History of the Jews in Spain

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were prohibited from practising medicine, surgery, or chemistry (pharmacy) and from dealing in bread, wine, flour, meat, etc. They might not engage in handicrafts or trades of any kind, nor might they fill public offices, or act as money-brokers or agents. They were not allowed to hire Catholic servants, farmhands, lamplighters, or gravediggers; nor might they eat, drink, or bathe with Catholics, or hold intimate conversation (have sexual relations) with them, or visit them, or give them presents. Catholic women, married or unmarried, were forbidden to enter the Judería either by day or by night. The Jews were allowed no self-jurisdiction whatever, nor might they, without royal permission, levy taxes for communal purposes; they might not assume the title of "Don", carry arms, or trim beard or hair. Jewish women were required to wear plain, long mantles of coarse material reaching to the feet; and it was strictly forbidden for Jews to wear garments made of better material. On pain of loss of property and even of slavery, they were forbidden to leave the country, and any grandee or knight who protected or sheltered a fugitive Jew was punished with a fine of 150,000 maravedís for the first offense. These laws, which were rigidly enforced, any violation of them being punished with a fine of 300–2,000 maravedís and flagellation, were calculated to compel the Jews to embrace Catholicism.

5417: 4654:, to inflict upon Jews the penalties of death, mutilation, expulsion, or excommunication; but in civil proceedings they were still permitted to choose their own judges. In consequence of an accusation that the Jewish prayers contained clauses cursing the Catholics, the king ordered that within two months, on pain of a fine of 3,000 maravedís, they should remove from their prayer-books the objectionable passages. Whoever caused the conversion to Judaism of a Moor or of any one confessing another faith, or performed the rite of circumcision upon him, became a slave and the property of the treasury. The Jews no longer dared show themselves in public without the badge, and in consequence of the ever-growing hatred toward them they were no longer sure of life or limb; they were attacked and robbed and murdered in the public streets, and at length the king found it necessary to impose a fine of 6,000 maravedís on any town in which a Jew was found murdered. Against his desire, John was obliged in 1385 to issue an order prohibiting the employment of Jews as financial agents or tax-farmers to the king, queen, infantes, or grandees. To this was added the resolution adopted by the 3159:, a prominent Jewish figure in the 15th century and one of the king's trusted courtiers who witnessed the 1492 expulsion of Jews, informs his readers that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship to Spain by a certain Phiros, a confederate of the king of Babylon in laying siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Greek by birth, but had been given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to a certain Espan, the nephew of King Heracles, who also ruled over a kingdom in Spain. This Heracles later renounced his throne because of his preference for his native country in Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country's name España (Spain) derives. The Jewish exiles transported there by the said Phiros were descended by lineage from Judah, Benjamin, Shimon and Levi, and were, according to Abrabanel, settled in two districts in southern Spain: one, 5174: 4767:; 300 Jews were killed, and 800 found refuge in the fort, from which, with the permission of the governor of the island, and under cover of night, they sailed to North Africa; many submitted to baptism. Three days later, on Saturday, August 5, a riot began in Barcelona. On the first day, 100 Jews were killed, while several hundred found refuge in the new fort; on the following day the mob invaded the Juderia and began pillaging. The authorities did all in their power to protect the Jews, but the mob attacked them and freed those of its leaders who had been imprisoned. On Aug. 8 the citadel was stormed, and more than 300 Jews were murdered, among the slain being the only son of 5186: 4628:, or chief tax-collector, was Joseph Pichon of Seville. The clergy, whose power became greater and greater under the reign of the fratricide, stirred the anti-Jewish prejudices of the masses into clamorous assertion at the Cortes of Toro in 1371. It was demanded that the Jews should be kept far from the palaces of the grandees, should not be allowed to hold public office, should live apart from the Catholics, should not wear costly garments nor ride on mules, should wear the badge, and should not be allowed to bear Catholic names. The king granted the two last-named demands, as well as a request made by the Cortes of 5162: 4466: 4204:, who assumed the title of Emperor of Leon, Toledo, and Santiago, curtailed in the beginning of his reign the rights and liberties which his father had granted the Jews. He ordered that neither a Jew nor a convert might exercise legal authority over Catholics, and he held the Jews responsible for the collection of the royal taxes. Soon, however, he became more friendly, confirming the Jews in all their former privileges and even granting them additional ones, by which they were placed on equality with Catholics. Considerable influence with the king was enjoyed by 2791:, addressed the interactions between Christians and Jews, which were relatively common at the time, with some Christians even admiring Jewish practices. To mitigate Jewish influence on Christian society, the council enacted several edicts aimed at reinforcing separation between the two groups. Canon 16 prohibited intermarriage between Christians and Jews, Canon 78 imposed penalties on Christians committing adultery with Jewish women, Canon 48 forbade Jews from blessing Christian crops, and Canon 50 prohibited shared meals between Christians and Jews. 4485: 4003:

Christian leaders, who were increasingly emerging victorious during the later Reconquista. The Jews' knowledge of the language and the culture of the enemy, their skills as diplomats and professionals and their desire for relief from intolerable conditions rendered their services of great value to the Christians during the Reconquista, the very same reasons that they had proved useful to the Arabs in the early stages of the Muslim invasion. The necessity of having conquerors settle in reclaimed territories also outweighed the prejudices of

5198: 5231: 4715:, March 15, according to the source the arrest and public whipping of two of the mob-leaders. If that date had been Ash Wednesday, Easter would have fallen on 30 April, which is impossible in western Christianity. The fanatical mob, still further exasperated thereby, murdered and robbed several Jews and threatened the Guzmáns with death. In vain did the regency issue prompt orders; Ferrand Martínez continued unhindered his inflammatory appeals to the rabble to kill the Jews or baptize them. On June 6 the mob attacked the 3346:. The canons referred to forcibly converted Jews as "baptized Jews" or simply as "Jews," but never as "Christians". It was decided that if professed Christian were determined to be a practising Jew, their children were to be taken away to be raised in monasteries or trusted Christian households. The council further directed that all who had reverted to Judaism during the reign of Swintila had to return to Christianity. The trend toward intolerance continued with the ascent of 5020: 4159:, issued and confirmed by him in 1076, he not only granted the Jews full equality with Catholics, but he even accorded them the rights enjoyed by the nobility. To show their gratitude to the king for the rights granted them, the Jews willingly placed themselves at his and the country's service. Alfonso's army contained 40,000 Jews, who were distinguished from the other combatants by their black-and-yellow turbans; for the sake of this Jewish contingent the 5279:, the grand inquisitor, who dashed into the royal presence and, throwing a crucifix down before the king and queen, asked whether, like Judas, they would betray their Lord for money. Torquemada was reputedly of converso ancestry, and the confessor of Isabella, Espina, was previously a Rabin. Whatever the truth of this story, there were no signs of relaxation shown by the court, and the Jews of Spain made preparations for exile. In some cases, as at 4322:

or use the same bath; neither might a Catholic partake of wine which had been prepared by a Jew. The Jews might not employ Catholic nurses or servants, and Catholics might use only medicinal remedies which had been prepared by competent Catholic apothecaries. Every Jew should wear the badge, though the king reserved to himself the right to exempt anyone from this obligation; any Jew apprehended without the badge was liable to a fine of ten gold

4275: 5052:, or to give them away; neither might they dispose of meat which they were prohibited from eating. They might have no intercourse (sex) with Catholics, nor might they disinherit their baptized children. They should wear the badge at all times, and thrice a year all Jews over twelve, of both sexes, were required to listen to a Catholic sermon. (the bull is reprinted, from a manuscript in the archives of the cathedral in Toledo, by Rios ). 4977:, where they were well treated by the Moors, and though shortly before his death he inflicted a fine of 24,000 doubloons on the city of Córdoba because of a riot that had taken place there (1406), during which the Jews had been plundered and many of them murdered, he prohibited the Jews from attiring themselves in the same manner as other Spaniards, and he insisted strictly on the wearing of the badge by those who had not been baptized. 4413: 4032: 4018:. As conditions became more oppressive in the areas under Muslim rule during the 12th and the 13th centuries, Jews again looked to an outside culture for relief. Christian leaders of reconquered cities granted them extensive autonomy, and Jewish scholarship recovered and developed as communities grew in size and importance (Assis, p. 18). However, the Reconquista Jews never reached the same heights as had those of the Golden Age. 3002: 2704:(218–202 BC). It is likely that these communities originated several generations earlier in the aftermath of the conquest of Judea, and possible that they originated much earlier. It is within the realm of possibility that they went there under the Romans as free men to take advantage of its rich resources and build enterprises there. These early arrivals would have been joined by those who had been enslaved by the Romans under 5848: 5220: 5374:, whose numbers, as has been shown, had been increased by no less than 50,000 during the period of the expulsion to a possible total of 300,000. For three centuries after the expulsion, Spanish Conversos were subject to suspicion by the Spanish Inquisition, which executed over 3000 people in the 1570–1700 period on charges of heresy (including Judaism). They were also subject to more general discriminatory laws known as " 5350: 3868: 30: 5862: 5585:, saved thousands of Ashkenazim in Hungary by granting them Spanish citizenship, placing them in safe houses and teaching them minimal Spanish so they could pretend to be Sephardim, at least to someone who did not know Spanish. The Spanish diplomatic corps was performing a balancing act: Alexy conjectures that the number of Jews they took in was limited by how much German hostility they were willing to engender. 5760:, mainly Ashkenazim, escaping from the military junta. With the birth of the European community, Jews from other countries in Europe moved to Spain because of its weather, lifestyle as well as for its cost of living relative to the north of Europe. Some Jews see Spain as an easier life for retirees and for young people. Mazarron has seen its Jewish community grow as well as La Manga, Cartagena and Alicante. 4673: 2541: 4339: 5044:, to read anti-Catholic writing, in particular the work "Macellum" ("Mar Jesu"), to pronounce the names of Jesus, Maria, or the saints, to manufacture communion-cups or other church vessels or accept such as pledges, or to build new synagogues or ornament old ones. Each community might have only one synagogue. Jews were denied all rights of self-jurisdiction, nor might they proceed against 4093: 4208:(Nasi). After the conquest of Calatrava (1147) the king placed Judah in command of the fortress, later making him his court chamberlain. Judah ben Joseph stood in such favor with the king that the latter, at his request, not only admitted into Toledo the Jews who had fled from the persecutions of the Almohades, but even assigned many fugitives dwellings in Flascala (near Toledo), 5836:

be approved applicants needed to take "tests in Spanish language and culture... prove their Sephardic heritage, establish or prove a special connection with Spain, and then pay a designated notary to certify their documents." Most applications came from nationals of countries with high levels of insecurity and violence in Latin America (mainly Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela).

3260: 8913: 3385:, any of their brethren known to have relapsed to Judaism. The council was aware that prior efforts had been frustrated by lack of compliance among authorities on the local level; therefore, anyone, including nobles and clergy, found to have aided Jews in their practice of Judaism was to be punished by seizure of one quarter of their property and excommunication. 3287: 4375:

obtain it only from the Jews, to whom they paid from 20 to 25 percent interest. This business, which, in a manner, the Jews were forced to pursue in order to pay the many taxes imposed upon them as well as to raise the compulsory loans demanded of them by the kings, led to their being employed in special positions, as "almonries", bailiffs, tax collectors.

2868:, who had supposedly died in Spain while collecting tribute. Another legend spoke of a letter allegedly sent by the Jews of Toledo to Judaea in 30 CE, asking to prevent the crucifixion of Jesus. These legends aimed to establish that Jews had settled in Spain well before the Roman period and to absolve them of any responsibility for the death of Jesus, a 3136:, the King Ferdinand and his wife, Isabella, made war with the Ishmaelites who were in Granada and took it, and while they returned they commanded the Jews in all of his kingdoms that in but a short time they were to take leave from the countries , they being Castile, Navarre, Catalonia, Aragón, Granada and Sicily. Then the inhabitants of 3099:(ca. 1250 – 1305) mentions a tradition concerning the first Jewish exiles, saying that the vast majority of the first exiles driven away from the land of Israel during the Babylonian captivity refused to return, for they had seen that the Second Temple would be destroyed like the first. In yet another teaching, passed down later by 4519:. For this reason, the king was called "the heretic" and often "the cruel". Peter, whose education had been neglected, was not quite sixteen years of age when he ascended the throne in 1350. From the commencement of his reign he so surrounded himself with Jews that his enemies in derision spoke of his court as "a Jewish court". 5635:, Franco's chief of security, issued an official order dated May 13, 1941 to all provincial governors requesting a list of all Jews, both local and foreign, present in their districts. After the list of six thousand names was compiled, Romani was appointed Spain's ambassador to Germany, enabling him to deliver it personally to 3967:

of proper Islam. In spite of large-scale forcible conversions, Sephardic culture was not entirely decimated. Members of Lucena's Jewish community, for example, managed to bribe their way out of conversion. As the spirit of Andalusian Islam was absorbed by the Almoravides, policies concerning Jews were relaxed. The poet

4109:, treated the Jews harshly. In their operations against the Moors they did not spare the Jews, destroying their synagogues and killing their teachers and scholars. Only gradually did the rulers come to realize that, surrounded as they were by powerful enemies, they could not afford to turn the Jews against them. 4175:, together with 30,000 men were killed, an anti-Jewish riot broke out in Toledo; many Jews were slain, and their houses and synagogues were burned (1108). Alfonso intended to punish the murderers and incendiaries, but died in June, 1109 before he could carry out his intention. After his death the inhabitants of 5499:, "Laws regulating their admittance were written and mostly ignored." They were mainly from Western Europe, fleeing deportation to concentration camps from occupied France, but also Jews from Eastern Europe, especially Hungary. Trudi Alexy refers to the "absurdity" and "paradox of refugees fleeing the Nazis' 3313:(612–620) embarked on Recared's course with renewed vigour. Sisebut instituted what was to become a recurring phenomenon in European Christian kingdoms, the first edicts requiring the mass conversion of all Jews to Christianity. After his 613 decree that Jews must either convert or be expelled, some fled to 5287:, to the municipality — a precaution not unjustified, as the Jewish cemetery of Seville was later ravaged by the people. The members of the Jewish community of Segovia passed the last three days of their stay in the city in the Jewish cemetery, fasting and wailing over being parted from their dead beloved. 5296:

majority had already converted to Catholicism. This in addition to the indeterminate number who managed to return has led recent academic investigations such as those of Joseph Pérez and Julio Valdeón to offer figures of somewhere between 50,000 and 80,000 practicing Jews expelled from Spanish territory.

4708:, although deprived of his office, continued, in spite of numerous warnings, to incite the public against the Jews, and encourage it to acts of violence. As early as January, 1391, the prominent Jews who were assembled in Madrid received information that riots were threatening in Seville and Córdoba. 4600:

of Palencia, had reached its culminating point, especially in Toledo, which was being besieged by Henry, and in which no less than 8,000 persons died through famine and the hardships of war. This civil conflict did not end until the death of Peter, of whom the victorious brother said, derisively, "Dó

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ravaged Castile with a powerful army and threatened to overrun the whole of Catholic Spain. The Archbishop of Toledo called to crusade to aid Alfonso. In this war against the Moors the king was greatly aided by the wealthy Jews of Toledo, especially by his "almoxarife mayor", the learned and generous

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sect abhorred the liberality of the Islamic culture of al-Andalus, including the position of authority that some dhimmis held over Muslims. In addition to battling the Christians, who were gaining ground, the Almoravides implemented numerous reforms to bring al-Andalus more in line with their notions

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leaders. Rather than having a stifling effect, the disintegration of the caliphate expanded the opportunities to Jewish and other professionals. The services of Jewish scientists, doctors, traders, poets and scholars were generally valued by the Christian as well as Muslim rulers of regional centres,

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In addition to contributions of original work, the Sephardim were active as translators. Greek texts were rendered into Arabic, Arabic into Hebrew, Hebrew and Arabic into Latin and all combinations of vice versa occurred. In translating the great works of Arabic, Hebrew, and Greek into Latin, Iberian

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again called for forced baptism and, for those who disobeyed, seizure of property, corporal punishment, exile, ll and slavery. Jewish children over seven years of age were taken from their parents and similarly dealt with in 694. Erwig also took measures to ensure that Catholic sympathisers would not

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of 1492 would be offered Spanish citizenship, without being required to move to Spain and/or renounce any other citizenship they may have. The law lapsed on October 1, 2019 and by that point the justice ministry claimed to have received 132,226 applications and approved 1,500 applicants. In order to

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in 1379 that Jews should neither carry arms nor sell weapons; but he did not prevent them from holding religious disputations, nor did he deny them the exercise of criminal jurisprudence. The latter prerogative was not taken from them until the reign of John I, Henry's son and successor; he withdrew

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The Jews of Spain formed in themselves a separate political body. They lived almost solely in the Juderias, various enactments being issued from time to time preventing them from living elsewhere. From the time of the Moors they had had their own administration. At the head of the aljamas in Castile

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in April 1250, to the effect that Jews might not build a new synagogue without special permission, also made it illegal for Jews to proselytize, under pain of death and confiscation of property. They might not associate with the Catholics, live under the same roof with them, eat and drink with them,

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matters in general. Arabic came to be the main language of Sephardic science, philosophy and everyday business. From the second half of the 9th century, most Jewish prose, including many non-halakhic religious works, was in Arabic. The thorough adoption of Arabic greatly facilitated the assimilation

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The Eastern Roman Empire sent its navy on numerous occasions in the late 7th century and the early 8th century to try to instill uprisings in the Jewish and Christian Roman populations in Spain and Gaul against their Visigoth and Frankish rulers that was also aimed at halting the expansion of Muslim

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in 711 is uncertain, but since they were openly treated as enemies in the country in which they had resided for generations, it would be no surprise for them to have appealed to the Moors to the south, who were quite tolerant in comparison to the Visigoths, for aid. In any case, the Jews in 694 were

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wrote that he found written in the ancient annals of Spanish history collected by the kings of Spain that the 50,000 Jewish households then residing in the cities throughout Spain were the descendants of men and women who were sent to Spain by the Roman Emperor and who had formerly been subjected to

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decisions, all those that pertained to Jews served to maintain a separation between the two communities. It seems that by this time the presence of Jews was of greater concern to Catholic authorities than the presence of pagans; Canon 16, which prohibited marriage with Jews, was worded more strongly

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In 2014, residents of a village in Spain called Castrillo Matajudios voted to change the name of their town due to risk of confusion resulting from the etymology of the name. "Mata" is a common suffix of placenames in Spain, meaning "forested patch". In this case, it is likely to be a corruption of

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Some historians argue that these facts demonstrate a humane attitude by Franco's regime, while others point out that the regime only permitted Jewish transit through Spain. After the war, Franco's regime was quite hospitable to those who had been responsible for the deportation of the Jews, notably

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The object of this law was to reduce the Jews to poverty and to further humiliate them. They were ordered to live by themselves, in enclosed Juderías, and they were to repair, within eight days after the publication of the order, to the quarters assigned them under penalty of loss of property. They

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it because certain Jews, on the king's coronation-day, by withholding the name of the accused, had obtained his permission to inflict the death-penalty on Joseph Pichon, who stood high in the royal favor; the accusation brought against Pichon included "harboring evil designs, informing, and treason.

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were the most important), both as regards their customs and their language. They owned real estate, and they cultivated their land with their own hands; they filled public offices, and on account of their industry they became wealthy while their knowledge and ability won them respect and influence.

