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with their own
International Novelty Co.) were soon running Kinetoscope parlors and temporary exhibition venues around the United States. New firms joined the Kinetoscope Company in commissioning and marketing the machines. The Kinetoscope exhibition spaces were largely, though not uniformly, profitable. After fifty weeks in operation, the Hollands' New York parlor had generated approximately $ 1,400 in monthly receipts against an estimated $ 515 in monthly operating costs; receipts from the Chicago venue (located in a Masonic temple) were substantially lower, about $ 700 a month, though presumably operating costs were lower as well. For each machine, Edison's business at first generally charged $ 250 to the Kinetoscope Company and other distributors, which would use them in their own exhibition parlors or resell them to independent exhibitors; individual films were initially priced by Edison at $ 10. During the Kinetoscope's first eleven months of commercialization, the sale of viewing machines, films, and auxiliary items generated a profit of more than $ 85,000 for Edison's company.
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width of the
Kinetoscope sprockets was 1 7/16âł, or 36.5mm." Noting the similarity of this width to that of "the earliest days of Kinetoscope work...35.56mm", he continues: "All these sizes, 39.1, 36.5 and 35.56 millimeters, show how closely the size of early motion pictures was dictated by the size of the film available. They also show how we arrived at our present 35mm width" (p. 73 n. 17). In what manner these various sizes (this is Hendricks's sole mention of 39.1 mm) show how 35 mm was arrived at is a mystery. Musser (1994) describes the Kinetoscope's "1½-inch vertical feed system (the basis for today's 35-mm film gauge)" (p. 72). He later writes of the Lumières' CinĂŠmatographe that it "used 35-mm film, a width almost identical to the 1½-inch gauge introduced by Edison" (p. 135). "Almost identical" perhaps, but not practically so: 35 mm and 38 mm (1 1/2 inch) film are not compatible.
294:, had succeeded in devising a functional strip-based film viewing system. In the new design, whose mechanics were housed in a wooden cabinet, a loop of horizontally configured 3/4 inch (19 mm) film ran around a series of spindles. The film, with a single row of perforations engaged by an electrically powered sprocket wheel, was drawn continuously beneath a magnifying lens. An electric lamp shone up from beneath the film, casting its circular-format images onto the lens and thence through a peephole atop the cabinet. The device incorporated a rapidly spinning shutter whose purposeâas described by Robinson in his discussion of the completed versionâwas to "permi a flash of light so brief that frame appeared to be frozen. This rapid series of apparently still frames appeared, thanks to the persistence of vision phenomenon, as a moving image." The lab also developed a
459:, argues that one Kinetoscope did make it to the fair. Robinson, in contrast, argues that such "speculation" is "conclusively dismissed by an 1894 leaflet issued for the launching of the invention in London," which states, "the Kinetoscope was not perfected in time for the great Fair." Echoing Hendricks's position, fair historian Stanley Appelbaum states, "Doubt has been cast on the reports of actual presence at the fair, but these reports are numerous and circumstantial." Noting that the fair featured up to two dozen AnschĂźtz Schnellsehersâsome or all of a peephole, not projection, varietyâfilm historian Deac Rossell asserts that their presence "is the reason that so many historical sources were confused for so long.... nyone who made a clear claim to see the Kinetoscope undoubtedly saw the Schnellseher under its deliberately deceptive name of The Electrical Wonder."
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maximum length of any film made with the system was 50 feet, meaning a maximum running time of about 50 seconds at the camera's slowest recorded speed, but only about 20 seconds at the camera's most common speed of 40 frames per second (see
Hendricks , pp. 6â8). And, as Hendricks reports, the actual filmstrip was probably not 50 feet, or 800 frames, long; Edison described it as containing "about 700" images (p. 36). On the other hand, Braun (1992) states that an early Kinetoscope movie could last 40 seconds (presumably at 40 fps) because the film was configured as a loop (p. 191). Why a loop could not present a motion picture of boundless duration goes unexplained. Indeed, on the next page, she describes the film in an 1894 Kinetoscope as "about forty-five feet in length...in the form of an endless loop moving continuously" (p. 192). The version of
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film...and the light passes up through the film, shutter opening, and magnifying lens...to the eye of the observer placed at the opening in the top of the case." Robinson, on the other hand, says the shutterâwhich he agrees has only a single slitâis positioned lower, "between the lamp and film". The CaslerâHendricks description is supported by the diagrams of the
Kinetoscope that accompany the 1891 patent application, in particular, diagram 2. A side view, it does not illustrate the shutter, but it shows the impossibility of it fitting between the lamp and the film without a major redesign and indicates a space that seems suitable for it between the film strip and the lens. Evidently, that major redesign took place, as Robinson's description is confirmed by photographs of multiple Kinetoscope interiors, two among the holdings of
