
12146:
12134:from the original on 8 July 2010
12120:
12059:
12017:
11986:
11943:
11896:
11887:
11860:
11839:
11830:
11545:10.1111/j.0953-5233.2004.00347.x
11504:
10905:In the Vicinity of the Righteous
10875:
10753:
10736:
10706:
10693:
10681:
10655:
10643:
10632:
10620:
10570:
10542:
10495:
10436:
10405:
10325:
10316:
10305:
10256:
10247:
10224:
10150:
9956:
7848:
7825:
7816:
7037:Islamic fundamentalist movements
6503:According to Polls conducted by
6122:
5796:
5666:(traditional Islamic scholars).
5580:Application of Sharia by country
5451:
5440:
4392:
2723:
2256:Starting from the 18th century,
1920:, then recorded in corpuses and
676:
75:
19144:. In Emad El-Din Shahin (ed.).
19104:. In Emad El-Din Shahin (ed.).
19091:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_30485
18913:Otto, Jan Michiel, ed. (2010).
18806:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27049
18755:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_22716
18156:. In Emad El-Din Shahin (ed.).
18062:from the original on 2 May 2021
17687:Melbourne University Law Review
16837:Muslim Council of Britain (MCB)
16484:"Shari'a in a European Context"
13855:"Don't Ignore Sharia's Advance"
13723:Michael Broyde (30 June 2017).
13613:Feldman, Noah (16 March 2008).
13341:Routledge Handbook of Media Law
12636:William, Arsani (Spring 2010).
10742:Vgl. Birışık: "Kurʾâniyyûn" in
10502:Gould, Rebecca (January 2015).
10123:
10094:
9980:
9950:
9910:
9843:
9834:
9819:
9750:
9699:
9663:
9634:
9625:
9593:
9581:
9568:
9557:
9301:
9204:
9022:
8983:
8927:
8916:
8905:
8750:Sevim, Erdem (1 October 2016).
8644:
8541:
8532:
8523:
8509:
8496:
8484:
7807:
7786:
7776:
7767:
7751:
6637:Compatibility with human rights
5750:
5691:
4520:
3965:Pre-modern Islamic legal system
3893:The main Sunni schools of law (
3252:(unlawful warfare and banditry)
1792:Islamic archaeological document
1727:to distinguish right from wrong
825:theory of Islamic jurisprudence
19314:The Oxford Dictionary of Islam
19297:An Introduction to Islamic Law
18898:. Amsterdam University Press.
18701:A History of Islamic Societies
18682:A History of Islamic Societies
18382:. Cambridge University Press.
18380:An Introduction to Islamic Law
18195:Brown, Jonathan A. C. (2017).
18178:Brown, Jonathan A. C. (2009).
17147:The Oxford Dictionary of Islam
17141:John L. Esposito, ed. (2014).
17053:. Brill Academic. p. 60.
16033:A History of Islamic Societies
15879:"Homosexuality in Islamic Law"
15449:"In Kabul, a Test for Shariah"
15399:Gerhard Bowering, ed. (2013).
15328:The Oxford dictionary of Islam
15049:The Economist (7 January 2015)
14854:, related to Hanbali school),
14833:"Blasphemy: Islamic Concept".
14325:. Echr.coe.int. Archived from
14151:Esposito & DeLong-Bas 2018
14139:Esposito & DeLong-Bas 2018
13790:. Macmillan. pp. 267–68.
13698:Emory University School of Law
13431:Inside Britain's Sharia courts
11993:Austin Ramzy (28 March 2019).
11451:Esposito & DeLong-Bas 2018
10907:(Leiden: Brill, 1999), pp. 5–6
10748:Quran: A Reformist Translation
10455:B. Hallaq, Wael (March 1984).
10420:The Oxford Dictionary of Islam
10412:John L. Esposito, ed. (2014).
10389:The Oxford Dictionary of Islam
10377:John L. Esposito, ed. (2014).
10232:al-Mustaṣfā min ʿilm al-ʾuṣūl.
9903:Islamic Theories of Abrogation
9706:Rashīd Riḍā, Muhammad (1996).
8943:συνήδομαι γὰρ τῷ νόμῳ τοῦ θεοῦ
8571:An-Na'im, Abdullahi A (1996).
8299:
8290:
8066:The Oxford Dictionary of Islam
8060:John L. Esposito, ed. (2014).
7841:
7687:– a brief collection of forty
7338:fifth-generation warfare (5GW)
6980:Same-sex intercourse illegal:
6965:
6736: Subnational restrictions
6627:European Court of Human Rights
6621:banned and dissolved Turkey's
6619:Constitutional Court of Turkey
6613:European Court of Human Rights
6340:alternative dispute resolution
6238:in the Gaza Strip, and by the
5954:
5612:and western values, while the
5590:European Court of Human Rights
1438:, which distinguishes between
1313:) is a common translation for
13:
1:
19336:"Law" by Norman Calder et al.
19283:Institute of European History
19279:EGO – European History Online
19205:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
19188:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
19060:. Princeton University Press.
19007:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
18936:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
18853:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
18834:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
18817:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
18815:"Fatwā. Process and Function"
18783:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
18779:Mayer, Ann Elizabeth (2009).
18766:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
18642:(1999). John Esposito (ed.).
18497:; Chippindale, Peter (1991).
18449:. Princeton University Press.
18302:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
18232:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
18182:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
18173:. Cambridge University Press.
17705:El-Gamal, Mahmoud A. (2006).
17211:Horrie & Chippindale 1991
17199:Horrie & Chippindale 1991
16345:Horrie & Chippindale 1991
14507:. Oneworld. pp. 163–87.
14098:10.1080/13510347.2018.1527316
12928:Messick & Kéchichian 2009
12377:Ajijola, Alhaji A.D. (1989).
11206:Dallal & Hendrickson 2009
9801:Oxford Islamic Studies Online
9763:doi:10.1017/S0041977X00049016
9731:Lester, Toby (January 1999).
8857:Shari'ah Law: An Introduction
8517:"The System of Rule in Islam"
8336:. GRIN Verlag. pp. 4–5.
7396:
6376:in the United States. Former
6349:
5682:
5186:Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani
2405:(presumption of continuity).
2366:who based law on principles (
2325:jurists did not use the term
1688:), those who rely on reason (
1635:Principles of jurisprudence (
1426:could be seen in pre-Islamic
925:, relationships (commercial,
804:, always been used alongside
19346:Brunei implements sharia law
19342:, via Oxford Islamic Studies
19285:, retrieved: 25 March 2021 (
18626:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins.
18017:Kuran, Timur (Summer 2004).
17223:Norwitz, Jeffrey H. (2009).
16490:. Ashgate. pp. 93–114.
15253:Omar, Abdul Rashied (2009).
14815:Cambridge University Press.
14450:Encyclopedia of Human Rights
14002:. ABC-CLIO. pp. 83–86.
13683:The Telegraph (26 July 2008)
13494:Stence, Sandra, ed. (2013).
13083:RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty
8464:Coulson & El Shamsy 2019
8447:(analogical reasoning), and
7964:10.1017/CBO9781139629249.003
7910:
7644:, i.e., a legal entity that
7564:institutions, respectively.
7552:institutions to the Islamic
7343:In classical fiqh, the term
7282:
7236:Islamic views on concubinage
6767:or scriptures, insulting an
6742: Fines and restrictions
6713:
6429:Compatibility with democracy
4375:Ottoman Law of Family Rights
4012:Ulugh Beg Madrasa, Samarkand
2581:Islamic views on concubinage
2558:the way a woman should dress
2340:were unanimous in censuring
2033:Izz al-Din ibn 'Abd al-Salam
1735:) and analogical reasoning (
1412:pre-Islamic Arabic Religions
1216:The primary meanings of the
1211:
827:recognizes four sources for
32:Islamic law (disambiguation)
7:
19268:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh U.P.
19235:"Reliance of the Traveller"
19201:Ziadeh, Farhat J. (2009c).
19186:"Law. Sunnī Schools of Law"
19184:Ziadeh, Farhat J. (2009b).
19108:. Oxford University Press.
19033:. Oxford University Press.
18917:. Leiden University Press.
18847:Nettler, Ronald L. (2009).
18527:. Oxford University Press.
18152:Berger, Maurits S. (2014).
18102:. Harvard University Press.
16646:Journal of Law and Religion
16173:. Death Penalty Worldwide.
15789:Laws Criminalizing Apostasy
15774:Laws Criminalizing Apostasy
15644:The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia
15633:The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia
14689:Religion, State and Society
14554:10.1177/0090591700028001005
13996:Thomas, Jeffrey L. (2015).
13750:Awad, Abed (14 June 2012).
13122:10.2979/africatoday.57.4.71
13039:Nitya Ramakrishnan (2013).
12894:Masud & Kéchichian 2009
12835:Human Rights Watch (2004),
12700:, Oxford University Press,
12564:, pp. 246–49 and Chapter 12
12379:Introduction to Islamic Law
11853:, OUP Oxford, 2012, p 744,
11499:Lapidus & Salaymeh 2014
11427:Lapidus & Salaymeh 2014
11415:Lapidus & Salaymeh 2014
10785:Elizabeth M. Bucar (2011).
10166:University of Chicago Press
9907:: pp. 43-44, 56-59, 122-124
8892:University of Georgia Press
8830:Abdal-Haqq, Irshad (2006).
7891:
7652:
7623:ijazat al-tadris wa-l-ifta’
7530:. The methodology of legal
7494:protected by the action of
7374:Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia
7355:Some modern ulema, such as
7079:Islam and domestic violence
6868:Countries that criminalize
6853:
6811:In Pakistan, blasphemy laws
6274:Muslim Arbitration Tribunal
5822:the claims made and adding
4975:Militant Islamism based in
2360:. After the victory of the
2058:(d. 1111), who argued that
2047:Mausoleum of al-Ghazali in
1772:Sources for Ahkam al-Sharia
1594:Traditional jurisprudence (
1543:hypothesis was advanced by
1353:
1347:
1294:
1280:
1274:
1268:
1262:
1195:
808:from the very beginning in
250:("Stories of the Prophets")
10:
19463:
19258:Encyclopaedia of the Quran
19135:. Oxford University Press.
19069:. Oxford University Press.
19003:Rabb, Intisar A. (2009d).
18889:Otto, Jan Michiel (2008).
18781:"Law. Modern Legal Reform"
18764:"Fatwā. Concepts of Fatwā"
18731:. Oxford University Press.
18722:. Oxford University Press.
18469:In the Shadow of the Sword
18359:Glenn, H. Patrick (2014).
18337:. Oxford University Press.
18328:. Oxford University Press.
18078:
18004:10.1016/j.jebo.2004.04.002
17909:. Routledge. p. 203.
17905:. In Josef W. Meri (ed.).
17901:Stewart, Devin J. (2005).
17711:Cambridge University Press
16461:. SUNY. pp. 187–210.
15798:Library of Congress (2014)
15663:. HarperOne. p. 158.
15405:Princeton University Press
15373:Cambridge University Press
15040:Blasphemy: Dangerous words
14762:Journal of Semitic Studies
14448:David P. Forsythe (2009),
14365:Maurits S. Berger (2018).
13367:Israel Ministry of Justice
12544:, pp. 96–101 and Chapter 4
12410:10.1163/026805598125826102
12100:(1): 139–140. March 1951.
10144:10.1163/156851906778946341
10107:Cambridge University Press
9404:Jokisch, Benjamin (2018).
8990:"Corps de Droit Ottoman".
8942:
8938:. Wiesbaden. p. 437.
8886:Weiss, Bernard G. (1998).
8579:. BRILL. pp. 337–59.
8413:Women in Muslim family law
7956:Cambridge University Press
7685:Imam Nawawi's Forty Hadith
7510:, and between the English
7406:
7400:
7286:
7229:
7225:
7072:
6969:
6857:
6717:
6520:Islamic political theories
6432:
6353:
6284:
6142:The classical doctrine of
6135:
6129:
6045:
5990:
5577:
5493:
5296:Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab
4959:Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan
4618:Salafism by country/region
4381:, which emerged after the
4189:
4186:Women, non-Muslims, slaves
4044:
3973:
3969:
3881:Juristic exchange between
3870:
3754:
2439:
2225:Throughout the first five
2137:
2133:
2102:expanded the inventory of
2009:
1856:early Quranic manuscriptss
1775:
1642:
1601:
1535:) of Sunni jurisprudence.
1331:
969::104) and is also used in
927:political / administrative
36:
29:
19326:"Sharia" by Knut S. Vikør
19264:Coulson, Noel J. (1964).
19098:Tillier, Mathieu (2014).
18932:Rabb, Intisar A. (2009).
18655:. Middle East Institute.
18117:An-Na'im, Abdullahi Ahmed
17628:North Carolina Law Review
17433:Blankinship, Khalid Yahya
17319:10.1007/s12027-018-0505-8
17271:"Shariah-Compliant Funds"
17178:Anisseh Engeland-Nourai,
16002:10.3109/13625181003793339
15631:Ahmet Albayrak writes in
15325:John L. Esposito (2004).
15292:. Routledge. p. 10.
15026:10 September 2017 at the
14417:Essex Human Rights Review
14384:10.1163/22124810-00602005
14245:Essex Human Rights Review
14224:Muslih & Browers 2009
13883:. BBC. 26 February 2008.
12283:10.1017/S0020743800064461
12106:10.1017/s0008197300015518
12094:The Cambridge Law Journal
11756:Schacht & Layish 2000
10520:10.1017/S0010417514000590
10473:10.1017/S0020743800027598
9987:Schacht, Joseph (1959) .
9826:Schacht, Joseph (1959) .
9708:The Muhammadan Revelation
9445:Schacht, Joseph (1959) .
9389:Schacht, Joseph (1959) .
9374:Schacht, Joseph (1959) .
9350:Schacht, Joseph (1959) .
9165:Women and Gender in Islam
9080:20 September 2019 at the
8888:The Spirit of Islamic Law
8425:Syracuse University Press
7702:Islamic advice literature
7504:assize of novel disseisin
7473:However, the emphasis on
7365:Hamid bin Abdallah al-Ali
7123:right to inherit property
6263:Muslim-minority countries
6222:in the Nigerian state of
5946:may likewise rejected in
5707:(law of retaliation) and
5657:Muslim-majority countries
5627:Use of sharia by country:
5574:Contemporary applications
5423:Islam and other religions
5376:Muhammad Sa'id al-Ashmawi
4905:International propagation
4613:International propagation
4040:
3835:(extensive commentary).
2556:About six verses address
2416:, is touched upon in the
1202:
1060:of the late 20th century
782:'s immutable, intangible
774:. In Islamic terminology
758:that forms a part of the
19376:20 February 2015 at the
19266:A History of Islamic Law
19227:Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri
18622:Khadduri, Majid (1955).
18036:10.1257/0895330042162421
17848:10.1163/157006707X222812
17744:(Submitted manuscript).
17539:29 December 2016 at the
16926:10.1163/157302510X526724
16893:Mohammad Hashim Kamali.
16513:De Minimis Non Curat Lex
15813:4 September 2014 at the
14941:22 December 2015 at the
14835:Encyclopedia of Religion
13909:. DW. 6 September 2014.
13679:11 February 2018 at the
13238:Berger, Maurits (2003).
12860:27 December 2020 at the
11043:Forte, David F. (1978).
10101:B. Hallaq, Wael (2005).
9966:Hans Wehr Searchable PDF
9364:Schacht, Origins, p. 224
9250:Forte, David F. (1978).
9086:Martin Luther University
9029:Strauss, Johann (2010).
8978:Calder & Hooker 2007
8819:Calder & Hooker 2007
8804:Calder & Hooker 2007
8771:10.12738/spc.2016.2.0014
8738:Calder & Hooker 2007
8602:Law & Social Inquiry
8333:Sharia - The Islamic Law
7744:
7232:Islamic views on slavery
7068:
6831:colonial-era legislation
6230:in the Aceh province of
6138:Islamic religious police
5067:Governance of the Jurist
4495:Abd El-Razzak El-Sanhuri
4200:Islamic views on slavery
3821:The two major genres of
3273:("spreading corruption")
2631:, which are outside the
2577:Islamic views on slavery
2114:); justice and freedom (
2078:could override specific
1994:, but relies on reason (
1452:pre-Islamic Arab society
1224:, derived from the root
1018:secular Arabic expansion
339:Medieval Islamic science
37:Not to be confused with
19447:Religious legal systems
19348:– UNAA (United Nations)
19140:Vikør, Knut S. (2014).
19131:Vikør, Knut S. (2005).
19085:(3rd ed.). Brill.
18800:(3rd ed.). Brill.
18749:(3rd ed.). Brill.
18718:Lewis, Bernard (1992).
18640:Kamali, Mohammad Hashim
18455:Hodgson, Marshall G. S.
18346:(2nd ed.). Brill.
18284:, New York: Routledge,
18271:Encyclopædia Britannica
18228:Calder, Norman (2009).
18086:Abiad, Nisrine (2008).
17495:Wael B. Hallaq (2009).
17386:(2nd ed.). Brill.
17185:22 January 2015 at the
16899:Oxford University Press
16371:10.1163/157302593X00285
16102:Shafiqa Ahmadi (2012).
15858:(2nd ed.). Brill.
15835:(4): 41–43, Chapter 2.
15794:11 October 2017 at the
15571:(4): 36–37, chapter 2.
15289:Islam: the key concepts
15197:Lewis, Bernard (1995).
14964:19 January 2015 at the
14666:10.3167/th.2008.5511506
14503:. In Safi, Omid (ed.).
14312:, 22 January 2004 (PDF)
13784:Kadri, Sadakat (2012).
13619:New York Times Magazine
13454:Bowen, John R. (2010).
12842:10 October 2017 at the
12579:20 October 2014 at the
12534:Oxford University Press
12392:Kamali, Mohammad Hashim
12219:UN Human Rights Monitor
11030:Islam in Modern History
11003:Lewis, Bernard (1995).
10892:Journal of Sufi Studies
10577:Rahman, Fazlur (2000).
10132:Islamic Law and Society
9211:KIRAZLI, SADIK (2011).
8853:Hashim Kamali, Mohammad
8650:Al-Suwaidi, J. (1995).
8418:19 October 2017 at the
7378:Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy
7267:(slave) and the phrase
7204:
7100:, in financial cases a
6220:Kano State Hisbah Corps
6076:to death for his novel
5986:
5944:circumstantial evidence
5889:under the principle of
5176:Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī
4448:), and the objectives (
4138:al-sulh sayyid al-ahkam
4131:Socio-political context
2393:(juristic preference),
2380:) by the 19th century,
1964:as a central Pillar of
1702:Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari
1163:Divine, abstract sharia
971:Islamist indoctrination
19271:Potz, Richard (2011),
19083:Encyclopaedia of Islam
19022:Encyclopaedia of Islam
18798:Encyclopaedia of Islam
18747:Encyclopaedia of Islam
18740:. Infobase Publishing.
18668:Köndgen, Olaf (2022).
18653:Law in the Middle East
18438:Encyclopaedia of Islam
18344:Encyclopaedia of Islam
18221:Encyclopaedia of Islam
17409:. Opinionjournal.com.
17384:Encyclopaedia of Islam
17078:Lovejoy, Paul (2000).
16970:BBC Religions Archives
16966:6 October 2018 at the
16583:10.2202/1554-4419.1022
16534:Anwar, Zainah (2005).
16511:Funder, Anna (1993). "
16482:Rohe, Mathias (2009).
16229:Encyclopaedia of Islam
15943:Evans, Daniel (2013).
15856:Encyclopaedia of Islam
15746:Human Rights Diplomacy
14924:. Infobase Publishing.
14811:Lorenz Langer (2014).
14701:10.1080/09637490308281
14377:(2–3). Brill: 236–73.
