1209:
703:
228:
519:
449:
469:, had to be made by the "bit-by-bit" process, that is, small pieces were forged separately and finally welded together. A key feature of his machine was that the operator controlled the force of each blow. He enjoyed showing off its capability by demonstrating how it could first break an egg placed in a wine glass, without breaking the glass, which was followed by a full-force blow which shook the building. Its advantages soon became so obvious that before long Nasmyth hammers were to be found in all the large workshops all over the country.
48:
600:
336:
to stay the night and visit the works the next day. That evening he met Hartop's family and was immediately smitten by his 21-year-old daughter, Anne. A decisive man, the next day he told her of his feelings and intentions, which was received "in the best spirit that I could desire." He then communicated the same to her parents, and told them his prospects, and so became betrothed in the same day. They were married two years later, on 16 June 1840 in
1175:
1190:
635:(1840–1899). This book contains an interesting series of "lunar" photographs: because photography was not yet advanced enough to take pictures at very high magnification directly of the Moon itself, Nasmyth built plaster relief scale models based on his visual observations of the Moon and then photographed the models under electric illumination, replicating the shadows of the topographic contours he observed on the Moon. A
288:
267:'s workshop and resolved to get employment there; unfortunately his father could not afford to place him as an apprentice at Maudslay's works. Nasmyth therefore decided instead to show Maudslay examples of his skills and produced a complete working model of a high-pressure steam engine, creating the working drawings and constructing the components himself.
429:. However, the Schneiders hesitated to build Bourdon's radical new machine. Bourdon and Eugène Schneider visited the Nasmyth works in England in the middle of 1840, where they were shown Nasmyth's sketch. This confirmed the feasibility of the concept to Schneider. In 1840 Bourdon built the first steam hammer in the world at the
587:. A reluctant patentor, and in this instance still working through some problems in his method, Nasmyth abandoned the project after hearing of Bessemer's ideas in 1856. Bessemer, however, acknowledged the efforts of Nasmyth by offering him a one-third share of the value of his patent for the eponymous
335:
in a snowstorm, when he spied some ironwork furnaces in the distance. The coachman informed him that they were managed by a Mr. Hartop who was one of his customers. He immediately got off the coach and headed for the furnaces through the deep snow. He found Mr. Hartop at his house, and was invited
440:
works. On going round the works, he found the steam-hammer at work. By his account, Bourdon took him to the forge department so he might, as he said, "see his own child". Nasmyth said "there it was, in truth–a thumping child of my brain!" Nasmyth patented his design in June 1842 using money
406:. He kept his ideas for new devices, mostly in drawings, in a "Scheme Book" which he freely showed to his foreign customers. Nasmyth made a sketch of his steam hammer design dated 24 November 1839, but the immediate need disappeared when the practicality of screw propellers was demonstrated and the
545:
Nasmyth was also one of the first toolmakers to offer a standardised range of machine tools; before this, manufacturers constructed tools according to individual clients' specifications with little regard to standardisation, which caused compatibility problems. Nasmyth was arguably the last of the
483:
which he invented in 1843. His first full scale machine used a four-ton hammer-block, and a rate of eighty blows per minute. The pile driver was first demonstrated in a contest with a team using the conventional method at
Devonport on 3 July 1845. He drove a pile 70 feet long and 18 inches
657:. The huge memorial stands at the east end of the main east–west path, with the path dividing around it. The monument holds a well-carved model of his steam hammer. James' mother, Barbara Foulis (1765-1848) is buried with them. The monument also stands as a memorial to his brother,
484:
squared in four and a half minutes, while the conventional method required twelve hours. This was a great success, and many orders for his pile driver resulted. It was used for many large scale constructions all over the world in the next few years, such as the
263:, making him one of the first students of the institution). In 1828 he made a complete steam carriage that was capable of running a mile carrying 8 passengers. This accomplishment increased his desire to become a mechanical engineer. He had heard of the fame of
275:
In May 1829, Nasmyth visited
Maudslay in London, and after showing him his work was engaged as an assistant workman at 10 shillings a week. Unfortunately, Maudslay died two years later, whereupon Nasmyth was taken on by Maudslay's partner as a
553:
Among
Nasmyth's other inventions, most of which he never patented, were a means of transmitting rotary motion by means of a flexible shaft made of coiled wire, a machine for cutting key grooves, self-adjusting bearings, and the
299:
The combination of massive castings and a wooden floor was not an ideal one, and after an accident involving one end of an engine beam crashing through the floor into a glass cutters flat below he soon relocated. He moved to
255:
and there he gradually learned to work and turn in wood, brass, iron, and steel. In 1820 he left the High School and again made great use of his father's workshop where at the age of 17, he made his first steam engine.