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Even though the Spanish Jews engaged in many branches of human endeavor—agriculture, viticulture, industry, commerce, and the various handicrafts—it was the money business that procured to some of them their wealth and influence. Kings and prelates, noblemen and farmers, all needed money and could

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The Crusaders were hailed with joy in Toledo, but this joy was soon changed to sorrow, as far as the Jews were concerned. The Crusaders began the "holy war" in Toledo (1212) by robbing and killing the Jews, and if the knights had not checked them with armed forces all the Jews in Toledo would have

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The Jews from the Muslim south were not entirely secure in their northward migrations, however. Old prejudices were compounded by newer ones. Suspicions of complicity with Islam were alive, and Jews who immigrated from Muslim territories spoke Arabic. However, many of the newly-arrived Jews of the

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The number of Jews exiled from Spain is subject to controversy, with highly exaggerated figures provided by early observers and historians offering figures which numbered the hundreds of thousands. By the time of the expulsion, little more than 100,000 practicing Jews remained in Spain, since the

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The year 1391 forms a turning-point in the history of the Spanish Jews. The persecution was the immediate forerunner of the Inquisition, which, ninety years later, was introduced as a means of watching heresy and converted Jews. The number of those who had embraced Catholicism, in order to escape

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The Jews of Spain were utterly embittered and alienated by Catholic rule at the time of the Muslim invasion. The Moors were perceived as a liberating force and welcomed by Jews eager to help them to administer the country. In many conquered towns, the Muslims left the garrison in the hands of the

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Prior to the Spanish Civil War and not taking Ceuta and Melilla into account, about 6,000–7,000 Jews lived in Spain, mostly in Barcelona and Madrid. Likewise, by 1936, the Jewish community in Melilla amounted to 6,000, later notably decreasing because of emigration to Venezuela, Israel, mainland

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ordering all Catholic princes to return all fugitive conversos to the Inquisition of Spain. One of the reasons for the increased rigor of the Catholic monarchs was the disappearance of the fear of any united action by Jews and Moors, the kingdom of Granada being at its last gasp. The rulers did,

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on October 9, 1390, and was succeeded by his eleven-year-old son. The council-regent appointed by the king in his testament, consisting of prelates, grandees, and six citizens from Burgos, Toledo, León, Seville, Córdoba, and Murcia, was powerless; every vestige of respect for law and justice had

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was burned down; factories and warehouses were destroyed by the flames. Before the authorities could come to the aid of the defenseless people, every one of them—children, young women, old men—had been ruthlessly slain; 2000 corpses lay in heaps in the streets, in the houses, and in the wrecked

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continued in the north. By the early 12th century, conditions for some Jews in the emerging Christian kingdoms were becoming increasingly favourable. As had happened during the reconstruction of towns after the breakdown of authority under the Umayyads, the services of Jews were employed by the

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According to Don Isaac Abrabanel, in his Commentary at the end of II Kings, this was a city built near Toledo, in Spain. Abrabanel surmises that the name may have been given to it by the Jewish exiles who arrived in Spain, in remembrance of the city Ashqelon in the Land of Israel. The spelling

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was sent by the exiles who have driven away from Jerusalem and who were not with Ezra in Babylon and that Ezra had sent inquiring after them, but they did not wish to go up , replied that since they were destined to go off again into exile a second time, and that the Temple would once again be

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Thus, while there are limited material and literary indications for Jewish contact with Spain from a very early period, more definitive and substantial data begins with the third century. Data from this period suggest a well-established community, whose foundations must have been laid sometime

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and to limit the commercial intercourse between Jews and Catholics; he also reduced by one-half the claims held by Jewish creditors against Catholics. Indeed, the feeble and suffering king, the son of Leonora, who hated the Jews so deeply that she even refused to accept their money, showed no

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Everywhere the Jews remained loyal to King Peter, in whose army they fought bravely; the king showed his good-will toward them on all occasions, and when he called the King of Granada to his assistance he especially requested the latter to protect the Jews. Nevertheless they suffered greatly.

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and his son Badis for thirty years. In addition to his roles as policy director and military leader (as one of only two Jews to command Muslim armies, the other being his son Joseph), Samuel ibn Nagrela was an accomplished poet, and his introduction to the Talmud is standard today. His son

5812:(Castrillo Hill of the Jews). Although a mere anecdote in Spain, where it barely made the national press, this story was widely covered in the English speaking press of the United States, United Kingdom and Israel, often misrepresenting the name of the village as "Camp Kill the Jews". 7839: 3179:

was given to the city by its first Jewish inhabitants, and surmises that the name may have meant טלטול (= wandering), on account of their wandering from Jerusalem. He says, furthermore, that the original name of the city was Pirisvalle, so named by its early pagan inhabitants.

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As citizens of the Roman Empire, the Jews of Hispania engaged in a variety of occupations, including agriculture. Until the adoption of Christianity, Jews had close relations with non-Jewish populations and played an active role in the social and economic life of the province.

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Wars in North Africa with Muslim tribes eventually forced the Almoravides to withdraw their forces from Iberia. As the Christians advanced, Iberian Muslims again appealed to their brethren to the south, this time to those who had displaced the Almoravides in north Africa. The

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appeased him, requesting that he send to him captives made-up of the nobles of Jerusalem, and so he sent a few of them to him, and there were amongst them those who made curtains and who were knowledgeable in the work of silk, and whose name was Baruch, and they remained in

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him, and whom Titus had originally exiled from places in or around Jerusalem. The two Jewish exiles, those sent to Spain after the destruction of the First Temple, and those sent there after the destruction of the Second Temple, joined together and became one community.

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in Jewish sources). Thus, the Sephardim found themselves enriched culturally, intellectually, and religiously by the commingling of diverse Jewish traditions. Contacts with Middle Eastern communities were strengthened, and the influence of the Babylonian academies of

4755:. Most of the Castilian communities suffered from the persecution; nor were the Jews of Aragon, Catalonia, or Majorca spared. On July 9, an outbreak occurred in Valencia. More than 200 persons were killed, and most of the Jews of that city were baptized by the friar 3152:) did not depart from there during the building of the Second Temple, and were not involved in putting to death Christ. Yet, no apology was of any avail to them, neither unto the rest of the Jews, till at length, six hundred-thousand souls had evacuated from there. 2813:, the Jews stockpiled weapons. Severus mobilized Christians, accused Jewish leaders of plotting, and inspected the synagogue's weapons. This led to a riot, with Christians seizing and burning the synagogue. Within a week, all 540 local Jews were converted by force. 5084:

however, promise the Jews of the Moorish kingdom that they could continue to enjoy their existing rights in exchange for aiding the Spaniards to overthrow the Moors. This promise dated February 11, 1490, was repudiated, however, by the decree of expulsion. See the

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William Parkin – 1837 "Festus Avinus says expressly that Cadiz was Tarshish. This agrees perfectly with the statement of Ibn Hankal, who no doubt reports the opinion of the Arabian geographers, that Phoenicia maintained a direct intercourse with Britain in later

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stood the "rab de la corte", or "rab mayor" (court, or chief, rabbi), also called "juez mayor" (chief justice), who was the principal mediator between the state and the aljamas. These court rabbis were men who had rendered services to the state, as, for example,

2728:, the Jews of Spain engaged in a variety of occupations, including agriculture. Until the adoption of Christianity, Jews had close relations with non-Jewish populations, and played an active role in the social and economic life of the province. The edicts of the 3741:

In addition to being a poet himself, Hasdai encouraged and supported the work of other Sephardic writers. Subjects covered the spectrum, encompassing religion, nature, music, politics and pleasure. Hasdai brought a number of men of letters to Córdoba, including

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But this prosperity roused the jealousy of the people and provoked the hatred of the clergy; the Jews had to suffer much through these causes. The kings, especially those of Aragon, regarded the Jews as their property; they spoke of "their" Jews, "their"

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to Catholicism in 587. In their desire to consolidate the realm under the new religion, the Visigoths adopted an aggressive policy concerning the Jews. As the king and the church acted in a single interest, the situation for the Jews deteriorated. At the

2579:," possibly indicating a Jewish presence in biblical times. Two trilingual Jewish inscriptions from Tarragona and Tortosa, dated between the 2nd century BCE and the 6th century CE, further support evidence of early Jewish settlements. A tombstone from 3819:. Some Arabic philosophers followed Jewish ones in their ideas although that phenomenon was somewhat hindered in that, although in Arabic, Jewish philosophical works were usually written with Hebrew characters. Jews were also active in such fields as 5808:"mota" meaning "hill". Confusion arises from the word "mata" also meaning "kill", thus rendering a name that could be interpreted as "kill the jews". The name was changed back to its earlier name which would be less subject to surprise by newcomers 3446:

accused of conspiring with Muslims across the Mediterranean. Jews were declared traitors, including baptised Jews, found their property confiscated and themselves enslaved. The decree exempted only the converts who dwelt in the mountain passes of

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Although Spain effectively undertook more to help Jews escape deportation to the concentration camps than most neutral countries did, there has been debate about Spain's wartime attitude towards refugees. Franco's regime, despite its aversion to

10038: 5079:, and though Ferdinand was the grandson of a Jew, he showed the greatest intolerance to Jews, whether converted or otherwise, commanding all "conversos" to reconcile themselves with the Inquisition by the end of 1484, and obtaining a bull from 3945:

was an anti-Jewish pogrom that took place in Granada when a Muslim mob stormed the royal palace, where Joseph had sought refuge, and crucified him. The instigators then attacked 1500 Jewish families and killed approximately 4,000 Granada Jews.

3554:, as was testified by the influx of Jews from abroad. To Jews throughout the Catholic and Muslim worlds, Iberia was seen as a land of relative tolerance and opportunity. After initial Arab-Berber victories, especially with the establishment of 5639:. Following the defeat of Germany in 1945, the Spanish government attempted to destroy all evidence of cooperation with the Nazis, but this official order survived. A Jewish newspaper cited a report published 22 June 2010 in the Spanish daily 3661:

generally kept Jews out of the political sphere, the first approximately two centuries that preceded the Golden Age were marked by increased activity by Jews in a variety of professions, including medicine, commerce, finance and agriculture.

5259:

The reason given for this action in the preamble of the edict was the relapse of so many conversos owing to the proximity of unconverted Jews, who seduced them from Christianity and kept alive in them the knowledge and practices of Judaism.

5039:

consisting of twelve articles, which, in the main, corresponded with the decree ("Pragmática") issued by Catalina, and which had been placed on the statutes of Aragon by Fernando. By this bull Jews and neophytes were forbidden to study the

2776:, and especially after the defeat of Judea in 70. One account placed the number carried off to Hispania at 80,000. Subsequent immigrations came into the area along both the northern African and southern European sides of the Mediterranean. 3401:

be inclined to aid Jews in their efforts to subvert the council's rulings. Heavy fines awaited any nobles who acted in favour of the Jews, and members of the clergy who were remiss in enforcement were subject to a number of punishments.

5435:

Jews began to interact with Melilla as early as 1862, with a increasing Jewish community in the city throughout the early 20th century that grew upon the arrival of Moroccan Jews spurred on after the events of Taza under Bou Hmara, the

3245:

rule by the early 5th century. Other than in their contempt for Catholics, who reminded them of the Romans, the Visigoths did not generally take much of an interest in the religious creeds within their kingdom. It was only in 506, when

4549:

The more friendly Peter showed himself toward the Jews, and the more he protected them, the more antagonistic became the attitude of his illegitimate half-brother, who, when he invaded Castile in 1360, murdered all the Jews living in

3835:. In addition to training the mind in logical yet abstract and subtle modes of thought, the study of the natural world, as the direct study of the work of the Creator, was ideally a way to better understand and become closer to God. 4616:

an era of suffering and intolerance began for the Castilian Jews, culminating in their expulsion. Prolonged warfare had devastated the land; the people had become accustomed to lawlessness, and the Jews had been reduced to poverty.

4302:, the contemporary ruler of Aragon. The clergy's endeavors against the Jews became more and more pronounced. Spanish Jews of both sexes, like the Jews of France, were compelled to distinguish themselves from Catholics by wearing a 3144:) answered that they were not present at the time when their Christ was put to death. Apparently, it was written upon a large stone in the city's street which some very ancient sovereign inscribed and testified that the Jews of 5549:

and British support. Nonetheless, control of the Spanish border with France relaxed somewhat at this time, and thousands of Jews managed to cross into Spain (many by smugglers' routes). Almost all of them survived the war. The

5514:. Jews claiming Spanish ancestry were provided with Spanish documentation without being required to prove their case and either left for Spain or survived the war with the help of their new legal status in occupied countries. 3538:

maintains that Toledo was "almost completely empty of its inhabitants" not because of Jewish treachery but because "many had fled to Amiara, others to Asturias and some to the mountains" and the city was then fortified by a

5592:, who was himself living under Spanish protection, used forged documents to persuade the Hungarian authorities that he was the new Spanish Ambassador. As such, he continued Spanish protection of Hungarian Jews until the 2824:, life for the early Jews in Hispania and the rest of southern Europe was relatively tolerable. This is due in large measure to the difficulty the Church had in establishing itself in its western frontier. In the west, 3063:

from Tyre might have brought them to Tarshish. Although the notion of Tarshish as Spain is merely based on suggestive material, it leaves open the possibility of a very early Jewish presence in the Iberian peninsula.

4492:

In the beginning of the fourteenth century the position of Jews became precarious throughout Spain as antisemitism increased. Many Jews emigrated from the crowns of Castile and Aragon. It was not until the reigns of

4841:

in 1391, on the 1st day of the lunar month Tammuz (June). From there the violence spread to Córdoba, and by the 17th day of the same lunar month, it had reached Toledo (then called by Jews after its Arabic name,

4370:

There were about 120 Jewish communities in Catholic Spain around 1300, with somewhere around half a million or more Jews, mostly in Castille. Catalonia, Aragón, and Valencia were more sparsely inhabited by Jews.

3788:

Hasdai benefited world Jewry by creating a favourable environment for scholarly pursuits within Iberia but also by using his influence to intervene on behalf of foreign Jews, as is reflected in his letter to the

3851:, although the ethical Jewish rationalism rested on the notion that traditional approaches had not been successful in their treatments of the subject in that they were lacking in rational, scientific arguments. 4726:"At this time Seville is said to have contained 7000 Jewish families. Of the three large synagogues existing in the city two were transformed into churches. In all the towns throughout the archbishopric, as in 5525:

as Spain's foreign minister, Spanish diplomacy became "more sympathetic to Jews", although Franco himself "never said anything" about this. Around that same time, a contingent of Spanish doctors travelling in

4538:, without distinction of age or sex. The mob did not, however, succeed in overrunning the Judería of Toledo proper, which was defended by the Jews and by knights loyal to the King. Following the succession of 10008: 5744:

are produced in this region and exported to Jews around the world. Also there is a new Jewish school in Murcia as a result of the growth in Jewish population immigrating to the Murcia community PolarisWorld.

4367:(Jewish neighborhoods), and in their own interest they protected the Jews against violence, making good use of them in every way possible. The Jews were vassals of the king, the same as Christian commoners. 2720:

in 70. One questionable estimate places the number carried off to Spain at 80,000. Subsequent immigrations came into the area along both the northern African and southern European sides of the Mediterranean.

5797:. Today there is an interest by some Jewish groups working in Spain to encourage the descendants of Conversos to return to Judaism. This has resulted in a limited number of conversions to the Jewish faith. 5608:

conspiracy, does not appear to have shared the rabid anti-Semitic ideology promoted by the Nazis. About 25,000 to 35,000 refugees, mainly Jews, were allowed to transit through Spain to Portugal and beyond.

4125:. In Leon many Jews owned real estate, and engaged in agriculture and viticulture as well as in the handicrafts; and here, as in other towns, they lived on friendly terms with the Christian population. The 3955:. The Granada massacre was one of the earliest signs of a decline in the status of Jews, which resulted largely from the penetration and influence of increasingly-zealous Islamic sects from North Africa. 4955:

After the bloody excesses of 1391 the popular hatred of the Jews continued unabated. The Cortes of Madrid and that of Valladolid (1405) mainly busied themselves with complaints against the Jews, so that

5801: 5048:(accusers). They might hold no public offices, nor might they follow any handicrafts, or act as brokers, matrimonial agents, physicians, apothecaries, or druggists. They were forbidden to bake or sell 4151:

gave to the church of León the taxes paid by the Jews of Castro. Alfonso VI, the conqueror of Toledo (1085), was tolerant and benevolent in his attitude toward the Jews, for which he won the praise of

3120:) and those who are near to them. However, that they might not be thought of as wicked men and those who are lacking in fidelity, may God forbid, they wrote down for them this magnanimous praise, etc. 9374: 7296: 4227:, (who granted the Jews special privileges), and the united kings of Aragon and Navarre. Jews fought in both armies, and after the declaration of peace they were placed in charge of the fortresses. 4136:(1050) therefore found it necessary to revive the old Visigothic law forbidding, under pain of punishment by the Church, Jews and Christians to live together in the same house, or to eat together. 9719: 4515:, the son and successor of Alfonso XI, was relatively favorably disposed toward the Jews, who under him reached the zenith of their influence – often exemplified by the success of his treasurer, 3734:

that interest in Hebrew studies developed and flourished. With Hasdai as its leading patron, Córdoba became the "Mecca of Jewish scholars who could be assured of a hospitable welcome from Jewish

5804:(FCJE) has established agreements with the Spanish government, regulating the status of Jewish clergy, places of worship, teaching, marriages, holidays, tax benefits, and heritage conservation. 5454:(1923–1930) decreed the right to Spanish citizenship to a certain number of Sephardim on December 20, 1924. The condition was that they had enjoyed Spanish protection before while living in the 4011:

north prospered during the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries. The majority of Latin documentation regarding Jews during the period refers to their landed property, fields and vineyards.

7889:

dates start at sunset. 31 July 1492 until sunset was the 7th of Av; from sunset it was the 8th. Presumably the edict took effect at midnight, which was already the 8th, the day before the 9th.

3415:

but kept it up on practising Jews. Economic hardships included increased taxes and the forced sale, at a fixed price, of all property ever acquired from Christians. That effectively ended all

3056:; evidently it represents the westernmost place to which one could sail. One might speculate that commerce conducted by Jewish emissaries, merchants, craftsmen, or other tradesmen among the 10026: 5416: 4771:. The riot raged in Barcelona until Aug. 10, and many Jews (though not 11,000 as claimed by some authorities) were baptized. On the last-named day began the attack upon the Juderia in 4711:

A revolt broke out in Seville in 1391. Juan Alfonso de Guzmán, Count of Niebla and governor of the city, and his relative, the "alguazil mayor" Alvar Pérez de Guzmán, had ordered, on

5064: 10043: 9399: 9369: 3183:

According to Abrabanel, the Jewish exiles that arrived in Spain during the biblical period were later joined by those brought by Titus after the destruction of the Second Temple.

5252:

was issued against the Jews of Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella on 31 March 1492. It ordered all Jews of whatever age to leave the kingdom by the last day of July: one day before

4605:

on March 14, 1369. A few weeks before his death he reproached his physician and astrologer Abraham ibn Zarzal for not having told the truth in prophesying good fortune for him.

4306:

on their clothing; this order was issued to keep them from associating with Catholics, although the reason given was that it was ordered for their own safety. Some Jews such as

4751:

From Córdova the spirit of murder spread to Jaén. A horrible butchery took place in Toledo on June 20. Among the many martyrs were the descendants of the famous Toledan rabbi

3649:, which had been best preserved by Arab scholars. The meticulous regard which the Arabs had for grammar and style also had the effect of stimulating an interest among Jews in 6073: 5492:(1936–1939), synagogues were closed and post-war worship was kept in private homes. Jewish public life resumed in 1947 with the arrival of Jews from Europe and North Africa. 4251:, the defeat was attributed to the king's love-affair with Fermosa, and she and her relatives were murdered in Toledo by the nobility. After the victory at Alarcos the emir 2745:. Canon 48 forbade Jews from blessing Christian crops, and Canon 50 forbade sharing meals with Jews; repeating the command to Hebrew the Bible indicated respect to Gentile. 2477:

and the Christian Iberian kingdoms. Targets of antisemitic mob violence, Jews living in the Christian kingdoms faced persecution throughout the 14th century, leading to the

5311:. From the 13th to the 16th century, at least 15 European countries expelled their Jewish populations. The expulsion of the Jews from Spain was preceded by expulsions from 2688:, convened in the early fourth century, which address proper Christian behaviour with regard to the Jews of Spain, notably forbidding marriage between Jews and Christians. 3283:

in 589, bishops endorsed the Breviary's restrictions on Jews, including prohibitions on intermarriage with Christians, owning Christian slaves, and holding public office.

