Italian fascism and racism

2695:(1936). Cogni declared that the Mediterranean and Nordic racial subtypes of the Aryan race had a racial affinity and he also claimed that the intermixing of Nordic Aryans and Mediterranean Aryans in Italy produced a superior synthesis of Aryan Italians. Cogni addressed the racial differences which existed between northern and southern Italians, declaring that Southern Italians were a mixture of Aryan and non-Aryan races, he claimed that this mixture was most likely due to infiltration by Asiatic peoples in Roman times and later Arab invasions. As a result, Cogni believed that Southern Italian Mediterraneans were polluted by orientalizing tendencies. He would later change his view and claim that Nordics and Southern Italians were closely related groups, both racially and spiritually, because they were generally responsible for the creation of what is considered the best of European civilization. Initially, Mussolini was not impressed with Cogni's work, but Cogni's ideas were incorporated into the official fascist racial policy several years later. 3987:. Mussolini took a vested interest in micromanaging these regulations, at one point reading a report of a non-commissioned officer playing cards with a native Eritrean and angrily telegraphing the governor of Eritrea to complain about the incident and demanding stricter enforcement of racial segregation. Enforcement of these laws was very difficult for local authorities, however, in part due to the impermanent presence of many Italians in the colony, who had no plans to stay in East Africa in the long term and only briefly resided there for financial opportunities. As such, many Italian settlers ignored these laws due to a variety of factors; some Italians saw short-term economic gain in violating laws restricting personal and commercial relations between settlers and Africans, while others simply did not share Mussolini's racism and prejudice. 2527: 3172:, who was a staunch Italian nationalist and an opponent of Zionism in Italy. 230 Italian Jews took part in the fascists' March on Rome in 1922. In the early 1920s, Mussolini was cautious on topics of Italian Jewish financiers that arose from time to time from antisemitic elements in the fascist movement, while he regarded them as untrustworthy he believed that he could draw them to his side. In 1932, Mussolini made his private attitude about Jews known to the Austrian ambassador when discussing the issue by saying: "I have no love for the Jews, but they have great influence everywhere. It is better to leave them alone. Hitler's antisemitism has already brought him more enemies than is necessary". 2338: 2027: 3777: 3311: 2610:

according to this claim, Italians as a whole were a hybrid of races, including black African races. Due to the darker complexion of Mediterranean peoples, Hitler regarded them as having traces of Negroid blood so in his view, they were not pure Aryans and as a result, they were inferior to people who did not have such a racial heritage. The Nazis ascribed the great achievements of post-Roman era northern Italians to the presence of a Nordic racial heritage in such people who had Germanic ancestors via their Nordic heritage, such as the Nazi ideologist

3646: 2860: 3429:, who has claimed that direct Nazi pressure to adopt antisemitic policy had little or no impact on Mussolini's decision. Hughes notes that the fascist version of antisemitism was based on spiritualist considerations while eschewing anthropological or biological arguments, unlike the Nazi version of antisemitism. Italian fascism adopted antisemitism in the late 1930s and Mussolini personally returned to invoke antisemitic statements as he had done earlier. The fascist regime used antisemitic propaganda for the 3114:

80 per cent of the managers of the Soviets are Jews, in Budapest 17 out of 22 people's commissars are Jews. Might it not be that bolshevism is the vendetta of Judaism against Christianity?? It is certainly worth pondering. It is entirely possible that bolshevism will drown in the blood of a pogrom of catastrophic proportions. World finance is in the hands of the Jews. Whoever owns the strongboxes of the people is in control of their political systems. Behind the puppets (making peace) in Paris, there are the

2634:, an ally of Italy by Austrian Nazis in 1934, Mussolini became enraged and he responded to the killing of Engelbert Dollfuss by angrily denouncing Nazism. Mussolini rebuked Nazism's Nordicism, claiming that the Nazis' belief in the existence of a common Nordic "Germanic race" was absurd by saying that "a Germanic race does not exist. We repeat. Does not exist. Scientists say so. Hitler says so". The fact that Germans were not purely Nordic was indeed acknowledged by the prominent Nazi racial theorist 14700: 1890: 22: 3142:

due to opposition to it, Mussolini no longer said his previous assertion that Bolshevism was Jewish, but warned that due to the large numbers of Jews in the Bolshevik movement the rise of Bolshevism in Russia would result in a ferocious wave of antisemitism in Russia. He then claimed that "antisemitism is foreign to the Italian people", but warned Zionists that they should be careful not to stir up antisemitism in "the only country where it has not existed".

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they were religious Jews as part of the Italian nation, while the Zionist Jews declared that there was no dispute between the Zionist movement and the Italian nation and they also said that all Italian Jews held patriotic respect for Italy. Upon these responses arriving, Mussolini declared that these revealed that a Jewish problem existed in terms of Jewish identity in Italy as a result of conflicting national loyalties amongst Zionist Jews by saying:

3146: 80: 3397:. At the outset of the war, Mussolini sought to gain favourable support for Italy's intervention in Ethiopia and appealed to Zionists by offering them a solution to the Jewish question, in which Italy would set aside a certain amount of territory from conquered Ethiopia to be a homeland for Jews. Mussolini claimed that territory from conquered Ethiopia would make an ideal homeland for the Jews, noting that there were large numbers of 2664: 3516: 2699:

Nordic heritage and it also recognized them as being of Nordic-Mediterranean descent in a meeting with PNF members. In June 1938 in a meeting with PNF members, Mussolini identified himself as being of Nordic descent and he also declared that the previous policy which focused on Mediterraneanism would be replaced with a policy which would focus on Aryanism.