391:; when even the largest hammer was tilted to its full height its range was so small that if a really large piece of work were placed on the anvil, the hammer had no room to fall, and in 1838 the company's engineer (
283:
When
Nasmyth was 23 years old, having saved the sum of ÂŁ69, he decided to set up in business on his own. He rented a factory flat 130 feet long by 27 feet wide at an old cotton mill on Dale Street, Manchester.
445:'s husband William Bennett. He built his first steam hammer later that year in his Patricroft foundry. In 1843 a dispute broke out between the two engineers over priority of invention of the steam hammer.
826:
The
Repertory of Patent Inventions: And Other Discoveries and Improvements in Arts, Manufactures, and Agriculture; Being a Continuation, on an Enlarged Plan, of the Repertory of Arts & Manufactures
465:
The first hammers were of the free-fall type but they were later modified, given power-assisted fall. Up until then, the invention of
Nasmyth's steam-hammer, large forging, such as ships'
576:
were no longer novel by 1830, an example built by
Nasmyth around that time stands out for its prescience. It was tooled to mill the six sides of a hex nut that was mounted in a six-way
472:
An original
Nasmyth hammer now stands facing Nasmyth's Patricroft foundry buildings (now a 'business park'). A larger Nasmyth & Wilson steam hammer stands in the campus of the
510:
By 1856 a total of 490 hammers had been produced which were sold across Europe to Russia, India and even
Australia, and accounted for 40% of James Nasmyth and Company's revenues.
395:) wrote to Nasmyth: "I find there is not a forge-hammer in England or Scotland powerful enough to forge the paddle-shaft of the engine for the Great Britain! What am I to do?”
607:
Nasmyth retired from business in 1856 when he was 48 years old, as he said "I have now enough of this world's goods: let younger men have their chance". He settled down near
1278:
542:
which used water pressure to force tight-fitting machine parts together. All of these machines became popular in manufacturing, and all are still in use in modified form.
417:
came up with the similar idea of what he called a "Pilon" in 1839 and made detailed drawings of his design, which he also showed to all engineers who visited the works at
999:
436:
In April 1842 Nasmyth visited France with a view to supplying the French arsenals and dockyards with tools and while he was there took the opportunity to visit the
343:
Up to 1843, Nasmyth, Gaskell & Co. concentrated on producing a wide range of machine tools in large numbers. By 1856, Nasmyth had built 236 shaping machines.
247:
and he employed nearly all his spare time in his workshop where he encouraged his youngest son to work with him in all sorts of materials. James was sent to the
433:
works at Le
Creusot. It weighed 2,500 kilograms (5,500 lb) and lifted to 2 metres (6 ft 7 in). The Schneiders patented the design in 1841.
392:
251:
where he had as a friend, Jimmy Patterson, the son of a local iron founder. Being already interested in mechanics he spent much of his time at the
462:
By using the hammer, production costs could be reduced by over 50 percent, while at the same time improving the quality of the forgings produced.