3079:, France and Spain. He explicitly identified Ṣarfat and Sepharad as France and Spain, respectively. Some scholars think that, in the case of the place-name, Ṣarfat (lit. 10003: 5466:

who had refused to take either Greek or Turkish citizenship. The decree was later used by some Spanish diplomats to save Sephardi Jews from persecution and death during

1051: 6094: 5103:

probably had adverse effects on the development of the Spanish economy. Jews and Non-Catholic Christians reportedly had substantially better numerical skills than the

3203:, rather than from the villages, the towns in the outlying districts ." Elsewhere, he writes about his maternal grandfather's family and how they came to Spain: "When 3543:

of Arabs and Jews (3.24). Although in the cases of some towns, the behaviour of the Jews may have been conducive to Muslim success, it was of limited impact overall.

5382:" background in order to access certain positions of authority. During this period hundreds of conversos escaped to nearby countries such as England, France and the 5067:, two years later, the same law was enforced in Navarre, where they were ordered to be confined to the Juderías at night. The same year saw the establishment of the 4942:, had submitted to baptism. Among those baptized were several wealthy men and scholars who scoffed at their former coreligionists; some even, as Solomon ha-Levi, or 4794:

Several responses bearing on the widespread persecution of Iberian Jewry between the years 1390 and 1391 can be found in contemporary Jewish sources, such as in the

3112:

destroyed, why should we then double our anguish? It is best for us that we remain here in our place and to serve God. Now, I have heard that they are the people of

4965:

feelings of friendship toward them. Though on account of the taxes of which he was thereby deprived he regretted that many Jews had left the country and settled in

4601:

esta el fi de puta Judio, que se llama rey de Castilla?" ("Where is the Jewish son of a bitch, who calls himself king of Castile?") Peter was beheaded by Henry and

3087:

in France, the association with France was made only exegetically because of its similarity in spelling with the name פרנצא (France), by a reversal of its letters.

4886:

death, was very large – over half of Spain's Jews according to Joseph Pérez, 200,000 converts with only 100,000 openly practicing Jews remaining by 1410.; Jews of

3645:), the cultural and intellectual achievements of Arabic culture were opened up to the educated Jew, as was much of the scientific and philosophical speculation of 6360:(18.7.2) — this discrepancy has been resolved by postulating Lugdunum Convenarium, a town in Gaul on the Spanish frontier as the actual site. For discussion, see 9487: 1629: 2529:

The earliest significant Jewish presence in the Iberian Peninsula is generally traced back to the first centuries CE, when the region, known to the Romans as

4655: 1284: 979: 3071:(1160–1235), in his commentary on Obadiah 1:20, Ṣarfat and Sepharad refer to the Jews exiled during the war with Titus and who went as far as the countries 9026: 7293: 4384: 4126: 8684:

Bowers, W. P. "Jewish Communities in Spain in the Time of Paul the Apostle" Journal of Theological Studies Vol. 26 Part 2, October 1975, pp. 395–402.

4392: 4287:(1212), Alfonso victoriously entered Toledo, the Jews went to meet him in triumphal procession. Shortly before his death (Oct., 1214) the king issued the 3815:("The Source of Life"). Thought by many to have been written by a Christian, the work was admired by Christians and studied in monasteries throughout the 1171: 9942: 4121:(974), placed the Jews in many respects on an equality with Catholics; and similar measures were adopted by the Council of Leon (1020), presided over by 4629: 3730:

Abd al-Rahman III's support for Arabic scholasticism had made Iberia the centre of Arabic philological research. It was within that context of cultural

7735:

of Solomon ibn Verga, in which he names the Jewish communities affected by the persecution of 1391. See pages 138 – 140 in PDF (Hebrew); Fritz Kobler,

5447:, their language. There was a Spanish rediscovery of the Jews of Northern Morocco who still conserved this language and practiced old Spanish customs. 4380: 2379: 5072: 4643: 4388: 4239:, Funes, and Murañon. During the reign of Alfonso VIII the Jews gained still greater influence, aided, doubtless, by the king's love of the beautiful 10097: 10059: 8293: 4007:, at least while the Islamic threat was imminent. Thus, as conditions in Islamic Iberia worsened, immigration to Christian principalities increased. 143: 7133: 10071: 5173: 1166: 8533:"522 años después, los sefardíes podrán tener nacionalidad española (522 years later, the Sephardi Jews will be able to have Spanish nationality)" 8433:

Ley 25/1992, de 10 de noviembre, por la que se aprueba el acuerdo de cooperación del Estado con la Federación de Comunidades Israelistas de España

8032: 7650:

counting, i.e. 5,152 and 5,151, owing to the change of the Hebrew year in the Fall of that same year. For English translation, see: Fritz Kobler,

5123:, spillover-effects of these skills were rare because of forced separation and Jewish emigration, which was detrimental for economic development. 3754:, the compiler of the first Hebrew dictionary, which came into wide use among the Jews of Germany and France. Celebrated poets of the era include 9432: 1414: 2639:, redacted around 200 CE, implied that there was a Jewish community in Spain, and that there was communication with the Jewish community in the 9154: 7489: 6420: 7646:, and which history concerns only the year 1391, although the Christian date mentioned here is represented in his account by two dates in the 5185: 9566: 9084: 4580:, who paid homage to his half-brother Henry, robbed the Jews, destroyed their houses and synagogues, and tore their Torah scrolls to pieces. 4430: 4053: 3430:

In 694, at the Council of Toledo, Jews were condemned to slavery by the Visigoths because of a plot to revolt against them encouraged by the

3358:"in advance" any of his successors who did not act in accordance with his anti-Jewish edicts. Again, many converted, but others chose exile. 1668: 10031: 9842: 5551: 3489:

in 711, the lives of the Sephardim changed dramatically. For the most part, the invasion of the Moors was welcomed by the Jews of Iberia.

8446: 6296:, Assen, Netherlands: Van Gorcum & Comp. (1974), p. 169; Bowers, W. P. "Jewish Communities in Spain in the Time of Paul the Apostle" 5771: 5063:

and from their fellow countrymen. At the Cortes of Toledo, in 1480, all Jews were ordered to be separated in special barrios, and at the

3195:

wrote in 1161: "A tradition exists with the community of Granada that they are from the inhabitants of Jerusalem, of the descendants of

653: 616: 7520:, Vilnius 1879, pages 13, 15 and 16 in PDF (Hebrew); On Rabbi Isaac ben Sheshet's own forced conversion, see: Isaac ben Sheshet Perfet, 7419:

Cronicas de los reyes de Castilla Don Pedro, Don Enrique II, Don Juan I, Don Enrique III / 1: Que comprende la cronica del rey Don Pedro

8056:

Celia Prados García: La expulsión de los judíos y el retorno de los sefardíes como nacionales españoles. Un análisis histórico-jurídico

5534:, who was under the impression that they would share his views about the matter; when they came home, they passed the story to Admiral 5458:

and that they applied before December 31, 1930. A similar measure was undertaken by the French government regarding non-Muslims in the

3793:

Princess Helena. In it, he requested protection for the Jews under Byzantine rule, attested to the fair treatment of the Christians of

3103:

in the 16th century, an explicit reference is made to the fact that Jews have lived in Spain since the destruction of the First Temple:

8969: 6135: 9902: 9622: 9291: 9104: 7951: 4759:, whose presence in the city was probably not accidental. The only community remaining in the former kingdom of Valencia was that of 2680:), both, make mention of the Jewish diaspora in Spain (Hispania) and their eventual return. Among these early references are several 1592: 8950:, The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem 8595:

The Mezuzah in the Madonna's Foot: Oral Histories Exploring Five Hundred Years in the Paradoxical Relationship of Spain and the Jews

8564: 8322: 9129: 9019: 5767: 4399:. They were appointed by the kings, no regard being paid to the rabbinical qualifications or religious inclination of those chosen 3979:, who had taken control of much of Islamic Iberia by 1172, far surpassed the Almoravides in fundamentalist outlook and treated the 1615: 3492:

Both Muslim and Catholic sources tell that Jews provided valuable aid to the invaders. Once the city was captured, the defence of

9714: 9465: 9301: 7987:

Líderes de origen judeoconverso en las ciudades castellanas durante la revuelta comunera: su papel al frente de Común de pecheros

3562:

in 755, the native Jewish community was joined by Jews from the rest of Europe, as well as from Arab territories from Morocco to

965: 5071:, the main object of which was to deal with the conversos. Though both monarchs were surrounded by Neo-Catholics, such as Pedro 5035:

The persecution of the Jews was now pursued systematically. In the hope of mass conversions, Benedict on May 11, 1415, issued a

3995:, fled south and east to the more tolerant Muslim lands, and others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms. 2736:, provide evidence of Jews who were integrated enough into the greater community to cause alarm among some: of the council's 80 9761: 9610: 9389: 9341: 9216: 9211: 7937: 5451: 5316: 3593: 2372: 1542: 1477: 1359: 8213: 5632: 5588:

Toward the war's end, Sanz Briz had to flee Budapest, leaving these Jews open to arrest and deportation. An Italian diplomat,

4787:; 75 were slain, and the rest were baptized; the latter transformed their synagogue into a church, in which they worshiped as 2844:

systems of the Roman empire, and for several centuries the Jews enjoyed a degree of peace their brethren to the east did not.

9827: 9470: 8807: 8768: 8734: 8656: 8642: 8614: 8606: 7913: 7822: 7402: 7148: 6972: 6844: 6820: 6532: 6513: 6406: 6382: 6333: 6238: 6056: 5885: 3471: 3459: 663: 5132: 3365:

in 653 again tackled the issue of Jews within the realm. Further measures at the time included the forbidding of all Jewish

2514:. Tracing back to a 1924 decree, there have been initiatives to favour the return of Sephardi Jews to Spain by facilitating 9346: 9176: 8624:(2011). "Presencia e imagen judía en la España contemporánea. Herencia castiza y modernidad". In Schammah Gesser, Silvina; 7267: 5527: 4692: 3219:." Here, Rabbi Abraham ben David refers to the second influx of Jews into Spain, shortly after the destruction of Israel's 1101: 6437:"History of the Christian Church, Volume II: Ante-Nicene Christianity. A.D. 100–325 – Christian Classics Ethereal Library" 4858:, where the slain were estimated at two-hundred and fifty. So, too, many Jews who resided in the neighboring provinces of 2604:

has been interpreted by many as evidence of established Jewish communities in the region during the mid-first century CE.

2408:

in 70 CE. The earliest archaeological evidence of Hebrew presence in Iberia consists of a 2nd-century gravestone found in

9657: 9425: 9351: 9012: 8947: 8779:

Monographs of the Mediaeval Academy of America No. 12: The Jews in the Visigothic and Frankish Kingdoms of Spain and Gaul

7381:(1906) by Morris Jastrow, Jr., J. Frederic McCurdy, Richard Gottheil, Kaufmann Kohler, Francis L. Cohen, Herman Rosenthal 5463: 5275:

for the revocation of the edict. It is said also that Ferdinand hesitated, but was prevented from accepting the offer by

4163:

was not begun until after the Sabbath had passed. The king's favoritism toward the Jews, which became so pronounced that

2660:, states: "Do not fear, O Israel, for I help you from remote lands, and your seed from the land of their captivity, from 1369: 1186: 1176: 416: 4231:(1166–1214), who had succeeded to the throne, entrusted the Jews with guarding Or, Celorigo, and, later, Mayorga, while 3423:

with the Christians of the kingdom or to conduct business with Christians overseas. Egica's measures were upheld by the

9977: 9751: 9276: 6932: 6613: 6151:

The Jewish Virtual Library (as well as the president of the Spanish Jewish community) speak of 40,000-50,000 Jews (see

5816: 1765: 1715: 1680: 1374: 1239: 1106: 8349: 7762:, p. 17. Kamen cites approximate numbers for Valencia (250) and Barcelona (400), but no solid data about Córdoba. 4542:, conditions for Jews seem to have improved somewhat, with John I even making legal exemptions for some Jews, such as 3711:(from 929 onward). The inauguration of the Golden Age is closely identified with the career of his Jewish councillor, 2764:. Any Jews already in Hispania at this time would have been joined by those who had been enslaved by the Romans under 9724: 9598: 9246: 9206: 9186: 9166: 9069: 8112: 7995: 7694: 6206: 6074:"Los 50.000 judíos de España celebran desde hoy la fiesta de Janucá que culminará el día 4 con el encendido de luces" 5997: 5483: 4452: 4079: 3528:, closed the gates of the city before the Catholics and opened them for the Moors. However, unlike de Tuy's account, 3521: 2875:

Several early Jewish writers wrote that their families had lived in Spain since the destruction of the first temple.

2365: 1457: 1419: 1394: 1314: 1299: 1146: 1086: 1041: 9734: 8999: 6042:"La expulsión de los judíos y el retorno de los sefardíes como nacionales españoles. Un análisis histórico-jurídico" 4148: 4061: 3045:'s empire from west to east, Tarshish is listed first (Ezekiel 27.12–14), and in Jonah 1.3 it is the place to which 9678: 9379: 9181: 7771:

According to Gedaliah Ibn Yechia, these disturbances were caused by a malicious report spread about the Jews. See:

7510:, treats mainly on the status of Jews (Anūsim) who were compelled to hide their religion in face of persecution in 6109: 5984: 5757: 5283:, they took steps to prevent the desecration of the graves of their kindred by presenting the cemetery, called the 5197: 5161: 3688: 1750: 1732: 1638: 1532: 1384: 1379: 1304: 1269: 1136: 8189: 5518: 2741:

than canon 15, which prohibited marriage with pagans. Canon 78 threatens those who commit adultery with Jews with

2563:. The vessel bears two Hebrew characters, suggesting Jewish contact with the region, likely through trade between 10092: 9804: 9756: 9744: 9739: 9615: 9571: 9546: 9384: 9331: 9306: 9261: 9256: 9231: 9089: 8432: 6603:, Routledge:London 1931, pp. 22–36. Cf. Cambridge University Library, Taylor-Schecter Collection (T-S Misc.35.38) 5880: 5304: 3642: 2268: 2167: 1722: 1705: 1658: 1557: 1467: 1404: 1354: 1334: 1329: 1249: 1223: 1198: 1076: 1066: 1056: 1036: 1031: 5763:

Moreover, Reform and liberal communities have arisen in cities like Barcelona or Oviedo during the last decade.

4620:

But in spite of his aversion for the Jews, Henry did not dispense with their services. He employed wealthy Jews—

9832: 9783: 9700: 9673: 9576: 9561: 9418: 9296: 9286: 9236: 9196: 9149: 9144: 9134: 9119: 9114: 9109: 9094: 9079: 9074: 9064: 9059: 9054: 9049: 8667: 8464: 5059:

Ferdinand and Isabella ascended their respective thrones, steps were taken to segregate the Jews both from the

4434: 4155:. To estrange the wealthy and industrious Jews from the Moors he offered the former various privileges. In the 4057: 3926:

also acted as vizier but was murdered in the 1066 Granada massacre. There were other Jewish viziers serving in

3327:, like those of later periods, maintained their Jewish identities in secret. During the more tolerant reign of 1741: 1727: 1695: 1675: 1643: 1587: 1562: 1537: 1517: 1507: 1492: 1487: 1482: 1462: 1452: 1447: 1424: 1339: 1324: 1244: 1203: 1156: 1151: 1071: 1016: 5646:

At around the same time, synagogues were opened and the communities could hold a discreet degree of activity.

5004:

At the Catholic preacher Ferrer's request a law consisting of twenty-four clauses, which had been drawn up by

2809:'s relics in Magona, Severus launched a campaign against the local Jews. Fearing violence and inspired by the 9927: 9652: 9647: 9637: 9394: 9336: 9281: 9271: 9251: 9241: 9226: 9221: 9201: 9171: 9139: 9124: 9099: 9035: 7772: 7533: 5895: 4803: 4687:"The execution of Joseph Pichon and the inflammatory speeches and sermons delivered in Seville by Archdeacon 4284: 3971:

continued to write during this time, and several Jews served as diplomats and physicians to the Almoravides.

3125: 2162: 1700: 1685: 1648: 1610: 1582: 1572: 1567: 1552: 1547: 1527: 1512: 1497: 1472: 1438: 1409: 1309: 1294: 1218: 1208: 1126: 1096: 1021: 1007: 17: 5510:, Spanish diplomats of the Franco government extended their protection to Eastern European Jews, especially 5503:

to seek asylum in a country where no Jews had been allowed to live openly as Jews for over four centuries."

5413:

Small numbers of Jews started to arrive in Spain in the 19th century, and synagogues were opened in Madrid.

4834:

in the winter of 1391 concerning the events in Spain in the year 1391. The letter is dated 19 October 1391.

9993: 9729: 9683: 9593: 9475: 9311: 9191: 9161: 8895: 8514: 8484: 6639: 5402: 4658:

ordering the complete separation of Jews and Catholics and the prevention of any association between them.

3855:

Jews were instrumental in bringing the fields of science and philosophy, which formed much of the basis of

3442: 3017:, a locale in southern Spain, and suggesting Jewish traders were active in Spain during the Phoenician and 2428: 1770: 1690: 1653: 1522: 1389: 1364: 1289: 1264: 1254: 1193: 1116: 1111: 1091: 1081: 1061: 1046: 939: 643: 407: 402: 8962:

La Inquisición Española: origen, desarrollo, organización, administración, métodos y proceso inquisitorial

7524:(ed. Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik), vol. 10, 2nd ed., Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007, p. 49. 5649:

On December 29, 1948, the official state bulletin (BOE) published a list of Sefardím family surnames from

5115:-Reading was compulsory. Even when Jews were forced to quit their highly skilled urban occupations, their 4167:

warned him not to permit Jews to rule over Catholics, roused the hatred and envy of the latter. After the

3256:

in which he adopted the laws of the ousted Romans that a Visigothic king concerned himself with the Jews.

9708: 7154: 5614: 5387: 5344: 5148: 4742:, the Jews were robbed and slain. In Córdoba this butchery was repeated in a horrible manner; the entire 3715:(882–942). Originally a court physician, Shaprut's official duties went on to include the supervision of 3567: 3424: 1760: 1755: 1710: 1663: 1349: 1319: 1279: 1274: 1131: 437: 8621: 8532: 7051: 5809: 5136: 3991:. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews emigrated. Some, such as the family of 3695:

as "wretched compiler", tried to convince the other to return to their former religion but to no avail.

3388:

The efforts again proved unsuccessful. The Jewish population remained sufficiently sizable as to prompt

9998: 9959: 8678: 5875: 5541:

Diplomats discussed the possibility of Spain as a route to a containment camp for Jewish refugees near

5085: 4172: 4147:

set aside a part of the Jewish taxes for the use of the Church, and even the not very religious-minded

3207: 2903:“And the exiles of this host of the sons of Israel who are among the Canaanites as far as Ṣarfat (Heb. 2692:

earlier. Some suggest that substantial Jewish immigration probably occurred during the Roman period of

2234: 2079: 1787: 1181: 377: 367: 103: 7312: 6184: 4672: 3529: 3270:

The tides turned even more dramatically following the conversion of the Visigothic royal family under

9937: 9632: 9605: 8309: 5983:

Hinojosa Montalvo, José (2000). "Los judíos en la España medieval: de la tolerancia a la expulsión".