13247:Human Rights Quarterly
12696:Anver M. Emon (2012),
10920:Encyclopaedia of Islam
9780:Encyclopaedia of Islam
9657:"Coran créé ou incréé"
9017:Corps de Droit Ottoman
7940:), and Legal Methods (
7728:Sources of Islamic law
7712:Islamic Sharia Council
7691:by the founder of the
7646:limits the liabilities
7502:, between the English
7382:Grand Imam of al-Azhar
7317:
7260:
7173:varied interpretations
7165:
7024:Encyclopaedia of Islam
7017:
6896:
6873:
6756:
6748: Prison sentences
6365:
6334:, professor of law at
6280:Support and opposition
6201:
6057:
5865:
5653:
5241:Taqi al-Din al-Nabhani
4657:Islamic fundamentalism
4475:
4409:
4340:
4287:
4219:
4148:
4076:
4015:
3890:
2690:Branches and details (
2588:
2354:and classical Sunnite
2319:
2051:
1795:
1627:(lit. the branches of
1569:chains of transmission
1563:
1456:compensatory payment (
1407:
1383:
1370:
1256:Use in religious texts
1186:Contemporary sharia(s)
1010:early history of Islam
1002:Islamist understanding
349:Succession to Muhammad
19427:Islamic jurisprudence
18466:Holland, Tom (2012).
18300:"Fatwā. Modern usage"
18278:Dahlén, Ashk (2003),
18245:Chan, Sewell (2016).
17959:10.1093/ajcl/53.4.785
16862:Stewart, Philippa H.
16694:. 22 September 2009.
16453:Esack, Farid (2014).
16442:on 27 September 2013.
16397:Oneworld Publications
16391:Jonathan A.C. Brown,
15922:10.1353/sec.2018.0026
15877:E. K. Rowson (2012).
14922:Encyclopedia of Islam
14774:10.1093/jss/XLII.1.39
13259:10.1353/hrq.2003.0026
12823:28 March 2017 at the
12724:. Brill. p. 49.
10109:. pp. 124, 127.
9163:Ahmed, Leila (1992).
8861:Oneworld Publications
7936:, Sunni Islamic Law (
7665:Criticism of Islamism
7482:Western legal systems
7455:literature parallels
7312:
7287:Further information:
7243:
7195:White Ribbon Campaign
7139:
6979:
6879:
6867:
6844:"Islamicise" the laws
6754: Death sentences
6727:
6680:In 2009, the journal
6653:understanding of the
6433:Further information:
6363:
6354:Further information:
6183:
6136:Further information:
6055:
5859:
5626:
5524:al-Islam huwa al-hall
5314:Criticism of Islamism
5308:Criticism of Islamism
5226:Necip Fazıl Kısakürek
5143:Hibatullah Akhundzada
4470:
4400:
4338:
4282:
4214:
4146:
4066:
4010:
3880:
3755:Further information:
2711:Islamic jurisprudence
2566:
2344:in the field of law (
2290:
2046:
2037:Abu Ishaq al-Shatibi
1970:. On the other hand;
1785:
1559:Imam Shafi'i tomb in
1558:
1398:
1025:sectarian differences
19196:on 21 November 2008.
19015:on 21 November 2008.
18944:on 21 November 2008.
18825:on 20 November 2015.
18791:on 21 November 2008.
18774:on 20 November 2015.
18310:on 20 November 2015.
18240:on 21 November 2008.
17684:by Lawrence Rosen".
17682:The Justice of Islam
16809:. 16 November 2011.
16779:. 15 November 2013.
15883:Encyclopedia Iranica
15721:. 13 February 2012.
15657:Abou El Fadl, Khaled
15141:25 July 2016 at the
14908:(4). pp. 16–26.
14408:Kevin Boyle (2004).
14236:Kevin Boyle (2004).
13351:, Chapter 14, p. 257
13143:Uddin, Asma (2010).
12718:Tahir Wasti (2009).
12528:Reem Meshal (2014),
12501:Paul Powers (2005).
11855:Google-Books preview
11533:Gender & History
11121:, pp. 9–10, 13.
10903:Christopher Taylor,
9733:"What Is the Koran?"
9100:, p. 41–44, 68.
9000:. Stevens and Sons:
8993:Law Quarterly Review
8949:أني أفرح بشريعة الله
8946:' is translated as '
8934:Ullmann, M. (2002).
8408:Natana J. DeLong-Bas
7928:Bassiouni, M. Cherif
7269:ma malakat aymanukum
7150:, a teacher of both
6456:General Muslim views
6395:) told a newspaper (
6172:, the conception of
6162:government committee
5899:universal statutes.
5719:United Arab Emirates
5598:Human rights concept
5148:Abu Bakr Al-Baghdadi
5108:Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
5065:Islamic Government:
4444:), public interest (
4324:Anglo-Muhammadan law
4266:Modern legal reforms
3757:Topics in Sharia law
2029:Abū Hāmid al-Ghazālī
1180:Historical sharia(s)
1075:corporal punishments
1014:modelled and exalted
878:analogical reasoning
388:Association football
19432:Islamic terminology
19299:. Oxford: Clarendon
19213:on 1 November 2008.
18190:on 11 October 2017.
18147:on 16 January 2014.
17903:"Degrees, or Ijaza"
17836:Medieval Encounters
17407:"Jihad vs. Crusade"
17242:Jamaldeen, Faleel.
17229:Skyhorse Publishing
16724:. 19 October 2010.
16399:(2014), pp. 275-276
16202:The Washington Post
15164:Die Welt des Islams
15071:. 6 November 2014.
15045:7 July 2017 at the
14499:Ali, Kecia (2003).
14308:28 May 2006 at the
14168:Pew Research Center
13725:"Sharia in America"
13694:"Michael J. Broyde"
13576:Pew Research Center
13546:Pew Research Center
13436:18 May 2018 at the
13362:"The Sharia Courts"
13085:. 15 January 2009.
10558:Newman in Meri 2006
10068:. Rowman Altamira.
8890:. Athens, Georgia:
7764:) in their place.
7135:Jonathan A.C. Brown
7098:personal status law
6928:Khaled Abou El Fadl
6870:apostasy from Islam
6836:military government
6759:In classical fiqh,
6720:Islam and blasphemy
6670:Ann Elizabeth Mayer
6601:Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd
6574:Rashid al-Ghannushi
6550:(public interest),
6492:(consultation) and
6439:Islam and democracy
6270:Ministry of Justice
6188:beating a woman in
6115:was created by the
6100:militant extremists
5586:human rights groups
5458:Politics portal
5411:Islam and modernity
5069:("Velayat-e faqih")
5051:Ma'alim fi al-Tariq
4271:Under colonial rule
4180:Indian subcontinent
4047:Judge (Islamic law)
3825:literature are the
2116:Mohammed al-Ghazali
2096:Abdallah bin Bayyah
1794:of Sharia to date.
1667:scholastic theology
1619:(lit. the roots of
1155:must pass through.
1085:Etymology and usage
766:, particularly the
764:scriptures of Islam
762:tradition based on
149:Profession of Faith
122:Day of Resurrection
19242:Amana Publications
18251:The New York Times
17610:, pp. 183–84.
16914:Arab Law Quarterly
16722:Human Rights Watch
16359:Arab Law Quarterly
16288:The New York Times
15719:Human Rights Watch
15642:). Oliver Leaman,
15455:. New York Times.
15453:The New York Times
14898:. 10, pp. 357–73.
14329:on 24 January 2010
14141:, pp. 142–43.
13510:on 30 October 2014
12598:Praeger Publishers
12397:Arab Law Quarterly
11983:, pp. 249–50.
11956:The New York Times
11795:, pp. 503–04.
11739:, pp. 182–83.
11716:, pp. 174–76.
11655:, pp. 176–81.
11364:, pp. 176–77.
11352:, pp. 225–26.
11340:, pp. 166–67.
11323:, pp. 159–62.
11028:Smith, W. (1957).
10724:on 5 November 2021
10538:– via JSTOR.
10491:– via JSTOR.
9924:on 5 December 2010
9696:, pp. 121–22.
9045:. pp. 21–51.
8863:. pp. 2, 14.
8017:on 8 December 2015
7958:. pp. 18–87.
7901:[ʃaˈriːʕa]
7794:Muwatta Imam Malik
7660:Criticism of Islam
7409:Seven Laws of Noah
7318:
7261:
7144:Ata' bin Abi Rabah
7063:According to polls
7018:
7009: Imprisonment
6953:rights as well as
6934:, and an issue of
6897:
6874:
6757:
6605:Abdolkarim Soroush
6393:Thomas de Maizière
6366:
6202:
6196:, for opening her
6079:The Satanic Verses
6066:Ayatollah Khomeini
6058:
5866:
5807:possibly contains
5674:Constitutional law
5654:
5549:Iranian Revolution
5515:Ayatollah Khomeini
5336:Khaled Abu al-Fadl
5181:Qazi Hussain Ahmad
5166:Abu Hamza al-Masri
4994:Sub-Saharan Africa
4954:Muslim Brotherhood
4929:Iranian Revolution
4839:Islamic Golden Age
4707:Islamic liberalism
4687:Islamic governance
4476:
4410:
4404:(Sharia court) in
4379:Republic of Turkey
4341:
4288:
4225:unilateral divorce
4220:
4149:
4077:
4016:
3891:
3364:Gender segregation
2927:Islamic leadership
2589:
2449:al-aḥkām al-khamsa
2408:Considering that,
2320:
2052:
1918:transmitted orally
1796:
1671:Aristotelian logic
1564:
1547:and elaborated by
1408:
1391:Historical origins
1378:, and is from the
1196:al-qānūn al-islāmī
1090:Contemporary usage
1045:freedom of thought
19354:– Yale University
19231:Nuh Ha Mim Keller
18710:978-0-521-51430-9
18479:978-0-385-53135-1
18472:. UK: Doubleday.
18164:on 17 April 2019.
17553:Charles Kurzman.
17231:. pp. 84–86.
16868:www.aljazeera.com
16839:. 19 March 2014.
16281:(16 March 2008).
16042:978-0-521-51430-9
15756:978-0-415-15390-4
15549:978-1-4051-2174-3
15382:978-0-521-86147-2
15268:978-0-7391-3523-5
13857:. Times – News .
13578:. 30 April 2013.
13548:. 30 April 2013.
13396:. Law.emory.edu.
13195:. 22 April 2016.
13028:on 25 March 2009.
12596:. New York City:
12031:. 27 March 2019.
11940:, pp. 38–42.
11928:, pp. 18–19.
11311:, pp. 57–60.
11253:, pp. 11–12.
11223:, pp. 45–47.
10993:, pp. 10–11.
10976:, pp. 28–30.
10930:978-90-04-16121-4
10881:Levy (1957) p. 77
10613:978-0-8156-3388-4
10429:978-0-19-512558-0
10398:978-0-19-512558-0
10302:, pp. 68–69.
10290:, pp. 66–68.
10156:Mansoor Moaddel,
10116:978-0-521-80332-8
10105:. Cambridge, UK:
10060:Irshad Abdel Haqq
10049:, pp. 23–24.
10025:, pp. 21–22.
9879:, pp. 16–18.
9613:Blankinship (2008
9542:, pp. 31–35.
9075:info page on book
8343:978-3-640-14967-4
7889:
7675:Glossary of Islam
7534:and reasoning by
7459:developed in the
7361:Sulaiman Al-Alwan
7357:Yusuf al-Qaradawi
7293:Islamic extremism
7289:Islamic terrorism
7156:Muslim bin Hajjaj
7130:Domestic violence
6860:Apostasy in Islam
6578:Yusuf al-Qaradawi
6535:Abul A'la Maududi
6483:Yusuf al-Qaradawi
6418:Leiden University
6356:Ban on sharia law
6324:Nicholas Phillips
5936:Forensic evidence
5904:rules of evidence
5883:cross-examination
5860:Shariah court in
5852:
5851:
5844:
5809:original research
5564:Islamic economics
5492:
5491:
5346:Abdelwahab Meddeb
5281:Haji Shariatullah
5246:Yusuf al-Qaradawi
5231:Abul A'la Maududi
5221:Ruhollah Khomeini
5201:Rached Ghannouchi
5113:Ruhollah Khomeini
5020:Rashīd Rīďha 1922
4910:by country/region
4799:Two-nation theory
4751:Islamic terrorism
4712:Islamic socialism
4697:Islamic democracy
4673:Apostasy in Islam
4630:Deobandi jihadism
4625:Deobandi movement
4402:Mahkamah Syariyah
4172:Fatawa-e-Alamgiri
3753:
3752:
3667:
3666:
3525:
3524:
3339:
3338:
3192:
3191:
3117:
3116:
2910:
2909:
2617:Islamic Modernism
2274:Islamic Modernism
2258:Islamic reformers
2227:Islamic centuries
2128:Yusuf al-Qaradawi
1873:textual integrity
1778:Sources of Sharia
1436:The veiling order
1108:religion of Moses
1066:Islamic movements
1012:, which has been
843:authentic ahadith
802:qualified jurists
753:
719:
718:
649:Deobandi jihadism
16:(Redirected from
19454:
19404:
19403:
19395:
19261:
19252:
19250:
19248:
19239:
19214:
19197:
19180:
19153:
19136:
19127:
19103:
19094:
19070:
19061:
19052:
19025:
19016:
19005:"Law. Civil Law"
18999:
18972:
18945:
18928:
18909:
18897:
18885:
18876:
18852:
18843:
18842:on 11 June 2017.
18826:
18809:
18792:
18775:
18758:
18741:
18732:
18723:
18714:
18695:
18673:
18664:
18647:
18635:
18618:
18606:
18584:
18573:
18546:
18516:
18490:
18488:
18486:
18462:
18450:
18441:
18417:
18405:
18393:
18364:
18355:
18338:
18329:
18320:
18311:
18294:
18274:
18261:
18259:
18257:
18241:
18224:
18211:
18209:
18207:
18201:Yaqeen Institute
18191:
18174:
18165:
18148:
18146:
18140:. Archived from
18125:
18112:
18103:
18091:
18072:
18071:
18069:
18067:
18047:
18041:
18040:
18038:
18014:
18008:
18007:
17987:
17981:
17980:
17970:
17939:
17933:
17932:
17930:
17928:
17898:
17892:
17891:
17863:
17852:
17851:
17827:
17821:
17820:
17792:
17786:
17785:
17783:
17781:
17731:
17725:
17724:
17702:
17696:
17695:
17677:
17671:
17670:
17668:
17666:
17646:
17637:
17636:
17622:
17611:
17605:
17596:
17590:
17584:
17577:
17571:
17570:
17568:
17566:
17550:
17544:
17531:
17525:
17524:
17522:
17520:
17492:
17483:
17480:
17474:
17471:
17465:
17464:
17437:The Muslim World
17429:
17423:
17422:
17420:
17418:
17402:
17396:
17395:
17379:
17373:
17372:
17370:
17368:
17330:
17324:
17323:
17321:
17297:
17291:
17290:
17288:
17286:
17266:
17260:
17259:
17257:
17255:
17239:
17233:
17232:
17220:
17214:
17208:
17202:
17196:
17190:
17176:
17163:
17162:
17160:
17158:
17153:on 1 August 2017
17138:
17132:
17131:
17110:
17104:
17103:
17075:
17069:
17068:
17046:
17040:
17029:
17023:
17012:
17006:
17005:
16994:10.2307/20048203
16977:
16971:
16961:Slavery in Islam
16958:
16952:
16936:
16930:
16929:
16909:
16903:
16902:
16890:
16884:
16883:
16881:
16879:
16859:
16853:
16852:
16850:
16848:
16829:
16823:
16822:
16820:
16818:
16799:
16793:
16792:
16790:
16788:
16769:
16763:
16762:
16744:
16738:
16737:
16735:
16733:
16714:
16708:
16707:
16705:
16703:
16684:
16678:
16677:
16641:
16635:
16634:
16632:
16630:
16609:
16603:
16602:
16566:
16560:
16559:
16531:
16525:
16524:
16508:
16502:
16501:
16479:
16473:
16472:
16450:
16444:
16443:
16438:. Archived from
16432:
16426:
16425:
16423:
16421:
16406:
16400:
16389:
16383:
16382:
16354:
16348:
16342:
16336:
16335:
16323:
16317:
16314:
16305:
16304:
16302:
16300:
16275:
16269:
16268:
16256:
16250:
16239:
16233:
16232:
16224:
16218:
16217:
16215:
16213:
16193:
16187:
16186:
16184:
16182:
16167:
16161:
16160:
16158:
16156:
16137:
16128:
16127:
16125:
16123:
16099:
16093:
16092:
16090:
16088:
16066:
16060:
16053:
16047:
16046:
16028:
16022:
16021:
15985:
15979:
15978:
15976:
15974:
15940:
15934:
15933:
15905:
15899:
15898:
15896:
15894:
15874:
15868:
15867:
15851:
15845:
15844:
15829:The Muslim World
15824:
15818:
15805:
15799:
15786:
15780:
15771:
15765:
15764:
15741:
15735:
15734:
15732:
15730:
15711:
15705:
15704:
15702:
15700:
15681:
15675:
15674:
15653:
15647:
15629:
15623:
15622:
15620:
15618:
15587:
15581:
15580:
15565:The Muslim World
15560:
15554:
15553:
15535:
15526:
15525:
15506:
15500:
15499:
15497:
15495:
15475:
15469:
15468:
15466:
15464:
15444:
15431:
15425:
15419:
15418:
15396:
15387:
15386:
15361:
15355:
15354:
15352:
15350:
15322:
15316:
15315:
15313:
15311:
15283:
15277:
15276:
15250:
15241:
15233:
15227:
15226:
15224:
15222:
15194:
15188:
15187:
15159:
15146:
15133:
15127:
15126:
15124:
15122:
15094:
15085:
15084:
15082:
15080:
15061:
15050:
15037:
15031:
15018:
15012:
15001:
14995:
14994:
14992:
14990:
14975:
14969:
14956:
14950:
14932:
14926:
14925:
14917:
14911:
14892:
14886:
14876:
14870:
14867:
14861:
14845:
14839:
14838:
14830:
14824:
14809:
14803:
14802:
14784:
14778:
14777:
14756:
14750:
14739:
14733:
14722:
14713:
14712:
14684:
14678:
14677:
14649:
14643:
14640:
14634:
14621:
14615:
14614:
14596:
14590:
14580:
14574:
14573:
14542:Political Theory
14537:
14531:
14530:
14528:
14526:
14496:
14490:
14489:
14459:
14453:
14446:
14440:
14439:
14437:
14435:
14429:
14414:
14405:
14399:
14398:
14396:
14386:
14362:
14356:
14345:
14339:
14338:
14336:
14334:
14319:
14313:
14300:
14294:
14293:
14291:
14289:
14274:
14268:
14267:
14265:
14263:
14257:
14242:
14233:
14227:
14221:
14215:
14214:
14212:
14210:
14190:
14184:
14183:
14181:
14179:
14170:. 10 July 2012.
