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210:, experienced genocidal effects from European colonization of the Isthmus. A regional slave trade in Indigenous peoples was carried out by the colonizing forces in the early 16th century across Central America from Panama to Nicaragua. Deadly working conditions, wars of conquest, and the destruction of Indigenous communities and infrastructure resulted in the complete destruction and dispersal of Indigenous peoples from the most heavily colonized parts of the Isthmus. By 1550, less than three hundred Indigenous people were counted in the cities of Panama, Nombre de Dios, and Nata combined. During the Spanish colonization of
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However exchange of surface water so as to maintain western
Atlantic salinity at eastern Pacific values continued until about 4.6 Ma with current Caribbean values being reached by about 4.2 Ma although there seems to have been a last definite temporary breach as recently as 2.45 Ma. The ocean sediments between the volcanoes on the isthmus seem to have been laid down as recently as 3.1 Ma and the exchange of organism gene pools between the two oceans appears to have continued until about 3 Ma as well. The largest exchange of animals over the
171:
1319:
181:, a Spanish conquistador, was the first European to reach the Pacific Ocean on 25 September, 1513, then called the "South Sea" as it was on the south side of the Isthmus. Balboa had heard of a second ocean on the other side of the Isthmus from natives while sailing along the Caribbean coast. In 1519 the town of Panamá was founded near a small indigenous settlement on the Pacific coast. In 1671 the
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millions of years earlier than had long been thought. The
Isthmus of Panama is not the only part of central America that has been low lying in the last tens of million years. This means the date of first closure and final closure of the Central American Seaway before it was artificially reopened to a degree by the
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archeological site contains ceramics dating from 2500-1200 BCE, some of the earliest examples of ceramics in
Central America. This site also contains evidence of one of the earliest sites of maize agriculture in the region. The Monagrillo site evolved into a variety of thriving cultural traditions,
396:
The process of formation of the isthmus and its implications is geologically and ecologically more nuanced. There is isotopic and carbonate deposition rate evidence that deep water connections below 1,800 m (5,900 ft) were broken between the
Atlantic and Pacific by between 12 and 9.2 Ma.
387:
bedrock from northern
Colombia indicated that by 10 Ma, it is likely that instead of islands, a full isthmus between the North and South American continents had already formed where the Central American Seaway had been previously. A genomic study of army ants also suggests that the isthmus emerged
460:
As the connecting bridge between two vast land masses, the
Panamanian biosphere is filled with overlapping fauna and flora from both North and South America. There are, for example, over 978 species of birds in the isthmus area. The tropical climate also encourages a myriad of large and brightly
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culture area. Indigenous peoples in Panama have been connected to the wider regional networks of exchange and diffusion for as long as they have inhabited the isthmus, evident in the presence of Coclé gold work being found as far away as
Chichin Itza in the Yucatan. By 1501, when Europeans first
110:
The
Isthmus of Panama has always been a place of global significance. Its formation as a geological feature had several biological and climatic effects that resonated on a planetary scale. The separation of the oceans increased marine biodiversity on both sides, and the connection between the
22:
278:, starting in 1849, brought a large increase in the transportation of people from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Steamships brought gold diggers from eastern U.S. ports, who trekked across the isthmus by foot, horse, and later rail. On the Pacific side, they boarded
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colored species, insects, amphibians, birds, fish, and reptiles. Divided along its length by a mountain range, the isthmus's weather is generally wet on the
Atlantic (Caribbean) side but has a clearer division into wet and dry seasons on the Pacific side.
111:
American continents allowed for the interchange of terrestrial life. The formation of the isthmus fundamentally changed the system of inter-ocean circulation of warm and cold currents, which caused the northern polar ice cap to form. The creation of the
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only happened after this time, although some species had made the crossing earlier, perhaps by rafting or brief periods of connection separated by periods of a high water flow between an arc of volcanic islands not conducive to swimming or rafting.
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is likely to remain controversial. Some experts have proposed 15 Ma as the date of first closure, while others suggest that final closure might be more recent based on genetic drift data of black mangroves along the
Atlantic and Pacific coasts.
1018:
Ochoa-Zavala, Maried; Jaramillo-Correa, Juan Pablo; Piñero, Daniel; Nettel-Hernanz, Alejandro; Núñez-Farfán, Juan (2019). "Contrasting colonization patterns of black mangrove (Avicennia germinans (L.) L.) gene pools along the Mexican coasts".