3512:. It targeted races that were seen as inferior (i.e. not of Aryan descent). In particular, Jews were banned from many professions. Under the Racial Laws, sexual relations and marriages between Italians, Jews, and Africans were forbidden. Jews were banned from positions in banking, government, and education, as well as having their properties confiscated. 2461:, while asserting the racial segregation of whites and blacks in its colonies. It claimed that fascism's colonial goals were to civilize the inferior races and defend the purity of Western civilization from racial miscegenation that it claimed would harm the intellectual qualities of the white race. It claimed that the white race needed to increase its 3566:, who increasingly became an ally of Mussolini in the late 1930s and is speculated to have pressured him to increase the racial discrimination and persecution of Jews in the Kingdom of Italy, others have argued that it reflected sentiments long entrenched not just in Fascist political philosophy but also in the teachings of the 2576:

than Nordics had long been rebuked in anthropology as a result of the development of the depigmentation theory, a theory which claimed that lighter-skinned peoples had been depigmented from peoples who had a darker skin color, since its development, this theory has become a widely accepted view in anthropology. In his work

3947:." He went on to say that under the circumstances, "the white race is sickly", "morally and physically in ruin", and that in combination with the "progress in numbers and in expansion of yellow and black races, the civilization of the white man is destined to perish." According to Mussolini, only through promoting 3204:

there are eighty percent of Soviet leaders who are Jewish. Wouldn't Bolshevism by chance be Judaism's revenge against Christianity? The topic lends itself to meditation. It is possible that Bolshevism will drown in the blood of a pogroom of catastrophic proportions. World finance is in the hands of the Jews.

3326:(CAUR) that sought to found a Fascist International, the issue of antisemitism was debated about by various fascist parties, with some of them being more favourable to it and others being less favourable to it. Two final compromises were adopted, creating the official stance of the Fascist International: 3855:

The Italian violence against the Slovene civilian population easily matched the German violence against Serbs, with frequent summary executions of Slovenes committed on the orders of Mussolini and other Fascist officials. For every major military operation, General M. Roatta issued additional special

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cannot be converted into a universal campaign of hatred against the Jews Considering that in many places certain groups of Jews are installed in conquered countries, exercising in an open and occult manner an influence injurious to the material and moral interests of the country which harbours them,

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At that time, the fascists were not wholly opposed to Zionism, instead, they took an instrumental approach to it, they were hostile to it when it caused conflicts with Italy's Catholic community and they were also hostile to some Zionists when they believed that those Zionists were supporting British

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is not moving forward, then this is what the great Jewish bankers of London and New York have decreed. These bankers are bound by ties of blood to those Jews who in Moscow as in Budapest are taking their revenge on the Aryan race that has condemned them to dispersion for so many centuries. In Russia,

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had assimilatory capacity. It used spiritual and cultural conceptions of race to make land claims on Dalmatia and to justify an Italian sphere of influence in the Balkans based on then-present and historical Italian cultural influence in the Balkans. The fascist regime justified colonialism in Africa

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city dies, the nation – deprived of the young life-blood of new generations – is now made up of people who are old and degenerate and cannot defend itself against a younger people which launches an attack on the now unguarded frontiers This will happen, and not just to cities and nations,

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strongly opposed the Racial Laws. Balbo, in particular, regarded antisemitism as having nothing to do with fascism and staunchly opposed the antisemitic laws. The Racial Laws prohibited Jews from most professional positions as well as prohibited sexual relations and marriages between Italians, Jews,

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In 1928, frustration with Zionism arose in the regime and Mussolini addressed the Italian Zionist Congress by publicly posing a question to Italy's Jews about their self-identity: "Are you a religion or are you a nation?". Zionist and anti-Zionist Jews responded, the anti-Zionist Jews professed that

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Mussolini's statement about a Jewish-Bolshevik-plutocratic connection and a Jewish conspiracy was met with opposition in the fascist movement, resulting in Mussolini responding to this opposition amongst his supporters by abandoning this stance shortly afterwards in 1919. Upon abandoning this stance

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who are of the same blood who are conquering Petrograd and Budapest. Race does not betray race. Bolshevism is a defence of the international plutocracy. This is the basic truth of the matter. The international plutocracy dominated and controlled by Jews has a supreme interest in all of Russian life

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for "implicitly" crediting Germanic invaders of Italy in the guise of the Lombards for having "a formative influence on the Italian race in a disproportional degree to the number of invaders and to their biological predominance". The Council claimed that the obvious superiority of the ancient Greeks

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In 1938, Mussolini began to fear that if Italian fascism did not recognize the Nordic heritage which existed within Italians, the Mediterranean inferiority complex would return to Italian society. Therefore, in the summer of 1938, the fascist government officially recognized the Italians as having a

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by Nordicist proponents in countries like the United States based on the belief that non-Nordic southern Europeans were inferior to Nordics. In Italy, the influence of Nordicism had a divisive effect because Northern Italians who were influenced by Nordicism considered themselves a civilized people,

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If Petrograd does not fall, if Denikin marks the way, it is that this is what the great Jewish bankers of London and New York want, tied by race ties with the Jews who in Moscow as in Budapest take revenge against the Aryan race who it has been condemned to dispersion for many centuries. In Russia,

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Despite the presence of a Fascist regime, some Jewish refugees considered Italy a safe haven in the first half of the 1930s. During that period, the country hosted up to 11,000 persecuted Jews, including 2,806 Jews who were of German descent. However, as early as 1934, Jewish personnel were removed