14160:
14154:
14148:
14142:
14136:
14130:
14129:
14127:
14125:
14077:
14068:
14062:
14056:
14055:
14053:
14051:
14032:
14026:
14025:
14023:
14021:
13993:
13980:
13979:
13977:
13975:
13955:
13949:
13948:
13946:
13944:
13929:
13923:
13922:
13920:
13918:
13903:
13897:
13896:
13894:
13892:
13877:
13871:
13870:
13868:
13866:
13850:
13844:
13843:
13841:
13839:
13823:
13814:
13813:
13811:
13809:
13781:
13772:
13771:
13769:
13767:
13747:
13741:
13740:
13738:
13736:
13720:
13714:
13713:
13711:
13709:
13690:
13684:
13671:
13665:
13664:
13662:
13660:
13641:
13635:
13634:
13632:
13630:
13610:
13601:
13598:
13592:
13591:
13589:
13587:
13568:
13562:
13561:
13559:
13557:
13538:
13532:
13526:
13520:
13519:
13517:
13515:
13509:
13502:
13491:
13480:
13479:
13477:
13475:
13451:
13445:
13428:
13422:
13420:The Sunday Times
13416:
13410:
13409:
13407:
13405:
13390:
13384:
13383:
13381:
13379:
13358:
13352:
13337:
13331:
13330:
13315:The Muslim World
13310:
13304:
13303:
13301:
13299:
13293:
13270:
13244:
13235:
13229:
13218:
13209:
13208:
13206:
13204:
13183:
13177:
13176:
13174:
13172:
13140:
13134:
13133:
13105:
13099:
13098:
13096:
13094:
13075:
13069:
13068:
13066:
13064:
13036:
13030:
13029:
13027:
13015:
13009:
13003:
12997:
12991:
12985:
12979:
12964:
12958:
12943:
12937:
12931:
12925:
12916:
12910:
12897:
12891:
12882:
12879:Hendrickson 2013
12876:
12865:
12852:
12846:
12833:
12827:
12814:
12808:
12807:
12805:
12803:
12787:
12781:
12780:
12754:
12748:
12747:
12745:
12743:
12715:
12709:
12694:
12685:
12674:
12668:
12667:
12665:
12663:
12657:
12642:
12633:
12627:
12618:
12609:
12590:
12584:
12571:
12565:
12554:
12545:
12526:
12517:
12516:
12498:
12492:
12491:
12489:
12487:
12472:Lums Law Journal
12463:
12457:
12456:
12454:
12452:
12437:IIUM Law Journal
12428:
12422:
12421:
12388:
12382:
12375:
12369:
12363:
12357:
12351:
12345:
12334:
12328:
12317:
12311:
12310:
12266:
12257:
12256:
12254:
12252:
12246:
12239:
12231:
12222:
12215:
12209:
12198:
12192:
12181:
12172:
12169:
12163:
12150:
12144:
12143:
12141:
12139:
12124:
12118:
12117:
12089:
12080:
12079:
12063:
12057:
12051:
12045:
12044:
12042:
12040:
12021:
12015:
12014:
12012:
12010:
11990:
11984:
11978:
11972:
11971:
11969:
11967:
11947:
11941:
11935:
11929:
11923:
11917:
11911:
11905:
11900:
11894:
11891:
11885:
11884:
11882:
11880:
11864:
11858:
11843:
11837:
11834:
11828:
11822:
11811:
11805:
11796:
11790:
11771:
11765:
11759:
11753:
11740:
11734:
11717:
11711:
11702:
11696:
11690:
11684:
11675:
11669:
11656:
11650:
11637:
11631:
11625:
11619:
11613:
11607:
11601:
11595:
11589:
11583:
11572:
11566:
11557:
11556:
11528:
11517:
11516:
11508:
11502:
11496:
11490:
11484:
11478:
11472:
11466:
11460:
11454:
11448:
11442:
11436:
11430:
11424:
11418:
11412:
11403:
11397:
11386:
11383:Jones-Pauly 2009
11380:
11365:
11359:
11353:
11347:
11341:
11335:
11324:
11318:
11312:
11306:
11300:
11294:
11281:
11275:
11266:
11260:
11254:
11248:
11239:
11233:
11224:
11218:
11209:
11203:
11184:
11178:
11161:
11155:
11149:
11143:
11137:
11136:, pp. 9–10.
11131:
11122:
11116:
11110:
11104:
11075:
11074:
11072:
11070:
11064:
11049:
11040:
11034:
11033:
11025:
11019:
11018:
11000:
10994:
10988:
10977:
10971:
10956:
10950:
10935:
10934:
10914:
10908:
10901:
10895:
10894:1 (2012), p. 123
10888:
10882:
10879:
10873:
10862:
10856:
10855:
10853:
10851:
10836:
10830:
10829:
10827:
10825:
10816:. Archived from
10809:
10803:
10802:
10782:
10776:
10775:
10773:
10771:
10757:
10751:
10740:
10734:
10733:
10731:
10729:
10720:. Archived from
10710:
10704:
10697:
10691:
10685:
10679:
10673:
10664:
10659:
10653:
10647:
10641:
10636:
10630:
10624:
10618:
10617:
10599:
10593:
10592:
10574:
10568:
10567:
10555:
10549:
10546:
10540:
10539:
10499:
10493:
10492:
10452:
10446:
10442:sometimes spelt
10440:
10434:
10433:
10417:
10409:
10403:
10402:
10382:
10374:
10363:
10357:
10334:
10329:
10323:
10320:
10314:
10309:
10303:
10297:
10291:
10285:
10279:
10273:
10267:
10260:
10254:
10251:
10245:
10242:Internet Archive
10228:
10222:
10216:
10207:
10201:
10192:
10186:
10169:
10154:
10148:
10147:
10127:
10121:
10120:
10098:
10092:
10091:
10089:
10087:
10056:
10050:
10044:
10038:
10032:
10026:
10020:
10005:
9999:
9993:
9992:
9984:
9978:
9977:
9975:
9973:
9963:
9954:
9948:
9947:
9941:
9933:
9931:
9929:
9920:. Archived from
9914:
9908:
9898:
9892:
9886:
9880:
9874:
9853:
9847:
9841:
9838:
9832:
9831:
9823:
9817:
9816:
9814:
9812:
9803:. Archived from
9793:
9784:
9783:
9775:
9764:
9754:
9748:
9747:
9745:
9743:
9728:
9722:
9721:
9703:
9697:
9691:
9685:
9679:
9670:
9667:
9661:
9660:
9652:
9646:
9645:
9638:
9632:
9629:
9623:
9622:
9610:
9604:
9597:
9591:
9585:
9579:
9572:
9566:
9561:
9555:
9549:
9543:
9537:
9526:
9520:
9511:
9505:
9478:
9472:
9451:
9450:
9442:
9436:
9435:
9433:
9431:
9401:
9395:
9394:
9386:
9380:
9379:
9371:
9365:
9362:
9356:
9355:
9347:
9341:
9340:
9338:
9336:
9309:Brown, Daniel W.
9305:
9299:
9293:
9282:
9281:
9279:
9277:
9271:
9256:
9247:
9241:
9240:
9208:
9202:
9201:
9175:
9169:
9168:
9160:
9154:
9153:
9133:
9127:
9126:
9114:
9108:
9107:
9095:
9089:
9072:
9066:
9058:
9056:
9054:
9026:
9020:
9009:
8987:
8981:
8975:
8969:
8968:
8962:
8954:
8951:
8950:
8945:
8944:
8931:
8925:
8920:
8914:
8909:
8903:
8884:
8875:
8874:
8849:
8843:
8828:
8822:
8816:
8807:
8801:
8795:
8794:, pp. 9–10.
8789:
8783:
8782:
8756:
8747:
8741:
8735:
8716:
8710:
8679:
8673:
8662:
8648:
8642:
8641:
8597:
8591:
8590:
8568:
8562:
8556:
8550:
8545:
8539:
8536:
8530:
8527:
8521:
8520:
8513:
8507:
8500:
8494:
8488:
8482:
8476:
8467:
8461:
8452:
8443:of the Prophet,
8404:John L. Esposito
8401:
8395:
8389:
8374:
8368:
8355:
8354:
8352:
8350:
8327:
8321:
8315:
8306:
8303:
8297:
8294:
8288:
8282:
8219:
8213:
8082:
8081:
8079:
8077:
8072:on 31 March 2019
8057:
8042:
8036:
8027:
8026:
8024:
8022:
8007:
7998:
7997:
7995:
7993:
7942:Ilm Uṣūl al-Fiqh
7924:
7904:
7903:
7898:
7894:
7884:
7882:
7874:
7873:
7870:
7869:
7866:
7863:
7860:
7857:
7854:
7845:
7833:
7829:
7823:
7820:
7814:
7811:
7805:
7790:
7784:
7780:
7774:
7771:
7765:
7755:
7707:Islamic republic
7619:licentia docendi
7514:and the Islamic
7506:and the Islamic
7498:and the Islamic
7330:Rachel Ehrenfeld
7104:before a court.
7014:
7008:
6999:
6993:
6984:
6938:and conscience.
6936:freedom of faith
6926:). According to
6894:Alfred Dehodencq
6765:Islamic prophets
6753:
6747:
6741:
6735:
6699:H. Patrick Glenn
6564:. In this view,
6462:John L. Esposito
6338:specializing in
6336:Emory University
6257:Nawal El Saadawi
6228:Wilayatul Hisbah
6186:religious police
5881:process, and no
5847:
5840:
5836:
5833:
5827:
5824:inline citations
5800:
5799:
5792:
5788:Court procedures
5650:
5644:
5638:
5632:
5614:Cairo conference
5484:
5477:
5470:
5456:
5455:
5447:Islam portal
5445:
5444:
5443:
5329:in North America
5286:Hassan Al-Turabi
5236:Abul Hasan Nadwi
4829:Anti-imperialism
4727:Islamic republic
4722:Islamic monarchy
4702:Islamic feminism
4542:
4536:
4535:
4525:
4524:
4387:Swiss Civil Code
3745:
3738:
3731:
3708:Prisoners of war
3703:
3661:
3656:Comparison with
3540:
3539:
3405:
3404:
3332:
3321:
3310:
3293:
3283:
3274:
3264:
3253:
3242:
3231:
3207:
3206:
3119:
3118:
2996:
2995:
2955:Wilayat al-faqih
2941:Majlis-ash-Shura
2740:
2739:
2727:
2698:
2697:
2654:, religious and
2292:Grand Ayatollahs
2264:and emphasis on
2173:
2170:
2167:
2163:
2160:
2157:
2154:
2151:
2084:source of sharia
1976:Ahmad ibn Hanbal
1798:Islamic scholar
1788:Sanaa manuscript
1655:rhetorical tools
1511:Ahmad ibn Hanbal
1386:
1373:
1358:
1350:
1344:
1341:
1338:
1334:
1333:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1318:
1317:
1312:
1309:
1306:
1303:
1302:
1297:
1283:
1277:
1271:
1266:and its cognate
1265:
1207:
1206:
1205:
1204:القانون الإسلامي
1198:
1169:Classical sharia
1143:, from there to
1006:some researchers
982:Islamic scholars
874:
862:
794:Islamic scholars
748:
746:
711:
704:
697:
683:Islam portal
681:
680:
679:
79:
56:
55:
21:
19462:
19461:
19457:
19456:
19455:
19453:
19452:
19451:
19412:
19411:
19410:
19398:
19390:
19378:Wayback Machine
19306:
19293:Schacht, Joseph
19246:
19244:
19237:
19222:
19220:Further reading
19217:
19177:
19152:on 4 June 2014.
19124:
19049:
18996:
18969:
18925:
18906:
18895:
18873:
18711:
18692:
18678:Lapidus, Ira M.
18644:Law and Society
18615:
18570:
18543:
18513:
18484:
18482:
18480:
18410:Hallaq, Wael B.
18398:Hallaq, Wael B.
18390:
18376:Hallaq, Wael B.
18292:
18255:
18253:
18205:
18203:
18144:
18138:
18123:
18081:
18076:
18075:
18065:
18063:
18056:The Independent
18048:
18044:
18015:
18011:
17988:
17984:
17940:
17936:
17926:
17924:
17917:
17899:
17895:
17864:
17855:
17828:
17824:
17793:
17789:
17779:
17777:
17754:10.2307/3312162
17732:
17728:
17721:
17703:
17699:
17678:
17674:
17664:
17662:
17647:
17640:
17623:
17614:
17606:
17599:
17591:
17587:
17578:
17574:
17564:
17562:
17551:
17547:
17541:Wayback Machine
17532:
17528:
17518:
17516:
17509:
17493:
17486:
17481:
17477:
17472:
17468:
17430:
17426:
17416:
17414:
17403:
17399:
17380:
17376:
17366:
17364:
17357:
17331:
17327:
17298:
17294:
17284:
17282:
17267:
17263:
17253:
17251:
17240:
17236:
17221:
17217:
17209:
17205:
17197:
17193:
17187:Wayback Machine
17177:
17166:
17156:
17154:
17139:
17135:
17125:
17111:
17107:
17096:
17076:
17072:
17061:
17047:
17043:
17030:
17026:
17013:
17009:
16982:Foreign Affairs
16978:
16974:
16968:Wayback Machine
16959:
16955:
16937:
16933:
16910:
16906:
16891:
16887:
16877:
16875:
16860:
16856:
16846:
16844:
16831:
16830:
16826:
16816:
16814:
16801:
16800:
16796:
16786:
16784:
16771:
16770:
16766:
16759:
16745:
16741:
16731:
16729:
16716:
16715:
16711:
16701:
16699:
16686:
16685:
16681:
16658:10.2307/1051612
16642:
16638:
16628:
16626:
16611:
16610:
16606:
16567:
16563:
16556:
16532:
16528:
16509:
16505:
16498:
16480:
16476:
16469:
16451:
16447:
16434:
16433:
16429:
16419:
16417:
16408:
16407:
16403:
16390:
16386:
16355:
16351:
16343:
16339:
16324:
16320:
16315:
16308:
16298:
16296:
16276:
16272:
16257:
16253:
16240:
16236:
16225:
16221:
16211:
16209:
16194:
16190:
16180:
16178:
16169:
16168:
16164:
16154:
16152:
16147:. 6 June 2018.
16139:
16138:
16131:
16121:
16119:
16100:
16096:
16086:
16084:
16068:
16067:
16063:
16054:
16050:
16043:
16029:
16025:
15986:
15982:
15972:
15970:
15963:
15941:
15937:
15906:
15902:
15892:
15890:
15875:
15871:
15852:
15848:
15825:
15821:
15815:Wayback Machine
15806:
15802:
15796:Wayback Machine
15787:
15783:
15772:
15768:
15757:
15743:
15742:
15738:
15728:
15726:
15713:
15712:
15708:
15698:
15696:
15691:. 16 May 2014.
15683:
15682:
15678:
15671:
15654:
15650:
15630:
15626:
15616:
15614:
15607:
15588:
15584:
15561:
15557:
15550:
15536:
15529:
15516:. 15 May 2014.
15508:
15507:
15503:
15493:
15491:
15476:
15472:
15462:
15460:
15445:
15434:
15426:
15422:
15415:
15397:
15390:
15383:
15375:. p. 319.
15365:Wael, B. Hallaq
15362:
15358:
15348:
15346:
15339:
15323:
15319:
15309:
15307:
15300:
15284:
15280:
15269:
15251:
15244:
15234:
15230:
15220:
15218:
15211:
15195:
15191:
15176:10.2307/1570336
15160:
15149:
15143:Wayback Machine
15134:
15130:
15120:
15118:
15111:
15095:
15088:
15078:
15076:
15063:
15062:
15053:
15047:Wayback Machine
15038:
15034:
15028:Wayback Machine
15019:
15015:
15002:
14998:
14988:
14986:
14977:
14976:
14972:
14966:Wayback Machine
14957:
14953:
14943:Wayback Machine
14933:
14929:
14918:
14914:
14893:
14889:
14877:
14873:
14868:
14864:
14846:
14842:
14832:
14831:
14827:
14810:
14806:
14799:
14785:
14781:
14757:
14753:
14740:
14736:
14723:
14716:
14685:
14681:
14660:(115): 91–119.
14650:
14646:
14641:
14637:
14622:
14618:
14611:
14597:
14593:
14581:
14577:
14538:
14534:
14524:
14522:
14515:
14497:
14493:
14478:
14460:
14456:
14447:
14443:
14433:
14431:
14427:
14412:
14406:
14402:
14363:
14359:
14346:
14342:
14332:
14330:
14321:
14320:
14316:
14310:Wayback Machine
14301:
14297:
14287:
14285:
14276:
14275:
14271:
14261:
14259:
14255:
14240:
14234:
14230:
14222:
14218:
14208:
14206:
14191:
14187:
14177:
14175:
14162:
14161:
14157:
14149:
14145:
14137:
14133:
14123:
14121:
14086:Democratization
14078:
14071:
14063:
14059:
14049:
14047:
14034:
14033:
14029:
14019:
14017:
14010:
13994:
13983:
13973:
13971:
13956:
13952:
13942:
13940:
13931:
13930:
13926:
13916:
13914:
13905:
13904:
13900:
13890:
13888:
13879:
13878:
13874:
13864:
13862:
13851:
13847:
13837:
13835:
13824:
13817:
13807:
13805:
13798:
13782:
13775:
13765:
13763:
13748:
13744:
13734:
13732:
13721:
13717:
13707:
13705:
13692:
13691:
13687:
13681:Wayback Machine
13672:
13668:
13658:
13656:
13651:. 4 July 2008.
13643:
13642:
13638:
13628:
13626:
13611:
13604:
13599:
13595:
13585:
13583:
13570:
13569:
13565:
13555:
13553:
13540:
13539:
13535:
13527:
13523:
13513:
13511:
13507:
13500:
13492:
13483:
13473:
13471:
13452:
13448:
13438:Wayback Machine
13429:
13425:
13417:
13413:
13403:
13401:
13392:
13391:
13387:
13377:
13375:
13360:
13359:
13355:
13338:
13334:
13311:
13307:
13297:
13295:
13291:
13242:
13236:
13232:
13219:
13212:
13202:
13200:
13192:BBC News Online
13185:
13184:
13180:
13170:
13168:
13141:
13137:
13106:
13102:
13092:
13090:
13077:
13076:
13072:
13062:
13060:
13053:
13037:
13033:
13025:
13017:
13016:
13012:
13004:
13000:
12992:
12988:
12980:
12967:
12959:
12946:
12938:
12934:
12926:
12919:
12911:
12900:
12892:
12885:
12877:
12868:
12862:Wayback Machine
12853:
12849:
12844:Wayback Machine
12834:
12830:
12825:Wayback Machine
12815:
12811:
12801:
12799:
12788:
12784:
12777:
12761:. p. 261.
12755:
12751:
12741:
12739:
12732:
12716:
12712:
12695:
12688:
12675:
12671:
12661:
12659:
12655:
12640:
12634:
12630:
12619:
12612:
12591:
12587:
12581:Wayback Machine
12572:
12568:
12555:
12548:
12527:
12520:
12513:
12499:
12495:
12485:
12483:
12464:
12460:
12450:
12448:
12429:
12425:
12389:
12385:
12376:
12372:
12364:
12360:
12352:
12348:
12335:
12331:
12318:
12314:
12267:
12260:
12250:
12248:
12244:
12237:
12233:
12232:
12225:
12216:
12212:
12199:
12195:
12182:
12175:
12170:
12166:
12151:
12147:
12137:
12135:
12126:
12125:
12121:
12091:
12090:
12083:
12064:
12060:
12052:
12048:
12038:
12036:
12023:
12022:
12018:
12008:
12006:
11991:
11987:
11981:Tellenbach 2015
11979:
11975:
11965:
11963:
11948:
11944:
11936:
11932:
11924:
11920:
11916:, pp. 8–9.
11912:
11908:
11901:
11897:
11892:
11888:
11878:
11876:
11865:
11861:
11844:
11840:
11835:
11831:
11823:
11814:
11806:
11799:
11791:
11774:
11766:
11762:
11754:
11743:
11735:
11720:
11712:
11705:
11697:
11693:
11685:
11678:
11670:
11659:
11651:
11640:
11632:
11628:
11620:
11616:
11608:
11604:
11596:
11592:
11584:
11575:
11567:
11560:
11539:(2): 426, 427.
11529:
11520:
11509:
11505:
11497:
11493:
11485:
11481:
11473:
11469:
11461:
11457:
11449:
11445:
11437:
11433:
11425:
11421:
11413:
11406:
11398:
11389:
11381:
11368:
11360:
11356:
11348:
11344:
11336:
11327:
11319:
11315:
11307:
11303:
11295:
11284:
11276:
11269:
11261:
11257:
11249:
11242:
11234:
11227:
11219:
11212:
11204:
11187:
11179:
11164:
11156:
11152:
11144:
11140:
11132:
11125:
11117:
11113:
11105:
11078:
11068:
11066:
11062:
11047:
11041:
11037:
11026:
11022:
11015:
11001:
10997:
10989:
10980:
10972:
10959:
10951:
10938:
10931:
10915:
10911:
10902:
10898:
10889:
10885:
10880:
10876:
10863:
10859:
10849:
10847:
10845:Washington Post
10837:
10833:
10823:
10821:
10820:on 4 April 2023
10810:
10806:
10799:
10783:
10779:
10769:
10767:
10759:
10758:
10754:
10750:. 2007, S. 507.