5910: 4248: 4205: 3839:

also became a major centre of Jewish philosophy during Hasdai's time. Following the tradition of the

3397: 2922: 2348: 2041: 1892: 1833: 724: 8926: 8629: 4168: 3665:

By the ninth century, some members of the Sephardic community felt confident enough to take part in

3610:, of course, also made a lasting impact on Sephardic cultural development. General re-evaluation of 3581:

was at its greatest. As a result, until the mid-10th century, much Sephardic scholarship focused on

8745: 5522: 5437: 5267:, who had previously ransomed 480 Jews of Málaga from the Catholic Monarchs by a payment of 20,000 4527: 4295: 4269: 4042: 3362: 3339: 2051: 2031: 1141: 621: 162: 9778: 8366: 8347:

HebreoCollege Murcia empezamos en 2003 como escuela privada en polaris world para 214 familias jud

7899: 7448: 5775: 4176: 9967: 9766: 9667: 8931: 8789: 5394: 4743: 4727: 4423: 4228: 4046: 3550:, life under Muslim rule was one of great opportunity in comparison to that under prior Catholic 3354:

to order that only Catholics could remain in the kingdom, and taking an unusual step further, he

3351: 3280: 2821: 2757: 2564: 2192: 2182: 2147: 2026: 2016: 1799: 970: 912: 746: 425: 382: 97: 4947: 3669:

amongst previously-Jewish "Catholics". Most famous were the heated correspondences sent between

3342:, while taking a stance in opposition to compulsory baptism, convened to address the problem of 2446: 9870: 8281: 8024: 6288:, Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America (1961), p. 16; Salo Wittmayer Baron, 6153: 5920: 5320: 4597: 4131: 3389: 3252: 3167:– a city so-called by the Jewish exiles that had come there; the second, in the country around 2773: 2713: 2311: 2046: 1960: 1026: 578: 197: 167: 7985: 7903: 7254:

Ahmed, M.I. Muslim-Jewish Harmony: A Politically-Contingent Reality. Religions 2022, 13, 535.

5535: 5386:, or converted back to Judaism, thus becoming part of the communities of Western Sephardim or 5276: 4609: 4543: 4224: 4144: 9860: 9837: 9793: 8695: 7681:

Mitre Fernández, Emilio (1994). Secretariado de Publicaciones e Intercambio Editorial (ed.).

7473: 7392: 5900: 5790: 5238: 4739: 4502: 4220: 4179:

fell upon the Jews; many were slain, others were imprisoned, and their houses were pillaged.

3942: 3880: 3678: 2672: 2596: 2576: 2202: 2197: 2142: 1930: 845: 573: 560: 455: 172: 8993: 8961: 8055: 6377:

and Matthew Black (revised English ed.). Edinburgh: T&T Clark. pp. 352 n. 41.

6041: 5256:. They were permitted to take their property provided it was not in gold, silver, or money. 4465: 4156: 3958:

After the fall of Toledo to Christians in 1085, the ruler of Seville sought relief from the

2587:), inscribed with the name of a Jewish girl, Salomonula, dates to the early 3rd century CE. 8966: 8828: 7610: 6682:), end of Part VI which treats on the Resurrection of the Dead, pub. in Basel 1608 (Hebrew) 6130: 4957: 4907: 4699:, in spite of the endeavors of his physician Moses ibn Ẓarẓal to prolong his life, died at 4695:'s confessor, soon raised the hatred of the populace to the highest pitch. The feeble King 4602: 4494: 4232: 3431: 3378: 2590:

One of the earliest references possibly indicating a Jewish presence in Roman-era Spain is

2273: 2225: 1965: 1823: 636: 501: 490: 448: 8245:, October 2006, p. 86–94. The relevant statement about Spain sheltering him is on page 91. 7955: 7844:

The Revista de Historia Económica - Journal of Iberian and Latin American Economic History

7795: 5140: 5076: 4870:, whereas many died a martyr's death, while others converted in order to save themselves. 4700: 4355: 4122: 3708: 8: 9581: 8983: 8598: 8419: 8326: 7378: 6618: 6126: 5753: 5120: 5068: 4879: 4775:; several Jews were robbed and killed; many sought safety in flight and a few in baptism. 4716: 4613: 4523: 4359: 3923: 3914: 3874: 3763: 3755: 3438: 3233: 3226: 3156: 3057: 3030: 3018: 2946: 2853: 2515: 2326: 2021: 699: 566: 469: 462: 392: 280: 155: 36: 7374: 4705: 4688: 3804:

influenced the lives of non-Jews as well. Most notable of the literary contributions is

2635:

Rabbinic literature from references Spain as a distant land with a Jewish presence. The

8721: 7869: 7483: 6965:

Jews, Visigoths and Muslims in medieval Spain : cooperation and conflict, pp.79–90

6348: 5375: 5312: 5152: 5080: 5009: 4859: 4498: 4160: 3918: 3887:

In the early 11th century, centralised authority based at Córdoba broke down after the

3712: 3534: 3408: 2974: 2794: 2624: 2499: 2177: 2127: 2074: 2069: 1983: 1853: 1121: 950: 709: 629: 483: 49: 9693: 7908:(in Spanish). Cuenca: Ediciones de la Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha. p. 102. 6292:, New York: Columbia University press (1952), p. 170; Safrai, S. and Stern, M., eds., 5582: 5144: 4484: 4106: 3931: 3164: 10064: 9949: 9875: 9555: 8764: 8757: 8638: 8610: 8602: 8108: 7991: 7909: 7873: 7818: 7748: 7702: 7690: 7668: 7639: 7589: 7503: 7398: 7144: 6968: 6378: 6202: 6190: 6052: 5993: 5915: 5489: 5308: 5056: 4846:). From there, the violence spread to Mallorca and by the 1st day of the lunar month 4819: 4799: 4764: 4696: 4573: 4539: 4343: 4326:

or to the infliction of ten stripes. Jews were also forbidden to appear in public on

4299: 4252: 4244: 4236: 4152: 3751: 3743: 3704: 3658: 3200: 2978: 2884: 2685: 2648: 2401: 2321: 2263: 2243: 2060: 1620: 1259: 719: 590: 520: 397: 310: 177: 8707: 6436: 5725:, with a Jewish community of 3,500, has the largest concentration of Jews in Spain. 5230: 3493: 9852: 8904: 8675:

Jews in the Hellenistic World: Josephus, Aristeas, The Sibylline Oracles, Eupolemus

8536: 8221: 8036: 7929: 7859: 7851: 7840:"Numeracy of Religious Minorities in Spain and Portugal During the Inquisition Era" 6927: 6925: 6194: 5783: 5636: 5589: 5398: 5272: 5028: 4752: 4667: 4621: 4588:, and several other communities met with a like fate, and 300 Jewish families from 4512: 4351: 4318: 4240: 4164: 4110: 3790: 3767: 3623: 3601: 3238: 3192: 3100: 3022: 2788: 2701: 2591: 2560: 2486: 2478: 2397: 2291: 2172: 2132: 2096: 1794: 1344: 855: 611: 515: 430: 320: 112: 8687:

Dan, Joseph. "The Epic of a Millennium: Judeo-Spanish Culture's Confrontation" in

5626: 5577:

also managed to be included, as did some non-Jews. The Spanish head of mission in

3216: 3096: 2985:, saying: “The name of our land in which we dwell is called in the sacred tongue, 2618:, son of Herod the Great and tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, was exiled by Emperor 2571:, dating to the 8th–7th century BCE, features an inscription generally considered 2409: 9932: 9865: 9586: 9480: 8973: 8727: 8353: 7886: 7300: 6139: 5925: 5905: 5832: 5704: 5661: 5280: 5264: 5249: 5245: 5224: 5214: 5104: 4919: 4680: 4555: 4477: 3782: 3627: 3559: 3555: 3486: 3355: 3026: 2938: 2930: 2896: 2876: 2825: 2784: 2729: 2644: 2490: 2482: 2474: 2462: 2253: 2212: 2207: 2187: 2109: 2103: 2036: 1988: 1828: 1809: 960: 689: 601: 584: 128: 9004: 8041: 6922: 6362: 5679:

There are currently around 50,000 Spanish Jews, with the largest communities in

3777:

For the only time between Biblical times and the origins of the modern state of

2756:, emigration from Judea into the greater Roman Mediterranean area antedated the 9919: 9890: 9880: 9799: 9450: 9441: 8987: 8922: 7722: 7551: 6726: 6623: 6314: 5853: 5828: 5574: 5500: 5455: 5444: 5358: 5005: 4943: 4831: 4811: 4768: 4756: 4581: 4516: 4396: 3968: 3898: 3771: 3747: 3607: 3343: 3196: 3042: 3038: 2869: 2841: 2640: 2609: 2537:. This presence is supported by both archaeological finds and literary sources. 2393: 2392:

The history of the Jews in the current-day Spanish territory stretches back to

2353: 2152: 2007: 1887: 1866: 1843: 1838: 1816: 1804: 1399: 880: 814: 779: 757: 694: 532: 510: 372: 351: 327: 93: 75: 7855: 7815:

Sages of Spain in the Eye of the Storm: Jewish Scholars of Late Medieval Spain

6761:, Jerusalem 1971, pp. 43–44 (printed in the edition which includes the books, 6198: 5008:, né Solomon haLevi, was issued in January 1412 in the name of the child-king 4837:

According to Don Hasdai Crescas, persecution against Jews began in earnest in

4589: 4526:

and his brother, at the head of a mob, invaded on 7 May 1355 that part of the

4307: 3847:, many of the most notable Jewish philosophers were dedicated to the field of 2953:. Based on a later teaching in the compendium of Jewish oral laws compiled by 2856:. One such legend from the 16th century claimed that a funeral inscription in 10086: 9771: 9688: 9535: 9528: 8917: 8813: 8797:

Samuel Power and Sexuality: The Emergence of Canon Law at the Synod of Elvira

6374: 6110:"El Gobierno aprueba la ley que otorga la doble nacionalidad a los sefardíes" 5890: 5667:

Between 1948, the year Israel was founded, and 2010, 1,747 Spanish Jews made

5622: 5558: 5467: 5462:

who had previously been protected by France. The decree especially addressed

5379: 5253: 4712: 4004: 3988: 3891:

invasion and the ousting of the Umayyads. In its stead arose the independent

3888: 3809: 3759: 3720: 3670: 3646: 3509: 3220: 3172: 3149: 3141: 3117: 3034: 2954: 2945:) in the same verse has been translated by the 1st century rabbinic scholar, 2806: 2748:

Although the spread of Jews into Europe is most commonly associated with the

2733: 2615: 2584: 2511: 2494: 2405: 2301: 2296: 1502: 1429: 955: 804: 799: 794: 784: 762: 714: 476: 315: 220: 182: 133: 8631:

El otro en la España contemporánea / Prácticas, discursos y representaciones

7471: 2551:

Among the early artifacts of likely Jewish origin discovered in Spain is an

9897: 8818:

Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery

8510: 8402: 8346: 6627: 6186:

The Economic History of European Jews. Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages

5867: 5794: 5618: 5507: 5496: 5364: 4982: 4915: 4895: 4395:, or chief-tax-farmers, as the last incumbent of the court rabbi's office, 4303: 3524:

to listen to the divine sermon, the Jews acted treacherously, informed the

3513: 3416: 3392:(672–680) to issue limited expulsion orders against them, and the reign of 3370: 3318: 3068: 2918: 2725: 2534: 2458: 2421: 2331: 2157: 1998: 1993: 1951: 1904: 998: 865: 850: 809: 774: 387: 229: 6741:, Jerusalem 1971, p. 51 (printed in the edition which includes the books, 6548:(ed. Salomon Buber), New York 1949, p. 151b, in Comments, note 26 (Hebrew) 9642: 9410: 8752: 8625: 8257:"WWII Document Reveals: General Franco Handed Nazis List of Spanish Jews" 7781:

Jerusalem 1962, p. רסח, in PDF p. 277 (top) (Hebrew); Solomon ibn Verga,

6370: 5664:

that had expelled the Jews were formally rescinded on December 16, 1968.

5605: 5546: 5383: 5092: 4327: 4291:, settling the legal position of the Jews in a manner favorable to them. 4201: 4118: 3999: 3959: 3951: 3856: 3832: 3816: 3805: 3703:

The first period of exceptional prosperity took place under the reign of

3666: 3619: 3574: 3563: 3060: 2852:

Medieval Jewish legends often traced the arrival of Jews in Spain to the

2580: 2438: 2316: 2258: 1923: 829: 824: 819: 789: 9507: 8916: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 8873:, Vol. 1 ed. R. D. Barnett, New York: Ktav Publishing House, Inc., 1971. 7683:

Los judíos de Castilla en tiempo de Enrique III : el pogrom de 1391

5530:

were fully informed of the Nazi extermination plans by Governor-General

5019: 4950:, became the bitterest enemies and persecutors of their former brethren. 4651: 4323: 4274: 3797:

and indicated that such was contingent on the treatment of Jews abroad.

3419:

activity for the Jews of Spain. Furthermore, Jews were not to engage in

9907: 9627: 9521: 8880:, Vol. 1 ed. R. D. Barnett, New York: Ktav Publishing House Inc., 1971. 8712:

Gampel, Benjamin R. "Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Medieval Iberia:

8637:. Seville: Fundación Tres Culturas del Mediterráneo. pp. 123–160. 7864: 7671:(ed. Dr. M. Wiener), Hannover 1855, pp. 128 – 130, or pp. 138 – 140 in 7647: 7642:(ed. Dr. M. Wiener), Hannover 1855, pp. 128 – 130, or pp. 138 – 140 in 7608: 5779: 5542: 5531: 5036: 4867: 4577: 4569: 4505:(1325), that an improvement set in. In 1328, 5,000 Jews were killed in 4437: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 4350:

The Jews in Spain were citizens of the kingdoms in which they resided (

4314: 4298:, (who permanently united the kingdoms of León and Castile), and under 4265: 4243:(Fermosa) of Toledo, who was Jewish. When the king was defeated at the 3992: 3963: 3475: 3447: 3242: 3005:

Map of Phoenician (red) and Greek colonies (blue) at about 550 BCE

2664:, from Spain, and from their neighbors." From a slightly later period, 2657: 2442: 1974: 988: 917: 875: 704: 684: 243: 150: 70: 8876:

Sassoon, Solomon David, "The Spiritual Heritage of the Sephardim", in

7255: 4992:

The forced conversions also possibly contributed to the resurgence of

4970: 4903: 4784: 4294:

A turning-point in the history of the Jews of Spain was reached under

3234:

Visigoth rule – Repression and forced conversions (5th century to 711)

2445:

stood out particularly during the 10th and the 11th centuries, in the

9500: 8847: 8465:"It's Official: Spanish Town 'Camp Kill the Jews' to Change Its Name" 6503: 6501: 6499: 6367:

The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ: Volume I

5749: 5733:

in the southeast of the country has a growing Jewish community and a

5722: 5680: 5323:, among many others, and succeeded by at least five more expulsions. 4931: 4927: 4855: 4851: 4760: 3935: 3820: 3735: 3731: 3650: 3611: 3578: 3551: 3323: 3247: 3186: 3160: 3014: 2880: 2857: 2837: 2817: 2810: 2765: 2742: 2737: 2705: 2572: 2466: 2454: 2413: 2137: 2122: 1212: 1160: 922: 870: 860: 541: 537: 527: 442: 202: 8565:"132,000 descendants of expelled Jews apply for Spanish citizenship" 8061: 7752: 7730: 7706: 7672: 7643: 7593: 7563: 7559: 7143:. Universidad de Navarra· Iberoamericana· Vervuert. pp. 55–78. 5692: 5443:

Spanish historians started to take an interest in the Sephardim and

4966: 4780: 4551: 4412: 4031: 3723:. It was in his capacity as dignitary that he corresponded with the 3501: 3377:), and all converted Jews had to promise to put to death, either by 3090: 890: 9493: 9459: 8781:, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Mediaeval Society of America, 1937. 8384: 8256: 7776: 7537: 7515: 6933:"Roman Revolutions and the Rise of Frankish Feudalism and Doctrine" 6309: 5708: 5696: 5688: 5593: 5578: 5566: 5371: 5354: 5332: 5268: 5116: 5108: 5100: 5060: 4993: 4923: 4863: 4783:(August 13). The Jews of this city vainly sought protection in the 4585: 4216:, and other places, where new congregations were soon established. 4213: 4209: 4195: 4191: 3976: 3902: 3824: 3682: 3615: 3525: 3420: 3347: 3335:

returned to Judaism, and a number of the exiles returned to Spain.

3328: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3275: 3211: 3084: 3010: 3001: 2982: 2966: 2861: 2749: 2697: 2693: 2619: 2605: 2545: 2530: 2417: 2306: 1916: 1848: 679: 187: 138: 8740:

Halkin, Abraham. "The Medieval Jewish Attitude toward Hebrew", in

8447:"Jewish group asks French minister to rename Death to Jews hamlet" 6520: 6496: 5219: 5131:

A small number of pre-expulsion synagogues survive, including the

5031:. Girona's Jewish community was lost as a result of the Expulsion. 4899: 4731: 4576:, and many other towns were totally destroyed. The inhabitants of 4338: 4182: 9885: 9514: 8869:

Sarna, Nahum M., "Hebrew and Bible Studies in Medieval Spain" in

8469: 7726: 6834: 6832: 6830: 6810: 6808: 6806: 6396: 6394: 6228: 6226: 6224: 6222: 6220: 6218: 6049:

Actas del I Congreso Internacional sobre Migraciones en Andalucía

6011: 6009: 5964: 5734: 5726: 5700: 5687:

each with around 3,500 members. There are smaller communities in

5601: 5570: 5511: 5429: 5349: 5336: 4986: 4981:

Many of the Jews from Valencia, Catalonia and Aragon thronged to

4974: 4939: 4911: 4891: 4838: 4827: 4788: 4735: 4720: 4593: 4506: 3984: 3927: 3906:

especially as recently-conquered towns were put back into order.

3867: 3844: 3724: 3716: 3692: 3582: 3547: 3540: 3505: 3497: 3382: 3374: 3310: 3291: 3271: 3264: 3080: 2989:, but in the language of the Arabs, the indwellers of the lands, 2965:

is associated with a very faraway place, generally thought of as

2958: 2926: 2890: 2865: 2833: 2802: 2681: 2666: 2653: 2636: 2552: 2470: 2282: 2248: 2117: 1911: 900: 895: 767: 658: 553: 549: 545: 294: 289: 266: 248: 123: 118: 108: 86: 61: 29: 8310:

Jewish Spain : Living, Eating and Praying as a Jew in Spain

8004: 5617:, Commissioner for Jewish Affairs (May 1942 – February 1944) in 4139: 10039:

Foundation for the Advancement of Sephardic Studies and Culture

8890:

Stillman, Norman, "Aspects of Jewish Life in Islamic Spain" in

5954: 5952: 5738: 5730: 5716: 5684: 5668: 5650: 5562: 5459: 5340: 5049: 5041: 5024: 4935: 4772: 4647: 4535: 4473: 4187: 4105:

Catholic princes, the counts of Castile and the first kings of

3910: 3848: 3840: 3778: 3674: 3638: 3634: 3597: 3589: 3517: 3366: 3050: 2601: 2433: 2404:

possibly traces back to the times after the destruction of the

1942: 1937: 1897: 1882: 993: 885: 305: 271: 257: 192: 8953: 8241:

Nicholas Fraser, "Toujours Vichy: a reckoning with disgrace",

7990:. Centro de Estudios del Camino de Santiago. pp. 71–102. 7134:"La actitud de Cervantes ante sus antepasados judaicos (2005)" 6827: 6803: 6391: 6215: 6021: 6006: 5937: 5766:

Some famous Spaniards of Jewish descent are the businesswomen

3727:, a kingdom that had converted to Judaism in the 8th century. 3512:

were left to a mixed army of Jews and Moors. The Chronicle of

3458:

Jews before they proceeded further north, which initiated the

2628:, Josephus identifies the location of Antipas's banishment as 9809: 7905:

El reinado de los reyes Católicos in: Antisemitismo en España

6565:), p. xxxviii, pub. by Solomon L. Skoss, 1936 Yale University 6095:"Unos 50000 judíos residentes en España reciben el nuevo año" 5741: 5712: 5654: 5425: 5112: 5096: 4961: 4887: 4114: 4014:

In many ways, life had come full circle for the Sephardim of

3893: 3871:

A Jew and a Muslim playing chess in 13th-century al-Andalus.