1054:
Grossman, Ethan L.; Robbins, John A.; Rachello-Dolmen, Paola G.; Tao, Kai; Saxena, Divya; O’Dea, Aaron (2019). "Freshwater input, upwelling, and the evolution of Caribbean coastal ecosystems during formation of the Isthmus of Panama".
425:. That warm currents can lead to glacier formation may seem counterintuitive, but heated air flowing over the warm Gulf Stream can hold more moisture. The result is increased precipitation that contributes to snow pack.
371:
from North and South America filled the gaps between the newly forming islands. Over millions of years, the sediment deposits added to the islands until the gap was completely filled. However, an article in
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all trace back to ancestors that came across the land bridge from South America. Likewise, bears, cats, dogs, horses, llamas, and raccoons all made the trek south across the isthmus.
142:
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340:) once separated the continents of North and South America, allowing the waters of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans to mix freely. Beneath the surface, two
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214:, the Isthmus developed into an important port of trade and became an administrative center for the conquests of both South and wider Central America.
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in 1912. Some recent studies suggest an earlier formation of the isthmus than the recognized age of 3 Ma, potentially stretching as far back as 19 Ma.
1178:
641:
Bacon, Christine D.; Silvestro, Daniele; Jaramillo, Carlos; Smith, Brian Tilston; Chakrabarty, Prosanta; Antonelli, Alexandre (12 May 2015).
149:. Since then, the isthmus has been inhabited by Indigenous peoples who have continually developed and adapted to life on the isthmus. The
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events of marine organisms isolated on each side (blue and green). Terrestrial species also migrated between the two continents (the
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364:. Meanwhile, movement of the two tectonic plates was also pushing up the sea floor, eventually forcing some areas above sea level.
88:. Osborn based the proposal on the fossil record of mammals in Central America, a conclusion that would provide a foundation for
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on the planet. The bridge made it easier for animals and plants to migrate between the two continents. This event is known in
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and the Atlantic system of weather and currents would eventually serve as the environmental engine of the "
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195:. The town was relocated some kilometers to the west at a small peninsula. The ruins of the old town,
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O'Dea, A.; Lessios, H. A.; Coates, A. G.; Eytan, R. I.; Restrepo-Moreno, S. A.; Cione, A. L. (2016).
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O'Dea, A.; Lessios, H. A.; Coates, A. G.; Eytan, R. I.; Restrepo-Moreno, S. A.; Cione, A. L. (2016).
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Evidence also suggests that the creation of this land mass and the subsequent warm, wet weather over
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130:, miniature horses, rhinos, camels, early relatives of modern hippos, and at least one species of
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The remains of a variety of paleolithic fauna that were found in the Canal Zone in 2007 include
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Montes, C.; Cardona, A.; Jaramillo, C.; Pardo, A.; Silva, J. C.; Valencia, V. (2015).
643:"Biological evidence supports an early and complex emergence of the Isthmus of Panama"
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356:. The pressure and heat caused by this collision led to the formation of underwater
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799:"Panama Canal expansion rewrites history of world's most ecologically diverse bats"
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1286:. Translated by Roland von Huene. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 4–17.
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The isthmus is thought to have been finally formed around 3 million years ago (
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892:(in Spanish). Sevilla: Excma. DiputaciĂłn Provincial de Sevilla. p. 346.
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296:, started a Panama Canal Company in 1880 that went bankrupt in 1889 in the
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Andagoya, Pascual de (21 June 1865). "Narrative of Pascual de Andagoya".
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1179:"North and South America Came Together Much Earlier Than Thought: Study"
1306:(Original German article from 1912 with English translation from 2003.)
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The formation of the Isthmus of Panama also played a major role in
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308:, bought the remaining assets of the Panama Canal Company, and
249:. Scotland tried to establish a settlement in 1698 through the
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964:"Ant Genomics Help Reshape Biological History of the Americas"
522:"BBC - History - British History in depth: The Darien Venture"
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A New Voyage and Description of the Isthmus of America (1695)
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Francis Samuel Marryat, Crossing The Isthmus Of Panama, 1855
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Spanish Central America: A Socioeconomic History, 1520–1720
826:"Paleo-Indian Discoidal Stones from Southern South America"
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spent four years between 1680 and 1684 among the Kuna or
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1135:"Middle Miocene Closure of the Central American Seaway"
753:"Isthmus of Panama formed as result of plate tectonics"
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crossed the Isthmus of Panamá from the Caribbean side
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Núñez de Balboa's travel route to the South Sea, 1513
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were transported overland across the isthmus by the
41:) is the narrow strip of land that lies between the
1277:"The origins of continents: Geol Rundsch 3:276–292"
486:
Postage stamps and postal history of the Canal Zone
80:and Pacific Oceans and causing the creation of the
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774:"How the Isthmus of Panama Put Ice in the Arctic"
692:Hoorn, Carine; Flantua, Suzette (10 April 2015).