10741:
10737:
10727:
10725:
10712:
10711:
10707:
10698:
10694:
10686:
10682:
10674:
10667:
10660:
10656:
10648:
10644:
10637:
10633:
10625:
10621:
10614:
10600:
10596:
10589:
10575:
10571:
10561:
10556:
10552:
10547:
10543:
10500:
10496:
10453:
10449:
10441:
10437:
10430:
10410:
10406:
10399:
10375:
10366:
10358:
10337:
10330:
10326:
10321:
10317:
10310:
10306:
10298:
10294:
10286:
10282:
10274:
10270:
10261:
10257:
10252:
10248:
10229:
10225:
10217:
10210:
10202:
10195:
10191:, pp. 2–6.
10187:
10172:
10155:
10151:
10128:
10124:
10117:
10099:
10095:
10085:
10083:
10076:
10057:
10053:
10045:
10041:
10033:
10029:
10021:
10008:
10000:
9996:
9985:
9981:
9971:
9969:
9961:
9955:
9951:
9935:
9934:
9927:
9925:
9918:"Archived copy"
9916:
9915:
9911:
9899:
9895:
9887:
9883:
9875:
9856:
9848:
9844:
9839:
9835:
9824:
9820:
9810:
9808:
9807:on 16 June 2013
9795:
9794:
9787:
9776:
9767:
9755:
9751:
9741:
9739:
9729:
9725:
9718:
9704:
9700:
9692:
9688:
9680:
9673:
9668:
9664:
9655:Taareq Oubrou.
9653:
9649:
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9635:
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9626:
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9611:
9607:
9598:
9594:
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9348:
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9332:
9325:
9306:
9302:
9294:
9285:
9275:
9273:
9269:
9254:
9248:
9244:
9217:Islamic Studies
9209:
9205:
9198:
9176:
9172:
9161:
9157:
9150:
9134:
9130:
9120:
9115:
9111:
9101:
9096:
9092:
9082:Wayback Machine
9060:
9059:
9052:
9050:
9027:
9023:
9008:. October 1905.
8989:
8988:
8984:
8976:
8972:
8956:
8955:
8932:
8928:
8921:
8917:
8910:
8906:
8885:
8878:
8871:
8850:
8846:
8829:
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8817:
8810:
8802:
8798:
8790:
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8754:
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8744:
8736:
8719:
8711:
8682:
8674:
8665:
8649:
8645:
8598:
8594:
8587:
8569:
8565:
8557:
8553:
8546:
8542:
8537:
8533:
8528:
8524:
8519:. 20 June 2010.
8515:
8514:
8510:
8501:
8497:
8489:
8485:
8477:
8470:
8462:
8455:
8420:Wayback Machine
8402:
8398:
8390:
8377:
8369:
8358:
8348:
8346:
8344:
8328:
8324:
8316:
8309:
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8300:
8295:
8291:
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8222:
8214:
8085:
8075:
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8058:
8045:
8037:
8030:
8020:
8018:
8009:
8008:
8001:
7991:
7989:
7974:
7925:
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7908:
7907:
7896:
7851:
7847:
7846:
7842:
7837:
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7830:
7826:
7821:
7817:
7812:
7808:
7791:
7787:
7781:
7777:
7772:
7768:
7756:
7752:
7747:
7742:
7655:
7634:natural persons
7588:("professor of
7484:
7411:
7405:
7399:
7394:
7334:Islamic banking
7307:
7305:Salafi jihadism
7285:
7238:
7228:
7207:
7132:
7118:
7116:Property rights
7090:rights of women
7086:
7081:
7073:Main articles:
7071:
7016:
7012:
7010:
7006:
7004:
6997:
6995:
6991:
6989:
6982:
6974:
6968:
6892:), painting by
6882:Moroccan Jewish
6880:Execution of a
6862:
6856:
6778:vary by country
6755:
6751:
6749:
6745:
6743:
6739:
6737:
6733:
6722:
6716:
6655:Judeo-Christian
6639:
6615:
6597:Mohammed Arkoun
6593:Tariq al-Bishri
6570:Hasan al-Turabi
6556:(justice), and
6522:
6513:Muslim-majority
6458:
6449:
6431:
6426:
6358:
6352:
6319:Orthodox Jewish
6295:law of the land
6287:
6282:
6265:
6210:1979 Revolution
6140:
6134:
6128:
6104:Osama bin Laden
6050:
6044:
5995:
5989:
5957:
5917:
5848:
5837:
5831:
5828:
5813:
5801:
5797:
5790:
5753:
5694:
5685:
5676:
5659:
5652:
5648:
5646:
5642:
5640:
5636:
5634:
5630:
5628:
5582:
5576:
5568:Islamic finance
5511:political Islam
5502:Islamic revival
5498:
5488:
5450:
5441:
5439:
5433:
5432:
5406:
5396:
5395:
5391:Magnus Ranstorp
5309:
5301:
5300:
5196:Hassan al-Banna
5161:
5153:
5152:
5103:Muammar Gaddafi
5088:
5080:
5079:
5066:
5009:
5001:
5000:
4934:Jamaat-e-Islami
4857:
4849:
4848:
4844:Islamic revival
4819:
4811:
4810:
4768:Political Islam
4668:
4660:
4659:
4653:
4608:Salafi jihadism
4603:Salafi movement
4593:
4585:
4584:
4550:
4538:
4537:
4529:
4528:
4523:
4499:comparative law
4480:Muhammad ʿAbduh
4395:
4359:Napoleonic Code
4333:
4296:Warren Hastings
4284:Warren Hastings
4273:
4268:
4206:
4190:Main articles:
4188:
4133:
4061:
4045:Main articles:
4043:
3982:
3974:Main articles:
3972:
3967:
3875:
3869:
3763:
3749:
3719:Islamic studies
3713:
3712:
3701:
3679:
3669:
3668:
3654:
3651:
3619:
3537:
3527:
3526:
3514:
3462:
3402:
3392:
3391:
3390:
3351:
3341:
3340:
3330:
3319:
3309:(discretionary)
3308:
3291:
3281:
3272:
3269:Mofsed-e-filarz
3262:
3251:
3240:
3229:
3204:
3194:
3193:
3188:
3101:
3053:
3021:
2993:
2983:
2982:
2981:
2922:
2912:
2911:
2906:
2814:
2813:
2785:
2737:
2712:
2696:
2629:Tazir penalties
2543:5 daily prayers
2444:
2438:
2312:Hujjat al-Islam
2210:Islamic scholar
2171:
2168:
2165:
2161:
2158:
2155:
2152:
2142:
2136:
2018:
2010:Main articles:
2008:
2001:) in its place.
1986:, etc rejected
1844:Lawrence Conrad
1780:
1774:
1647:
1641:
1606:
1600:
1587:early conquests
1545:Ignác Goldziher
1529:legal schools (
1428:Safaitic-Arabic
1393:
1342:
1339:
1336:
1329:in Hebrew) and
1326:
1323:
1320:
1310:
1307:
1304:
1258:
1230:lexicographical
1214:
1203:
1192:A related term
1147:and finally to
1092:
1087:
1058:Islamic revival
1041:minority rights
1029:fundamentalists
935:five categories
919:social dealings
829:Ahkam al-sharia
810:Islamic history
715:
677:
675:
668:
667:
644:Salafi jihadism
602:Other religions
597:Arabic language
559:
549:
548:
477:Moral teachings
368:
354:
353:
344:Spread of Islam
289:
279:
278:
266:(jurisprudence)
248:Qisas al-Anbiya
197:
196:
176:
175:
144:
134:
133:
89:
54:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
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5:
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19409:
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19388:
19387:
19381:
19367:
19355:
19349:
19343:
19333:
19323:
19317:
19305:
19304:External links
19302:
19301:
19300:
19290:
19269:
19262:
19253:
19221:
19218:
19216:
19215:
19203:"Criminal Law"
19198:
19181:
19175:
19154:
19137:
19128:
19122:
19095:
19078:
19076:978-0199673599
19062:
19053:
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19017:
19000:
18994:
18973:
18967:
18946:
18929:
18924:978-9400600171
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18905:978-9087280482
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18691:978-0521514309
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18042:
18009:
17998:(4): 593–615.
17982:
17953:(4): 785–834.
17934:
17916:978-0415966917
17915:
17893:
17880:10.2307/604423
17853:
17822:
17809:10.2307/839667
17787:
17748:(4): 1231–61.
17726:
17720:978-0521864145
17719:
17713:. p. 16.
17697:
17672:
17638:
17635:(5): 1635–1739
17612:
17597:
17595:, p. 496.
17585:
17572:
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17508:978-1107394124
17507:
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17356:978-0199739356
17355:
17325:
17292:
17261:
17234:
17215:
17213:, p. 100.
17203:
17191:
17164:
17143:"Umm al-Walad"
17133:
17124:978-0230100169
17123:
17105:
17095:978-0521784306
17094:
17070:
17060:978-9004162914
17059:
17041:
17024:
17007:
16972:
16953:
16951:
16950:
16931:
16920:(4): 417–438.
16904:
16885:
16854:
16824:
16794:
16764:
16758:978-0415969680
16757:
16739:
16709:
16679:
16636:
16604:
16561:
16555:978-9812302830
16554:
16526:
16503:
16497:978-0754675471
16496:
16474:
16468:978-0791491553
16467:
16445:
16427:
16401:
16384:
16349:
16337:
16318:
16306:
16283:"Why Shariah?"
16270:
16251:
16234:
16219:
16188:
16162:
16129:
16114:(3): 557–558.
16094:
16061:
16048:
16041:
16023:
15980:
15962:978-1304399694
15961:
15935:
15900:
15869:
15846:
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15800:
15781:
15766:
15755:
15736:
15706:
15689:UN News Centre
15676:
15670:978-0061189036
15669:
15648:
15624:
15606:978-0199794133
15605:
15582:
15555:
15548:
15527:
15501:
15470:
15432:
15430:, p. 291.
15420:
15414:978-0691134840
15413:
15407:. p. 40.
15388:
15381:
15356:
15338:978-0195125597
15337:
15317:
15299:978-0415396387
15298:
15278:
15267:
15242:
15228:
15210:978-0684807126
15209:
15189:
15147:
15128:
15110:978-0691134840
15109:
15086:
15051:
15032:
15013:
15009:978-1137388599
14996:
14970:
14951:
14927:
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14909:
14887:
14871:
14862:
14840:
14825:
14821:978-1107039575
14804:
14798:978-0754630838
14797:
14779:
14751:
14747:978-1621570257
14734:
14730:978-1610691772
14714:
14679:
14644:
14635:
14616:
14610:978-1315502557
14609:
14591:
14588:978-0199641444
14575:
14532:
14514:978-1780740454
14513:
14491:
14477:978-0520360051
14476:
14454:
14441:
14400:
14357:
14353:978-1409434443
14340:
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14295:
14269:
14228:
14216:
14185:
14155:
14153:, p. 145.
14143:
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14069:
14057:
14027:
14009:978-1440831003
14008:
13981:
13950:
13924:
13898:
13872:
13845:
13815:
13797:978-0099523277
13796:
13773:
13742:
13715:
13685:
13666:
13636:
13615:"Why Shariah?"
13602:
13593:
13563:
13533:
13521:
13481:
13446:
13444:(7 April 2013)
13423:
13411:
13385:
13353:
13349:978-0415683166
13332:
13305:
13230:
13226:978-9004128187
13210:
13178:
13135:
13100:
13070:
13052:978-8132117513
13051:
13031:
13010:
12998:
12986:
12982:Thielmann 2017
12965:
12944:
12942:, p. 142.
12932:
12917:
12898:
12883:
12866:
12847:
12828:
12809:
12782:
12776:978-0199673599
12775:
12749:
12731:978-9004172258
12730:
12710:
12706:978-0199661633
12686:
12682:978-9004128187
12669:
12628:
12610:
12606:978-0275930097
12585:
12566:
12562:978-0691156415
12546:
12542:978-9774166174
12518:
12512:978-9004145924
12511:
12493:
12458:
12423:
12383:
12370:
12358:
12356:, p. 663.
12346:
12342:978-1452240350
12329:
12325:978-0892591428
12312:
12277:(2): 185–204.
12258:
12223:
12210:
12206:978-9004172258
12193:
12189:978-1610271288
12173:
12164:
12145:
12119:
12081:
12058:
12046:
12029:Deutsche Welle
12016:
11999:New York Times
11985:
11973:
11942:
11930:
11918:
11906:
11895:
11886:
11873:Süddeutsche.de
11859:
11838:
11829:
11812:
11810:, p. 835.
11797:
11772:
11760:
11758:, p. 155.
11741:
11718:
11703:
11701:, p. 378.
11691:
11689:, p. 503.
11676:
11657:
11638:
11636:, p. 174.
11626:
11624:, p. 167.
11614:
11602:
11590:
11573:
11558:
11518:
11503:
11501:, p. 360.
11491:
11489:, p. 566.
11479:
11477:, p. 351.
11467:
11455:
11443:
11431:
11429:, p. 213.
11419:
11417:, p. 212.
11404:
11402:, p. 502.
11387:
11366:
11354:
11342:
11325:
11313:
11301:
11282:
11267:
11265:, p. 158.
11255:
11240:
11238:, p. 217.
11225:
11210:
11185:
11183:, p. 501.
11162:
11160:, p. 180.
11150:
11148:, p. 499.
11138:
11123:
11111:
11076:
11035:
11020:
11014:978-0684832807
11013:
10995:
10978:
10957:
10936:
10929:
10909:
10896:
10883:
10874:
10870:978-9004116283
10857:
10831:
10804:
10797:
10777:
10752:
10735:
10705:
10703:. 1967, S. 49.
10692:
10680:
10665:
10654:
10642:
10631:
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10594:
10587:
10569:
10550:
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10397:
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10335:
10324:
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10280:
10268:
10255:
10246:
10223:
10208:
10193:
10170:
10149:
10122:
10115:
10093:
10074:
10051:
10039:
10037:, p. 146.
10027:
10006:
9994:
9979:
9949:
9909:
9893:
9881:
9854:
9842:
9833:
9818:
9785:
9765:
9749:
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9716:
9698:
9686:
9671:
9662:
9647:
9633:
9624:
9605:
9592:
9580:
9567:
9556:
9554:, p. 130.
9544:
9527:
9525:, p. 125.
9512:
9479:
9452:
9437:
9418:
9396:
9381:
9366:
9357:
9342:
9324:978-0521570770
9323:
9300:
9283:
9242:
9203:
9196:
9170:
9155:
9148:
9128:
9109:
9098:Al-Jallad 2022
9090:
9021:
8982:
8980:, p. 322.
8970:
8926:
8915:
8904:
8900:978-0820319773
8876:
8870:978-1851685653
8869:
8844:
8840:AltaMira Press
8823:
8821:, p. 326.
8808:
8806:, p. 323.
8796:
8784:
8742:
8740:, p. 321.
8717:
8680:
8663:
8660:978-0253209399
8643:
8592:
8586:978-9041101792
8585:
8563:
8551:
8540:
8531:
8522:
8508:
8495:
8483:
8481:, p. 145.
8468:
8453:
8433:978-0815629085
8396:
8392:Schneider 2014
8375:
8356:
8342:
8322:
8320:, p. 500.