3828: 3516:

records that when the Catholics left Toledo on Sunday before

3441:

increased. The degree of complicity that the Jews had in the

3404: 3393: 3204: 3046: 2829: 2772:, and dispersed to the extreme west during the period of the 2769: 2761: 2753: 2717: 2712:, and dispersed to the extreme west during the period of the 2709: 2568: 2556: 2540: 2450: 905: 334: 238: 207: 8718:

Convivencia: Jews, Muslims, and Christians in Medieval Spain

7838:

Juif, Dácil; Baten, Joerg; Pérez-Artés, Mari Carmen (2020).

7687:

The Castilian Jews at the time of Henry III: the 1391 pogrom

5949: 3949:

The Golden Age ended before the completion of the Christian

2400:, but the settlement of organised Jewish communities in the 9972: 8786:

Res Publica: Roman Politics and Society according to Cicero

7930:"Map of Jewish expulsions and resettlement areas in Europe" 6357: 6353: 6290:

A Social and Religious History of the Jews: Christian Spain

6142:(2007) American Jewish Committee, accessed 12 October 2009 5782:, founder of the clothing design and manufacturing company 5370:

Henceforth the history of the Jews in Spain is that of the

5111:, which focused strongly on education, for example because 4996:

studies among the Jews of Spain in the early 15th century.

4847: 4624:

and others—as financial councilors and tax-collectors. His

4092: 3657:

Although initially, the often-bloody disputes among Muslim

3314: 3286: 2801:, from the 5th century, recounts the alleged conversion of 2661: 2629: 2600:. Paul's stated intention to travel to Spain to preach the 57: 7542:

Jerusalem 1962, pp. רסז – רסח, in PDF pp. 276–278 (Hebrew)

7394:

Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust

5729:

maintains an old community of Sephardic Jews. The city of

4960:

found it necessary to prohibit the latter from practising

3913:

in the Muslim taifas were the ibn Nagrelas (or Naghrela).

3259: 3021:

eras. In the Bible, Trashish is mentioned in the books of

2787:, an ecclesiastical council held in the Roman province of 6782:), end of II Kings, pp. 680–681, Jerusalem 1955 (Hebrew). 4946:(called also Paul de Santa Maria), and Joshua Lorqui, or 4661: 4256:

Nasi Joseph ben Solomon ibn Shoshan (Al-Hajib ibn Amar).

2895:

The earliest mention of Sepharad is, allegedly, found in

2696:. The province came under Roman control with the fall of 2503:

system) whereas those who continued to practise Judaism (

5748:

The modern Jewish community in Spain consists mainly of

4650:, should be forbidden, under penalty of a fine of 6,000 2521:

An estimated 13,000 to 50,000 Jews live in Spain today.

8883:

Scherman, Rabbi Nosson and Zlotowitz, Rabbi Meir eds.,

8184: 8182: 7586:] (in Hebrew). B’nei Issachar Institute: Jerusalem. 5477: 5235:

The Expulsion of the Jews from Spain (in the year 1492)

5023:

A lane in the old Jewish Quarter, called "El Call", of

2424:, conditions for Jews in Iberia considerably worsened. 2805:'s Jewish population in 418. Following the arrival of 2493:

were forced to convert to Catholicism (thus becoming '

7472:

Don Adolfo de Castro (trans. E D G M Kirwan) (1851).

5557:

Shortly afterward, Spain began giving citizenship to

5420:

Jewish woman in the Jewish quarter of Melilla (1909).

5393:

Conversos played an important leadership role in the

5107:

majority, which might be due to the Jewish religious

4596:. The suffering, according to a contemporary writer, 3897:

principalities under the rule of local Arab, Berber,

3546:

In spite of the restrictions placed upon the Jews as

3437:

After the Visigoths elites adopted the Nicene creed,

8836:

Jewish Remnants in Spain: Wanderings in a Lost World

8825:

Texts and Studies in Jewish History and Literature I

8179: 8073: 7837: 6346:

The place of banishment is identified in Josephus's

6321: 5843: 3596:, were also introduced, in an increased interest in 2996: 2993:, the name of the capital of the kingdom, Córdoba.” 2567:

and the Balearics. Additionally, a signet ring from

1921: 1902: 325: 8885:

History of the Jewish People: The Second Temple Era

8857:

The Sephardi Story: A Celebration of Jewish History

5397:(1520–1522), a popular revolt and civil war in the 3450:, who were necessary for the kingdom's protection. 8756: 8744:, ed. Alexander Altman, Cambridge, Massachusetts: 7729:, published as an appendix to Wiener's edition of 6843:sfn error: no target: CITEREFRutgersBradbury2006 ( 6819:sfn error: no target: CITEREFRutgersBradbury2006 ( 6661:rendered by Abrabanel is אישקלונה. See Abrabanel, 6531:sfn error: no target: CITEREFRutgersBradbury2006 ( 6512:sfn error: no target: CITEREFRutgersBradbury2006 ( 6405:sfn error: no target: CITEREFRutgersBradbury2006 ( 6237:sfn error: no target: CITEREFRutgersBradbury2006 ( 3862: 3800:The intellectual achievements of the Sephardim of 3187:Arrival after the destruction of the Second Temple 2412:. From the late 6th century onward, following the 9034: 8485:"Five Things to Know About Antisemitism in Spain" 7268:"The Treatment of Jews in Arab/Islamic Countries" 6027: 6015: 5982: 5970: 5943: 5827:In 2014 it was announced that the descendants of 5786:, though only the latter is of Sephardic origin. 5657:to which a special protection should be granted. 5299: 4646:of 1380, it was enacted that rabbis, or heads of 4572:, whose Jewish community numbered many scholars, 3321:, while as many as 90,000 converted. Many of the 3091:Arrival after the destruction of the First Temple 2732:, although early examples of priesthood-inspired 10084: 8908:Philadelphia: The John C. Winston Company, 19??. 8859:London: Valentine Mitchell & Co. Ltd., 1991. 8699:, Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, Ltd., 1971. 8620: 8090: 8088: 8067: 8010: 7609:American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise (2022). 6574:Targum Yonathan ben Uzziel on the Minor Prophets 4826:, as well as in a Letter written to the Jews of 4021: 3983:harshly. Jews and Christians were expelled from 8664:The Jews of Spain: From Settlement to Expulsion 7936:. Florida Center for Instructional Technology. 7898: 7680: 6858: 6856: 6854: 6838: 6814: 6526: 6507: 6400: 6232: 6183:Toch, Michael (2013). "The Iberian Peninsula". 5800:Like other religious communities in Spain, the 5432:into account, about 1,000 Jews lived in Spain. 4333: 3588:Although not as influential, traditions of the 3083:) – which, as noted, was applied to the Jewish 3009:Some legends associated the biblical placename 2622:to Spain in 39 CE. However, in his later work, 2431:in the early 8th century, Jews lived under the 8799:, Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1972. 8759:The Spanish Inquisition: a Historical Revision 8403:"Europe – World Union for Progressive Judaism" 6915: 6913: 6778:Abrabanel's Commentary on the First Prophets ( 5517:Once the tide of war began to turn, and Count 4719:from all sides and killed 4000 Jews; the rest 4509:following the preaching of a mendicant friar. 3465: 3396:(680–687) also seemed vexed by the issue. The 2891:Identification of Spain with biblical Sepharad 9426: 9020: 8887:, Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, Ltd., 1982. 8866:(Boston Academic Studies Press, 2012) 441 pp. 8194:The International Raoul Wallenberg foundation 8085: 8033:Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia 7817:(in Hebrew). Jerusalem: Bialik. p. 243. 6039: 5986:Los marginados en el mundo medieval y moderno 5958: 4235:the Wise of Navarre placed them in charge of 4140:Toleration and Jewish immigration (1085–1212) 3872: 2840:had more or less disrupted the political and 2373: 34: 9843:Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries 8892:Aspects of Jewish Culture in the Middle Ages 8784:Lacy, W. K. and Wilson, B. W. J. G., trans. 8702:Flesler, Daniela, and Adrián Pérez Melgosa. 8385:"Comunidad Judía del Principado de Asturias" 7443: 7441: 7439: 7437: 7435: 7433: 7431: 7429: 7427: 6851: 6361: 6071: 5822: 5756:. In the 1970s, there was also an influx of 5552:American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee 4866:had been affected, as were also the Jews of 4259: 3241:brought most of the Iberian Peninsula under 2904: 8921: 8720:, ed. Vivian B. Mann, Thomas F. Glick, and 8254: 7689:] (in Spanish). Valladolid University. 6910: 5378:" which required Spaniards to prove their " 4802:(1326–1408), and in the seminal writing of 4060:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 3297:While the policies of the subsequent Kings 617:History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire 9440: 9433: 9419: 9027: 9013: 9000:In Plain Language: The song of the Marrano 8558: 8556: 8554: 8503: 7488:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6590:3:2 s.v., אספמיא, Jerusalem 1998 (Hebrew) 6171:Federación de Comunidades Judías de España 5674: 5621:, and to many other former Nazis, such as 5191:Synagogue of Santa María la Blanca, Toledo 3909:Among the most prominent Jews to serve as 2909:), and the exiles of Jerusalem who are in 2485:of 1492, the remaining practising Jews in 2380: 2366: 8838:, Mesa, Arizona, Scribe Publishers, 2003. 8735:The Jewish Publication Society of America 8724:, New York: George Braziller, Inc., 1992. 8657:The Jewish Publication Society of America 8040: 7863: 7577: 7424: 7131: 5802:Federation of Jewish Communities in Spain 5119:advantage persisted. However, during the 5095:and eventual Jewish mass emigration from 4637: 4453:Learn how and when to remove this message 4080:Learn how and when to remove this message 2555:from the first century CE, discovered in 2461:began, and secular poetry was written in 10098:History of the Jews in Europe by country 8716:through the Eyes of Sephardic Jews", in 8425: 7983: 7812: 7758:, Lvov 1846, pp. 41 (end) – 42 in PDF); 7657: 7411: 7241: 7239: 6956: 6332:sfn error: no target: CITEREFGabba1999 ( 6286:A History of the Jews in Christian Spain 5815:In 2020, Spain's parliament adopted the 5415: 5361:in Spain during the times of inquisition 5348: 5229: 5218: 5018: 4671: 4483: 4464: 4337: 4273: 4181: 4100: 4091: 3866: 3407:(687–702), recognising the wrongness of 3285: 3258: 3000: 2977:, minister of trade in the court of the 2913:, will possess the cities of the south.” 2575:, though some scholars interpret it as " 2539: 28: 8994:The Tragic History of the Jews of Spain 8551: 8509: 8453:. Agence France-Presse. 12 August 2014. 7390: 6891: 6889: 6729:, pp. 680–681, Jerusalem 1955 (Hebrew). 6586:, with a commentary by Pinchas Kahati, 6169:) of whom half are affiliated with the 6120: 4763:. On Aug. 2 the wave of murder visited 4387:, or who had been royal physicians, as 4194:story, from the 14th-century Barcelona 3698: 2752:that ensued from the Roman conquest of 2518:on the basis of demonstrated ancestry. 14: 10085: 8367:"Barcelona, Spain Jewish History Tour" 7984:Hernando, Máximo Diago (24 May 2017). 7052:"Hope amid discord in the Middle East" 7049: 6606: 6557:The Hebrew-Arabic Dictionary known as 6294:The Jewish People in the First Century 5452:dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera 5408: 4723:as the only means of escaping death." 4677:Slaughter of Jews in Barcelona in 1391 4662:Massacres and mass conversions of 1391 4522:Soon, however a civil war erupted, as 3361:However, the "problem" continued. The 2847: 9828:History of the Jews under Muslim rule 9414: 9008: 8808:Jewish Publication Society of America 8751: 8562: 7968: 7952:"A Brief Chronology of anti-Semitism" 7759: 7517:Questions and Responsa of Ben Sheshet 7397:. Palgrave Macmillan US. p. 99. 7236: 6327: 6300:Vol. 26 Part 2 (October 1975) p. 395. 6250: 6248: 6108:Calvo, Vera Gutiérrez (6 June 2014). 6107: 5886:History of the Jews under Muslim rule 5752:from Northern Africa, especially the 5545:but it came to naught due to lack of 5208: 4346:, written in fourteenth-century Spain 3472:Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain 3210:, his officer who was appointed over 2925:, identifies Ṣarfat with the city of 2716:, and especially after the defeat of 2497:' who faced discrimination under the 8820:, US: Oxford University Press, 1995. 8079: 8049: 8022: 7785:, Lvov 1846 (p. 76 in PDF) (Hebrew). 7737:Letters of the Jews through the Ages 7677:Letters of the Jews through the Ages 7652:Letters of the Jews through the Ages 6962: 6886: 6182: 5831:who were expelled from Spain by the 5633:José María Finat y Escrivá de Romaní 5478:Spanish Civil War & World War II 5401:against the imperial pretensions of 4561: 4534:; they plundered the warehouses and 4435:adding citations to reliable sources 4406: 4058:adding citations to reliable sources 4025: 3434:and Romans still residing in Spain. 3107:Now, I have heard that this praise, 2799:Letter on the Conversion of the Jews 10027:Caracas Center of Sephardic Studies 8948:Expulsion from Spain and The Anusim 8294:1492 Ban on Jews Is Voided by Spain 7256:https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060535 5290: 5248:, an edict of expulsion called the 4999: 4862:and Gironda and in the kingdom of 3859:learning, into the rest of Europe. 3614:was prompted by Muslim anti-Jewish 3496:was left in the hands of Jews, and 3480: 2942: 2905: 33:13th-century illustration from the 24: 9978:Sephardim and Oriental Communities 8668:The Hebrew University of Jerusalem 8586: 8323:"European Jewish Congress – Spain" 8284:at the Virtual Jewish History Tour 8025:"La colectividad judía en Melilla" 7940:from the original on Nov 21, 2023. 7934:A Teacher's Guide to the Holocaust 7796:"ALGERIA - JewishEncyclopedia.com" 6665:, p. 680, Jerusalem 1955 (Hebrew). 6245: 5817:Working definition of antisemitism 5521:succeeded Franco's brother-in-law 5133:Synagogue of Santa María la Blanca 25: 10109: 8941: 8925:; et al., eds. (1901–1906). 8850:y orígen de las cuatro parroquias 8706:(Indiana University Press, 2020) 8105:The Mezuzah in the Madonna's Foot 6072:Europa Press (27 November 2013). 5484:Francoist Spain and the Holocaust 4310:, were also allowed to own land. 3917:(993–1056) served Granada's King 2997:Connection with biblical Tarshish 2934: 2760:at the hands of the Romans under 408:Historical population comparisons 8935:. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. 8911: 8894:, ed. Paul E. Szarmach, Albany: 8653:The Jews of Moslem Spain, Vol. 2 8525: 8477: 8457: 8439: 8413: 8395: 8377: 8359: 8340: 8315: 8303: 8287: 8275: 8248: 8235: 8206: 8170: 8158: 8145: 8136: 8127: 8118: 8097: 8016: 8000:– via dialnet.unirioja.es. 7977: 7962: 7944: 7922: 7892: 7880: 7831: 7806: 7788: 7765: 7742: 7715: 7628: 7602: 7571: 7545: 7527: 7496: 7475:The history of the Jews in Spain 7465: 7449:"SPAIN - JewishEncyclopedia.com" 7050:Jebara, Mohamed (Nov 16, 2015). 6719:Commentary on the First Prophets 6663:Commentary on the First Prophets 5860: 5846: 5440:, World War I, and the Rif War. 5196: 5184: 5179:Synagogue of El Tránsito, Toledo 5172: 5160: 4850:it had also reached the Jews of 4411: 4030: 3566:(the latter region was known as 3175:). Abrabanel says that the name 2816:In comparison to Jewish life in 2524: 1052:Democratic Republic of the Congo 966:Historical population by country 10044:Institute for Sephardic Studies 8996:Rabbi Menachem Levine, Aish.com 8704:The Memory Work of Jewish Spain 7384: 7368: 7359: 7350: 7341: 7332: 7323: 7305: 7287: 7278: 7260: 7248: 7227: 7218: 7209: 7200: 7191: 7182: 7173: 7164: 7125: 7116: 7107: 7098: 7089: 7080: 7071: 7062: 7043: 7034: 7025: 7016: 7007: 6998: 6989: 6980: 6947: 6901: 6877: 6865: 6794: 6785: 6772: 6752: 6732: 6711: 6698: 6685: 6668: 6654: 6644: 6632: 6593: 6577: 6568: 6551: 6539: 6487: 6478: 6469: 6460: 6447: 6429: 6413: 6340: 6303: 6278: 6275:Epistle of the Romans, 15.24-28 6269: 6257: 6176: 6145: 6101: 5881:History of the Jews in Portugal 5307:is a well established trend in 5126: 4810:(written ca. 1586), as also in 4422:needs additional citations for 3863:Taifas, Almoravids and Almohads 3643:Talmudic Academies in Babylonia 9833:Antisemitism in the Arab world 9036:History of the Jews in Europe 6708:, p. 271, Venice 1585 (Hebrew) 6695:, p. 15a, Venice 1605 (Hebrew) 6298:Journal of Theological Studies 6087: 6065: 6033: 5976: 5554:operated openly in Barcelona. 5300:European context of expulsions 4501:, and of the young and active 4219:After the brief reign of King 3411:, relaxed the pressure on the 2981:, wrote to Joseph the king of 2670:(Leviticus Rabba § 29.2), and 2465:for the first time. After the 13: 1: 8563:Jones, Sam (2 October 2019). 8489:The American Jewish Committee 7534:Gedaliah ibn Yahya ben Joseph 6040:Prados García, Celia (2011). 5931: 5896:Jewish community of Calatayud 5629:, and other former Fascists. 5519:Francisco Gómez-Jordana Sousa 4804:Gedaliah ibn Yahya ben Joseph 4285:battle of Las Navas de Tolosa 4022:Christian kingdoms (974–1300) 3654:of Jews into Arabic culture. 2643:. A tradition passed down by 2504: 2473:invasions, many Jews fled to 623:Christianity and Judaism 41:depicting Jews playing chess. 9994:American Sephardi Federation 9987:Major communal organizations 8896:State University of New York 8844:Arias, Leopoldo Meruéndano. 8691:Vol. 41, No. 2, Spring 1992. 8371:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org 8255:Ofer Aderet (22 June 2010). 8107:, Simon and Schuster, 1993. 7317:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org 7272:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org 5403:Holy Roman Emperor Charles V 5326: 4873: 4488:The Spanish kingdoms in 1360 4476:in Toledo, oil on canvas by 4402: 4334:The Jewish community in 1300 4283:been slain. When, after the 4278:The Spanish kingdoms in 1210 4096:The Spanish kingdoms in 1030 2879:(1437–1508) stated that the 2870:charge often leveled at them 2429:Umayyad conquest of Hispania 7: 9709:Western Europe and overseas 8515:"Repatriating Spain's Jews" 8042:10.5944/aldaba.5.1985.19609 7971:History of a Tragedy. p. 17 7679:, London 1952, pp. 272–75; 7578:Ibn Verga, Salomón (1992). 6839:Rutgers & Bradbury 2006 6815:Rutgers & Bradbury 2006 6527:Rutgers & Bradbury 2006 6508:Rutgers & Bradbury 2006 6401:Rutgers & Bradbury 2006 6233:Rutgers & Bradbury 2006 5839: 5615:Louis Darquier de Pellepoix 5388:Spanish and Portuguese Jews 5345:Spanish and Portuguese Jews 5271:, now offered them 600,000 5203:Old main synagogue, Segovia 5149:Old main synagogue, Segovia 4779:"The last town visited was 4113:, Count of Castile, in the 3915:Samuel Ha-Nagid ibn Nagrela 3785:) commanded a Jewish army. 3764:Samuel Ha-Nagid ibn Nagrela 3466:Moorish Spain (711 to 1492) 3425:Sixteenth Council of Toledo 3373:and the observation of the 3350:(636–639). He directed the 1922: 1903: 1630:Latin America and Caribbean 326: 10: 10114: 9999:Sephardi Community Council 8864:The Jew in Medieval Iberia 8742:Biblical and Other Studies 8679:Cambridge University Press 7800:www.jewishencyclopedia.com 7739:, London 1952, pp. 272–75. 7712:, Lvov 1846, p. 76 in PDF. 7663:Letter of Hasdai Crescas, 7654:, London 1952, pp. 272–75. 7611:"Hasdai Ben Judah Crescas" 7599:, Lvov 1846, p. 76 in PDF) 7514:no's. 6, 11, 12 and 14 of 7453:www.jewishencyclopedia.com 7141:Cervantes y las religiones 7132:Eisenberg, Daniel (2008). 6780:Pirush Al Nevi'im Rishonim 6759:Seder Hakabbalah Laharavad 6739:Seder Hakabbalah Laharavad 6723:Pirush Al Nevi'im Rishonim 5481: 5330: 5212: 5086:Catholic Monarchs of Spain 4877: 4665: 4263: 4249:Yusuf Abu Ya'kub al-Mansur 4223:, a war broke out between 3746:, the innovator of Hebrew 3691:. Both men, by using such 3469: 3460:Golden Age of Spanish Jews 3454:Arabs in the Roman world. 3041:; In generally describing 2510:) were expelled, creating 2416:monarchs' conversion from 2235:Jewish political movements 1932:Conversion to Judaism 10052: 10019: 10004:World Sephardi Federation 9986: 9958: 9918: 9851: 9820: 9545: 9449: 9360: 9322: 9042: 8763:. Yale University Press. 8733:, Vol. III Philadelphia: 8622:Álvarez Chillida, Gonzalo 8218:Hitler: Stopped by Franco 7856:10.1017/S021261091900034X 7347:Stillman, pp. 51, 73 6640:Easton's Bible Dictionary 6284:See, e.g., Yitzhak Baer, 6199:10.1163/9789004235397_006 5911:Sephardic law and customs 5823:2014–2019 Citizenship law 5244:Several months after the 4470:At the Feet of the Savior 4342:An illustration from the 4260:Turning point (1212–1300) 4206:Judah ben Joseph ibn Ezra 4157:fuero of Najara Sepulveda 3398:Twelfth Council of Toledo 3128:the Spaniard has written: 2923:David ben Abraham al-Fasi 2651:, quoting second-century 2437:system and progressively 638:Hinduism and Judaism 8901:Whiston, A. M., trans., 8804:The Jews of Ancient Rome 8746:Harvard University Press 8389:www.sefarad-asturias.org 7725:to the congregations of 7421:Madrid (1779). Chap. VII 7391:Michael, Robert (2006). 7365:Ashtor, pp. 250–251 7086:Stillman, pp. 54–55 7040:Halkin, pp. 324–325 6493:Laeuchli, pp. 75–76 6369:. revised and edited by 5810:Castrillo Mota de Judíos 5789:There are rare cases of 5137:Synagogue of El Tránsito 4592:were taken prisoners to 4536:murdered about 1200 Jews 4270:Disputation of Barcelona 3943:Granada massacre of 1066 3637:, as had the Babylonian 3522:Church of Saint Leocadia 3363:Eighth Council of Toledo 3340:Fourth Council of Toledo 3250:(484–507) published his 3208:prevailed over Jerusalem 2957:in 189 CE, known as the 2883:family had lived on the 2758:destruction of Jerusalem 2453:periods. Scientific and 464:Temple in Jerusalem 157:Bar and bat mitzvah 9488:Expulsion from Portugal 8932:The Jewish Encyclopedia 8834:Markman, Sidney David, 8790:Oxford University Press 8214:"Franco & the Jews" 7813:Marciano, Yoel (2019). 7417:López de Ayala, Pedro. 7056:blogs.timesofisrael.com 7022:Sarna, pp. 327–328 7013:Sarna, pp. 325–326 6704:Gedaliah ibn Jechia in 6349:Antiquities of the Jews 6132:World Jewish Population 5754:former Spanish colonies 5675:Modern Jewish community 5395:Revolt of the Comuneros 4612:ascended the throne as 4247:by the Almohades under 4229:Alfonso VIII of Castile 3883:, 13th century. Madrid. 3530:Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada 3352:Sixth Council of Toledo 3331:(621–631), most of the 3309:(610–612) are unknown, 2649:Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai 2625:Antiquities of the Jews 426:Twelve Tribes of Israel 10093:Jewish Spanish history 9085:Bosnia and Herzegovina 8903:The Life and Works of 8176:Alexy, p. 165 et. seq. 7969:Pérez, Joseph (2012). 7954:. 1974. Archived from 7900:Valdeón Baruque, Julio 7778:Shalshelet Ha-Kabbalah 7756:(The Sceptre of Judah) 7710:(The Sceptre of Judah) 7615:Jewish Virtual Library 7597:(The Sceptre of Judah) 7338:Gampel; pp. 20–21 7294:The Forgotten Refugees 7095:Assis, pp. 13, 47 6872:Encyclopaedica Judaica 6706:Shalshelet Ha-Kabbalah 6158:Jewish Virtual Library 6051:. pp. 2119–2126. 6028:Hinojosa Montalvo 2000 6016:Hinojosa Montalvo 2000 5971:Hinojosa Montalvo 2000 5944:Hinojosa Montalvo 2000 5921:Portuguese Inquisition 5876:Israel–Spain relations 5495:In the first years of 5464:Jews from Thessaloniki 5438:1909 Melillan Campaign 5421: 5367: 5363:, an 1892 painting by 5241: 5227: 5032: 4979: 4952: 4777: 4684: 4638:Anti-Jewish enactments 4635: 4558:to robbery and death. 4489: 4481: 4347: 4279: 4198: 4145:Ferdinand I of Castile 4097: 3884: 3873: 3622:, as well as the anti- 3294: 3267: 3253:Breviarium Alaricianum 3154: 3122: 3006: 2937:), the word Sepharad ( 2915: 2864:, a commander of King 2548: 2508: 100,000–200,000 42: 35: 9838:Antisemitism in Islam 9556:Eastern Mediterranean 8978:Encyclopaedia Judaica 8878:The Sephardi Heritage 8696:Encyclopaedia Judaica 8068:Álvarez Chillida 2011 8011:Álvarez Chillida 2011 7568:, pp. 265–266 in PDF) 7539:Shalshelet haQabbalah 7522:Encyclopaedia Judaica 7478:. London. p. 90. 