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When dealing with such a race as Slavic—inferior and barbarian—we must not pursue the carrot, but the stick policy. We should not be afraid of new victims. The Italian border should run across the Brenner Pass, Monte Nevoso and the Dinaric Alps. I would say we can easily sacrifice 500,000 barbaric

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could this be reversed. In 1933, Mussolini contradicted his earlier statements on race, saying: "Race! It is a feeling, not a reality: ninety-five percent, at least, is a feeling. Nothing will ever make me believe that biologically pure races can be shown to exist today. ... National pride has no

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The question of racism in Italy must be treated from a purely biological point of view, without any philosophical or religious implications. The conception of racism in Italy must be essentially Italian and along Aryan-Nordic lines. This does not mean however that German racial theories are being

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which had been instilled in them by German and Anglo-Saxon Nordicists who considered Mediterranean peoples racially degenerate and therefore inferior to Nordic peoples. However, the traditional Nordicist belief that Mediterraneans were degenerate due to the fact that they had a darker skin colour

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were being formalized by the regime. The fascist regime considered Italians to be superior to other peoples which lived in the Mediterranean region—including Latin, Slavic and Hellenic peoples—because only Italians had achieved racial unity and full political consciousness via the fascist regime.

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and culture were both Indo-European. Italian fascism emphasized the belief that race was bound by spiritual and cultural foundations and it divided people into a racial hierarchy which was based on spiritual and cultural factors. While Italian fascism based its conception of race on spiritual and

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over the course of his career. In an interview conducted in 1932 at the Palazzo di Venezia in Rome, he said "Race? It is a feeling, not a reality: ninety-five percent, at least, is a feeling. Nothing will ever make me believe that biologically pure races can be shown to exist today". It has also

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are the same. It merely wishes to indicate to the Italian people a physical model and even more importantly a psychological model of the human race that on account of its purely European characteristics is completely distinct from all extra-European races. This means to elevate the Italian to an

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In his early years as the ruler of Fascist Italy, Mussolini harboured negative stereotypes of Jews, but he did not hold a firm stance on Jews and his official stances oscillated and shifted to meet the political demands of the various factions of the fascist movement, so they were not concrete.

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were natives of Italy, after living on the Italian Peninsula for a long period of time. In the early 1930s, Mussolini held discussions with Zionist leadership figures over proposals to encourage the emigration of Italian Jews to the mandate of Palestine, as Mussolini hoped that the presence of

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subscribed to the depigmentation theory, the theory which claimed that the Nordic race's light-coloured skin resulted from the depigmentation of the skin of its ancestors, who were members of the Mediterranean race. Mussolini refused to allow Italy to return again to this inferiority complex,

3401:

already living there who identified as Jews. However, Zionist leaders rejected this proposal by saying that they would not have lived in East Africa, as they came from urbanized and developed regions in Europe and the United States. Mussolini viewed this as an offensive snub and responded in

2906:" and that "Italy knows no antisemitism and we believe that it will never know it" and then elaborated "let us hope that Italian Jews will continue to be sensible enough so as not to give rise to antisemitism in the only country where it has never existed". In 1932 during a conversation with 2609:

as being the result of the deterioration of the purity of the Nordic Aryan ruling class through its intermixing with the inferior Mediterranean types, a process that led to the empire's decay. In addition, racial intermixing in the population, in general, was also blamed for Rome's downfall,

2601:'s staunch emphasis on a Nordicist conception of the Aryan Race, strong tensions with regard to racial issues arose between the fascists and the Nazis, because Hitler believed that Northern Italians were strongly Aryan. The Nazis believed that most of the ancient Romans were members of the 1957:

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frustration saying: "If Ethiopia is good enough for my Italians why isn't it good enough for you Jews?". Afterwards, Mussolini's relations with the Zionist movement cooled and became aggravated with his observation that many Jews opposed the Italo-Ethiopian War, to which he responded:

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By 1936, the tensions between Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany were reduced and relations between the two regimes became more amicable as a result. In 1936, Mussolini decided to launch a racial programme in Italy and he was interested in the racial studies which were being conducted by

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The Nordicist direction of fascist racial policy was challenged in 1938 by a resurgence of the Mediterranean faction of the PNF. By 1939, the Mediterraneanists advocated a nativist racial theory which rejected ascribing the achievements of the Italian people to Nordic peoples. This

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My intention was to seek a clarification among Italian Jews and to open the eyes of Christian Italians. This goal has been achieved. The problem exists, and it is no longer confined to that "shadowy sphere" where it had been constituted astutely by the former, ingeniously by the

3706:: "The danger of seeing the Jugo-Slavians settle along the whole Adriatic shore had caused a bringing together in Rome of the cream of our unhappy regions. Students, professors, workmen, citizens—representative men—were entreating the ministers and the professional politicians". 2605:, and they believed that the members of the Roman ruling classes were also Nordic, descended from Aryan conquerors who migrated from the North, and in their view, this Nordic Aryan minority was responsible for the rise of Roman civilization. The Nazis viewed the downfall of the 3555:

and Africans. The press in Fascist Italy highly publicized the "Manifesto of Race", which included a mixture of biological racism and history; it declared that Italians belonged to the Aryan race, Jews were not Italians, and that it was necessary to distinguish between

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were exemplary Nordic men of history. However, the Nazis did claim that aside from biologically Nordic people that a Nordic soul could inhabit a non-Nordic body. Hitler emphasized the role of Germanic influence in Northern Italy, for example, he stated that the art of

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Latin, Slavic and Hellenic peoples were all considered superior to Turkic, Semitic and Hamitic peoples. According to the racial hierarchy's classification of the indigenous peoples of Africa, the indigenous North Africans were superior to the indigenous people of