1243:
558:
for moving molten metal which could safely and efficiently be handled by two men instead of the six previously required. Nasmyth's idea of a
555:
1288:
669:
In memory of his renowned contribution to the discipline of mechanical engineering, the Department of Mechanical Engineering building at
112:
1253:
454:
1308:
1036:
989:
953:
199:) (19 August 1808 – 7 May 1890) was a Scottish engineer, philosopher, artist and inventor famous for his development of the
1293:
583:
He also worked on a project for the conversion of iron which was not dis-similar to that which was eventually patented by
1003:
1194:
1248:
1283:
317:
346:
In 1840 he began to receive orders from the newly opened railways which were beginning to cover the country, for
369:
of unusual size and power which were required for the construction of the engines of their next and bigger ship
1268:
1063:
28:
24:
316:, where they traded as Nasmyth, Gaskell and Company. The premises were constructed adjacent to the (then new)
1273:
943:
611:, Kent, where he renamed his retirement home "Hammerfield" and happily pursued his various hobbies including
559:
485:
248:
1263:
1179:
632:
204:
169:
1303:
1298:
1110:
384:
In 1837, the Great Western Steam Company was experiencing many problems forging the paddle shaft of the
702:
337:
305:
979:
526:
Apart from the steam hammer, Nasmyth created several other important machine tools, including the
1080:
Cantrell, J. A. (2006). "James Nasmyth and the Bridgewater Foundry: Partners and Partnerships".
670:
260:
227:
122:
882:
824:
869:
531:
351:
1238:
1233:
473:
1174:
8:
1258:
968:
518:
489:
313:
913:
Lord, W. M. (1945). "The Development of the Bessemer Process in Lancashire, 1856–1900".
522:
The milling machine built by James Nasmyth between 1829 and 1831, with indexing fixture.
448:
426:
414:
1154:
1057:
430:
1129:
Musson, A. E. (1957). "James Nasmyth and the Early Growth of Mechanical Engineering".
1204:
1146:
1097:
1042:
1032:
1021:
985:
949:
930:
620:
616:
577:
422:
321:
292:
277:
240:
1213:
1138:
1089:
922:
588:
385:
370:
355:
309:
402:(it delivered every blow with the same force) sketched out his idea for the first
259:
From 1821 to 1826, Nasmyth regularly attended the Edinburgh School of Arts (today
658:
573:
539:
19:
This article is about the Scottish engineer. For the inventor of basketball, see
691:
584:
264:
20:
1200:
1093:
894:
1227:
1150:
1101:
964:
934:
686:
650:
636:
504:
496:
769:
566:
547:
535:
442:
403:
366:
208:
200:
132:
52:
1218:
926:
480:
399:
47:
599:
1183:
1158:
437:
418:
347:
301:
398:
Nasmyth thought the matter over and seeing the obvious defects of the
674:
654:
643:
612:
608:
328:
244:
243:
was a landscape and portrait painter. One of Alexander's hobbies was
236:
216:
212:
74:
1142:
479:
Nasmyth subsequently applied the principle of his steam hammer to a
231:
47 York Place, Edinburgh, Plaque commemorating James Nasmyth's birth
565:
In 1844 he, together with engineer Charles May, patented the first
102:
1189:
1031:. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, and London, England: MIT Press.
362:
252:
1046:
893:
775:
308:, Lancashire, where in August 1836, he and his business partner
287:
527:
466:
1118:
Transactions of the Lancashire and Cheshire Historical Society
500:
728:
805:
793:
624:
493:
332:
629:
The Moon: Considered as a Planet, a World, and a Satellite
833:
603:
Drawing of a crater on the surface of the Moon by Nasmyth
716:
642:
He was happily married to his wife Anne, from Woodburn,
781:
757:
747:
745:
743:
646:, for 50 years, until his death. They had no children.
327:
In March 1838 James was making a journey by coach from
591:. Nasmyth turned it down as he had decided to retire.
452:
James Nasmyth's patent steam hammer as illustrated in
27:. For the Member of Parliament for Peeblesshire, see
740:
706:
The grave of James Nasmyth and family, Dean Cemetery
1279:
People educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh
981:
Industrial Biography - Iron Workers and Tool Makers
945:
Science and technology in the Industrial Revolution
899:
Archives Départementales numérisées de la Côte d’Or
845:
1020:
365:and New York, led to him being asked to make some
562:for naval warfare was never put into production.
1225:
998:
811:
942:Musson, Albert Edward; Robinson, Eric (1969).
941:
734:
1051:First published alone as a monograph in 1960.
962:
799:
722:
211:. He retired at the age of 48, and moved to
1111:"James Nasmyth and the Liverpool Iron Trade"
948:. Manchester University Press. p. 491.
649:They are buried in the north section of the
361:had been so successful in voyages between
46:
1108:
880:
763:
215:, Kent where he developed his hobbies of
16:Scottish mechanical engineer and inventor
1079:
1018:
970:James Nasmyth Engineer: An Autobiography
839:
701:
677:, is called the James Nasmyth Building.