7224:Assis, pp. 13–14 6986:Assis, pp. 44–45 6963:Roth, Norman (1994), 6896:Encyclopaedia Judaica 6691:Moses ben Machir, in 6676:Ha-Nefesh Ha-Ḥakhamah 6546:Pesiqata Derav Kahana 6264:Encyclopaedia Judaica 5901:Antisemitism in Spain 5776:Enrique Múgica Herzog 5482:Further information: 5419: 5352: 5233: 5223:A signed copy of the 5222: 5027:, which includes the 5022: 4953: 4883: 4808:Shalshelet haQabbalah 4749: 4740:Fregenal de la Sierra 4675: 4565: 4554:and exposed those of 4503:Alfonso XI of Castile 4487: 4468: 4341: 4277: 4185: 4177:Carrión de los Condes 4101:Early rule (974–1085) 4095: 3881:Alphonse X of Castile 3870: 3707:(882–955), the first 3289: 3262: 3130: 3105: 3004: 2901: 2836:, and especially the 2673:Pesikta de-Rav Kahana 2597:Epistle to the Romans 2543: 2481:. As a result of the 1172:São Tomé and Príncipe 1167:Republic of the Congo 561:Second Temple Judaism 432:Kingdom of Judah 403:Modern historiography 32: 9943:Sephardi chief rabbi 9920:Religion and culture 9476:Expulsion from Spain 8829:Hebrew Union College 8728:Graetz, Professor H. 8617:, paperback reprint. 8599:Simon & Schuster 8473:. January 10, 2018 . 7634:Printed in the book 7584:The Sceptre of Judah 7179:Mann, pp. 21–22 7122:Stillman, p. 58 7077:Katz, pp. 40–41 6599:Elkan Nathan Adler, 6559:Kitāb Jāmi' Al-Alfāẓ 6097:. 28 September 2011. 5604:and "Judeo-Marxist"- 5424:By 1900, not taking 4948:Gerónimo de Santa Fe 4922:, and especially of 4721:submitted to baptism 4603:Bertrand Du Guesclin 4431:improve this article 4054:improve this section 3699:Caliphate of Córdoba 3679:converted to Judaism 3485:With the victory of 3439:persecutions of Jews 3432:Eastern Roman Empire 3290:Visigothic coinage: 3263:Visigothic coinage: 3049:sought to flee from 2872:in later centuries. 2512:diaspora communities 2274:World Agudath Israel 1415:United Arab Emirates 502:Second Temple period 492:Babylonian captivity 9323:States with limited 8731:History of the Jews 8422:at bechollashon.org 8164:Alexy, p. 154–155, 8070:, pp. 132–133. 8023:Levy, León (1985). 7958:on 26 October 2009. 7773:Gedaliah Ibn Yechia 7379:Jewish Encyclopedia 7233:Raphael, p. 75 7188:Raphael, p. 78 7113:Sassoon, p. 15 7068:Raphael, p. 71 6935:. /www.romanity.org 6619:Jewish Encyclopedia 6529:, pp. 510–511. 6510:, pp. 509–510. 6127:Sergio DellaPergola 5538:, who told Franco. 5536:Luís Carrero Blanco 5523:Ramón Serrano Suñer 5409:1858 to the present 5277:Tomás de Torquemada 5263:It is claimed that 5239:Emilio Sala Francés 5069:Spanish Inquisition 4880:Spanish Inquisition 4656:Council of Palencia 4544:Abraham David Taroç 4524:Henry II of Castile 4225:Fernando II of León 3924:Joseph ibn Naghrela 3875:Libro de los juegos 3756:Solomon ibn Gabirol 3738:and men of means". 3686:Bishop of Córdoba, 3239:Barbarian invasions 3227:Don Isaac Abrabanel 3157:Don Isaac Abrabanel 3126:Gedaliah ibn Jechia 3058:Canaanitic-speaking 2947:Jonathan ben Uzziel 2917:While the medieval 2854:First Temple period 2848:In Jewish tradition 2783:Around 300 CE, the 2724:As citizens of the 2544:Roman provinces of 2516:Spanish citizenship 567:Hellenistic Judaism 145:Land of Israel 104:Principles of faith 37:Libro de los juegos 8972:2013-10-25 at the 8954:Jewish Spain today 8722:Jerrilynn D. Dodds 8708:online book review 8673:Bartlett, John R. 8519:The New York Times 8352:2008-07-09 at the 8312:at Spain Expat.com 8298:The New York Times 8190:"Giorgio Perlasca" 8124:Alexy, p. 164–165. 7299:2011-09-13 at the 7284:Gampel, p. 20 7104:Sarna, p. 327 7004:Sarna, p. 324 6791:Graetz, p. 45 6674:Moses de León, in 6484:Assis at p. 9 6453:Josephus Flavius, 6138:2009-03-26 at the 5959:Prados García 2011 5793:, like the writer 5474:Spain and France. 5422: 5376:limpieza de sangre 5368: 5242: 5228: 5209:Edict of Expulsion 5153:Synagogue of Tomar 5091:The prohibitions, 5081:Pope Innocent VIII 5033: 5010:John II of Castile 4744:Judería de Córdoba 4728:Alcalá de Guadeira 4717:Judería of Seville 4685: 4499:Peter IV of Aragon 4490: 4482: 4385:Abraham Benveniste 4348: 4280: 4199: 4161:Battle of Sagrajas 4127:Council of Coyanza 4098: 3919:Habbus al-Muzaffar 3885: 3879:, commissioned by 3713:Hasdai ibn Shaprut 3641:(the heads of the 3618:and the spread of 3535:De rebus Hispaniae 3295: 3281:Toledo III Council 3268: 3191:Rabbi and scholar 3069:Rabbi David Kimchi 3007: 2975:Hisdai ibn Shaprut 2795:Severus of Minorca 2549: 2533:, was part of the 2500:limpieza de sangre 2128:Jewish Koine Greek 1670:Dominican Republic 951:Judaism by country 630:Jews and Christmas 485:Assyrian captivity 43: 10080: 10079: 9876:Judaeo-Portuguese 9408: 9407: 8967:The Jews in Spain 8871:Sephardi Heritage 8770:978-0-300-07522-9 8651:Ashtor, Eliyahu. 8644:978-84-937041-8-6 8615:978-0-06-060340-3 8607:978-0-671-77816-3 8539:. 9 February 2014 7915:978-84-8427-471-1 7824:978-965-536-266-4 7749:Solomon ibn Verga 7703:Solomon ibn Verga 7669:Solomon ibn Verga 7640:Solomon ibn Verga 7590:Solomon ibn Verga 7504:Isaac ben Sheshet 7404:978-0-230-60198-7 7356:Assis, p. 17 7329:Assis, p. 16 7245:Assis, p. 14 7206:Dan, pp. 7–8 7170:Assis, p. 13 7150:978-84-8489-314-1 6995:Assis, p. 12 6974:978-90-04-09971-5 6967:, Leiden: Brill, 6862:Assis, p. 10 6763:Seder Olam Rabbah 6743:Seder Olam Rabbah 6601:Jewish Travellers 6384:978-0-567-02242-4 6058:978-84-921390-3-3 5973:, pp. 25–26. 5916:Jews of Catalonia 5774:, the politician 5490:Spanish Civil War 5167:Córdoba Synagogue 5141:Córdoba Synagogue 5077:Luis de Santángel 5057:Catholic monarchs 4820:Solomon ibn Verga 4800:Isaac ben Sheshet 4765:Palma, in Majorca 4701:Alcalá de Henares 4562:Massacres of 1366 4540:John I of Castile 4528:Judería of Toledo 4463: 4462: 4455: 4344:Sarajevo Haggadah 4253:Muhammad al-Nasir 4245:Battle of Alarcos 4153:Pope Alexander II 4090: 4089: 4082: 3752:Menahem ben Saruq 3744:Dunash ben Labrat 3709:Caliph of Córdoba 3705:Abd ar-Rahman III 3689:Álvaro of Córdoba 3163:, in the city of 2979:caliph in Córdoba 2887:for 2,000 years. 2885:Iberian Peninsula 2686:Council of Elvira 2402:Iberian Peninsula 2390: 2389: 2339: 2338: 2087: 2086: 1834:Reconstructionist 1778: 1777: 930: 929: 737: 736: 574:Jewish–Roman wars 522:Hasmonean dynasty 438:Kingdom of Israel 342: 341: 16:(Redirected from 10105: 10068: 10035: 10012: 9938:Rite and customs 9911: 9794:Crypto-Sephardim 9435: 9428: 9421: 9412: 9411: 9361:Dependencies and 9302:Northern Ireland 9043:Sovereign states 9029: 9022: 9015: 9006: 9005: 8960: 8936: 8915: 8914: 8905:Flavius Josephus 8862:Ray, Jonathan. 8855:Raphael, Chaim. 8843: 8802:Leon, Harry J., 8774: 8762: 8662:Assis, Yom Tov. 8655:, Philadelphia: 8648: 8636: 8581: 8580: 8578: 8576: 8560: 8549: 8548: 8546: 8544: 8529: 8523: 8522: 8513:(1 April 2014). 8507: 8501: 8500: 8498: 8496: 8481: 8475: 8474: 8461: 8455: 8454: 8443: 8437: 8429: 8423: 8417: 8411: 8410: 8399: 8393: 8392: 8381: 8375: 8374: 8363: 8357: 8344: 8338: 8337: 8335: 8334: 8325:. 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9057: 9052: 9046: 9044: 9040: 9039: 9032: 9031: 9024: 9017: 9009: 9003: 9002: 8997: 8991: 8988:Judaeo-Spanish 8981: 8964: 8956: 8951: 8943: 8942:External links 8940: 8938: 8937: 8909: 8899: 8888: 8881: 8874: 8867: 8860: 8853: 8846:Los Judíos de 8839: 8832: 8821: 8814:Lewis, Bernard 8811: 8806:Philadelphia: 8800: 8793: 8782: 8775: 8769: 8749: 8738: 8725: 8710: 8700: 8692: 8685: 8682: 8671: 8660: 8649: 8643: 8618: 8593:Alexy, Trudi. 8590: 8588: 8585: 8583: 8582: 8550: 8535:(in Spanish). 8524: 8502: 8476: 8456: 8438: 8424: 8420:Anusim project 8412: 8394: 8376: 8358: 8339: 8314: 8302: 8286: 8274: 8247: 8234: 8205: 8178: 8169: 8157: 8151:Alexy, p. 79, 8144: 8142:Alexy, p. 165. 8135: 8126: 8117: 8096: 8084: 8082:, p. 200. 8072: 8060: 8048: 8015: 8013:, p. 131. 8003: 7996: 7976: 7961: 7943: 7921: 7914: 7891: 7879: 7830: 7823: 7805: 7787: 7783:Shevat Yehudah 7764: 7754:Shevaṭ Yehudah 7741: 7732:Shevaṭ Yehudah 7723:Hasdai Crescas 7714: 7708:Shevaṭ Yehudah 7695: 7665:Shevaṭ Yehudah 7656: 7636:Shevaṭ Yehudah 7627: 7601: 7595:Shevaṭ Yehudah 7580:Sheveṭ Yehudah 7570: 7552:Abraham Zacuto 7544: 7526: 7495: 7464: 7423: 7410: 7403: 7383: 7367: 7358: 7349: 7340: 7331: 7322: 7304: 7286: 7277: 7259: 7247: 7235: 7226: 7217: 7208: 7199: 7190: 7181: 7172: 7163: 7160:on 2016-03-13. 7149: 7124: 7115: 7106: 7097: 7088: 7079: 7070: 7061: 7042: 7033: 7024: 7015: 7006: 6997: 6988: 6979: 6973: 6955: 6953:Stillman, p.53 6946: 6921: 6909: 6900: 6885: 6876: 6874:, p. 221. 6864: 6850: 6841:, p. 513. 6826: 6817:, p. 512. 6802: 6793: 6784: 6771: 6751: 6731: 6710: 6697: 6684: 6667: 6653: 6643: 6631: 6624:Isidore Singer 6605: 6592: 6576: 6567: 6550: 6538: 6519: 6495: 6486: 6477: 6468: 6459: 6446: 6428: 6412: 6403:, p. 509. 6390: 6383: 6339: 6330:, p. 132. 6320: 6315:The Jewish War 6302: 6277: 6268: 6256: 6254:Bowers, p. 396 6244: 6235:, p. 508. 6214: 6207: 6175: 6144: 6119: 6100: 6086: 6064: 6057: 6032: 6020: 6005: 5998: 5992:. p. 26. 5975: 5963: 5948: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5929: 5928: 5923: 5918: 5913: 5908: 5903: 5898: 5893: 5888: 5883: 5878: 5872: 5871: 5857: 5854:Judaism portal 5841: 5838: 5829:Sephardic Jews 5824: 5821: 5758:Argentine Jews 5676: 5673: 5575:Ashkenazi Jews 5501:Final Solution 5479: 5476: 5456:Ottoman Empire 5445:Judaeo-Spanish 5410: 5407: 5328: 5325: 5301: 5298: 5292: 5289: 5213:Main article: 5210: 5207: 5206: 5205: 5202: 5195: 5193: 5190: 5183: 5181: 5178: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5159: 5128: 5125: 5006:Paul of Burgos 5001: 4998: 4944:Paul de Burgos 4878:Main article: 4875: 4872: 4832:Hasdai Crescas 4824:Shevaṭ Yehudah 4812:Abraham Zacuto 4769:Ḥasdai Crescas 4757:Vicente Ferrer 4666:Main article: 4663: 4660: 4639: 4636: 4626:contador mayor 4608:When Henry de 4563: 4560: 4517:Samuel ha-Levi 4461: 4460: 4419: 4417: 4410: 4404: 4401: 4397:Abraham Senior 4335: 4332: 4261: 4258: 4173:Infante Sancho 4141: 4138: 4102: 4099: 4088: 4087: 4038: 4036: 4029: 4023: 4020: 3969:Moses ibn Ezra 3864: 3861: 3772:Moses ibn Ezra 3700: 3697: 3671:Bodo the Frank 3608:Arabic culture 3482: 3479: 3467: 3464: 3409:forced baptism 3356:excommunicated 3344:crypto-Judaism 3235: 3232: 3188: 3185: 3092: 3089: 2998: 2995: 2892: 2889: 2849: 2846: 2842:ecclesiastical 2667:Midrash Rabbah 2645:Rabbi Berekiah 2641:Land of Israel 2611:The Jewish War 2559:, part of the 2526: 2523: 2495:New Christians 2394:Biblical times 2388: 2387: 2385: 2384: 2377: 2370: 2362: 2359: 2358: 2357: 2356: 2351: 2343: 2342: 2337: 2336: 2335: 2334: 2329: 2324: 2319: 2314: 2309: 2304: 2299: 2294: 2286: 2285: 2279: 2278: 2277: 2276: 2271: 2269:Territorialism 2266: 2261: 2256: 2251: 2246: 2238: 2237: 2229: 2224: 2223: 2220: 2219: 2216: 2215: 2210: 2205: 2200: 2195: 2190: 2185: 2180: 2175: 2170: 2165: 2160: 2155: 2153:Judaeo-Spanish 2150: 2148:Judaeo-Iranian 2145: 2140: 2135: 2130: 2125: 2120: 2115: 2114: 2113: 2100: 2095: 2094: 2091: 2090: 2085: 2084: 2083: 2082: 2077: 2072: 2064: 2063: 2057: 2056: 2055: 2054: 2049: 2044: 2039: 2034: 2029: 2024: 2019: 2011: 2010: 2004: 2003: 2002: 2001: 1996: 1991: 1986: 1978: 1977: 1971: 1970: 1969: 1968: 1963: 1955: 1954: 1948: 1947: 1946: 1945: 1940: 1935: 1928: 1919: 1914: 1909: 1900: 1895: 1890: 1885: 1877: 1876: 1870: 1865: 1864: 1861: 1860: 1857: 1856: 1851: 1846: 1841: 1836: 1831: 1826: 1821: 1814: 1813: 1812: 1807: 1802: 1791: 1786: 1785: 1782: 1781: 1776: 1775: 1774: 1773: 1768: 1763: 1758: 1753: 1745: 1744: 1738: 1737: 1736: 1735: 1730: 1725: 1720: 1713: 1708: 1703: 1698: 1693: 1688: 1683: 1678: 1673: 1666: 1661: 1656: 1651: 1646: 1641: 1633: 1632: 1626: 1625: 1624: 1623: 1618: 1613: 1605: 1604: 1600: 1599: 1598: 1597: 1594:United Kingdom 1590: 1585: 1580: 1575: 1570: 1565: 1560: 1555: 1550: 1545: 1540: 1535: 1530: 1525: 1520: 1515: 1510: 1505: 1500: 1495: 1490: 1485: 1480: 1475: 1470: 1465: 1460: 1455: 1450: 1442: 1441: 1435: 1434: 1433: 1432: 1427: 1422: 1417: 1412: 1407: 1402: 1397: 1392: 1387: 1382: 1377: 1372: 1367: 1362: 1357: 1352: 1347: 1342: 1337: 1332: 1327: 1322: 1317: 1312: 1307: 1302: 1297: 1292: 1287: 1282: 1277: 1272: 1267: 1262: 1257: 1252: 1247: 1242: 1234: 1233: 1229: 1228: 1227: 1226: 1221: 1216: 1206: 1201: 1196: 1191: 1184: 1179: 1174: 1169: 1164: 1154: 1149: 1144: 1139: 1134: 1129: 1124: 1119: 1114: 1109: 1104: 1099: 1094: 1089: 1084: 1079: 1074: 1069: 1064: 1059: 1054: 1049: 1044: 1039: 1034: 1029: 1027:Bilad-el-Sudan 1024: 1019: 1011: 1010: 1004: 1003: 1002: 1001: 996: 991: 983: 982: 980:Land of Israel 976: 975: 974: 973: 968: 963: 958: 953: 943: 938: 937: 934: 933: 928: 927: 926: 925: 920: 915: 910: 909: 908: 903: 898: 893: 888: 878: 873: 868: 863: 858: 853: 848: 840: 839: 838:Related groups 835: 834: 833: 832: 827: 822: 817: 812: 807: 802: 797: 792: 787: 782: 777: 772: 771: 770: 765: 750: 745: 744: 741: 740: 735: 734: 733: 732: 722: 717: 712: 707: 702: 697: 695:Jewish atheism 692: 687: 682: 674: 673: 669: 668: 667: 666: 661: 656: 651: 646:Islamic–Jewish 641: 634: 619: 614: 606: 605: 598: 597: 596: 595: 571: 558: 530: 525: 518: 513: 511:Yehud Medinata 505: 504: 498: 497: 496: 495: 488: 481: 473: 460: 452: 440: 435: 428: 420: 419: 417:Ancient Israel 413: 412: 411: 410: 405: 400: 395: 390: 385: 380: 375: 373:Land of Israel 370: 362: 361: 355: 350: 349: 346: 345: 340: 339: 338: 337: 332: 328:Shulchan Aruch 323: 318: 313: 308: 300: 299: 298: 297: 292: 284: 283: 277: 276: 275: 274: 269: 261: 260: 254: 253: 252: 251: 246: 241: 233: 232: 224: 219: 218: 215: 214: 211: 210: 205: 200: 195: 190: 185: 180: 175: 170: 165: 160: 153: 148: 141: 136: 131: 126: 121: 116: 106: 101: 94:God in Judaism 90: 85: 84: 81: 80: 79: 78: 73: 65: 64: 54: 53: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10110: 10099: 10096: 10094: 10091: 10090: 10088: 10073: 10070: 10066: 10061: 10058: 10057: 10055: 10051: 10045: 10042: 10040: 10037: 10033: 10028: 10025: 10024: 10022: 10018: 10010: 10005: 10002: 10000: 9997: 9995: 9992: 9991: 9989: 9985: 9979: 9976: 9974: 9971: 9969: 9966: 9965: 9963: 9961: 9957: 9951: 9948: 9944: 9941: 9940: 9939: 9936: 9934: 9931: 9929: 9926: 9925: 9923: 9921: 9917: 9909: 9904: 9901: 9899: 9896: 9892: 9889: 9887: 9884: 9883: 9882: 9879: 9877: 9874: 9872: 9869: 9867: 9864: 9862: 9859: 9858: 9856: 9854: 9850: 9844: 9841: 9839: 9836: 9834: 9831: 9829: 9826: 9825: 9823: 9819: 9811: 9808: 9806: 9805:Belmonte Jews 9803: 9801: 9798: 9797: 9796: 9795: 9791: 9785: 9782: 9781: 9780: 9777: 9773: 9772:Paradesi Jews 9770: 9769: 9768: 9765: 9763: 9760: 9758: 9755: 9753: 9750: 9746: 9745:New Amsterdam 9743: 9741: 9738: 9736: 9733: 9731: 9728: 9727: 9726: 9723: 9721: 9718: 9716: 9713: 9712: 9711: 9710: 9706: 9702: 9699: 9695: 9692: 9691: 9690: 9687: 9685: 9682: 9680: 9677: 9675: 9672: 9671: 9670: 9669: 9665: 9659: 9656: 9654: 9651: 9650: 9649: 9646: 9644: 9641: 9639: 9636: 9634: 9631: 9629: 9626: 9624: 9621: 9617: 9614: 9613: 9612: 9609: 9607: 9604: 9600: 9597: 9596: 9595: 9592: 9588: 9585: 9583: 9580: 9579: 9578: 9575: 9573: 9570: 9568: 9565: 9563: 9560: 9559: 9558: 9557: 9553: 9552: 9550: 9548: 9544: 9538: 9537: 9536:New Christian 9533: 9531: 9530: 9529:Maghrebi Jews 9526: 9524: 9523: 9519: 9517: 9516: 9512: 9510: 9509: 9505: 9503: 9502: 9498: 9496: 9495: 9491: 9489: 9486: 9482: 9479: 9478: 9477: 9474: 9472: 9469: 9467: 9464: 9462: 9461: 9457: 9456: 9454: 9452: 9448: 9443: 9436: 9431: 9429: 9424: 9422: 9417: 9416: 9413: 9401: 9398: 9396: 9393: 9391: 9388: 9386: 9383: 9381: 9378: 9376: 9375:Faroe Islands 9373: 9371: 9368: 9367: 9365: 9359: 9353: 9350: 9348: 9347:South Ossetia 9345: 9343: 9340: 9338: 9335: 9333: 9330: 9329: 9327: 9321: 9313: 9310: 9308: 9305: 9303: 9300: 9298: 9295: 9294: 9293: 9290: 9288: 9285: 9283: 9280: 9278: 9275: 9273: 9270: 9268: 9265: 9263: 9260: 9258: 9255: 9253: 9250: 9248: 9245: 9243: 9240: 9238: 9235: 9233: 9230: 9228: 9225: 9223: 9220: 9218: 9215: 9213: 9210: 9208: 9205: 9203: 9200: 9198: 9195: 9193: 9190: 9188: 9185: 9183: 9180: 9178: 9177:Liechtenstein 9175: 9173: 9170: 9168: 9165: 9163: 9160: 9158: 9156: 9153: 9151: 9148: 9146: 9143: 9141: 9138: 9136: 9133: 9131: 9128: 9126: 9123: 9121: 9118: 9116: 9113: 9111: 9108: 9106: 9103: 9101: 9098: 9096: 9093: 9091: 9088: 9086: 9083: 9081: 9078: 9076: 9073: 9071: 9068: 9066: 9063: 9061: 9058: 9056: 9053: 9051: 9048: 9047: 9045: 9041: 9037: 9030: 9025: 9023: 9018: 9016: 9011: 9010: 9007: 9001: 8998: 8995: 8992: 8989: 8985: 8982: 8979: 8975: 8971: 8968: 8965: 8963: 8957: 8955: 8952: 8949: 8946: 8945: 8934: 8933: 8928: 8924: 8919: 8918:public domain 8910: 8907: 8906: 8900: 8897: 8893: 8889: 8886: 8882: 8879: 8875: 8872: 8868: 8865: 8861: 8858: 8854: 8851: 8849: 8840: 8837: 8833: 8830: 8826: 8823:Mann, Jacob, 8822: 8819: 8815: 8812: 8809: 8805: 8801: 8798: 8794: 8791: 8787: 8783: 8780: 8776: 8772: 8766: 8761: 8760: 8754: 8750: 8747: 8743: 8739: 8736: 8732: 8729: 8726: 8723: 8719: 8715: 8711: 8709: 8705: 8701: 8698: 8697: 8693: 8690: 8686: 8683: 8680: 8677:, Cambridge: 8676: 8672: 8669: 8666:, Jerusalem: 8665: 8661: 8658: 8654: 8650: 8646: 8640: 8633: 8632: 8627: 8623: 8619: 8616: 8612: 8609:, hardcover; 8608: 8604: 8600: 8596: 8592: 8591: 8570: 8566: 8559: 8557: 8555: 8538: 8534: 8528: 8520: 8516: 8512: 8511:Stavans, Ilan 8506: 8490: 8486: 8480: 8472: 8471: 8466: 8460: 8452: 8448: 8442: 8435: 8434: 8428: 8421: 8416: 8408: 8404: 8398: 8390: 8386: 8380: 8372: 8368: 8362: 8355: 8351: 8348: 8343: 8329:on 2006-03-01 8328: 8324: 8318: 8311: 8306: 8300:, 17 Dec 1968 8299: 8295: 8290: 8283: 8278: 8262: 8258: 8251: 8244: 8238: 8224:on 2011-07-11 8223: 8219: 8215: 8209: 8195: 8191: 8185: 8183: 8173: 8167: 8161: 8154: 8148: 8139: 8130: 8121: 8114: 8113:0-671-77816-1 8110: 8106: 8103:Trudi Alexy, 8100: 8094:Alexy, p. 77. 8091: 8089: 8081: 8076: 8069: 8064: 8057: 8052: 8043: 8038: 8034: 8030: 8026: 8019: 8012: 8007: 7999: 7997:9788460846406 7993: 7989: 7988: 7980: 7972: 7965: 7957: 7953: 7947: 7939: 7935: 7931: 7925: 7917: 7911: 7907: 7906: 7901: 7895: 7888: 7883: 7875: 7871: 7866: 7861: 7857: 7853: 7849: 7845: 7841: 7834: 7826: 7820: 7816: 7809: 7801: 7797: 7791: 7784: 7780: 7779: 7774: 7768: 7761: 7757: 7755: 7750: 7745: 7738: 7734: 7733: 7728: 7724: 7718: 7711: 7709: 7704: 7698: 7696:84-7762-449-6 7692: 7688: 7684: 7678: 7674: 7670: 7666: 7660: 7653: 7649: 7645: 7641: 7637: 7631: 7616: 7612: 7605: 7598: 7596: 7591: 7585: 7581: 7574: 7567: 7566: 7565:Sefer Yuḥasin 7561: 7557: 7556:Sefer Yuḥasin 7553: 7548: 7541: 7540: 7535: 7530: 7523: 7519: 7518: 7513: 7509: 7505: 7499: 7491: 7485: 7477: 7476: 7468: 7454: 7450: 7444: 7442: 7440: 7438: 7436: 7434: 7432: 7430: 7428: 7420: 7414: 7406: 7400: 7396: 7395: 7387: 7380: 7376: 7371: 7362: 7353: 7344: 7335: 7326: 7318: 7314: 7308: 7302: 7298: 7295: 7290: 7281: 7273: 7269: 7263: 7257: 7251: 7242: 7240: 7230: 7221: 7212: 7203: 7194: 7185: 7176: 7167: 7156: 7152: 7146: 7142: 7135: 7128: 7119: 7110: 7101: 7092: 7083: 7074: 7065: 7057: 7053: 7046: 7037: 7028: 7019: 7010: 7001: 6992: 6983: 6976: 6970: 6966: 6959: 6950: 6934: 6928: 6926: 6916: 6914: 6904: 6898:, p. 222 6897: 6892: 6890: 6880: 6873: 6868: 6859: 6857: 6855: 6846: 6840: 6835: 6833: 6831: 6822: 6816: 6811: 6809: 6807: 6797: 6788: 6781: 6775: 6768: 6764: 6760: 6755: 6748: 6744: 6740: 6735: 6728: 6725:), end of II 6724: 6720: 6714: 6707: 6701: 6694: 6688: 6681: 6677: 6671: 6664: 6657: 6647: 6641: 6635: 6629: 6625: 6622: 6620: 6615: 6609: 6602: 6596: 6589: 6585: 6580: 6571: 6564: 6560: 6554: 6547: 6542: 6534: 6528: 6523: 6515: 6509: 6504: 6502: 6500: 6490: 6481: 6472: 6463: 6456: 6450: 6442: 6438: 6432: 6424: 6423: 6416: 6408: 6402: 6397: 6395: 6386: 6380: 6376: 6375:Fergus Millar 6372: 6368: 6364: 6359: 6355: 6351: 6350: 6343: 6335: 6329: 6324: 6317: 6316: 6311: 6306: 6299: 6295: 6291: 6287: 6281: 6272: 6265: 6260: 6251: 6249: 6240: 6234: 6229: 6227: 6225: 6223: 6221: 6219: 6210: 6208:9789004235397 6204: 6200: 6196: 6192: 6188: 6187: 6179: 6172: 6159: 6155: 6148: 6141: 6137: 6134: 6133: 6128: 6123: 6115: 6111: 6104: 6096: 6090: 6075: 6068: 6060: 6054: 6050: 6043: 6036: 6030:, p. 28. 