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I don't hide from you that the collusion of the Jewish world with the plutocracy and international left is ever more evident, and our politico-military situation doesn't permit us to keep in our bosom eventual saboteurs of the effort that the Italian people are

2762:, who stated that those Jews who had classified themselves as Italians were examples of inferior psychological types that were considered morally abject, false and cowardly, types that could not be associated with the Italian community. After Article 7 of the 2928:. More broadly, he even proposed building a mosque in Rome as a sign that Italy was the Protector of Islam, a move blocked by a horrified Pope. German propagandists often derided what they called Italy's "Kosher Fascism". There were however some Fascists, 3127:

accelerating its process of disintegration to the point of paroxysm. A Russia that is paralyzed, disorganized, and starved, will be a place where tomorrow the bourgeoisie, yes the bourgeoisie, o proletarians will celebrate its spectacular feast of plenty.

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conception of the Aryan Race that idealized "pure" Aryans as having certain physical traits that were defined as Nordic such as blond hair and blue eyes. Nordicism was divisive because Italians – and especially southern Italians - had been subjected to

3472:, banned books written by Jewish authors, and excluded Jews from public offices and higher education. Additional laws stripped Jews of their assets, restricted travel, and finally, provided for their confinement in internal exile, as was done for 2910:, Mussolini described antisemitism as a "German vice" and stated: "There was 'no Jewish Question' in Italy and could not be one in a country with a healthy system of government". On several occasions, Mussolini spoke positively about Jews and the 3212:

Bolshevism is defended by international plutocracy. This is the essential truth. The Jewish-dominated and controlled international plutocracy has a supreme interest in that all Russian life accelerates its process of molecular disintegration to

3424:

believed that the fascist regime's pursuit of an alliance with Nazi Germany that began in 1936 explains the adoption of antisemitism as a pragmatic component of the pursuit of that alliance. De Felice's interpretation has been challenged by

3168:(1926), a biography of Mussolini. One of the Jewish financial supporters of the fascist movement was Toeplitz, whom Mussolini had earlier accused of being a traitor during World War I. Another prominent Jewish Italian fascist was 4088: 2482:

or vital space for Italy, the belief in the existence of a cultural-racial hierarchy in which different peoples were ranked in terms of their values was clearly defined by 1940, during which plans for the acquisition of Italy's

3456:, reportedly opposed the Racial Laws. Balbo, in particular, regarded antisemitism as having nothing to do with fascism and staunchly opposed the antisemitic laws. The Racial Laws were promulgated on 18 November 1938, excluding 2770:

race, African races and Jews, did not belong to the Italian race; and Article 10 declared that the physical and psychological characteristics of the Italian people must not be altered by crossbreeding with non-European races.

1996:. Nevertheless, Mussolini and the Italian military did not consistently apply the laws adopted in the Manifesto of Race. In 1943, Mussolini expressed regret for the endorsement, saying that it could've been avoided. After the 3229:

was affected by the fascists' accommodation of the Catholic Church beginning in the early 1920s in which it sought to remove previous provisions of equality of faiths and impose state support of the supremacy of Catholicism.

3495:

The promulgation of the Racial Laws was preceded by a long press campaign and the publication of the "Manifesto of Race" earlier in 1938, a purportedly-scientific report which was signed by scientists and supporters of the

2837:"constitutes an unjustifiable and undemonstrable negation of the anthropological, ethnological, and archaeological discoveries that have occurred and are occurring in our country". Furthermore, the Council denounced the 2825:'s spiritual Nordicism in late 1941. Acerbo and the Mediterraneanists in his High Council on Demography and Race sought to bring the regime back to supporting Mediterraneanism by thoroughly denouncing the pro-Nordicist 3277:

was debated amongst various Fascist parties, with some being more favourable to it, and others being less favourable. Two final compromises were adopted, resulting in the official stance of the Fascist International:

1965:", the seventh point of which stated that "it is time that Italians proclaim themselves to be openly racist", although Mussolini said that the Manifesto was endorsed "entirely for political reasons", in deference to 3943:, Mussolini again expressed his alarm about the low birth rate among Whites, saying: "The singular, enormous problem is the destiny of the white race. Europe is truly towards the end of its destiny as the leader of 3748:

I took the liberty of saying they (the Slovenes) totaled one million. It doesn't matter—he replied firmly—we should model ourselves upon ascari (auxiliary Eritrean troops infamous for their cruelty) and wipe them

3859:

One of Roatta's soldiers wrote home on 1 July 1942: "We have destroyed everything from top to bottom without sparing the innocent. We kill entire families every night, beating them to death or shooting them."

3930:. He described their greater racial consciousness in contrast to that of White Americans as contributing to their growing strength. On the issue of the low birth rate of White people, Mussolini said in 1928: 3298:, profiting by all benefits and refusing all duties, considering that they have furnished and are inclined to furnish, elements conducive to international revolution which would be destructive to the idea of 3377:

over requests for Italy to provide refuge for Jews fleeing Nazi Germany, Mussolini agreed that he would accept Jewish refugees but warned Weizmann about the consequences if such Jews harmed Italy by saying:

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were a deeply integrated and small community in Italy and by and large, they were favourably perceived in Italy because they valiantly fought for Italy during World War I. Of the 117 original members of the

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When dealing with such a race as Slavic—inferior and barbarian—we must not pursue the carrot, but the stick policy. ... We should not be afraid of new victims. ... The Italian border should run across the

3406:

World Jewry is doing a bad business in aligning itself with the anti-Fascist sanctions campaign against the one European country which, at least until now, has neither practised nor preached anti-Semitism

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Mussolini had held antisemitic beliefs prior to becoming a fascist, such as in a 1908 essay on the topic of Nietzsche's Übermensch, in which Mussolini condemned "pallid Judeans" for "wrecking" the

2806:. Rellini rejected the notion of large-scale invasions of Italy by Nordic Aryans in the Eneolithic age and claimed that the Italians were an indigenous people who were descended from the 4095: 2687:. Cogni was a Nordicist, but he did not equate Nordic identity with Germanic identity as was commonly done by German Nordicists. Cogni had travelled to Germany where he was impressed by 3225:

poses Italian Jews with the dilemma of choosing between their Italian homeland and another homeland". The relations between the regime and Jews as in those practising the religion of

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Even though it believed that Europeans were racially superior to non-Europeans, the fascist regime treated non-Europeans with diplomatic courtesy. The regime formed an alliance with

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descent. For his controversial theories, Lombroso was expelled from the Italian Society of Anthropology and Ethnology in 1882. The Lombrosian doctrine is currently considered

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In response to his observation that a large number of the Bolsheviks were Jews as well as claims that the Bolsheviks and Germany (the nation that Italy fought against during

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visited Italy in 1931 and he was invited for a personal visit by Mussolini, who treated him with full diplomatic courtesy. During his transatlantic flight from Italy to the

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cultural factors, Mussolini explicitly rejected the belief that biologically "pure" races were still considered a relevant factor in racial classifications. He claimed that

2412:, brand of racist views. Mussolini attempted to reconcile the divisive racial discourse which had developed within the nation by asserting that he had already resolved the 13257: 9138: 6951: 9302: 3935:

but on an infinitely greater scale: the whole White race, the Western race can be submerged by other coloured races which are multiplying at a rate unknown in our race."

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The Province of Ljubljana saw the deportation of 25,000 people, which equaled 7.5% of its total population. The operation, one of the most drastic in Europe, filled up

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suppressed the Racial Laws in the Kingdom of Italy. However, they remained enforced and the severity of them was intensified in the territories which were ruled by the

3164:

was an influential Jewish member of the PNF who Mussolini had known since he and she had been members of the PSI and she had been his mistress and she had helped write

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in contrast to Southern Italians, who they considered biologically inferior to Northern Italians. At least some of the stereotypes of Southern Italians were created by

1989:, reportedly opposed the Racial Laws. Balbo, in particular, regarded antisemitism as having nothing to do with fascism and he staunchly opposed the antisemitic laws. 2991:

in 1935. Mussolini once declared "Anti-Semitism does not exist in Italy... Italians of Jewish birth have shown themselves good citizens and they fought bravely in ."

2846:

s Nordicist supremacist attitude towards Mediterraneans that it claimed was "considering them as slaves" and was "a repudiation of the entire Italian civilization".

2842:

and Romans in comparison with the ancient Germanic tribes made it inconceivable that Italian culture owed a debt to ancient Aryan Germans. The Council denounced the

3098: 3766: 4719: 9737: 9078: 8637: 3221:, the leadership of the PNF declared that "a Jewish question does not exist in our country and let us hope that there never shall be one, at least not until 14306: 5476: 4704: 2987: 3464:, and restricting Jewish ownership of certain companies and property; intermarriage was also prohibited. The first and most important of the Racial Laws ( 3054:

founded on 23 March 1919, five were Jewish. Since the movement's early years, there were a small number of prominent openly antisemitic fascists such as

2810:. Rellini claimed that Mediterranean and later Nordic peoples arrived in small numbers and peacefully intermixed with the indigenous Italian population. 3500:(PNF); among the 180 signers of the "Manifesto of Race" were two medical doctors (S. Visco and N. Fende), an anthropologist (L. Cipriani), a zoologist ( 7860: 1548: 14122: 7277: 3253:

In 1929, Mussolini acknowledged the contributions which Italian Jews had made to Italian society, despite their minority status, and he believed that

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Sestani, Armando, ed. (10 February 2012). "Il confine orientale: una terra, molti esodi" [The Eastern Border: One Land, Multiple Exoduses].

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Sestani, Armando, ed. (10 February 2012). "Il confine orientale: una terra, molti esodi" [The Eastern Border: One Land, Multiple Exoduses].

14321: 12634: 3622: 3073:) were politically connected, Mussolini made antisemitic statements involving the Bolshevik-German connection as being an "unholy alliance between 1244: 853: 8851: 2817:. However, these efforts were challenged by Mussolini's endorsement of Nordicist figures with the appointment of the staunch spiritual Nordicist 2523:

tribe and he accepted the Sioux's honorary bestowing of his incorporation into the Sioux with the Sioux position and name "Chief Flying Eagle".

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Shinn, Christopher A. (2019) . "Inside the Italian Empire: Colonial Africa, Race Wars, and the 'Southern Question'". In Kirkland, Ewan (ed.).

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Michael R. Ebner (1 December 2014). "Amedeo Osti Guerrazzi. The Italian Army in Slovenia: Strategies of Antipartisan Repression, 1941–1943".

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in which Jews were seen as an obstacle to the Fascist transformation of Italian society due to being bound to what Mussolini saw as decadent

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Mussolini and other fascists treated Nordicism with antipathy because they believed that people of Mediterranean racial heritage had an

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These disgusting Jews, we must destroy them all. I will make a massacre as the Turks have done. They are carrion, enemies and cowards.