623:, and made detailed observations of the
598:
517:
447:
286:
226:
1219:Bibliomania: Full text of autobiography
1027:Studies in the History of Machine Tools
867:
751:
1226:
1128:
977:
787:
455:Tomlinson's Cyclopaedia of Useful Arts
1244:19th-century Scottish businesspeople
1002:. The Science Museum. Archived from
915:Transactions of the Newcomen Society
912:
851:
776:François BOURDON: Archives Côte d’Or
1289:People of the Industrial Revolution
513:
379:
235:Nasmyth was born at 47 York Place,
174:James Nasmyth and Company (1850–56)
13:
1072:
14:
1320:
1167:
538:making. Another innovation was a
1254:Alumni of Heriot-Watt University
1188:
1173:
1023:History of the Milling Machine.
978:Smiles, Samuel (2015). "Ch.XV".
870:"Who Invented the Steam Hammer?"
639:on the Moon is named after him.
318:Liverpool and Manchester Railway
1210:Works by or about James Nasmyth
619:, in the process inventing the
23:. For the Scottish lawyer, see
1000:"Nasmyth steam hammer, c.1850"
817:
664:
410:was converted to that design.
29:Sir James Nasmyth, 2nd Baronet
25:Sir James Nasmyth, 1st Baronet
1:
1309:Scottish mechanical engineers
1019:Woodbury, Robert S. (1972) .
697:
594:
222:
887:Railway Locomotives and Cars
615:. He built his own 20-inch
291:James Nasmyth circa 1844 by
205:Nasmyth, Gaskell and Company
170:Nasmyth, Gaskell and Company
7:
1294:People of the Victorian era
1131:The Economic History Review
680:
203:. He was the co-founder of
10:
1325:
1062:: CS1 maint: postscript (
350:. His connection with the
18:
1249:Scottish company founders
1094:10.1080/00076798100000064
800:Nasmyth & Smiles 1883
723:Nasmyth & Smiles 1883
304:, an area of the town of
270:
178:
165:
153:
146:
128:
118:
108:
98:
82:
60:
45:
38:
1284:Engineers from Edinburgh
883:"Notes on Steam Hammers"
874:Engineering News-record
673:, in his birthplace of
534:which is still used in
530:, an adaptation of the
354:whose famous steamship
1201:Works by James Nasmyth
1193:Quotations related to
1109:Dickinson, R. (1956).
973:. London: John Murray.
881:Chomienne, C. (1888).
707:
671:Heriot-Watt University
604:
546:early pioneers of the
523:
459:
421:owned by the brothers
296:
261:Heriot-Watt University
232:
123:Heriot-Watt University
1269:Machine tool builders
705:
602:
521:
451:
352:Great Western Railway
290:
230:
1274:Mechanical engineers
927:10.1179/tns.1945.017
829:. proprietors. 1845.
812:Nasmyth steam hammer
617:reflecting telescope
481:pile-driving machine
474:University of Bolton
413:The French engineer
1264:Hydraulic engineers
889:. Simmons-Boardman.
735:MussonRobinson 1969
490:Newcastle upon Tyne
431:Schneider & Cie
314:Bridgewater Foundry
187:(sometimes spelled
157:Mechanical engineer
1304:Scottish inventors
1299:Scottish engineers
1178:Works by or about
895:"François BOURDON"
708:
605:
524:
460:
297:
293:Hill & Adamson
233:
185:James Hall Nasmyth
1205:Project Gutenberg
1038:978-0-262-73033-4
991:978-1-4733-7118-7
955:978-0-7190-0370-7
486:High Level Bridge
393:Francis Humphries
322:Bridgewater Canal
249:Royal High School
241:Alexander Nasmyth
239:where his father
219:and photography.
207:manufacturers of
182:
181:
148:Scientific career
1316:
1214:Internet Archive
1192:
1177:
1162:
1125:
1115:
1105:
1082:Business History
1067:
1061:
1053:
1030:
1015:
1013:
1011:
995:
974:
963:Nasmyth, James;
959:
938:
909:
907:
905:
890:
877:
868:Boutany (1885).