6029: 6024: 6018:, p. 26. 6017: 6012: 6010: 6001: 5999:84-8108-206-6 5995: 5988: 5987: 5979: 5972: 5967: 5960: 5955: 5953: 5946:, p. 25. 5945: 5940: 5936: 5927: 5924: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5914: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5897: 5894: 5892: 5891:Jacob ibn Jau 5889: 5887: 5884: 5882: 5879: 5877: 5874: 5873: 5869: 5858: 5855: 5844: 5837: 5834: 5830: 5820: 5818: 5813: 5811: 5805: 5803: 5798: 5796: 5792: 5787: 5785: 5781: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5755: 5751: 5746: 5743: 5740: 5736: 5732: 5728: 5724: 5720: 5718: 5714: 5710: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5694: 5690: 5686: 5682: 5672: 5670: 5665: 5663: 5658: 5656: 5652: 5647: 5644: 5642: 5638: 5634: 5630: 5628: 5627:Léon Degrelle 5624: 5623:Otto Skorzeny 5620: 5616: 5610: 5607: 5603: 5597: 5595: 5591: 5586: 5584: 5580: 5576: 5572: 5568: 5564: 5560: 5559:Sephardi Jews 5555: 5553: 5548: 5544: 5539: 5537: 5533: 5529: 5524: 5520: 5515: 5513: 5509: 5504: 5502: 5498: 5493: 5491: 5485: 5475: 5471: 5469: 5468:the Holocaust 5465: 5461: 5457: 5453: 5448: 5446: 5441: 5439: 5433: 5431: 5427: 5418: 5414: 5406: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5391: 5389: 5385: 5381: 5380:old Christian 5377: 5373: 5366: 5362: 5360: 5356: 5351: 5346: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5324: 5322: 5318: 5314: 5310: 5306: 5297: 5288: 5286: 5282: 5278: 5274: 5270: 5266: 5261: 5257: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5226: 5221: 5216: 5199: 5194: 5187: 5182: 5175: 5170: 5163: 5158: 5157: 5156: 5154: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5138: 5134: 5124: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5089: 5087: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5073:de Caballería 5070: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5053: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5038: 5030: 5026: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5011: 5007: 4997: 4995: 4990: 4988: 4984: 4978: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4963: 4959: 4951: 4949: 4945: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4881: 4871: 4869: 4865: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4840: 4835: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4817: 4816:Sefer Yuḥasin 4813: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4792: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4776: 4774: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4748: 4747:synagogues." 4745: 4741: 4737: 4733: 4729: 4724: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4713:Ash Wednesday 4709: 4707: 4704:disappeared. 4702: 4698: 4694: 4693:Queen Leonora 4690: 4682: 4678: 4674: 4669: 4659: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4634: 4631: 4627: 4623: 4618: 4615: 4611: 4606: 4604: 4599: 4595: 4591: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4559: 4557: 4553: 4547: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4520: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4486: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4457: 4454: 4446: 4436: 4432: 4426: 4425: 4420:This section 4418: 4414: 4409: 4408: 4400: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4389:Meïr Alguadez 4386: 4382: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4366: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4345: 4340: 4331: 4329: 4325: 4320: 4316: 4311: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4296:Ferdinand III 4292: 4290: 4286: 4276: 4271: 4267: 4257: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4217: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4184: 4180: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4137: 4133: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4094: 4084: 4081: 4073: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4049: 4048: 4044: 4039:This section 4037: 4033: 4028: 4027: 4019: 4017: 4012: 4008: 4006: 4005:anti-Semitism 4001: 3996: 3994: 3990: 3989:Islamic Spain 3986: 3982: 3978: 3972: 3970: 3965: 3961: 3956: 3954: 3953: 3947: 3944: 3939: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3907: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3895: 3890: 3882: 3877: 3876: 3869: 3860: 3858: 3852: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3798: 3796: 3792: 3786: 3784: 3780: 3775: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3760:Yehuda Halevi 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3739: 3737: 3733: 3728: 3726: 3722: 3721:foreign trade 3718: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3696: 3694: 3690: 3687: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3667:proselytizing 3663: 3660: 3655: 3652: 3648: 3647:Greek culture 3644: 3640: 3636: 3631: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3586: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3571: 3570: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3544: 3542: 3537: 3536: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3520:to go to the 3519: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3490: 3488: 3477: 3473: 3463: 3461: 3455: 3451: 3449: 3444: 3440: 3435: 3433: 3428: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3386: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3359: 3357: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3336: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3325: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3293: 3288: 3284: 3282: 3277: 3273: 3266: 3261: 3257: 3255: 3254: 3249: 3244: 3240: 3231: 3228: 3224: 3222: 3221:Second Temple 3218: 3213: 3209: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3184: 3181: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3153: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3129: 3127: 3121: 3119: 3115: 3110: 3104: 3102: 3098: 3097:Moses de León 3088: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3067:According to 3065: 3062: 3059: 3055: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3003: 2994: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2955:Judah ha-Nasi 2952: 2948: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2919:lexicographer 2914: 2912: 2900: 2898: 2888: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2873: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2845: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2814: 2812: 2808: 2807:Saint Stephen 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2790: 2786: 2781: 2777: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2746: 2744: 2739: 2735: 2734:anti-Semitism 2731: 2727: 2722: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2689: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2678:Rosh Hashanna 2675: 2674: 2669: 2668: 2663: 2659: 2656: 2655: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2633: 2631: 2627: 2626: 2621: 2617: 2616:Herod Antipas 2613: 2612: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2598: 2593: 2588: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2577:paleo-Hebraic 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2547: 2542: 2538: 2536: 2532: 2525:Early history 2522: 2519: 2517: 2513: 2502: 2501: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2457:study of the 2456: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2435: 2430: 2425: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2406:Second Temple 2403: 2399: 2396:according to 2395: 2383: 2378: 2376: 2371: 2369: 2364: 2363: 2361: 2360: 2355: 2352: 2350: 2347: 2346: 2345: 2344: 2333: 2330: 2328: 2325: 2323: 2320: 2318: 2315: 2313: 2310: 2308: 2305: 2303: 2300: 2298: 2295: 2293: 2290: 2289: 2288: 2287: 2284: 2281: 2280: 2275: 2272: 2270: 2267: 2265: 2262: 2260: 2257: 2255: 2252: 2250: 2247: 2245: 2242: 2241: 2240: 2239: 2236: 2233: 2232: 2227: 2222: 2221: 2214: 2211: 2209: 2206: 2204: 2201: 2199: 2196: 2194: 2193:Judeo-Aramaic 2191: 2189: 2186: 2184: 2183:Judeo-Italian 2181: 2179: 2176: 2174: 2171: 2169: 2166: 2164: 2163:Ghardaïa Sign 2161: 2159: 2156: 2154: 2151: 2149: 2146: 2144: 2141: 2139: 2136: 2134: 2131: 2129: 2126: 2124: 2121: 2119: 2116: 2111: 2107: 2106: 2105: 2102: 2101: 2098: 2093: 2092: 2081: 2078: 2076: 2073: 2071: 2068: 2067: 2066: 2065: 2062: 2059: 2058: 2053: 2050: 2048: 2045: 2043: 2040: 2038: 2035: 2033: 2030: 2028: 2025: 2023: 2020: 2018: 2015: 2014: 2013: 2012: 2009: 2006: 2005: 2000: 1997: 1995: 1992: 1990: 1987: 1985: 1982: 1981: 1980: 1979: 1976: 1973: 1972: 1967: 1964: 1962: 1959: 1958: 1957: 1956: 1953: 1950: 1949: 1944: 1941: 1939: 1936: 1934: 1929: 1926: 1925: 1920: 1918: 1915: 1913: 1910: 1907: 1906: 1901: 1899: 1896: 1894: 1891: 1889: 1886: 1884: 1881: 1880: 1879: 1878: 1874: 1873: 1868: 1863: 1862: 1855: 1852: 1850: 1847: 1845: 1842: 1840: 1837: 1835: 1832: 1830: 1827: 1825: 1822: 1820: 1815: 1811: 1808: 1806: 1803: 1801: 1798: 1797: 1796: 1793: 1792: 1789: 1788:Denominations 1784: 1783: 1772: 1769: 1767: 1764: 1762: 1759: 1757: 1754: 1752: 1749: 1748: 1747: 1746: 1743: 1740: 1739: 1734: 1731: 1729: 1726: 1724: 1721: 1719: 1714: 1712: 1709: 1707: 1704: 1702: 1699: 1697: 1694: 1692: 1689: 1687: 1684: 1682: 1679: 1677: 1674: 1672: 1667: 1665: 1662: 1660: 1657: 1655: 1652: 1650: 1647: 1645: 1642: 1640: 1637: 1636: 1635: 1634: 1631: 1628: 1627: 1622: 1619: 1617: 1616:United States 1614: 1612: 1609: 1608: 1607: 1606: 1602: 1601: 1596: 1591: 1589: 1586: 1584: 1581: 1579: 1576: 1574: 1571: 1569: 1566: 1564: 1561: 1559: 1556: 1554: 1551: 1549: 1546: 1544: 1541: 1539: 1536: 1534: 1531: 1529: 1526: 1524: 1521: 1519: 1516: 1514: 1511: 1509: 1506: 1504: 1501: 1499: 1496: 1494: 1491: 1489: 1486: 1484: 1481: 1479: 1476: 1474: 1471: 1469: 1466: 1464: 1461: 1459: 1456: 1454: 1451: 1449: 1446: 1445: 1444: 1443: 1440: 1437: 1436: 1431: 1428: 1426: 1423: 1421: 1418: 1416: 1413: 1411: 1408: 1406: 1403: 1401: 1398: 1396: 1393: 1391: 1388: 1386: 1383: 1381: 1378: 1376: 1373: 1371: 1368: 1366: 1363: 1361: 1358: 1356: 1353: 1351: 1348: 1346: 1343: 1341: 1338: 1336: 1333: 1331: 1328: 1326: 1323: 1321: 1318: 1316: 1313: 1311: 1308: 1306: 1303: 1301: 1298: 1296: 1293: 1291: 1288: 1286: 1283: 1281: 1278: 1276: 1273: 1271: 1268: 1266: 1263: 1261: 1258: 1256: 1253: 1251: 1248: 1246: 1243: 1241: 1238: 1237: 1236: 1235: 1231: 1230: 1225: 1222: 1220: 1217: 1214: 1210: 1207: 1205: 1202: 1200: 1197: 1195: 1192: 1190: 1185: 1183: 1180: 1178: 1175: 1173: 1170: 1168: 1165: 1162: 1158: 1155: 1153: 1150: 1148: 1145: 1143: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1133: 1130: 1128: 1125: 1123: 1120: 1118: 1115: 1113: 1110: 1108: 1105: 1103: 1102:Guinea-Bissau 1100: 1098: 1095: 1093: 1090: 1088: 1085: 1083: 1080: 1078: 1075: 1073: 1070: 1068: 1065: 1063: 1060: 1058: 1055: 1053: 1050: 1048: 1045: 1043: 1040: 1038: 1035: 1033: 1030: 1028: 1025: 1023: 1020: 1018: 1015: 1014: 1013: 1012: 1009: 1006: 1005: 1000: 997: 995: 992: 990: 987: 986: 985: 984: 981: 978: 977: 972: 969: 967: 964: 962: 959: 957: 956:Lists of Jews 954: 952: 949: 948: 947: 946: 941: 936: 935: 924: 921: 919: 916: 914: 911: 907: 904: 902: 899: 897: 894: 892: 889: 887: 884: 883: 882: 879: 877: 874: 872: 869: 867: 864: 862: 859: 857: 854: 852: 849: 847: 844: 843: 842: 841: 837: 836: 831: 828: 826: 823: 821: 818: 816: 813: 811: 808: 806: 803: 801: 798: 796: 793: 791: 788: 786: 783: 781: 778: 776: 773: 769: 766: 764: 761: 760: 759: 756: 755: 754: 753: 748: 743: 742: 731: 723: 721: 718: 716: 715:The Holocaust 713: 711: 708: 706: 703: 701: 698: 696: 693: 691: 688: 686: 683: 681: 678: 677: 676: 675: 671: 670: 665: 662: 660: 657: 655: 652: 650: 642: 640: 635: 631: 625: 620: 618: 615: 613: 610: 609: 608: 607: 603: 600: 599: 592: 586: 580: 575: 572: 568: 562: 559: 555: 551: 547: 543: 539: 534: 531: 529: 526: 524: 519: 517: 514: 512: 509: 508: 507: 506: 503: 500: 499: 494: 489: 487: 482: 478: 474: 471: 466: 461: 457: 453: 450: 444: 441: 439: 436: 434: 429: 427: 424: 423: 422: 421: 418: 415: 414: 409: 406: 404: 401: 399: 396: 394: 391: 389: 386: 384: 381: 379: 376: 374: 371: 369: 366: 365: 364: 363: 359: 358: 353: 348: 347: 336: 333: 330: 329: 324: 322: 319: 317: 316:Mishneh Torah 314: 312: 309: 307: 304: 303: 302: 301: 296: 293: 291: 288: 287: 286: 285: 282: 279: 278: 273: 270: 268: 265: 264: 263: 262: 259: 256: 255: 250: 247: 245: 242: 240: 237: 236: 235: 234: 231: 228: 227: 222: 217: 216: 209: 206: 204: 201: 199: 196: 194: 191: 189: 186: 184: 181: 179: 176: 174: 171: 169: 166: 164: 161: 159: 154: 152: 149: 147: 142: 140: 137: 135: 132: 130: 127: 125: 122: 120: 117: 114: 110: 107: 105: 102: 99: 95: 92: 91: 88: 83: 82: 77: 76:Who is a Jew? 74: 72: 69: 68: 67: 66: 63: 59: 56: 55: 51: 47: 46: 39: 38: 31: 27: 19: 18:Jews of Spain 9898:Judeo-Gascon 9871:Judeo-Arabic 9861:Judeo-Berber 9792: 9707: 9679:Gibraltarian 9668:North Africa 9666: 9658:Thessalonian 9554: 9534: 9527: 9520: 9513: 9506: 9499: 9492: 9466:Roman Empire 9458: 9352:Transnistria 9266: 8977: 8959:(in Spanish) 8930: 8902: 8898:Press, 1979. 8891: 8884: 8877: 8870: 8863: 8856: 8845: 8842:(in Spanish) 8835: 8831:Press, 1931. 8827:Cincinnati: 8824: 8817: 8803: 8796: 8785: 8778: 8758: 8753:Kamen, Henry 8741: 8730: 8717: 8713: 8703: 8694: 8688: 8674: 8663: 8652: 8630: 8626:Rein, Raanan 8597:, New York: 8594: 8573:. Retrieved 8569:The Guardian 8568: 8541:. Retrieved 8527: 8518: 8505: 8493:. Retrieved 8491:. 4 May 2023 8488: 8479: 8468: 8459: 8451:The Guardian 8450: 8441: 8431: 8427: 8415: 8406: 8397: 8388: 8379: 8370: 8361: 8342: 8331:. Retrieved 8327:the original 8317: 8305: 8297: 8289: 8277: 8265:. Retrieved 8260: 8250: 8242: 8237: 8226:. Retrieved 8222:the original 8217: 8208: 8197:. Retrieved 8193: 8172: 8165: 8160: 8152: 8147: 8138: 8129: 8120: 8104: 8099: 8075: 8063: 8058:(in Spanish) 8051: 8028: 8018: 8006: 7986: 7979: 7970: 7964: 7956:the original 7946: 7933: 7924: 7904: 7894: 7882: 7847: 7843: 7833: 7814: 7808: 7799: 7790: 7782: 7777: 7767: 7760:Kamen (1998) 7753: 7744: 7736: 7731: 7721:Letter from 7717: 7707: 7686: 7682: 7676: 7664: 7659: 7651: 7635: 7630: 7618:. Retrieved 7614: 7604: 7594: 7583: 7579: 7573: 7564: 7555: 7547: 7538: 7529: 7521: 7516: 7511: 7507: 7498: 7474: 7467: 7456:. Retrieved 7452: 7418: 7413: 7393: 7386: 7370: 7361: 7352: 7343: 7334: 7325: 7316: 7307: 7289: 7280: 7271: 7262: 7250: 7229: 7220: 7211: 7202: 7193: 7184: 7175: 7166: 7155:the original 7140: 7127: 7118: 7109: 7100: 7091: 7082: 7073: 7064: 7055: 7045: 7036: 7027: 7018: 7009: 7000: 6991: 6982: 6964: 6958: 6949: 6937:. Retrieved 6903: 6895: 6879: 6871: 6867: 6796: 6787: 6779: 6774: 6766: 6762: 6758: 6754: 6746: 6742: 6738: 6734: 6722: 6718: 6717:Abrabanel's 6713: 6705: 6700: 6693:Seder Ha-Yom 6692: 6687: 6679: 6675: 6670: 6662: 6656: 6646: 6634: 6628:M. Seligsohn 6617: 6608: 6600: 6595: 6587: 6583: 6579: 6570: 6562: 6558: 6553: 6545: 6541: 6522: 6489: 6480: 6471: 6466:Graetz, p.42 6462: 6454: 6449: 6441:www.ccel.org 6440: 6431: 6421: 6415: 6366: 6363:Emil Schürer 6347: 6342: 6323: 6313: 6305: 6297: 6293: 6289: 6285: 6280: 6271: 6263: 6259: 6185: 6178: 6170: 6161:. Retrieved 6157: 6147: 6131: 6122: 6113: 6103: 6089: 6077:. Retrieved 6067: 6048: 6035: 6023: 5985: 5978: 5966: 5939: 5868:Spain portal 5826: 5814: 5806: 5799: 5795:Jon Juaristi 5788: 5765: 5762: 5747: 5721: 5678: 5666: 5659: 5648: 5645: 5640: 5631: 5619:Vichy France 5611: 5598: 5587: 5556: 5540: 5516: 5508:World War II 5505: 5497:World War II 5494: 5487: 5472: 5449: 5442: 5434: 5423: 5412: 5392: 5369: 5365:Moshe Maimon 5353: 5303: 5294: 5284: 5262: 5258: 5243: 5234: 5130: 5127:Architecture 5090: 5054: 5045: 5034: 5014: 5003: 4991: 4983:North Africa 4980: 4954: 4884: 4843: 4836: 4823: 4815: 4807: 4795: 4793: 4778: 4750: 4725: 4710: 4691:, the pious 4686: 4676: 4641: 4625: 4619: 4607: 4598:Samuel Zarza 4566: 4548: 4531: 4521: 4511: 4491: 4469: 4449: 4440: 4429:Please help 4424:verification 4421: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4364: 4349: 4312: 4304:yellow badge 4293: 4288: 4281: 4218: 4200: 4190:reading the 4143: 4104: 4076: 4070:January 2008 4067: 4052:Please help 4040: 4015: 4013: 4009: 3997: 3980: 3973: 3957: 3950: 3948: 3940: 3908: 3892: 3886: 3853: 3836: 3812: 3810:neo-Platonic 3801: 3799: 3794: 3787: 3776: 3740: 3729: 3702: 3685: 3664: 3656: 3651:philological 3633:In adopting 3632: 3626:polemics of 3606: 3587: 3568: 3545: 3533: 3514:Lucas de Tuy 3491: 3484: 3456: 3452: 3436: 3429: 3417:agricultural 3412: 3403: 3387: 3371:circumcision 3360: 3338:In 633, the 3337: 3332: 3322: 3319:North Africa 3296: 3269: 3265:King Recared 3251: 3237: 3225: 3190: 3182: 3176: 3168: 3155: 3145: 3137: 3133: 3131: 3123: 3113: 3109:emet weyaṣiv 3108: 3106: 3095:Spanish Jew 3094: 3076: 3072: 3066: 3019:Carthaginian 3008: 2990: 2986: 2970: 2969:, or Spain. 2962: 2950: 2916: 2910: 2902: 2894: 2874: 2860:belonged to 2851: 2828:such as the 2815: 2798: 2793: 2782: 2778: 2747: 2726:Roman Empire 2723: 2690: 2677: 2671: 2665: 2652: 2634: 2623: 2610: 2595: 2589: 2550: 2535:Roman Empire 2528: 2520: 2498: 2479:1391 pogroms 2459:Hebrew Bible 2455:philological 2432: 2426: 2422:Nicene Creed 2391: 2332:Post-Zionism 2203:Judeo-Berber 2198:Judeo-Arabic 2158:Judeo-Gascon 1905:Pidyon haben 1824:Conservative 1577: 1370:Saudi Arabia 1188:South Africa 1177:Sierra Leone 999:Israeli Jews 913:Mosaic Arabs 866:Kaifeng Jews 727:Arab–Israeli 700:Emancipation 579:Great Revolt 388:Anti-Judaism 383:Antisemitism 378:Name "Judea" 173:Baal teshuva 26: 10063: [ 10030: [ 10007: [ 9906: [ 9628:Palestinian 9390:Isle of Man 9325:recognition 9277:Switzerland 9212:Netherlands 8714:Convivencia 8035:: 199–200. 7865:10016/36127 7850:: 147–184. 7562:1580 (q.v. 7313:"Sephardim" 6769:) (Hebrew). 6588:Baba Bathra 6455:Antiquities 6371:Geza Vermes 6079:12 February 5671:to Israel. 5606:Freemasonry 5565:, Hungary, 5547:Free French 5506:Throughout 5488:During the 5384:Netherlands 5121:inquisition 5093:persecution 4530:called the 4328:Good Friday 4308:Vidal Taroç 4212:, Carrion, 4202:Alfonso VII 4186:Image of a 4130: [ 4119:Castrojeriz 4000:Reconquista 3960:Almoravides 3952:Reconquista 3857:Renaissance 3833:mathematics 3817:Middle Ages 3806:Ibn Gabirol 3673:, a former 3620:rationalism 3592:, known as 3564:Mesopotamia 3369:(including 3301:(601–604), 3124:Similarly, 3075:(Germany), 3061:Phoenicians 2774:Jewish Wars 2327:Revisionist 2317:Neo-Zionism 1924:Zeved habat 1717:Puerto Rico 1543:Netherlands 1375:South Korea 1360:Philippines 1240:Afghanistan 1107:Ivory Coast 881:Crypto-Jews 846:Bnei Anusim 825:Bene Israel 790:Beta Israel 747:Communities 654:Middle Ages 393:Persecution 168:Bereavement 10087:Categories 9611:Macedonian 9599:Alexandria 9547:Dispersion 9522:Megorashim 9501:Degredados 9471:Golden Age 9247:San Marino 9207:Montenegro 9187:Luxembourg 9167:Kazakhstan 9070:Azerbaijan 8795:Laeuchli, 8788:, Oxford: 8333:2009-10-04 8263:. Tel Aviv 8228:2006-07-21 8199:2006-07-21 7648:Anno Mundi 7458:2017-04-15 6749:) (Hebrew) 6584:Mishnayoth 6475:Assis, p.9 6422:Bava Basra 6328:Gabba 1999 6163:12 October 5932:References 5780:Isak Andic 5543:Casablanca 5532:Hans Frank 5254:Tisha B'Av 5037:Papal bull 4868:al-Andalus 4844:Ṭulayṭulah 4683:, c. 1910) 4610:Trastámara 4578:Valladolid 4570:Villadiego 4495:Alfonso IV 4443:March 2016 4317:issued by 4315:papal bull 4266:Nahmanides 4264:See also: 4221:Sancho III 4149:Alfonso VI 4016:al-Andalus 3993:Maimonides 3837:Al-Andalus 3813:Fons Vitae 3802:al-Andalus 3795:al-Andalus 3476:Al-Andalus 3448:Septimania 3243:Visigothic 3223:in 70 CE. 3177:Ṭulayṭulah 3169:Ṭulayṭulah 3146:Ṭulayṭulah 3138:Ṭulayṭulah 3134:anno mundi 3114:Ṭulayṭulah 2700:after the 2658:Rabbi Meir 2583:(formerly 2573:Phoenician 2449:and first 2443:Al-Andalus 2441:. 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