8307:
8298:
8289:
8220:
8083:
8043:
8028:
7999:
7972:
7915:
7914:
7912:
7909:
7906:
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7834:
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7806:
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7746:
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7741:
7740:
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7715:
7709:
7704:
7699:
7682:
7677:
7672:
7667:
7662:
7656:
7654:
7651:
7590:legal opinions
7570:George Makdisi
7526:also parallel
7483:
7480:
7457:rabbinical law
7401:Main article:
7398:
7395:
7393:
7390:
7284:
7281:
7227:
7224:
7206:
7203:
7131:
7128:
7117:
7114:
7109:Ottoman empire
7085:
7082:
7075:Women in Islam
7070:
7067:
7033:gradual spread
7011:
7005:
7002:life in prison
6996:
6990:
6981:
6970:Main article:
6967:
6964:
6858:Main article:
6855:
6852:
6827:Salmaan Taseer
6823:Shahbaz Bhatti
6750:
6744:
6738:
6732:
6729:Blasphemy laws
6718:Main article:
6715:
6712:
6692:United Nations
6638:
6635:
6614:
6611:
6610:
6609:
6585:Muhammad Abduh
6581:
6542:
6521:
6518:
6501:
6500:
6497:
6486:
6478:
6457:
6454:
6435:Islamic ethics
6430:
6427:
6425:
6422:
6351:
6348:
6332:Michael Broyde
6315:Rowan Williams
6286:
6283:
6281:
6278:
6264:
6261:
6251:on charges of
6130:Main article:
6127:
6121:
6074:Salman Rushdie
6046:Main article:
6043:
6042:Role of fatwas
6040:
5991:Main article:
5988:
5985:
5956:
5953:
5916:
5915:Criminal cases
5913:
5850:
5849:
5804:
5802:
5795:
5789:
5786:
5752:
5749:
5693:
5690:
5684:
5681:
5675:
5672:
5658:
5655:
5647:
5641:
5635:
5629:
5578:Main article:
5575:
5572:
5494:Main article:
5490:
5489:
5487:
5486:
5479:
5472:
5464:
5461:
5460:
5435:
5434:
5431:
5430:
5425:
5420:
5419:
5418:
5407:
5404:Related topics
5402:
5401:
5398:
5397:
5394:
5393:
5388:
5383:
5378:
5373:
5368:
5363:
5358:
5353:
5351:Maryam Namazie
5348:
5343:
5338:
5333:
5332:
5331:
5326:
5316:
5310:
5307:
5306:
5303:
5302:
5299:
5298:
5293:
5288:
5283:
5278:
5273:
5268:
5263:
5261:Ata Abu Rashta
5258:
5253:
5248:
5243:
5238:
5233:
5228:
5223:
5218:
5213:
5211:Muhammad Iqbal
5208:
5203:
5198:
5193:
5188:
5183:
5178:
5173:
5171:Muhammad Abduh
5168:
5162:
5160:Key ideologues
5159:
5158:
5155:
5154:
5151:
5150:
5145:
5140:
5138:House of Thani
5135:
5130:
5125:
5120:
5115:
5110:
5105:
5100:
5098:Omar al-Bashir
5095:
5089:
5087:Heads of state
5086:
5085:
5082:
5081:
5078:
5077:
5060:
5053:("Milestones")
5047:
5035:
5023:
5010:
5007:
5006:
5003:
5002:
4999:
4998:
4997:
4996:
4991:
4989:Southeast Asia
4986:
4981:
4967:
4966:
4961:
4956:
4951:
4946:
4944:Salafist Front
4941:
4936:
4931:
4926:
4924:Hizb ut-Tahrir
4915:
4914:
4913:
4912:
4907:
4897:
4895:Sahwa movement
4892:
4887:
4882:
4877:
4872:
4870:Dawat-e-Islami
4867:
4858:
4855:
4854:
4851:
4850:
4847:
4846:
4841:
4836:
4831:
4826:
4824:Anti-communism
4820:
4817:
4816:
4813:
4812:
4809:
4808:
4801:
4796:
4789:
4782:
4777:
4776:
4775:
4765:
4760:
4759:
4758:
4753:
4741:
4731:
4730:
4729:
4724:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4699:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4683:
4682:
4669:
4666:
4665:
4662:
4661:
4655:
4654:
4647:
4646:
4645:
4644:
4634:
4633:
4632:
4622:
4621:
4620:
4615:
4610:
4600:
4594:
4591:
4590:
4587:
4586:
4583:
4582:
4577:
4572:
4567:
4562:
4557:
4551:
4548:
4547:
4544:
4543:
4522:
4519:
4507:Quranic shares
4472:Muhammad Abduh
4465:
4464:
4457:
4453:
4438:
4394:
4391:
4346:Ottoman Empire
4332:
4331:Ottoman Empire
4329:
4272:
4269:
4267:
4264:
4192:Women in Islam
4187:
4184:
4132:
4129:
4042:
4039:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3871:Main article:
3868:
3867:Schools of law
3865:
3765:The domain of
3751:
3750:
3748:
3747:
3740:
3733:
3725:
3722:
3721:
3715:
3714:
3711:
3710:
3705:
3695:
3688:
3680:
3675:
3674:
3671:
3670:
3665:
3664:
3663:
3662:
3650:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3631:
3628:
3627:
3621:
3620:
3618:
3617:
3610:
3603:
3596:
3589:
3582:
3575:
3568:
3561:
3554:
3549:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3532:
3529:
3528:
3523:
3522:
3516:
3515:
3513:
3512:
3505:
3498:
3491:
3483:
3480:
3479:
3473:
3472:
3471:
3470:
3461:
3460:
3446:
3439:
3432:
3424:
3421:
3420:
3412:
3411:
3403:
3398:
3397:
3394:
3393:
3389:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3371:
3361:
3353:
3352:
3347:
3346:
3343:
3342:
3337:
3336:
3335:
3334:
3331:(compensation)
3323:
3312:
3298:
3297:
3296:
3295:
3284:
3275:
3266:
3255:
3244:
3233:
3222:
3217:
3205:
3200:
3199:
3196:
3195:
3190:
3189:
3187:
3186:
3179:
3172:
3165:
3158:
3151:
3144:
3137:
3129:
3126:
3125:
3115:
3114:
3113:
3112:
3107:
3100:
3099:
3092:
3085:
3084:
3083:
3076:
3064:
3058:
3055:
3054:
3052:
3051:
3044:
3037:
3030:
3022:
3020:
3019:
3012:
3006:
3003:
3002:
2994:
2989:
2988:
2985:
2984:
2980:
2979:
2972:
2965:
2958:
2951:
2944:
2937:
2931:
2930:
2929:
2923:
2918:
2917:
2914:
2913:
2908:
2907:
2905:
2904:
2889:
2882:
2874:
2862:
2859:
2858:
2850:
2849:
2841:
2840:
2832:
2831:
2830:
2829:
2822:
2815:
2812:
2811:
2803:
2794:
2788:
2784:
2783:
2776:
2769:
2761:
2758:
2757:
2749:
2748:
2738:
2733:
2732:
2729:
2728:
2720:
2719:
2707:
2706:
2695:
2688:
2440:Main article:
2437:
2434:
2414:Mut'a marriage
2138:Main article:
2135:
2132:
2108:women's rights
2007:
2004:
2003:
2002:
1943:
1926:
1925:
1886:
1885:
1852:Joseph Schacht
1848:Patricia Crone
1786:Page from the
1776:Main article:
1773:
1770:
1750:The theory of
1643:Main article:
1640:
1633:
1602:Main article:
1599:
1592:
1549:Joseph Schacht
1503:Malik ibn Anas
1444:women in Islam
1392:
1389:
1376:Ottoman Empire
1332:νόμος τοῦ θεοῦ
1295:Sharīʿat Allāh
1260:In the Quran,
1257:
1254:
1213:
1210:
1190:
1189:
1183:
1177:
1166:
1091:
1088:
1086:
1083:
1049:women's rights
921:; subsections
873:إجماع الائـمـة
865:ijma al-aimmah
798:legal opinions
786:; contrary to
717:
716:
714:
713:
706:
699:
691:
688:
687:
686:
685:
670:
669:
666:
665:
659:
658:
657:
656:
651:
646:
641:
631:
626:
625:
624:
619:
609:
604:
599:
593:
592:
591:
590:
585:
580:
572:
571:
566:
560:
557:Related topics
555:
554:
551:
550:
547:
546:
541:
539:Social welfare
536:
531:
530:
529:
519:
514:
509:
504:
499:
494:
489:
484:
479:
474:
469:
464:
459:
454:
449:
444:
439:
434:
433:
432:
427:
417:
416:
415:
405:
400:
395:
390:
385:
380:
375:
369:
360:
359:
356:
355:
352:
351:
346:
341:
336:
331:
325:
324:
317:
310:
302:
301:
296:
290:
285:
284:
281:
280:
277:
276:
268:
259:
258:
252:
244:
236:
227:
226:
206:
198:
195:
194:
189:
183:
182:
181:
178:
177:
174:
173:
168:
163:
157:
156:
151:
145:
140:
139:
136:
135:
132:
131:
129:Predestination
125:
124:
119:
113:
112:
110:Revealed Books
107:
101:
100:
90:
85:
84:
81:
80:
72:
71:
65:
64:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
19459:
19448:
19445:
19443:
19442:Religious law
19440:
19438:
19435:
19433:
19430:
19428:
19425:
19423:
19420:
19419:
19417:
19407:
19402:
19397:
19396:
19393:
19385:
19382:
19379:
19375:
19371:
19368:
19365:
19364:
19363:Boston Review
19359:
19356:
19353:
19350:
19347:
19344:
19341:
19337:
19334:
19331:
19327:
19324:
19321:
19318:
19315:
19311:
19310:"Islamic law"
19308:
19307:
19298:
19294:
19291:
19288:
19284:
19280:
19276:
19275:
19270:
19267:
19263:
19259:
19254:
19243:
19236:
19232:
19228:
19224:
19223:
19212:
19208:
19204:
19199:
19195:
19191:
19187:
19182:
19178:
19176:9780195305135
19172:
19168:
19164:
19160:
19155:
19151:
19147:
19143:
19138:
19134:
19129:
19125:
19123:9780199739356
19119:
19115:
19111:
19107:
19102:
19096:
19092:
19088:
19084:
19079:
19077:
19073:
19068:
19063:
19059:
19054:
19050:
19048:9780199739356
19044:
19040:
19036:
19032:
19027:
19023:
19018:
19014:
19010:
19006:
19001:
18997:
18995:9780195305135
18991:
18987:
18983:
18979:
18974:
18970:
18968:9780195305135
18964:
18960:
18956:
18952:
18947:
18943:
18939:
18935:
18934:"Law. Courts"
18930:
18926:
18920:
18916:
18911:
18907:
18901:
18894:
18893:
18887:
18883:
18878:
18874:
18872:9780195305135
18868:
18864:
18860:
18856:
18851:
18845:
18841:
18837:
18833:
18828:
18824:
18820:
18816:
18811:
18807:
18803:
18799:
18794:
18790:
18786:
18782:
18777:
18773:
18769:
18765:
18760:
18756:
18752:
18748:
18743:
18739:
18734:
18730:
18725:
18721:
18716:
18712:
18706:
18702:
18697:
18693:
18687:
18683:
18679:
18675:
18671:
18666:
18662:
18658:
18654:
18649:
18645:
18641:
18637:
18633:
18629:
18625:
18620:
18616:
18614:9780195134056
18610:
18605:
18600:
18596:
18592:
18588:
18583:
18582:
18575:
18571:
18569:9780199679010
18565:
18561:
18557:
18553:
18548:
18544:
18542:9780199739356
18538:
18534:
18530:
18526:
18522:
18518:
18514:
18508:
18504:
18500:
18496:
18495:Horrie, Chris
18492:
18481:
18475:
18471:
18470:
18464:
18460:
18456:
18452:
18448:
18443:
18439:
18434:
18431:
18427:
18423:
18419:
18415:
18411:
18407:
18403:
18399:
18395:
18391:
18385:
18381:
18377:
18373:
18371:
18367:
18362:
18357:
18353:
18349:
18345:
18340:
18336:
18331:
18327:
18322:
18318:
18313:
18309:
18305:
18301:
18296:
18293:
18291:9780415945295
18287:
18283:
18282:
18276:
18272:
18268:
18263:
18252:
18248:
18243:
18239:
18235:
18231:
18226:
18222:
18218:
18213:
18202:
18198:
18193:
18189:
18185:
18181:
18176:
18172:
18167:
18163:
18159:
18155:
18150:
18143:
18139:
18137:9789041101761
18133:
18129:
18122:
18118:
18114:
18110:
18105:
18101:
18097:
18093:
18089:
18084:
18083:
18061:
18057:
18053:
18046:
18037:
18032:
18028:
18024:
18020:
18013:
18005:
18001:
17997:
17993:
17986:
17978:
17974:
17969:
17964:
17960:
17956:
17952:
17948:
17944:
17938:
17922:
17918:
17912:
17908:
17904:
17897:
17889:
17885:
17881:
17877:
17874:(2): 175–82.
17873:
17869:
17862:
17860:
17858:
17849:
17845:
17842:(3): 608–12.
17841:
17837:
17833:
17826:
17818:
17814:
17810:
17806:
17802:
17798:
17791:
17775:
17771:
17767:
17763:
17759:
17755:
17751:
17747:
17743:
17742:
17737:
17730:
17722:
17716:
17712:
17708:
17701:
17693:
17689:
17688:
17683:
17676:
17660:
17656:
17652:
17645:
17643:
17634:
17630:
17629:
17621:
17619:
17617:
17609:
17604:
17602:
17594:
17589:
17582:
17579:Ira Lapidus,
17576:
17560:
17556:
17549:
17542:
17538:
17535:
17530:
17514:
17510:
17504:
17500:
17499:
17491:
17489:
17479:
17470:
17463:
17458:
17454:
17450:
17446:
17442:
17438:
17434:
17428:
17412:
17408:
17401:
17393:
17389:
17385:
17378:
17362:
17358:
17352:
17348:
17344:
17340:
17336:
17329:
17320:
17315:
17311:
17307:
17303:
17296:
17280:
17276:
17272:
17269:Chen, James.
17265:
17249:
17245:
17238:
17230:
17226:
17219:
17212:
17207:
17200:
17195:
17188:
17184:
17181:
17175:
17173:
17171:
17169:
17152:
17148:
17144:
17137:
17130:
17126:
17120:
17116:
17109:
17102:
17097:
17091:
17087:
17083:
17082:
17074:
17067:
17062:
17056:
17052:
17045:
17038:
17034:
17028:
17021:
17017:
17011:
17003:
16999:
16995:
16991:
16988:(5): 118–32.
16987:
16983:
16976:
16969:
16965:
16962:
16957:
16948:
16947:
16946:, pp. 82–83;
16945:
16941:
16935:
16927:
16923:
16919:
16915:
16908:
16901:. p. 67.
16900:
16896:
16889:
16873:
16869:
16865:
16858:
16842:
16838:
16834:
16828:
16812:
16808:
16804:
16798:
16782:
16778:
16774:
16768:
16760:
16754:
16750:
16743:
16727:
16723:
16719:
16713:
16697:
16693:
16689:
16683:
16675:
16671:
16667:
16663:
16659:
16655:
16652:(1): 105–42.
16651:
16647:
16640:
16624:
16620:
16616:
16615:
16608:
16600:
16596:
16592:
16588:
16584:
16580:
16576:
16572:
16565:
16557:
16551:
16547:
16543:
16542:
16537:
16530:
16522:
16518:
16514:
16507:
16499:
16493:
16489:
16485:
16478:
16470:
16464:
16460:
16456:
16449:
16441:
16437:
16431:
16415:
16411:
16405:
16398:
16394:
16388:
16380:
16376:
16372:
16368:
16364:
16360:
16353:
16347:, p. 49.
16346:
16341:
16333:
16329:
16322:
16313:
16311:
16294:
16290:
16289:
16284:
16280:
16279:Feldman, Noah
16274:
16266:
16262:
16255:
16248:
16244:
16238:
16230:
16223:
16207:
16203:
16199:
16192:
16176:
16172:
16166:
16150:
16146:
16145:The Economist
16142:
16136:
16134:
16117:
16113:
16109:
16105:
16098:
16083:
16079:
16075:
16074:The Economist
16071:
16065:
16058:
16052:
16044:
16038:
16034:
16027:
16019:
16015:
16011:
16007:
16003:
15999:
15996:(3): 160–68.
15995:
15991:
15984:
15968:
15964:
15958:
15955:(1): 109–10.
15954:
15950:
15946:
15939:
15931:
15927:
15923:
15919:
15915:
15911:
15904:
15888:
15884:
15880:
15873:
15865:
15861:
15857:
15850:
15842:
15838:
15834:
15830:
15823:
15816:
15812:
15809:
15804:
15797:
15793:
15790:
15785:
15778:
15775:
15770:
15762:
15758:
15752:
15748:
15747:
15740:
15724:
15720:
15716:
15710:
15694:
15690:
15686:
15680:
15672:
15666:
15662:
15658:
15652:
15646:, pp. 526–27.
15645:
15641:
15640:
15634:
15628:
15612:
15608:
15602:
15598:
15597:
15592:
15591:John Esposito
15586:
15578:
15574:
15570:
15566:
15559:
15551:
15545:
15541:
15534:
15532:
15524:
15519:
15515:
15511:
15505:
15489:
15485:
15481:
15474:
15458:
15454:
15450:
15443:
15441:
15439:
15437:
15429:
15424:
15416:
15410:
15406:
15402:
15395:
15393:
15384:
15378:
15374:
15370:
15366:
15360:
15344:
15340:
15334:
15330:
15329:
15321:
15305:
15301:
15295:
15291:
15290:
15282:
15274:
15270:
15264:
15260:
15256:
15249:
15247:
15240:
15237:
15232:
15216:
15212:
15206:
15202:
15201:
15193:
15185:
15181:
15177:
15173:
15170:(1/4): 1–25.
15169:
15165:
15158:
15156:
15154:
15152:
15144:
15140:
15137:
15132:
15116:
15112:
15106:
15102:
15101:
15093:
15091:
15074:
15070:
15066:
15060:
15058:
15056:
15048:
15044:
15041:
15036:
15029:
15025:
15022:
15017:
15010:
15006:
15000:
14984:
14980:
14974:
14967:
14963:
14960:
14955:
14948:
14947:TheSharia.com
14944:
14940:
14937:
14931:
14923:
14916:
14907:
14904:
14900:
14899:
14897:
14891:
14885:
14881:
14875:
14866:
14859:
14858:
14853:
14849:
14848:Ibn Taymiyyah
14844:
14836:
14829:
14822:
14818:
14814:
14808:
14800:
14794:
14790:
14783:
14775:
14771:
14767:
14763:
14755:
14748:
14744:
14738:
14731:
14727:
14721:
14719:
14710:
14706:
14702:
14698:
14695:(2): 203–19.
14694:
14690:
14683:
14675:
14671:
14667:
14663:
14659:
14655:
14648:
14639:
14632:
14631:
14626:
14620:
14612:
14606:
14603:. Routledge.
14602:
14595:
14589:
14585:
14579:
14571:
14567:
14563:
14559:
14555:
14551:
14548:(1): 90–121.
14547:
14543:
14536:
14520:
14516:
14510:
14506:
14502:
14495:
14487:
14483:
14479:
14473:
14469:
14465:
14458:
14451:
14445:
14426:
14422:
14418:
14411:
14404:
14395:
14390:
14385:
14380:
14376:
14372:
14368:
14361:
14354:
14350:
14344:
14328:
14324:
14318:
14311:
14307:
14304:
14299:
14283:
14279:
14273:
14254:
14250:
14246:
14239:
14232:
14225:
14220:
14204:
14200:
14196:
14189:
14173:
14169:
14165:
14159:
14152:
14147:
14140:
14135:
14119:
14115:
14111:
14107:
14103:
14099:
14095:
14092:(2): 309–26.
14091:
14087:
14083:
14076:
14074:
14067:, p. 30.
14066:
14061:
14045:
14041:
14037:
14031:
14015:
14011:
14005:
14001:
14000:
13992:
13990:
13988:
13986:
13969:
13965:
13964:law.upenn.edu
13961:
13954:
13938:
13934:
13928:
13912:
13908:
13902:
13886:
13882:
13876:
13860:
13856:
13849:
13833:
13829:
13822:
13820:
13803:
13799:
13793:
13789:
13788:
13780:
13778:
13761:
13757:
13753:
13746:
13730:
13726:
13719:
13703:
13699:
13695:
13689:
13682:
13678:
13675:
13670:
13654:
13650:
13646:
13640:
13624:
13620:
13616:
13609:
13607:
13597:
13581:
13577:
13573:
13567:
13551:
13547:
13543:
13537:
13531:, p. 48.
13530:
13525:
13506:
13499:
13498:
13490:
13488:
13486:
13469:
13466:(3): 411–35.
13465:
13461:
13457:
13450:
13443:
13442:The Telegraph
13440:Jane Corbin,
13439:
13435:
13432:
13427:
13421:
13415:
13399:
13395:
13389:
13373:
13369:
13368:
13363:
13357:
13350:
13346:
13342:
13336:
13328:
13324:
13321:(1): 95–115.
13320:
13316:
13309:
13290:
13286:
13282:
13278:
13274:
13269:
13264:
13260:
13256:
13253:(3): 720–40.
13252:
13248:
13241:
13234:
13227:
13223:
13217:
13215:
13198:
13194:
13193:
13188:
13182:
13166:
13162:
13158:
13155:(3): 603–48.
13154:
13150:
13146:
13139:
13131:
13127:
13123:
13119:
13115:
13111:
13104:
13088:
13084:
13080:
13074:
13058:
13054:
13048:
13044:
13043:
13035:
13024:
13020:
13014:
13007:
13002:
12995:
12990:
12983:
12978:
12976:
12974:
12972:
12970:
12962:
12957:
12955:
12953:
12951:
12949:
12941:
12936:
12929:
12924:
12922:
12914:
12909:
12907:
12905:
12903:
12895:
12890:
12888:
12880:
12875:
12873:
12871:
12863:
12859:
12856:
12851:
12845:
12841:
12838:
12832:
12826:
12822:
12819:
12813:
12797:
12793:
12786:
12778:
12772:
12768:
12764:
12760:
12753:
12737:
12733:
12727:
12723:
12722:
12714:
12707:
12703:
12699:
12693:
12691:
12683:
12679:
12673:
12654:
12650:
12646:
12639:
12632:
12625:
12624:
12617:
12615:
12607:
12603:
12599:
12595:
12589:
12582:
12578:
12575:
12570:
12563:
12559:
12553:
12551:
12543:
12539:
12535:
12531:
12525:
12523:
12514:
12508:
12504:
12497:
12481:
12477:
12473:
12469:
12462:
12446:
12442:
12438:
12434:
12427:
12419:
12415:
12411:
12407:
12404:(3): 203–34.
12403:
12399:
12398:
12393:
12387:
12380:
12374:
12368:, p. 31.
12367:
12362:
12355:
12350:
12343:
12339:
12333:
12326:
12322:
12316:
12308:
12304:
12300:
12296:
12292:
12288:
12284:
12280:
12276:
12272:
12265:
12263:
12243:
12236:
12230:
12228:
12220:
12214:
12207:
12203:
12197:
12190:
12186:
12180:
12178:
12168:
12161:
12160:stare decisis
12157:
12155:
12149:
12133:
12129:
12123:
12115:
12111:
12107:
12103:
12099:
12095:
12088:
12086:
12077:
12073:
12069:
12062:
12055:
12050:
12034:
12030:
12026:
12020:
12004:
12000:
11996:
11989:
11982:
11977:
11961:
11957:
11953:
11946:
11939:
11934:
11927:
11922:
11915:
11910:
11904:
11899:
11890:
11874:
11870:
11863:
11856:
11852:
11848:
11842:
11833:
11827:, p. 20.