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874:Narrative of the Proceedings of Pedrarias Davila
336:A significant body of water (referred to as the
647:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
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332:) upon the formation of a passable land bridge.
984:Coates, Anthony G; Stallard, Robert F (2013).
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206:The local Indigenous population, known as the
877:. The Hakluyt Society – via Wikisource.
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159:arrived, the isthmus was inhabited widely by
137:The first humans to inhabit the isthmus were
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694:"An early start for the Panama land bridge"
266:The Isthmus of Panama on the Height of the
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1265:. Scotland: James Knapton. Archived from
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300:. In 1902–1904, the United States forced
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962:Golembiewski, Kate (25 October 2016).
888:Mena GarcĂa, MarĂa del Carmen (1984).
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440:. For instance, in North America, the
1271:Excerpt from the 1729 Knapton edition
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890:La Sociedad de Panamá en el Siglo XVI
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417:resulted in the formation of a large
1194:"Formation of the Isthmus of Panama"
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560:"Formation of the Isthmus of Panama"
199:, are preserved and were declared a
119:" routes that were the basis of the
986:"How old is the Isthmus of Panama?"
348:were slowly colliding, forcing the
154:identified by archeologists as the
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1392:Natural history of Central America
1116:The Birds of Panama: A Field Guide
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324:The closure of the isthmus led to
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913:MacLeod, Murdo J. (5 July 2010).
757:Florida Museum of Natural History
330:Great American Biotic Interchange
123:system in the early modern era.
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1114:Angehr, G. R.; Dean, R. (2010).
751:Donovan, Kelly (20 March 2009).
84:, as first suggested in 1910 by
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509:also historically known as the
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92:when he proposed the theory of
824:Bird, Junius B. (April 1970).
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367:Over time, massive amounts of
280:Pacific Mail Steamship Company
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919:. University of Texas Press.
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304:to grant independence to the
57:. It contains the country of
1372:Geography of Central America
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1292:10.1007/978-3-662-08763-3_1
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1397:Regions of Central America
1382:Isthmuses of South America
1377:Isthmuses of North America
993:Bulletin of Marine Science
438:Great American Interchange
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201:UNESCO World Heritage Site
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16:Narrow landstrip in Panama
1284:Milestones in Geosciences
306:Department of the Isthmus
217:Silver and gold from the
1185:. Reuters. 9 April 2015.
260:An 1850 oil painting by
1162:10.1126/science.aaa2815
1021:Journal of Biogeography
710:10.1126/science.aab0099
660:10.1073/pnas.1423853112
421:and contributed to the
338:Central American Seaway
292:, the developer of the
231:Spanish treasure fleets
1245:Osborn, H. F. (1910).
1220:10.1126/sciadv.1600883
1098:Angehr & Dean 2010
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193:and destroyed the city
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1275:Wegener, A. (2003) .
1005:10.5343/bms.2012.1076
481:Isthmo-Colombian Area
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326:allopatric speciation
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179:Vasco Núñez de Balboa
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25:The Isthmus of Panama
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1326:at Wikimedia Commons
290:Ferdinand de Lesseps
276:California Gold Rush
223:Spanish Silver Train
1387:Landforms of Panama
1344: /
1212:2016SciA....2E0883O
1153:2015Sci...348..226M
1069:2019Geo....47..857G
578:2016SciA....2E0883O
532:"The Darien Scheme"
383:crystals in middle
352:to slide under the
282:vessels headed for
219:viceroyalty of Peru
1248:The Age of Mammals
951:Montes et al. 2015
830:American Antiquity
805:. 20 February 2024
739:Montes et al. 2015
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310:finished the canal
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167:-speaking peoples.
76:), separating the
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1324:Isthmus of Panama
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1301:978-3-642-07919-1
1147:(6231): 226–229.
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704:(6231): 186–187.
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511:Isthmus of Darien
106:History of Panama
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399:land bridge
350:Cocos Plate
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227:Porto Bello
113:Gulf Stream
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1366:Categories
940:Wafer 1729
492:References
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294:Suez Canal
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156:Gran Coclé
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