855:
849:
843:
842:, p. 24-26.
837:
831:
830:
821:
815:
809:
803:
797:
791:
785:
779:
773:
767:
761:
755:
749:
738:
732:
726:
720:
589:Bessemer process
574:milling machines
514:Other inventions
427:Eugène Schneider
415:François Bourdon
380:The steam hammer
310:Holbrook Gaskell
93:
91:
71:
69:
50:
36:
35:
1324:
1323:
1319:
1318:
1317:
1315:
1314:
1313:
1224:
1223:
1170:
1165:
1143:10.2307/2600067
1113:
1075:
1073:Further reading
1070:
1055:
1054:
1039:
1009:
1007:
992:
956:
903:
901:
858:
850:
846:
838:
834:
823:
822:
818:
810:
806:
798:
794:
786:
782:
774:
770:
762:
758:
750:
741:
733:
729:
721:
717:
700:
683:
667:
659:Patrick Nasmyth
633:James Carpenter
627:. He co-wrote
597:
540:hydraulic press
516:
443:his sister Anne
382:
273:
225:
173:
160:
158:
141:
139:
137:
135:
119:Alma mater
89:
87:
78:
72:
67:
65:
56:
41:
32:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1322:
1312:
1311:
1306:
1301:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1271:
1266:
1261:
1256:
1251:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1222:
1221:
1216:
1207:
1198:
1186:
1169:
1168:External links
1166:
1164:
1163:
1137:(1): 121–127.
1126:
1106:
1088:(3): 346–358.
1076:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1068:
1037:
1016:
996:
990:
984:. Read Books.
975:
965:Smiles, Samuel
960:
954:
939:
921:(1): 163–180.
910:
891:
878:
876:. McGraw-Hill.
864:
857:
856:
854:, p. 164.
844:
832:
816:
804:
802:, p. 259.
792:
780:
768:
766:, p. 254.
764:Chomienne 1888
756:
739:
737:, p. 491.
727:
714:
699:
696:
695:
694:
689:
682:
679:
666:
663:
596:
593:
585:Henry Bessemer
515:
512:
441:borrowed from
381:
378:
272:
269:
265:Henry Maudslay
224:
221:
180:
179:
176:
175:
167:
163:
162:
155:
151:
150:
144:
143:
130:
129:Known for
126:
125:
120:
116:
115:
110:
106:
105:
100:
96:
95:
94:(aged 81)
84:
80:
79:
73:
64:19 August 1808
62:
58:
57:
51:
43:
42:
39:
21:James Naismith
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1321:
1310:
1307:
1305:
1302:
1300:
1297:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1275:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1257:
1255:
1252:
1250:
1247:
1245:
1242:
1240:
1237:
1235:
1232:
1231:
1229:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1202:
1199:
1196:
1195:James Nasmyth
1191:
1187:
1185:
1181:
1180:James Nasmyth
1176:
1172:
1171:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1112:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1078:
1077:
1065:
1059:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1034:
1029:
1028:
1024:
1017:
1006:on 5 May 2013
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
987:
983:
982:
976:
972:
971:
966:
961:
957:
951:
947:
946:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
911:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
879:
875:
871:
866:
865:
863:
862:
853:
848:
841:
840:Woodbury 1972
836:
828:
827:
820:
813:
808:
801:
796:
789:
784:
777:
772:
765:
760:
754:, p. 59.