11826:
11821:
11819:
11817:
11809:
11804:
11802:
11794:
11789:
11787:
11785:
11783:
11781:
11779:
11777:
11769:
11764:
11757:
11752:
11750:
11748:
11746:
11738:
11733:
11731:
11729:
11727:
11725:
11723:
11715:
11710:
11708:
11700:
11695:
11688:
11683:
11681:
11673:
11668:
11666:
11664:
11662:
11654:
11649:
11647:
11645:
11643:
11635:
11630:
11623:
11618:
11612:, p. 61.
11611:
11606:
11600:, p. 39.
11599:
11594:
11587:
11582:
11580:
11578:
11570:
11565:
11563:
11554:
11550:
11546:
11542:
11538:
11534:
11527:
11525:
11523:
11514:
11507:
11500:
11495:
11488:
11483:
11476:
11471:
11464:
11459:
11453:, p. 85.
11452:
11447:
11440:
11435:
11428:
11423:
11416:
11411:
11409:
11401:
11396:
11394:
11392:
11384:
11379:
11377:
11375:
11373:
11371:
11363:
11358:
11351:
11346:
11339:
11334:
11332:
11330:
11322:
11317:
11310:
11305:
11298:
11293:
11291:
11289:
11287:
11279:
11274:
11272:
11264:
11259:
11252:
11247:
11245:
11237:
11232:
11230:
11222:
11217:
11215:
11207:
11202:
11200:
11198:
11196:
11194:
11192:
11190:
11182:
11177:
11175:
11173:
11171:
11169:
11167:
11159:
11154:
11147:
11142:
11135:
11130:
11128:
11120:
11115:
11108:
11103:
11101:
11099:
11097:
11095:
11093:
11091:
11089:
11087:
11085:
11083:
11081:
11061:
11057:
11053:
11046:
11039:
11032:. p. 57.
11031:
11024:
11016:
11010:
11006:
10999:
10992:
10987:
10985:
10983:
10975:
10970:
10968:
10966:
10964:
10962:
10954:
10949:
10947:
10945:
10943:
10941:
10932:
10926:
10922:
10921:
10913:
10906:
10900:
10893:
10887:
10878:
10871:
10867:
10861:
10846:
10842:
10835:
10819:
10815:
10808:
10800:
10798:9781589017528
10794:
10790:
10789:
10781:
10766:
10762:
10756:
10749:
10745:
10739:
10723:
10719:
10718:Teslimolanlar
10715:
10709:
10702:
10696:
10690:
10684:
10678:, p. 20.
10677:
10672:
10670:
10663:
10658:
10652:
10646:
10640:
10635:
10629:
10623:
10615:
10609:
10605:
10598:
10590:
10588:1-85168-204-X
10584:
10580:
10573:
10565:
10560:, p. 734
10559:
10554:
10545:
10537:
10533:
10529:
10525:
10521:
10517:
10513:
10509:
10505:
10498:
10490:
10486:
10482:
10478:
10474:
10470:
10467:(1): 20, 33.
10466:
10462:
10458:
10451:
10445:
10439:
10431:
10425:
10421:
10416:
10408:
10400:
10394:
10390:
10386:
10381:
10373:
10371:
10369:
10361:
10356:
10354:
10352:
10350:
10348:
10346:
10344:
10342:
10340:
10333:
10328:
10319:
10313:
10308:
10301:
10296:
10289:
10284:
10278:, p. 65.
10277:
10272:
10265:
10259:
10250:
10243:
10239:
10238:
10233:
10227:
10220:
10215:
10213:
10205:
10200:
10198:
10190:
10189:Duderija 2014
10185:
10183:
10181:
10179:
10177:
10175:
10167:
10163:
10159:
10153:
10145:
10141:
10137:
10133:
10126:
10118:
10112:
10108:
10104:
10097:
10081:
10077:
10075:9780759109919
10071:
10067:
10066:
10061:
10055:
10048:
10043:
10036:
10031:
10024:
10019:
10017:
10015:
10013:
10011:
10003:
9998:
9990:
9983:
9968:. p. 369
9967:
9960:
9953:
9945:
9939:
9923:
9919:
9913:
9906:
9904:
9897:
9890:
9885:
9878:
9873:
9871:
9869:
9867:
9865:
9863:
9861:
9859:
9851:
9846:
9837:
9829:
9822:
9806:
9802:
9798:
9792:
9790:
9781:
9774:
9772:
9770:
9761:
9760:
9753:
9738:
9734:
9727:
9719:
9717:1-881963-55-1
9713:
9709:
9702:
9695:
9690:
9684:, p. 15.
9683:
9678:
9676:
9666:
9658:
9651:
9643:
9637:
9628:
9620:
9615:, p. 53)
9614:
9609:
9603:
9596:
9590:
9584:
9578:
9571:
9565:
9560:
9553:
9548:
9541:
9536:
9534:
9532:
9524:
9519:
9517:
9509:
9504:
9502:
9500:
9498:
9496:
9494:
9492:
9490:
9488:
9486:
9484:
9476:
9471:
9469:
9467:
9465:
9463:
9461:
9459:
9457:
9448:
9441:
9425:
9421:
9419:9780191668265
9415:
9411:
9407:
9400:
9392:
9385:
9377:
9370:
9361:
9353:
9346:
9330:
9326:
9320:
9316:
9315:
9310:
9304:
9297:
9292:
9290:
9288:
9268:
9264:
9260:
9253:
9246:
9238:
9234:
9230:
9226:
9222:
9218:
9214:
9207:
9199:
9197:9780195305135
9193:
9189:
9185:
9181:
9174:
9166:
9159:
9151:
9149:9781780744681
9145:
9141:
9140:
9132:
9124:
9118:
9113:
9105:
9099:
9094:
9087:
9083:
9079:
9076:
9070:
9064:
9048:
9044:
9040:
9036:
9034:
9033:Kanun-ı Esasi
9025:
9019:
9018:
9013:
9007:
9003:
8999:
8995:
8994:
8986:
8979:
8974:
8966:
8960:
8953:
8940:Rom. 7: 22: '
8937:
8930:
8924:
8919:
8913:
8908:
8901:
8897:
8893:
8889:
8883:
8881:
8872:
8866:
8862:
8858:
8854:
8848:
8841:
8837:
8833:
8827:
8820:
8815:
8813:
8805:
8800:
8793:
8788:
8780:
8776:
8772:
8768:
8764:
8760:
8753:
8746:
8739:
8734:
8732:
8730:
8728:
8726:
8724:
8722:
8714:
8709:
8707:
8705:
8703:
8701:
8699:
8697:
8695:
8693:
8691:
8689:
8687:
8685:
8678:, p. 19.
8677:
8672:
8670:
8668:
8661:
8657:
8653:
8647:
8639:
8635:
8631:
8627:
8623:
8619:
8615:
8611:
8607:
8603:
8596:
8588:
8582:
8578:
8574:
8567:
8560:
8555:
8549:
8544:
8535:
8526:
8518:
8512:
8506:
8499:
8493:
8487:
8480:
8475:
8473:
8465:
8460:
8458:
8451:(consensus)."
8450:
8446:
8442:
8438:
8434:
8430:
8426:
8422:
8421:
8417:
8414:
8409:
8405:
8400:
8393:
8388:
8386:
8384:
8382:
8380:
8372:
8367:
8365:
8363:
8361:
8345:
8339:
8335:
8334:
8326:
8319:
8314:
8312:
8302:
8293:
8286:
8281:
8279:
8277:
8275:
8273:
8271:
8269:
8267:
8265:
8263:
8261:
8259:
8257:
8255:
8253:
8251:
8249:
8247:
8245:
8243:
8241:
8239:
8237:
8235:
8233:
8231:
8229:
8227:
8225:
8217:
8212:
8210:
8208:
8206:
8204:
8202:
8200:
8198:
8196:
8194:
8192:
8190:
8188:
8186:
8184:
8182:
8180:
8178:
8176:
8174:
8172:
8170:
8168:
8166:
8164:
8162:
8160:
8158:
8156:
8154:
8152:
8150:
8148:
8146:
8144:
8142:
8140:
8138:
8136:
8134:
8132:
8130:
8128:
8126:
8124:
8122:
8120:
8118:
8116:
8114:
8112:
8110:
8108:
8106:
8104:
8102:
8100:
8098:
8096:
8094:
8092:
8090:
8088:
8071:
8067:
8063:
8062:"Islamic Law"
8056:
8054:
8052:
8050:
8048:
8040:
8035:
8033:
8016:
8012:
8006:
8004:
7987:
7983:
7979:
7975:
7973:9781139629249
7969:
7965:
7961:
7957:
7953:
7949:
7945:
7943:
7939:
7935:
7929:
7923:
7921:
7916:
7902:
7893:
7887:
7878:
7872:
7844:
7840:
7828:
7819:
7810:
7803:
7799:
7795:
7789:
7779:
7770:
7763:
7759:
7754:
7750:
7739:
7736:
7734:
7731:
7729:
7726:
7724:
7721:
7719:
7716:
7713:
7710:
7708:
7705:
7703:
7700:
7698:
7694:
7690:
7686:
7683:
7681:
7678:
7676:
7673:
7671:
7668:
7666:
7663:
7661:
7658:
7657:
7650:
7647:
7643:
7639:
7635:
7630:
7628:
7624:
7620:
7615:
7613:
7612:
7607:
7606:
7601:
7600:
7595:
7591:
7587:
7586:
7581:
7580:master of law
7577:
7576:
7571:
7565:
7563:
7562:
7557:
7556:
7551:
7547:
7543:
7542:
7537:
7533:
7529:
7525:
7524:Inns of Court
7521:
7517:
7513:
7509:
7505:
7501:
7497:
7493:
7489:
7479:
7476:
7471:
7469:
7468:
7462:
7458:
7454:
7450:
7446:
7442:
7441:
7436:
7435:
7430:
7426:
7425:
7420:
7416:
7410:
7404:
7389:
7387:
7383:
7379:
7375:
7371:
7366:
7362:
7358:
7353:
7351:
7350:Bernard Lewis
7346:
7341:
7339:
7335:
7331:
7327:
7323:
7315:
7311:
7306:
7302:
7298:
7294:
7290:
7280:
7278:
7274:
7270:
7266:
7258:
7255:
7251:
7249:
7242:
7237:
7233:
7223:
7221:
7216:
7212:
7202:
7200:
7196:
7190:
7188:
7184:
7180:
7179:
7174:
7170:
7164:
7162:
7157:
7153:
7149:
7145:
7138:
7136:
7127:
7124:
7113:
7110:
7105:
7103:
7099:
7095:
7091:
7080:
7076:
7066:
7064:
7060:
7057:for gay sex,
7055:
7050:
7046:
7042:
7038:
7034:
7030:
7026:
7025:
7003:
6988:
6987:Death penalty
6978:
6973:
6972:LGBT in Islam
6963:
6961:
6956:
6952:
6951:child-custody
6948:
6944:
6943:criminal laws
6939:
6937:
6933:
6929:
6925:
6924:
6918:
6917:Al-Baqara 256
6914:
6913:death penalty
6909:
6906:
6902:
6901:Al-Baqara 256
6895:
6891:
6887:
6883:
6878:
6871:
6866:
6861:
6851:
6849:
6845:
6841:
6837:
6832:
6828:
6824:
6820:
6816:
6812:
6807:
6802:
6797:
6793:
6791:
6787:
6783:
6779:
6775:
6770:
6766:
6762:
6730:
6726:
6721:
6711:
6709:
6705:
6700:
6696:
6693:
6689:
6685:
6684:
6678:
6676:
6671:
6667:
6665:
6661:
6656:
6652:
6648:
6644:
6634:
6632:
6628:
6624:
6620:
6606:
6602:
6598:
6594:
6590:
6589:Fahmi Huwaidi
6586:
6582:
6579:
6575:
6571:
6567:
6563:
6559:
6555:
6554:
6549:
6548:
6543:
6540:
6536:
6532:
6528:
6527:
6526:
6517:
6514:
6510:
6506:
6498:
6495:
6491:
6487:
6484:
6479:
6476:
6471:
6470:
6469:
6467:
6463:
6453:
6448:
6444:
6440:
6436:
6421:
6419:
6414:
6411:
6407:
6402:
6400:
6399:
6394:
6390:
6389:David Cameron
6386:
6382:
6381:Newt Gingrich
6379:
6378:House Speaker
6375:
6371:
6370:Western world
6362:
6357:
6347:
6345:
6341:
6337:
6333:
6329:
6325:
6320:
6316:
6311:
6308:
6302:
6298:
6296:
6292:
6277:
6275:
6271:
6260:
6258:
6254:
6250:
6249:Nasr Abu Zayd
6244:
6241:
6237:
6233:
6229:
6225:
6221:
6217:
6216:
6211:
6207:
6199:
6195:
6191:
6187:
6182:
6178:
6175:
6171:
6167:
6163:
6159:
6158:
6153:
6152:
6147:
6146:
6139:
6133:
6126:
6120:
6118:
6114:
6108:
6105:
6101:
6097:
6096:
6091:
6090:
6084:
6081:
6080:
6075:
6071:
6067:
6062:
6054:
6049:
6039:
6036:
6032:
6028:
6023:
6021:
6020:
6015:
6011:
6006:
6002:
6001:
5994:
5984:
5980:
5979:communities.
5977:
5971:
5969:
5964:
5962:
5952:
5949:
5945:
5941:
5937:
5933:
5931:
5925:
5923:
5912:
5910:
5905:
5900:
5898:
5894:
5893:
5892:stare decisis
5888:
5884:
5880:
5875:
5871:
5863:
5858:
5854:
5846:
5843:
5835:
5825:
5821:
5817:
5811:
5810:
5805:This section
5803:
5794:
5793:
5785:
5783:
5779:
5775:
5771:
5767:
5762:
5758:
5748:
5746:
5742:
5738:
5734:
5730:
5729:
5724:
5720:
5716:
5712:
5711:
5706:
5705:
5700:
5689:
5680:
5671:
5667:
5665:
5625:
5621:
5619:
5615:
5611:
5607:
5603:
5599:
5595:
5591:
5587:
5584:According to
5581:
5571:
5569:
5565:
5561:
5560:Islamic state
5556:
5554:
5550:
5544:
5541:
5537:
5533:
5527:
5525:
5521:
5516:
5512:
5508:
5503:
5497:
5485:
5480:
5478:
5473:
5471:
5466:
5465:
5463:
5462:
5459:
5454:
5449:
5448:
5437:
5436:
5429:
5426:
5424:
5421:
5417:
5414:
5413:
5412:
5409:
5408:
5405:
5400:
5399:
5392:
5389:
5387:
5384:
5382:
5379:
5377:
5374:
5372:
5369:
5367:
5364:
5362:
5359:
5357:
5356:Maajid Nawaaz
5354:
5352:
5349:
5347:
5344:
5342:
5339:
5337:
5334:
5330:
5327:
5325:
5322:
5321:
5320:
5317:
5315:
5312:
5311:
5305:
5304:
5297:
5294:
5292:
5289:
5287:
5284:
5282:
5279:
5277:
5274:
5272:
5271:Navvab Safavi
5269:
5267:
5264:
5262:
5259:
5257:
5256:Tariq Ramadan
5254:
5252:
5249:
5247:
5244:
5242:
5239:
5237:
5234:
5232:
5229:
5227:
5224:
5222:
5219:
5217:
5214:
5212:
5209:
5207:
5206:Safwat Hegazi
5204:
5202:
5199:
5197:
5194:
5192:
5191:Muhammad Asad
5189:
5187:
5184:
5182:
5179:
5177:
5174:
5172:
5169:
5167:
5164:
5163:
5157:
5156:
5149:
5146:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5133:House of Saud
5131:
5129:
5128:Mohammed Omar
5126:
5124:
5121:
5119:
5118:Mohamed Morsi
5116:
5114:
5111:
5109:
5106:
5104:
5101:
5099:
5096:
5094:
5091:
5090:
5084:
5083:
5075:
5074:Khomeini 1970
5071:
5070:
5068:
5061:
5058:
5054:
5052:
5048:
5045:
5041:
5040:
5036:
5033:
5029:
5028:
5024:
5021:
5017:
5016:
5012:
5011:
5005:
5004:
4995:
4992:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4982:
4980:
4977:
4976:
4974:
4973:
4972:
4971:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4952:
4950:
4947:
4945:
4942:
4940:
4939:Salafist Call
4937:
4935:
4932:
4930:
4927:
4925:
4922:
4921:
4920:
4919:
4911:
4908:
4906:
4903:
4902:
4901:
4898:
4896:
4893:
4891:
4888:
4886:
4883:
4881:
4878:
4876:
4873:
4871:
4868:
4866:
4863:
4862:
4861:
4853:
4852:
4845:
4842:
4840:
4837:
4835:
4832:
4830:
4827:
4825:
4822:
4821:
4815:
4814:
4807:
4806:
4802:
4800:
4797:
4795:
4794:
4790:
4788:
4787:
4783:
4781:
4780:Post-Islamism
4778:
4774:
4771:
4770:
4769:
4766:
4764:
4761:
4757:
4754:
4752:
4749:
4748:
4747:
4746:
4742:
4739:
4735:
4732:
4728:
4725:
4723:
4720:
4719:
4718:
4717:Islamic state
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4681:
4680:
4676:
4675:
4674:
4671:
4670:
4664:
4663:
4658:
4652:
4651:Shia Islamism
4649:
4648:
4643:
4640:
4639:
4638:
4635:
4631:
4628:
4627:
4626:
4623:
4619:
4616:
4614:
4611:
4609:
4606:
4605:
4604:
4601:
4599:
4596:
4595:
4589:
4588:
4581:
4578:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4568:
4566:
4563:
4561:
4558:
4556:
4553:
4552:
4546:
4545:
4541:
4533:
4527:
4526:
4518:
4516:
4512:
4508:
4502:
4500:
4496:
4491:
4489:
4485:
4481:
4473:
4469:
4462:
4458:
4454:
4451:
4447:
4443:
4439:
4436:
4432:
4428:
4427:
4426:
4422:
4420:
4416:
4407:
4403:
4399:
4393:Nation states
4390:
4388:
4384:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4371:
4366:
4365:
4360:
4356:
4351:
4347:
4337:
4328:
4326:
4325:
4318:
4316:
4311:
4307:
4303:
4302:
4297:
4293:
4292:British India
4285:
4281:
4277:
4263:
4259:
4255:
4253:
4249:
4246:
4243:
4238:
4234:
4229:
4226:
4217:
4213:
4209:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4183:
4181:
4177:
4173:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4160:
4155:
4145:
4141:
4139:
4128:
4126:
4122:
4118:
4117:
4112:
4111:
4105:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4094:
4088:
4086:
4082:
4074:
4070:
4065:
4060:
4056:
4052:
4048:
4038:
4036:
4035:
4030:
4029:
4024:
4023:
4013:
4009:
4005:
4003:
3999:
3995:
3991:
3987:
3981:
3977:
3962:
3959:
3955:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3936:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3922:
3917:
3912:
3908:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3888:
3884:
3879:
3874:
3864:
3862:
3858:
3853:
3851:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3829:
3824:
3819:
3817:
3816:
3811:
3807:
3806:
3801:
3800:
3795:
3794:
3789:
3788:
3782:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3767:furūʿ al-fiqh
3762:
3758:
3746:
3741:
3739:
3734:
3732:
3727:
3726:
3724:
3723:
3720:
3717:
3716:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3700:
3696:
3694:
3693:
3689:
3687:
3686:
3682:
3681:
3678:
3673:
3672:
3660:
3659:
3653:
3652:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3637:
3633:
3632:
3630:
3629:
3626:
3623:
3622:
3616:
3615:
3611:
3609:
3608:
3604:
3602:
3601:
3597:
3595:
3594:
3590:
3588:
3587:
3583:
3581:
3580:
3576:
3574:
3573:
3569:
3567:
3566:
3562:
3560:
3559:
3555:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3544:
3542:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3530:
3521:
3518:
3517:
3511:
3510:
3506:
3504:
3503:
3499:
3497:
3496:
3492:
3490:
3489:
3485:
3484:
3482:
3481:
3478:
3475:
3474:
3469:
3468:
3464:
3463:
3458:
3457:
3452:
3451:
3447:
3445:
3444:
3440:
3438:
3437:
3433:
3431:
3430:
3426:
3425:
3423:
3422:
3419:
3418:
3414:
3413:
3410:
3407:
3406:
3401:
3396:
3395:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3376:
3372:
3369:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3359:
3355:
3354:
3350:
3345:
3344:
3333:
3328:
3324:
3322:
3320:(retaliation)
3317:
3313:
3311:
3306:
3302:
3301:
3300:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3285:
3279:
3276:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3260:
3256:
3254:
3249:
3245:
3243:
3241:(illicit sex)
3238:
3234:
3232:
3227:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3215:
3211:
3210:
3209:
3208:
3203:
3198:
3197:
3185:
3184:
3180:
3178:
3177:
3173:
3171:
3170:
3166:
3164:
3163:
3159:
3157:
3156:
3152:
3150:
3149:
3145:
3143:
3142:
3138:
3136:
3135:
3131:
3130:
3128:
3127:
3124:
3121:
3120:
3111:
3110:Breastfeeding
3108:
3106:
3103:
3102:
3098:
3097:
3093:
3091:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3081:
3077:
3075:
3074:
3070:
3069:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3059:
3057:
3056:
3050:
3049:
3045:
3043:
3042:
3038:
3036:
3035:
3031:
3029:
3028:
3024:
3023:
3018:
3017:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3007:
3005:
3004:
3001:
2998:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2986:
2978:
2977:
2973:
2971:
2970:
2966:
2964:
2963:
2959:
2957:
2956:
2952:
2950:
2949:
2945:
2943:
2942:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2932:
2928:
2925:
2924:
2921:
2916:
2915:
2902:
2901:
2895:
2894:
2890:
2888:
2887:
2883:
2880:
2879:
2875:
2873:
2869:
2868:
2864:
2863:
2861:
2860:
2857:
2856:
2852:
2851:
2848:
2847:
2843:
2842:
2839:
2838:
2834:
2833:
2828:
2827:
2823:
2821:
2820:
2816:
2809:
2808:
2804:
2802:
2801:
2796:
2795:
2793:
2792:
2791:Sunnah prayer
2787:
2786:
2782:
2781:
2777:
2775:
2774:
2770:
2768:
2767:
2763:
2762:
2760:
2759:
2756:
2755:
2751:
2750:
2747:
2746:
2742:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2709:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2699:
2693:
2692:furūʿ al-fiqh
2687:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2656:social status
2653:
2649:
2645:
2640:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2620:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2565:
2561:
2559:
2554:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2518:
2517:
2512:
2508:
2507:
2500:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2485:reprehensible
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2443:
2433:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2406:
2404:
2403:
2398:
2397:
2392:
2391:
2385:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2374:
2369:
2365:
2364:
2359:
2358:
2353:
2349:
2348:
2343:
2339:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2254:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2223:
2221:
2220:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2206:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2192:
2187:
2183:
2182:
2177:
2169:mental effort
2148:
2147:
2141:
2131:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2099:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2076:
2072:
2067:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2050:
2045:
2041:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2017:
2013:
2000:
1999:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1968:
1963:
1962:
1957:
1956:Sunni Muslims
1953:
1949:
1948:
1944:
1941:
1940:
1936:
1935:
1934:
1932:
1923:
1919:
1914:
1910:
1909:
1904:
1903:
1899:
1898:
1897:
1895:
1891:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1869:
1865:
1864:
1863:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1836:
1833:
1832:
1827:
1826:
1821:
1817:
1816:
1811:
1810:
1805:
1804:Sunni Muslims
1801:
1793:
1789:
1784:
1779:
1769:
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18029:(3): 71–90.