1961:

By 1938, however, he began to actively support racist policies in the Italian Fascist regime, as evidenced by his endorsement of the "

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The Ciano Diaries 1939–1943: The Complete, Unabridged Diaries of Count Galeazzo Ciano, Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs, 1936–1943

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from other subjects of the newly-founded colonial empire. In the Kingdom of Italy, Eritreans and Ethiopians were to be addressed as "

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from institutions and state organizations. 1934 also saw press campaigns against anti-fascist Jews, in which they were equated with

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took up the traditional Nordicist claim that the decline and fall of the Roman Empire was due to the arrival of Semitic immigrants.

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was strongly criticized, especially its assertion that Italians were a "pure race", because critics considered the notion absurd.

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and Mussolini claimed that international Jewry had sided with Britain against Italy during Italy's war with Ethiopia. Historian

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and he sought to develop his own racial theories. On 11 September 1936, Cogni sent Mussolini a copy of his newly published book

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Barrera, Giulia (2003). "Mussolini's colonial races laws and state-settler relations in Africa Orientale Italiana (1935–41)".

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impulses" and they claimed that the Yugoslavs were conspiring together on behalf of "Grand Orient masonry and its funds". One

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manner an influence injurious to the material and moral interests of the country which harbors them, constituting a sort of

3066:, which had a substantial Jewish community that was accepted, and as a result, antisemitic incidents were rare in the city. 14368: 13553: 13538: 13313: 11781: 10363: 9817: 9228: 9178: 3818: 3492:" and not as natives, as was the case with the other African peoples subjected to the colonial rule of the Italian Empire. 2526: 1279: 1068: 976: 8906: 7980: 7553: 5366: 3089:

in June 1919, Mussolini wrote a highly antisemitic analysis on the situation in Europe involving Bolshevism following the

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from 1937 to 1938 that emphasized that Italy was supporting Spain's Nationalist forces against a "Jewish International".

2813:

In 1941, the PNF's Mediterraneanists put forward a comprehensive definition of the Italian race through the influence of

2305: 1222: 2727:

directly addressed its conception of racism and it also emphasized its autonomy from German racial theories by stating:

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instructions, including one that the orders must be "carried out most energetically and without any false compassion".

3290:

Considering that in many places certain groups of Jews are installed in conquered countries, exercising in an open and

1426: 873: 38: 14052: 6837: 3588:, Mussolini boasted about being racist from the beginning, and that his racism was not because of Hitler's influence: 14189: 13854: 13493: 12679: 12669: 11953: 10071: 10031: 9802: 9777: 9717: 9370: 9006: 8197: 7314: 7175: 7148: 6883: 6826: 6684: 6617: 6287: 5489: 5349: 4723: 4574: 3573:, which remained a powerful cultural force in Mussolini's Fascist regime, representing a uniquely Italian flavour of 2230: 2141: 1113: 823: 813: 13446: 9417: 4337: 3250:

interests, but they were favourable to Zionists who opposed the British and sought Italy's support and protection.

14613: 14255: 14148: 13859: 10281: 10061: 9782: 9360: 9193: 8901: 8861: 8648: 8574: 8569: 8079: 3319: 3270: 2640: 1158: 1143: 13647: 6798:. National Committee of Union of Societies of Combatants of the Slovene National Liberation Struggle. p. 27. 14363: 13949: 13749: 13283: 13252: 12975: 12240: 12109: 10353: 10140: 9996: 9976: 9959: 9402: 9365: 9163: 9055: 8534: 8450: 7890: 6922: 6730:(in Italian). Instituto storico della Resistenca e dell'Età Contemporanea in Provincia di Lucca. pp. 12–13. 5495: 3699: 3681: 3614: 3050: 2946: 2355: 2147: 1573: 1274: 1043: 13488: 13483: 11791: 9407: 7792: 6776:(in Italian). Instituto storico della Resistenca e dell'Età Contemporanea in Provincia di Lucca. pp. 12–13. 4465:

The Problem of Trieste and the Italo-Yugoslav Border: Difference, Identity, and Sovereignty in Twentieth-Century

4445:

The Problem of Trieste and the Italo-Yugoslav Border: Difference, Identity, and Sovereignty in Twentieth-Century

3266:

pro-Italian Jews in the region would weaken pro-British sentiment and potentially overturn the British mandate.

2782:

published other theories that described long-term Nordic Aryan amongst Italians, such as the theory that in the

1480: 526: 14032: 13714: 13657: 13358: 13353: 12674: 12579: 12340: 12074: 11938: 11042: 10218: 9672: 9168: 8972: 8856: 8217: 6901: 4403: 1033: 476: 9564: 7756: 3673: 3617:. It was a frequent source of praise for Adolf Hitler's anti-Semitic policies until its disbandment after the 1444: 14571: 13889: 13672: 13152: 12644: 11994: 10243: 9969: 9123: 8736: 8559: 8022: 7513: 7501: 7049: 3634: 2937: 2380: 2215: 2185: 2180: 2175: 1934: 1913: 1705: 265: 253: 48: 14204: 7047:

De Grand, Alexander (May 2004). "Mussolini's Follies: Fascism in Its Imperial and Racist Phase, 1935–1940".

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Goeschel, Christian (2012). "Italia docet? The Relationship between Italian Fascism and Nazism Revisited".

3883: 2504: 966: 99: 13874: 13548: 12495: 12255: 11786: 11771: 10952: 10716: 7924: 3592:

I was already a racist in 1921. I don't know how they can think that I imitate Hitler. They make me laugh.