753:
748:
746:
744:
736:
731:
724:
719:
715:
713:
712:
704:
693:
690:
688:
687:Benjamin Hick
685:
684:
678:
676:
672:
662:
660:
656:
652:
651:Dean Cemetery
647:
645:
640:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
621:Nasmyth focus
618:
614:
610:
601:
592:
590:
586:
581:
579:
575:
570:
568:
563:
561:
557:
551:
549:
543:
541:
537:
533:
529:
520:
511:
508:
506:
505:Aswan Low Dam
502:
498:
495:
491:
487:
482:
477:
475:
470:
468:
463:
457:
456:
450:
446:
444:
439:
434:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
411:
409:
408:Great Britain
405:
401:
396:
394:
390:
389:
388:Great Britain
377:
375:
374:
373:Great Britain
368:
367:machine tools
364:
360:
359:
358:Great Western
353:
349:
344:
341:
339:
334:
330:
325:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
294:
289:
285:
281:
279:
268:
266:
262:
257:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
229:
220:
218:
214:
210:
209:machine tools
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
177:
171:
168:
164:
156:
152:
149:
145:
136:Machine tools
134:
131:
127:
124:
121:
117:
114:
111:
107:
104:
101:
97:
85:
81:
76:
63:
59:
55:print, c.1877
54:
49:
44:
40:James Nasmyth
37:
34:
30:
26:
22:
1197:at Wikiquote
1134:
1130:
1121:
1117:
1085:
1081:
1050:
1026:
1022:
1008:. Retrieved
1004:the original
980:
969:
944:
918:
914:
902:. Retrieved
898:
886:
873:
860:
859:
847:
835:
825:
819:
807:
795:
783:
771:
759:
752:Boutany 1885
730:
718:
710:
709:
668:
661:(1787-1831)
648:
641:
631:(1874) with
628:
606:
582:
571:
567:Vacuum brake
564:
552:
548:machine tool
544:
536:tool and die
525:
509:
478:
471:
464:
461:
453:
435:
412:
407:
404:steam hammer
397:
387:
383:
372:
357:
345:
342:
326:
298:
282:
274:
258:
234:
201:steam hammer
196:
192:
188:
184:
183:
166:Institutions
147:
133:Steam hammer
53:Woodburytype
33:
1239:1890 deaths
1234:1808 births
788:Smiles 2015
665:Recognition
653:in western
556:screw ladle
400:tilt-hammer
348:locomotives
312:opened the
278:draughtsman
142:Photography
138:Locomotives
109:Citizenship
99:Nationality
1259:Foundrymen
1228:Categories
1184:Wikisource
698:References
595:Later life
550:industry.
438:Le Creusot
419:Le Creusot
302:Patricroft
223:Early life
172:,(1836–50)
90:1890-05-08
86:7 May 1890
77:, Scotland
68:1808-08-19
1151:0013-0117
1124:: 83–104.
1102:0007-6791
1058:cite book
1010:10 August
935:0372-0187
904:10 August
852:Lord 1945
790:, Ch. XV.
711:Citations
692:John Hick
675:Edinburgh
655:Edinburgh
644:Yorkshire
613:astronomy
609:Penshurst
580:fixture.
572:Although
560:steam ram
503:, Egypt (
338:Wentworth
329:Sheffield
245:mechanics
237:Edinburgh
217:astronomy
213:Penshurst
140:Astronomy
75:Edinburgh
1047:72006354
967:(1883).
681:See also
578:indexing
492:and the
320:and the
189:Naesmyth
161:Inventor
103:Scottish
1212:at the
1159:2600067
861:Sources
497:barrage
467:anchors
423:Adolphe
363:Bristol
253:foundry
197:Nesmyth
193:Nasmith
113:British
88: (
66: (
1157:
1149:
1100:
1045:
1035:
988:
952:
933:
637:crater
532:planer
528:shaper
458:, 1854
306:Eccles
271:Career
159:Artist
154:Fields
1155:JSTOR
1114:(PDF)
501:Aswan
195:, or
1147:ISSN
1098:ISSN
1064:link
1043:LCCN
1033:ISBN
1012:2013
986:ISBN
950:ISBN
931:ISSN
906:2013
625:Moon
494:Nile
425:and
333:York
83:Died
61:Born
1203:at
1182:at
1139:doi
1122:108
1090:doi
923:doi
507:).
499:at
488:at
386:SS
371:SS
356:SS
331:to
1230::
1153:.
1145:.
1135:10
1133:.
1120:.
1116:.
1096:.
1086:23
1084:.
1060:}}
1056:{{
1049:.
1041:.
1025:In
929:.
919:25
917:.
897:.
885:.
872:.
742:^
569:.
476:.
376:.
340:.
324:.
280:.
191:,
1161:.
1141::
1104:.
1092::
1066:)
1014:.
994:.
958:.
937:.
925::
908:.
814:.
778:.
725:.
295:.
92:)
70:)
31:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.