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17943:Kuran, Timur
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17283:. Retrieved
17275:Investopedia
17274:
17264:
17252:. Retrieved
17237:
17227:. New York:
17224:
17218:
17206:
17201:, p. 4.
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16876:. Retrieved
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16847:12 September
16845:. Retrieved
16836:
16827:
16817:12 September
16815:. Retrieved
16806:
16797:
16787:12 September
16785:. Retrieved
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16627:. Retrieved
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16523:(2): 417–67.
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16418:. Retrieved
16404:
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16365:(1): 13–29.
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16299:17 September
16297:. Retrieved
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15099:
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14782:
14768:(1): 39–70.
14765:
14761:
14754:
14749:, pp. 100–01
14737:
14692:
14688:
14682:
14657:
14653:
14647:
14638:
14630:Free Inquiry
14628:
14625:Austin Dacey
14623:Paul Kurtz,
14619:
14600:
14594:
14578:
14545:
14541:
14535:
14523:. Retrieved
14504:
14494:
14470:(1): 23–34.
14467:
14463:
14457:
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14444:
14432:. Retrieved
14420:
14416:
14403:
14374:
14370:
14360:
14355:, pp. 235–71
14343:
14331:. Retrieved
14327:the original
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14260:. Retrieved
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14231:
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14039:
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13972:. Retrieved
13963:
13953:
13941:. Retrieved
13927:
13915:. Retrieved
13901:
13889:. Retrieved
13875:
13863:. Retrieved
13848:
13836:. Retrieved
13806:. Retrieved
13786:
13764:. Retrieved
13755:
13752:"The Nation"
13745:
13733:. Retrieved
13718:
13706:. Retrieved
13697:
13688:
13669:
13657:. Retrieved
13648:
13639:
13627:. Retrieved
13618:
13596:
13584:. Retrieved
13575:
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13545:
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13512:. Retrieved
13505:the original
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13472:. Retrieved
13463:
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13414:
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13296:. Retrieved
13250:
13246:
13233:
13201:. Retrieved
13190:
13181:
13169:. Retrieved
13152:
13148:
13138:
13116:(4): 71–96.
13113:
13110:Africa Today
13109:
13103:
13091:. Retrieved
13082:
13073:
13061:. Retrieved
13041:
13034:
13023:the original
13013:
13001:
12989:
12935:
12913:Messick 2017
12855:Saudi Arabia
12850:
12831:
12812:
12800:. Retrieved
12785:
12758:
12752:
12740:. Retrieved
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12713:
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12697:
12684:, pp. 406–07
12672:
12660:. Retrieved
12651:(2): 40–47.
12648:
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12588:
12569:
12529:
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12443:(1): 65–83.
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12332:
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12221:, pp. 110–27
12218:
12213:
12208:, pp. 126–27
12196:
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11889:
11877:. Retrieved
11872:
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11841:
11832:
11808:Lapidus 2014
11793:Stewart 2013
11763:
11699:Hallaq 2009b
11694:
11687:Stewart 2013
11629:
11622:Hallaq 2009b
11617:
11605:
11593:
11586:El Achi 2018
11571:, p. 7.
11536:
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11506:
11494:
11482:
11475:Lapidus 2014
11470:
11463:Masters 2009
11458:
11446:
11439:Nettler 2009
11434:
11422:
11400:Stewart 2013
11362:Hodgson 1974
11357:
11345:
11321:Hallaq 2009b
11316:
11304:
11297:Tillier 2014
11258:
11236:Lapidus 2014
11181:Stewart 2013
11153:
11146:Stewart 2013
11141:
11114:
11067:. Retrieved
11055:
11051:
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11023:
11004:
10998:
10953:Ziadeh 2009c
10918:
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10514:(1): 50–51.
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10388:
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10271:
10266:2014, S. 92.
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10230:Al-Ghazālī:
10226:
10157:
10152:
10135:
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10102:
10096:
10084:. Retrieved
10064:
10054:
10042:
10030:
10004:, p. 3.
9997:
9988:
9982:
9970:. Retrieved
9965:
9957:Wehr, Hans.
9952:
9926:. Retrieved
9922:the original
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9884:
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9821:
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9805:the original
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9742:24 September
9740:. Retrieved
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9689:
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9600:intensified.
9595:
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9552:Lapidus 2014
9547:
9523:Lapidus 2014
9446:
9440:
9428:. Retrieved
9409:
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9390:
9384:
9375:
9369:
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9351:
9345:
9333:. Retrieved
9313:
9303:
9296:Jokisch 2015
9274:. Retrieved
9262:
9258:
9245:
9223:(1): 25–53.
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8347:. Retrieved
8332:
8325:
8318:Stewart 2013
8301:
8292:
8074:. Retrieved
8070:the original
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8019:. Retrieved
8015:the original
7990:. Retrieved
7947:
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7843:
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7277:umm al-walad
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7119:
7106:
7087:
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7028:
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7019:
7000: Up to
6949:and to deny
6940:
6932:human rights
6921:
6910:
6898:
6798:
6796:minorities.
6794:
6774:Muslim world
6758:
6710:(politics).
6707:
6703:
6697:
6683:Free Inquiry
6681:
6679:
6674:
6668:
6640:
6617:In 1998 the
6616:
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6307:Amaney Jamal
6303:
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5993:Diya (Islam)
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5756:
5754:
5751:Property law
5744:
5736:
5732:
5726:
5708:
5702:
5698:
5695:
5692:Criminal law
5686:
5677:
5668:
5660:
5606:Saudi Arabia
5583:
5557:
5545:
5539:
5535:
5528:
5523:
5499:
5496:Islamization
5438:
5428:Islamophobia
5386:Shiraz Maher
5381:Gilles Kepel
5291:Ahmed Yassin
5276:Ali Shariati
5216:Ali Khamenei
5093:Ali Khamenei
5064:
5062:
5050:
5037:
5025:
5013:
4969:
4968:
4917:
4916:
4875:Ahl-i Hadith
4859:
4834:Anti-Zionism
4803:
4791:
4785:
4784:
4763:Pan-Islamism
4743:
4738:of knowledge
4734:Islamization
4677:
4549:Fundamentals
4521:Islamization
4503:
4492:
4487:
4483:
4477:
4460:
4449:
4445:
4441:
4434:
4430:
4423:
4418:
4414:
4411:
4401:
4368:
4362:
4342:
4322:
4319:
4314:
4309:
4299:
4289:
4274:
4260:
4256:
4252:
4248:
4245:
4230:
4221:
4207:
4157:
4150:
4137:
4134:
4125:local custom
4120:
4114:
4108:
4107:The police (
4106:
4101:
4097:
4091:
4089:
4084:
4078:
4032:
4026:
4020:
4017:
3983:
3944:
3940:
3937:
3894:
3892:
3861:Christianity
3854:
3849:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3832:
3826:
3822:
3820:
3813:
3809:
3803:
3797:
3793:lex talionis
3791:
3785:
3783:
3778:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3764:
3698:
3690:
3683:
3657:
3634:
3612:
3605:
3598:
3591:
3584:
3577:
3570:
3563:
3556:
3507:
3500:
3493:
3486:
3465:
3454:
3448:
3441:
3434:
3427:
3415:
3373:
3356:
3326:
3315:
3304:
3287:
3282:("sedition")
3263:("mischief")
3258:
3247:
3236:
3225:
3212:
3183:Masturbation
3181:
3174:
3167:
3160:
3153:
3146:
3139:
3132:
3094:
3087:
3078:
3071:
3046:
3039:
3032:
3025:
3014:
2974:
2967:
2960:
2953:
2946:
2939:
2899:
2891:
2884:
2877:
2865:
2853:
2844:
2835:
2824:
2817:
2805:
2798:
2789:
2778:
2771:
2764:
2752:
2743:
2714:
2691:
2644:compensation
2641:
2621:
2590:
2555:
2521:
2514:
2510:
2504:
2501:
2496:
2488:
2480:
2472:
2468:
2460:
2456:
2448:
2445:
2407:
2400:
2394:
2388:
2386:
2381:
2377:
2372:
2362:
2355:
2345:
2341:
2333:, the early
2326:
2321:
2281:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2255:
2250:
2242:
2239:Islamic Fiqh
2234:
2230:
2224:
2217:
2216:is called "
2213:
2212:who perform
2203:
2191:usul al-fiqh
2189:
2185:
2179:
2145:
2144:
2143:
2120:human rights
2103:
2100:
2074:
2070:
2068:
2063:
2059:
2053:
2024:
2020:
2019:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1965:
1959:
1951:
1945:
1937:
1927:
1906:
1900:
1887:
1876:
1866:
1840:Gerd R. Puin
1837:
1829:
1823:
1813:
1807:
1797:
1761:
1755:
1752:Twelver Shia
1749:
1742:
1736:
1730:
1723:
1706:al-muʿtazila
1690:Ahl al-Kalām
1675:
1663:
1648:
1637:uṣūl al-fiqh
1636:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:uṣūl al-fiqh
1614:
1608:
1607:
1595:
1583:
1576:
1565:
1537:
1530:
1482:
1472:
1470:
1455:
1409:
1364:
1363:
1361:
1290:Saʿadya Gaon
1259:
1237:
1233:
1225:
1221:
1215:
1193:
1191:
1185:
1179:
1172:
1168:
1162:
1157:
1115:
1112:sharīʿatu-nā
1111:
1103:
1095:
1093:
1069:
1037:human rights
1022:
975:
931:criminal law
912:
906:
876:
864:
852:
846:
836:
823:Traditional
822:
787:
775:
736:
732:
728:
724:
721:
720:
629:Islamophobia
408:Demographics
403:Circumcision
319:
312:
305:
271:
270:
263:
247:
239:
231:
220:
214:
208:
201:
19437:Legal codes
18832:"Democracy"
18521:Hussin, Iza
18217:"S̲h̲arīʿa"
17312:(1): 1–17.
17285:7 September
17254:7 September
17066:impossible.
15973:18 December
15463:28 November
15349:28 November
15310:29 November
15221:27 November
14732:, pp. 59–67
14288:20 November
14040:Ballotpedia
13974:10 December
13917:8 September
13891:10 December
13865:10 December
13838:10 December
13808:21 November
13766:10 December
13659:4 September
13629:23 February
13529:Stence 2013
13404:18 February
12961:Berger 2014
12344:, pp. 36–37
12191:, Chapter 4
11875:(in German)
11737:Hallaq 2010
11714:Hallaq 2010
11653:Hallaq 2010
11634:Hallaq 2010
11610:Hallaq 2009
11350:Berkey 2003
11338:Hallaq 2010
11309:Hallaq 2009
11263:Hallaq 2010
11251:Hallaq 2009
11221:Hallaq 2009
11158:Hallaq 2010
11134:Hallaq 2009
11119:Hallaq 2009
11107:Hussin 2014
10991:Hallaq 2009
10974:Hallaq 2009
10850:22 December
10765:quranix.org
10676:Hallaq 2009
10219:Gleave 2012
10047:Hallaq 2009
10035:Kamali 1999
10023:Hallaq 2009
9891:, chpt. 4b.
9889:Dahlén 2003
9877:Hallaq 2009
9694:Kamali 1999
9682:Hallaq 2009
9540:Hallaq 2009
9475:Ziadeh 2009
9430:11 November
8608:(1): 1–38.
8559:Amanat 2009
8479:Hallaq 2010
8373:, chpt. 4c.
8371:Dahlén 2003
8285:Calder 2009
8041:, chpt. 2a.
8039:Dahlén 2003
7832:supporters.
7642:corporation
7520:law schools
7386:Grand Mufti
7384:and former
7273:manumission
6966:LGBT rights
6955:inheritance
6905:Wael Hallaq
6886:Sol Hachuel
6838:of General
6731:worldwide:
6623:Refah Party
6531:Sayyid Qutb
6475:Arab Spring
6374:Republicans
6072:condemning
5976:Timur Kuran
5955:Civil cases
5715:Afghanistan
5371:Bassam Tibi
5366:Olivier Roy
5266:Rashid Rida
5251:Sayyid Qutb
5032:Iqbal 1930s
4979:MENA region
4949:Millî Görüş
4511:Anwar Sadat
4461:neo-ijtihad
4456:deterrence.
4408:, Indonesia
4174:, based on
4014:(est. 1422)
3520:Inheritance
3467:Bayt al-mal
2826:Nafl prayer
2465:recommended
2370:) over the
2247:Orientalist
2176:Islamic law
2112:Rashid Rida
1890:inheritance
1800:Rashid Rida
1698:Ahl al-Ra'y
1541:revisionist
1316:תורת אלוהים
1100:Middle East
990:theoretical
943:recommended
887:Sunni Islam
861:إجماع الأمة
307:Ahl al-Bayt
192:Foundations
27:Islamic law
18:Islamic law
19416:Categories
19320:Sharia Law
19142:"Sharīʿah"
18267:"Sharīʿah"
18180:"Maṣlaḥah"
18096:Ali, Kecia
17968:10161/2546
17608:Glenn 2014
17565:13 January
17519:13 January
17443:(3): 416.
17037:0253212642
17020:0292776942
16944:0195144201
16732:13 January
16247:0195144201
15916:: 265–66.
15494:14 October
15428:Vikør 2005
14989:13 January
14884:0028657357
14394:1887/62331
14020:13 January
13756:The Nation
13268:1887/13673
12940:Vikør 2005
12583:pp. 7, 10.
12327:, pp. 1–68
12054:Brown 2017
11938:Abiad 2008
11879:3 February
11768:Rabb 2009d
11672:Masud 2009
11569:Lewis 1992
11487:Hardy 1991
10360:Rabb 2009c
10300:Opwis 2007
10288:Opwis 2007
10276:Opwis 2007
10204:Brown 2009
10160:, pg. 32.
10138:(3): 292.
10002:Brown 2009
9850:Reza Aslan
9508:Rabb 2009b
8713:Mayer 2009
8216:Vikør 2014
8076:29 January
8021:4 December
7992:17 October
7982:2013019592
7802:Successors
7798:Companions
7488:common law
7429:Pentateuch
7407:See also:
7397:Jewish law
7322:extremists
7230:See also:
7220:Hanbalites
7169:Surah 4:34
6850:minority.
6840:Zia-ul Haq
6819:Christians
6658:1990, the
6477:uprisings;
6466:DeLong-Bas
6385:Diana West
6350:Opposition
6344:Jewish law
5887:precedents
5874:defendants
5870:plaintiffs
5864:, Malaysia
5832:March 2019
5816:improve it
5782:Motasarruf
5683:Family law
5520:Arab world
5361:Sam Harris
5341:Farag Foda
5123:Zia ul-Haq
4984:South Asia
4885:Madkhalism
4860:Scholastic
4818:Influences
4642:Khomeinism
4592:Ideologies
4580:Secularism
4315:Al-Hidayah
4310:Al-Hidayah
4306:common law
4301:Al-Hidayah
3897:) are the
3887:Ibn Hanbal
3883:Abu Dawood
3837:Mukhtasars
3381:Honorifics
3230:(gambling)
2573:concubines
2418:Quran 4:24
2300:Shia Islam
2056:al-Ghazali
1984:Hanbalites
1980:Al-Bukhari
1651:linguistic
1573:al-Shafi'i
1507:al-Shafi'i
1499:Abu Hanifa
1487:companions
1301:شريعة الله
1121:Four Doors
1077:, such as
1033:modernists
998:governance
955:prohibited
923:family law
800:issued by
784:divine law
778:refers to
497:Philosophy
234:(exegesis)
171:Pilgrimage
161:Almsgiving
19281:, Mainz:
18661:578890367
18632:647084498
18485:29 August
18400:(2009b).
17770:153149243
17665:5 October
17457:1478-1913
17306:ERA Forum
16674:154841891
16591:144491368
16181:25 August
16082:0013-0613
15930:149570040
15841:0027-4909
15577:0027-4909
14709:144779047
14570:144825564
14423:(1): 12.
14114:150075053
14106:1351-0347
14065:Otto 2008
13514:31 August
13285:144601396
13130:154801688
13006:Chan 2016
12994:Mack 2018
12600:. p. 71.