2648:), where Günther recognized Germans as being composed of five racial types, namely Nordic, Mediterranean, 2337: 1607: 561: 13809: 13682: 13677: 13393: 13076: 12785: 12614: 11898: 10316: 10228: 10165: 10113: 10041: 9812: 9742: 9422: 9218: 9033: 8786: 8399: 8207: 7765: 6967: 3845: 3754: 3527: 3192: 2668: 2400: 2285: 2115: 1954: 1453: 1197: 619: 411: 12285: 9325: 7956: 7865: 2794:

s writers were divided on their claims as to how Italians extricated themselves from Semitic influence.

1992:

After 1938, discrimination and persecution intensified and became an increasingly important hallmark of

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Italian fascism's attitudes towards Zionism and Jews, in general, underwent a shift in response to the

3371: 2902:(PNF). In the early 1920s, Mussolini wrote an article which stated that Fascism would never elevate a " 2348: 2265: 1997: 1814: 1175: 1148: 998: 983: 863: 199: 12505: 11761: 11650: 9118: 3844:

which was already overpopulated at the time, from the Province of Ljubljana itself as well as another

3476:. In recognition of both their past and future contributions and for their service as subjects of the 1227: 13884: 13513: 13348: 13096: 12694: 11893: 11417: 10378: 10208: 10160: 10155: 10046: 9877: 9837: 9732: 9534: 9479: 9474: 8926: 8871: 8816: 8781: 8713: 8626: 8579: 8514: 8470: 7624: 5655:"Mussolini and the Jews on the eve of the March on Rome" by Giorgio Fabre. Joshua D. Zimmerman (ed). 3837: 3758: 3102: 2330: 1834: 971: 714: 373: 10696: 7900: 7829: 3504:), and a statistician (F. Savorgnan). The "Manifesto of Race", published in July 1938, declared the 2026: 1583: 1517: 14730: 14725: 14194: 13944: 13919: 13814: 13799: 13612: 13461: 13343: 13303: 13242: 13116: 12890: 12104: 11806: 11437: 11180: 11139: 10741: 10388: 10268: 10198: 10145: 10096: 9926: 9867: 9767: 9757: 9722: 9712: 9707: 9647: 9612: 9452: 9350: 9183: 9148: 8811: 8766: 8683: 8668: 8488: 8317: 8089: 7464: 7429: 7369: 2821:

as the head of Italy's Racial Office in May 1941, as well as by Mussolini's increasing interest in

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Modernity and Secession: The Social Sciences and the Political Discourse of the Lega Nord in Italy

3971:, prompting Mussolini to implement a variety of racist laws designed to showcase his vision of an 3702:, which was claimed by Italy, and claimed that the threat rallied Italians together at the end of 634: 521: 14519: 14393: 13687: 13543: 13533: 13451: 13086: 12775: 12714: 12594: 12574: 12330: 12149: 11589: 10513: 10286: 9702: 9687: 9459: 9447: 8932: 8801: 8698: 8369: 8344: 8297: 8192: 7968: 7116: 6952:

Giuseppe Piemontese (1946): Twenty-nine months of Italian occupation of the Province of Ljubljana

6918: 6369:

Bernardini, Gene (1977). "The Origins and Development of Racial Anti-Semitism in Fascist Italy".

6244: 4185:

Goeschel, Christian (March 2017). "Staging Friendship: Mussolini and Hitler in Germany in 1937".

3964: 3776: 3630: 3489: 3032: 2444: 2431:, Mussolini stated that "Fascism was born ... out of a profound, perennial need of this our 2315: 2135: 1809: 1651: 1304: 1073: 843: 833: 431: 12885: 12034: 11801: 7743: 3335:

constituting a sort of state within a state, profiting by all benefits and refusing all duties,

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as people who constituted the Mediterranean branch of the Aryan Race, Aryan meant people whose

2392: 2153: 1978: 1946: 1700: 1541: 1165: 895: 629: 358: 209: 12445: 12290: 11751: 11624: 9892: 7777: 7138: 5577: 5442: 5397: 5382: 3339:, the Conference denounces the nefarious action of these elements and is ready to combat them. 3306:, the Conference denounces the nefarious action of these elements and is ready to combat them. 1465: 14675: 14502: 13991: 13934: 13894: 13834: 13804: 13632: 13406: 12970: 12965: 12940: 12930: 12920: 12795: 12624: 12420: 12385: 12295: 12245: 12189: 12139: 12134: 12054: 11725: 11407: 11088: 10927: 10328: 10306: 10258: 10203: 10193: 10150: 9991: 9862: 9842: 9762: 9622: 9355: 9277: 9260: 9198: 9128: 9113: 8967: 8426: 8394: 8389: 8349: 8339: 8272: 8202: 8167: 8142: 7691: 7548: 7307: 6660: 6277: 6232: 5543: 5525: 5427: 5412: 4283: 4243:

Germany and the Second World War Organization and Mobilization in the German Sphere of Power.

3807: 3180: 2704: 1369: 1053: 1023: 774: 581: 536: 516: 300: 12790: 11730: 10892: 8990: 7912: 5288: 2635: 2225: 1595: 14446: 14408: 14265: 14240: 14042: 13599: 13595: 13508: 13436: 13323: 13247: 13173: 13111: 13000: 12935: 12820: 12619: 12490: 12485: 12250: 11796: 11735: 11144: 10276: 10170: 10006: 10001: 9792: 9667: 9282: 9103: 8942: 8756: 8688: 8673: 8384: 8374: 8334: 8262: 8242: 8152: 8132: 7931: 7814: 7619: 7614: 7496: 7486: 3972: 3898:, Mussolini stated that "Fascism was born... out of a profound, perennial need of this our 3867:

who were indicted by Yugoslavia and other countries, but Italy never saw anything like the

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The emphasis on a psychological model of a superior human being as it was described in the

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while asserting that the Nordics were the highest in a racial hierarchy of the five types.