12366:Otto 2008
12354:Otto 2008
12299:143083939
12114:0008-1973
11926:Otto 2008
11914:Otto 2008
11825:Otto 2008
11553:145552242
11515:: 53, 54.
11278:Rabb 2009
10872:, pp. 131
10770:14 August
10536:121170987
10489:159897995
10380:"Taqiyah"
10086:17 August
9229:0578-8072
9117:Dost 2023
9063:cite book
8959:cite book
8894:. p. 17.
8792:Otto 2008
8779:2458-9675
8676:Otto 2008
8638:145681085
8622:0897-6546
8503:(hasan).
7952:Cambridge
7930:(2014) .
7911:Citations
7886:romanized
7605:professor
7532:precedent
7528:Madrasahs
7522:known as
7465:rabbinic
7283:Terrorism
7257:concubine
7215:ightasaba
7161:Ibn Hajar
7045:Wahhabism
6790:beheading
6761:blasphemy
6714:Blasphemy
6460:Scholars
6313:In 2008,
6234:, by the
6232:Indonesia
6204:In Iran,
6170:Wahhabism
5879:discovery
5820:verifying
5594:democracy
5553:theocracy
5416:Modernism
5324:in Europe
5057:Qutb 1965
5044:Asad 1961
5008:Key texts
4918:Political
4900:Wahhabism
4856:Movements
4692:Caliphate
4570:Economics
4484:takhayyur
4431:takhayyur
4168:Aurangzeb
4067:The poet
3994:precedent
3941:takhayyur
3845:mukhtasar
3828:mukhtasar
3775:muʿāmalāt
3699:Istijarah
3349:Etiquette
3292:(stoning)
3220:Blasphemy
2935:Caliphate
2920:Political
2668:musta'min
2613:Wahhabism
2597:Al-Tahawi
2547:Quranists
2493:forbidden
2473:mustaḥabb
2453:mandatory
2410:as a rule
2352:Mu'tazila
2308:Ayatollah
2278:Salafiyya
2164: or
1972:Zahirites
1931:mutawatir
1913:orthodoxy
1820:consensus
1710:kalamiyya
1694:Mu'tazila
1682:Atharists
1659:abrogated
1578:al-risala
1465:Al Baqara
1442:and free
1434:rituals.
1340:God's Law
1324:God's Law
1308:God's Law
1212:Etymology
1133:Ismailism
1094:The word
994:practical
939:mandatory
617:terrorism
569:Criticism
522:Sexuality
492:Mysticism
462:Festivals
442:Education
437:Economics
373:Academics
329:Caliphate
142:Practices
51:Shahriyar
19374:Archived
19295:(1964).
19247:5 August
19233:(1368).
19101:"Courts"
18850:"Dhimmī"
18680:(2014).
18672:. Brill.
18457:(1974).
18378:(2009).
18256:18 April
18206:24 March
18119:(1996).
18098:(2010).
18060:Archived
17977:30038724
17921:Archived
17774:Archived
17659:Archived
17655:BBC News
17559:Archived
17537:Archived
17513:Archived
17417:4 August
17411:Archived
17367:16 April
17361:Archived
17279:Archived
17248:Archived
17183:Archived
17157:18 March
17002:20048203
16964:Archived
16872:Archived
16841:Archived
16811:Archived
16781:Archived
16726:Archived
16696:Archived
16692:IRINnews
16623:Archived
16621:. 2012.
16414:Archived
16293:Archived
16206:Archived
16175:Archived
16149:Archived
16116:Archived
16010:20441406
15967:Archived
15887:Archived
15811:Archived
15808:Apostasy
15792:Archived
15777:Archived
15761:Archived
15729:17 April
15723:Archived
15699:17 April
15693:Archived
15659:(2007).
15617:18 April
15611:Archived
15593:(2011).
15518:Archived
15514:BBC News
15488:Archived
15484:BBC News
15457:Archived
15367:(2009).
15343:Archived
15304:Archived
15273:Archived
15215:Archived
15139:Archived
15121:18 April
15115:Archived
15079:18 April
15073:Archived
15069:BBC News
15043:Archived
15024:Archived
14983:Archived
14962:Archived
14939:Archived
14674:41802396
14519:Archived
14486:81814299
14434:16 April
14425:Archived
14306:Archived
14282:Archived
14262:16 April
14253:Archived
14251:(1): 2.
14209:17 April
14203:Archived
14178:17 April
14172:Archived
14118:Archived
14050:19 March
14044:Archived
14014:Archived
13968:Archived
13937:Archived
13911:Archived
13885:Archived
13859:Archived
13832:Archived
13802:Archived
13760:Archived
13729:Archived
13702:Archived
13677:Archived
13653:Archived
13649:BBC News
13623:Archived
13586:18 April
13580:Archived
13556:18 April
13550:Archived
13468:Archived
13434:Archived
13398:Archived
13378:19 March
13372:Archived
13298:11 April
13289:Archived
13277:20069684
13203:18 April
13197:Archived
13165:Archived
13087:Archived
13057:Archived
13019:"Movies"
12858:Archived
12840:Archived
12821:Archived
12796:Archived
12736:Archived
12653:Archived
12577:Archived
12486:25 March
12480:Archived
12445:Archived
12251:22 March
12242:Archived
12138:28 April
12132:Archived
12039:27 March
12033:Archived
12009:28 March
12003:Archived
11966:16 April
11960:Archived
11598:Ali 2010
11069:19 April
11060:Archived
10528:43908333
10444:mojtahed
10415:"Taqlid"
10262:Kurnaz:
10080:Archived
9938:cite web
9901:Burton,
9797:"Sunnah"
9737:Atlantic
9424:Archived
9329:Archived
9311:(1996).
9276:19 April
9267:Archived
9237:41932575
9078:Archived
9047:Archived
9043:Würzburg
8855:(2008).
8423:, p. 2.
8416:Archived
8410:(2001),
7986:Archived
7892:sharīʿah
7881:شَرِيعَة
7738:Theonomy
7653:See also
7599:magister
7594:mudarris
7508:Istihqaq
7492:contract
7467:responsa
7314:Al-Qaeda
7301:Jihadism
7152:Tirmidhi
7041:Salafism
7039:such as
6947:marriage
6890:apostasy
6854:Apostasy
6782:flogging
6608:context.
6253:apostasy
6184:Taliban
6157:muhtasib
6123:Role of
5922:apostasy
5897:codified
5534:and the
5507:Islamism
4970:Militant
4880:Deobandi
4756:Jihadism
4667:Concepts
4598:Islamism
4575:Politics
4540:Islamism
4532:a series
4530:Part of
4355:Tanzimat
4216:Zanzibar
4166:emperor
4121:muhtasib
4116:muhtasib
4059:Muhtasib
4022:madrasas
3895:madhhabs
3857:theology
3702:(asylum)
3677:Military
3636:Dhabihah
3593:Tayammum
3495:Murabaha
3400:Economic
3202:Criminal
3141:Abortion
3105:Adoption
3062:Polygyny
3010:Contract
3000:Marriage
2872:clothing
2807:Tahajjud
2703:a series
2701:Part of
2676:apostate
2658:such as
2609:Salafism
2422:Muhammad
2402:istishab
2396:istislah
2390:istihsan
2373:Akhbaris
2304:Ruhollah
2219:mujtahid
2159:physical
1982:, early
1532:madhāhib
1479:Muhammad
1400:Safaitic
1250:Halakhah
1137:Alawites
1096:sharīʿah
1008:see the
967:Al Imran
951:abhorred
820:rulers.
776:sharīʿah
725:Sharī'ah
663:Glossary
639:Jihadism
612:Violence
607:Islamism
578:Muhammad
564:Apostasy
507:Politics
457:Feminism
452:Exorcism
413:Diaspora
398:Children
393:Calendar
321:Rashidun
299:Muhammad
294:Timeline
255:Mathnawi
117:Prophets
61:a series
59:Part of
47:Shariyah
19366:article
18154:"Fatwa"
18079:Sources
17927:28 July
17762:3312162
17335:"Jihād"
16807:Iqra.ca
16777:Iqra.ca
16702:31 July
16666:1051612
16629:18 July
16619:Musawah
16599:1121953
16420:29 July
16379:3381490
16249:, p. 83
16212:9 April
16155:9 April
16122:9 April
16018:1099061
15893:9 April
15184:1570336
14654:Theoria
14525:20 July
14333:4 April
14124:4 April
13943:31 July
13474:19 July
13394:"India"
13171:10 June
13161:1885776
13063:16 July
12742:17 June
12662:18 July
12451:19 July
12418:3382008
12307:1113891
10385:Ijtihad
10168:, 2005.
10162:Chicago
9972:15 June
9811:15 June
8842:. p. 4.
8630:4092696
7888::
7758:Twelver
7733:Halakha
7697:shariah
7693:Shāfiʿī
7592:") and
7536:analogy
7449:halakha
7424:Halakha
7415:Judaism
7403:Halakha
7254:Ottoman
7226:Slavery
7211:ghasaba
7199:Khutbah
7183:Musawah
6884:woman (
6815:Ahmadis
6786:hanging
6708:siyasah
6675:shari'a
6651:secular
6647:Western
6547:maslaha
6410:Ontario
6368:In the
6326:, then
6285:Support
6240:Taliban
6102:. When
6089:ijtihad
6014:Magians
5909:Hanbali
5862:Malacca
5814:Please
5616:by the
5610:secular
4865:Barelvi
4773:aspects
4736: (
4637:Qutbism
4565:Culture
4560:History
4450:maqasid
4446:maslaha
4419:mahkama
4364:Mecelle
4102:Mazalim
4098:mazalim
4093:mazalim
4085:mahkama
4073:dervish
4051:Mazalim
3980:Madrasa
3970:Jurists
3958:Wahhabi
3929:Ismaili
3921:Twelver
3911:Hanbali
3907:Shafi'i
3873:Madhhab
3850:qawāʿid
3771:ʿibādāt
3658:kashrut
3642:Alcohol
3625:Dietary
3614:Istinja
3558:Taharah
3535:Hygiene
3502:Takaful
3477:Banking
3453: (
3450:Sadaqah
3409:History
3248:Hirabah
3162:Hygiene
3096:Kafa'ah
3067:Divorce
2948:Imamate
2896: (
2870: (
2800:Tarawih
2766:Raka'ah
2745:Shahada
2652:freedom
2551:Shiites
2539:hadiths
2529:" and "
2491:), and
2477:neutral
2426:Shiites
2382:Ijtihad
2342:Ijtihad
2327:ijtihad
2282:ijtihad
2270:ijtihad
2266:ijtihad
2251:ijtihad
2243:ijtihad
2235:ijtihad
2231:ijtihad
2214:ijtihad
2186:ijtihad
2153:
2146:Ijtihad
2140:Ijtihad
2134:Ijtihad
2124:dignity
2118:); and
2104:maqasid
2075:maqasid
2071:maslaha
2064:maslaha
2060:Maqāṣid
2025:maṣlaḥa
2021:Maqāṣid
2016:Maslaha
2012:Maqasid
1967:Ijtihad
1884:debate.
1877:tawātur
1831:ijtihad
1822:of the
1744:ijtihad
1527:Hanbali
1523:Shafiʿi
1404:es-Safa
1384:şer’(i)
1380:Turkish
1348:šarīʿah
1275:šarīʿah
1263:šarīʿah
1234:šarīʿah
1222:šarīʿah
1174:Ijtihād
1153:dervish
1145:Ma'rifa
1116:šarīʿah
1079:stoning
1053:banking
947:neutral
914:rituals
908:ijtihad
903:Hanbali
899:Shafiʽi
881:. Four
760:Islamic
752:
737:Syariah
733:Shariah
729:Shari'a
722:Sharia,
534:Slavery
517:Science
472:Madrasa
467:Finance
378:Animals
366:society
362:Culture
334:Imamate
314:Sahabah
287:History
257:(Poems)
242:(creed)
166:Fasting
94:Oneness
87:Beliefs
19422:Sharia
19392:Portal
19173:
19120:
19074:
19045:
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18965:
18921:
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18869:
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16546:121–34
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15411:
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14949:, 2015
14882:
14852:Salafi
14823:p. 332
14819:
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14560:
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13735:3 July
13708:3 July
13347:
13283:
13275:
13228:, p. 9
13224:
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13093:24 May
13049:
12802:22 May
12773:
12728:
12704:
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10728:30 May
10610:
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10237:Sharia
10113:
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9928:14 May
9905:, 1990
9714:
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9335:10 May
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8439:, the
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7934:Sharīa
7877:Arabic
7718:Ma'ruf
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7550:agency
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7445:sharia
7440:mishna
7434:hadith
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7094:UNICEF
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6576:, and
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6200:(face)
6132:Hisbah
6095:taqlid
5959:Quran
5741:Brunei
5728:ta'zir
5649:
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4786:Sharia
4679:Takfir
4488:talfiq
4442:darura
4435:talfiq
4242:Galata
4233:dhimmi
4202:, and
4196:Dhimmi
4176:Hanafi
4164:Mughal
4110:shurta
4071:and a
4057:, and
4055:Shurta
4041:Courts
3990:fatwas
3986:muftis
3954:Salafi
3945:talfiq
3916:Zahiri
3903:Maliki
3899:Hanafi
3841:mabsut
3833:mabsut
3815:taʿzīr
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2962:Bay'ah
2878:Mut'ah
2780:Turbah
2735:Ritual
2680:adalah
2672:dhimmi
2660:mu'min
2648:gender
2605:heresy
2601:Nasafi
2593:Awliya
2569:Slaves
2523:Hanafi
2511:ḍarūra
2489:makrūh
2469:mandūb
2378:khabar
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2208:). An
2200:hadith
2196:Qur'an
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1902:Sunnah
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1809:Qur'an
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1519:Maliki
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1495:hadith
1491:sunnah
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1440:slaves
1269:širʿah
1246:Hebrew
1242:Arabic
1228:. The
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1149:haqiqa
1141:Tariqa
1129:Sufism
953:, and
929:) and
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891:Hanafi
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857:Arabic
838:sunnah
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831:: the
818:Muslim
814:judges
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502:Poetry
482:Mosque
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272:Sharia
240:Aqidah
232:Tafsir
216:Hadith
210:Sunnah
154:Prayer
105:Angels
19338:– In
19328:– In
19312:– in
19238:(PDF)
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18066:2 May
17973:JSTOR
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17813:JSTOR
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16670:S2CID
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16587:S2CID
16577:(1).
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16087:9 May
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15926:S2CID
15639:fitna
15239:2:256
15236:Quran
15180:JSTOR
14705:S2CID
14670:JSTOR
14566:S2CID
14558:JSTOR
14428:(PDF)
14413:(PDF)
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14241:(PDF)
14110:S2CID
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13501:(PDF)
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13281:S2CID
13273:JSTOR
13243:(PDF)
13126:S2CID
13026:(MPG)
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12641:(PDF)
12414:JSTOR
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12287:JSTOR
12245:(PDF)
12238:(PDF)
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11063:(PDF)
11058:: 2.
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8445:qiyas
8437:Quran
7932:"The
7745:Notes
7640:, or
7627:ifta’
7585:mufti
7575:faqih
7546:trust
7541:Qiyas
7516:Lafif
7475:qiyas
7345:jihad
7326:jihad
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7297:Jihad
7187:CEDAW
7069:Women
7029:hudud
6923:fitna
6788:, or
6769:angel
6706:from
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6562:shura
6558:shura
6539:shura
6490:shura
6443:Shura
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6190:Kabul
6174:hisba
6166:hijab
6145:hisba
6125:hisba
6048:Fatwa
6019:majus
5961:2:282
5948:hudud
5930:fiqhs
5778:Mawat
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5737:qisas
5733:hudud
5704:qisas
5699:hudud
5664:ulema
5540:hudud
5536:hudud
5532:hijab
4890:Nurcu
4805:Ummah
4793:Shura
4745:Jihad
4555:Islam
4370:qanun
4350:waqfs
4237:jizya
4159:qanun
4154:ulema
4081:judge
4069:Saadi
4034:ijaza
3998:Sunni
3976:Mufti
3949:ulema
3933:Ibadi
3925:Zaidi
3823:furūʿ
3799:qisas
3787:hudud
3779:kitab
3761:Fatwa
3692:Hudna
3685:Jihad
3607:Najis
3586:Ghusl
3579:Masah
3565:Ihram
3509:Sukuk
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3429:Jizya
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3305:Tazir
3278:Fitna
3259:Fasad
3214:Hudud
3134:Awrah
3089:Iddah
3080:Zihar
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2893:Umrah
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2867:Ihram
2846:Zakat
2773:Qibla
2754:Salah
2684:rushd
2664:kafir
2637:Hudud
2633:Qisas
2625:fatwa
2531:wajib
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2506:ḥalāl
2497:ḥarām
2481:mubāḥ
2461:wājib
2442:Ahkam
2428:, by
2347:Ahkam
2335:Imami
2092:hudud
2088:ahkam
1992:qiyas
1988:Qiyas
1961:Qiyas
1958:view
1952:ʿilla
1947:Qiyas
1894:hudud
1868:Quran
1860:sirah
1825:ummah
1766:imams
1762:qiyas
1738:qiyas
1732:ijmaʿ
1718:Mihna
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1561:Cairo
1448:Qisas
1432:umrah
1424:zakāt
1420:salāt
1371:chéri
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1281:Torah
1248:term
1238:saraʿ
1226:š-r-ʕ
1220:word
1071:hudud
986:imams
745:شريعة
634:Jihad
583:Quran
544:Women
487:Music
425:Sunni
274:(law)
222:Sirah
203:Quran
187:Texts
69:Islam
49:, or
43:Shara
39:Saria
19249:2022
19171:ISBN
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19072:ISBN
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18963:ISBN
18919:ISBN
18900:ISBN
18867:ISBN
18705:ISBN
18686:ISBN
18657:OCLC
18628:OCLC
18609:ISBN
18564:ISBN
18537:ISBN
18507:ISBN
18487:2019
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18426:ISBN
18384:ISBN
18366:ISBN
18286:ISBN
18258:2018
18208:2019
18132:ISBN
18068:2021
17929:2016
17911:ISBN
17782:2018
17715:ISBN
17667:2008
17567:2017
17521:2017
17503:ISBN
17453:ISSN
17419:2016
17369:2019
17351:ISBN
17287:2020
17256:2020
17159:2019
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17090:ISBN
17055:ISBN
17033:ISBN
17016:ISBN
16940:ISBN
16880:2020
16849:2020
16819:2020
16789:2020
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16734:2017
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16631:2016
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16550:ISBN
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16422:2013
16334:(2).
16301:2011
16267:(2).
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16214:2019
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16078:ISSN
16037:ISBN
16006:PMID
15975:2020
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15895:2019
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15731:2017
15701:2017
15665:ISBN
15619:2019
15601:ISBN
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15544:ISBN
15496:2009
15465:2015
15409:ISBN
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15312:2013
15294:ISBN
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15223:2015
15205:ISBN
15123:2019
15105:ISBN
15081:2019
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14991:2017
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14817:ISBN
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14527:2016
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14482:OCLC
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14436:2019
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14290:2014
14264:2019
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14102:ISSN
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14022:2017
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13976:2015
13945:2017
13919:2015
13893:2015
13867:2015
13840:2015
13810:2020
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13768:2015
13737:2017
13710:2017
13661:2016
13631:2017
13588:2019
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13516:2015
13476:2016
13406:2013
13380:2019
13345:ISBN
13300:2019
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13095:2014
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12664:2016
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12538:ISBN
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12253:2016
12202:ISBN
12185:ISBN
12140:2010
12110:ISSN
12041:2019
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11968:2019
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11845:See
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10826:2023
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10730:2021
10608:ISBN
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10564:help
10424:ISBN
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10111:ISBN
10088:2016
10070:ISBN
9974:2020
9944:link
9930:2024
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9619:help
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8078:2017
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7938:Fiqh
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