2210: 1993: 1614: 1502: 1416: 1319: 1133: 749: 531: 368: 363: 248: 238: 14670: 12840: 12410: 11756: 10589: 9392: 7834: 2383:

did not enact comprehensive racist policies like those policies which were enacted by its

1937:

did not enact comprehensive racist policies like those policies which were enacted by its

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Toward an Understanding of Europe: A Political Economic Précis of Continental Integration

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Robinson, E. M. (1988). "Race as a Factor in Mussolini's Policy in Africa and Europe".

6386: 5852: 4800: 4311: 4224: 4056: 3984: 3864: 3645: 3626: 3610: 3538:. Not all Italian Fascists supported discrimination: while the pro-German, anti-Jewish 3090: 2631: 2602: 2436: 2416:

and as a result, he asserted that all Italians, not just Northerners, belonged to the "

2001: 1774: 1695: 1678: 1512: 1389: 1232: 1138: 684: 330: 285: 12300: 11548: 10756: 8508: 4349:

Dictating Demography: The Problem of Population in Fascist Italy by Carl Ipsen, pg 187

3468:) was the Regio Decreto 17 Novembre 1938, Nr. 1728. It restricted the civil rights of 14628: 14534: 14275: 14001: 13411: 13193: 13188: 12990: 12855: 12800: 12780: 12654: 12599: 12305: 12084: 12009: 11877: 11614: 11558: 11528: 11467: 11387: 11292: 11231: 11170: 11037: 10932: 10912: 10746: 10706: 10543: 10403: 10373: 10248: 10021: 9934: 9787: 9579: 9529: 9519: 9514: 9387: 9375: 9340: 9317: 9083: 9070: 8771: 8519: 8480: 8257: 8247: 7870: 7701: 7686: 7674: 7629: 7439: 7399: 7269: 7208: 7196: 7144: 7120: 7098: 7078: 6934: 6879: 6822: 6799: 6680: 6638: 6536: 6526: 6505: 6470: 6425: 6390: 6336: 6311: 6283: 6258: 6248: 6199: 6176: 6149: 6122: 6090: 6063: 6040: 5988: 5944: 5921: 5901: 5881: 5817: 5797: 5777: 5757: 5734: 5703: 5683: 5660: 5637: 5614: 5583: 5549: 5485: 5345: 5300: 5271: 5238: 5215: 5190: 5167: 5144: 5124: 5099: 5079: 5059: 5036: 4989: 4988:. Eastbourne, England; Portland, Oregon: Sussex Academic Press, 2008, 2010. p. 150. 4969: 4940: 4920: 4900: 4880: 4857: 4824: 4786: 4763: 4739: 4698: 4659: 4639: 4619: 4590: 4570: 4550: 4520: 4491: 4468: 4448: 4422: 4399: 4379: 4315: 4303: 4262: 4228: 4216: 4169: 4060: 4046: 3980: 3826: 3726:. ... I would say we can easily sacrifice 500,000 barbaric Slavs for 50,000 Italians. 3677: 3578: 3562:

While some scholars argue that this was an attempt by Mussolini to curry favour with

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for denying the influence of pre-Aryan civilization on modern Italy, saying that the

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James H. Burgwyn: "General Roatta's war against the partisans in Yugoslavia: 1942",

5985:

Anti-Semitism and Anti-Zionism in Historical Perspective: Convergence and Divergence

5918:

Anti-Semitism and Anti-Zionism in Historical Perspective: Convergence and Divergence

3840:

the first transport of 5,343 internees (1,643 of whom were children) arrived at the

2973:) and as a result, they should "remain undisturbed". One of Mussolini's mistresses, 2829:. The Council recognized Aryans as being a linguistic-based group and condemned the 2737:

ideal of superior consciousness of himself and to a greater sense of responsibility.

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The Popes Against the Jews: The Vatican's Role in the Rise of Modern Anti-Semitism,

4295: 4208: 4038: 4034: 3975:. These were unique in their extent and comprehensiveness at attempting to enforce 3940: 3868: 3687: 3426: 3258: 3058:. There were also prominent fascists who completely rejected antisemitism, such as 2917: 2911: 2891: 2871: 2657: 2611: 2581: 2453:

by claiming that the spiritual and cultural superiority of Italians as part of the

2405: 2396: 2280: 2260: 2235: 2042: 1950: 1829: 1819: 1396: 1239: 1108: 1078: 754: 674: 639: 624: 491: 456: 315: 258: 124: 114: 63: 13471: 11533: 10992: 10508: 8187: 2754:

was written in reference to the views of the Italian antisemitic racial theorists

679: 446: 14704: 14524: 14209: 13724: 13421: 13401: 12915: 12860: 12584: 12440: 12280: 12235: 12119: 12079: 12059: 12024: 11933: 11827: 11715: 11665: 11584: 11487: 11477: 11447: 11442: 11427: 11347: 11327: 11307: 11266: 11256: 11226: 11206: 11201: 11119: 11017: 10872: 10847: 10802: 10383: 10016: 9559: 9554: 9437: 9432: 9093: 9088: 9050: 9022: 8912: 8282: 8162: 8157: 8137: 8099: 7949: 7885: 7880: 7809: 7696: 7593: 7578: 7518: 7354: 7264: 7192: 6611:

Michaelis, Meir (1998). "Mussolini's unofficial mouthpiece: Telesio Interlandi –

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