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701:]." As recently as 2004, Andrew Rausch stated that Edison "balked at a $ 150 fee for overseas patents" and "saw little commercial value in the Kinetoscope." Given that Edison, as much a businessman as an inventor, spent approximately $ 24,000 on the system's development and went so far as to build a facility expressly for moviemaking before his U.S. patent was awarded, Rausch's interpretation is not widely shared by present-day scholars. Whatever the cause, two Greek entrepreneurs, George Georgiades and George Tragides, took advantage of the opening. Already successfully operating a pair of London movie parlors with Edison Kinetoscopes, they commissioned English inventor and manufacturer
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customers in New Jersey in
February 1895. See Gosser (1977) for a discussion of the dubious nature of these claims (pp. 228â29). While Braun (1992) states that "the CinĂŠmatographe LeRoy made its public appearance on 11 April 1895 in New York" (p. 260), Rossell (2022) summarizes the case against LeRoy's "great deception" (p. 50). The claim by Lipton (2021) that the film presented at the April 21 press screening was that of the boxing match featured in the Eidoloscope's first commercial presentation the following month (p. 141) is clearly wrong; Lipton himself says the bout was shot on May 4 (p. 140). Rossell (2022) confirms that shooting date and cites a
347:. On August 24, three detailed patent applications were filed: the first for a "Kinetographic Camera", the second for the camera as well, and the third for an "Apparatus for Exhibiting Photographs of Moving Objects". In the first Kinetograph application, Edison stated, "I have been able to take with a single camera and a tape-film as many as forty-six photographs per second...but I do not wish to limit the scope of my invention to this high rate of speed...since with some subjects a speed as low as thirty pictures per second or even lower is sufficient." Indeed, according to the Library of Congress archive, based on data from a study by historian
1976:) as "38â40 frames per second" (p. 7). Multiple sources incorrectly claiming 46 fps as the standard practical rate may be adduced; Burns (1998), for example, describes a "picture rate of 46 frames per second restricted the viewing time to about 15 seconds" (p. 74). Dickson himself later gave varying accounts of the camera's rateâon one occasion he said it was "about 40 to the second"; on another, that it was between 25 and 46 fps. According to his 1907 account, the rate was 46 fpsâthough at one point matters are further confused by what appears to be an unintended suggestion of a functional rate of 42 fps (part 3). The Library of Congress/
286:(1961)âhave argued that the lab began working on a filmstrip machine much later and that Dickson and Edison misrepresented the date to establish priority for reasons of both patent protection and intellectual status. In any event, though film historian David Robinson claims that "the cylinder experiments seem to have been carried on to the bitter end" (meaning the final months of 1890), as far back as September 1889âwhile Edison was still in Europe, but corresponding regularly with Dicksonâthe lab definitely placed its first order with the Eastman company for roll film. Three more orders for roll film were placed over the next five months.
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targeting semiprofessional and amateur customers. At its peak, around 1907â8, the
Projecting Kinetoscope commanded 30 percent of US projector sales. In 1912, Edison introduced the ambitious Home Projecting Kinetoscope, which employed a unique format of three parallel columns of sequential frames on one strip of filmâthe middle column ran through the machine in the reverse direction from its neighbors. It was a commercial failure. Three years later, the Edison operation came out with its last substantial new film exhibition technology, a short-lived theatrical system called the Super Kinetoscope. Aside from the actual
889:(1903) and other Edison Manufacturing Company productions, it was not until 1908 that he returned in earnest to the combined audiovisual concept that had first led him to enter the motion picture field. Edison patented a synchronization system connecting a projector and a phonograph, located behind the screen, via an assembly of three rigid shaftsâa vertical one descending from each device, joined by a third running horizontally the entire length of the theater, beneath the floor. Two years later, he supervised a press demonstration at the laboratory of a sound-film system of either this or a later design.
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could see all the films in either row; half a dollar gave access to the entire bill. The four-foot-tall machines were purchased from the new
Kinetoscope Company, which had contracted with Edison for their production; the firm, headed by Norman C. Raff and Frank R. Gammon, included among its investors Andrew M. Holland, one of the entrepreneurial siblings, and Edison's former business chief, Alfred O. Tate. The ten films that comprise the first commercial movie program, all shot at the Black Maria and each running about 15 to 20 seconds, were descriptively titled:
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657:." The following month, a San Francisco exhibitor was arrested for a Kinetoscope operation "alleged to be indecent." The group whose disgruntlement occasioned the arrest was the Pacific Society for the Suppression of Vice, whose targets included "illicit literature, obscene pictures and books, the sale of morphine, cocaine, opium, tobacco and liquors to minors, lottery tickets, etc.," and which proudly took credit for having "caused 70 arrests and obtained 48 convictions" in a recent two-month span.
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599:. This led to a series of significant developments in the motion picture field: The Kinetograph was then capable of shooting only a 50-foot-long negative. At 16 frames per foot, this meant a maximum running time of 20 seconds at 40 frames per second (fps), the speed most frequently employed with the camera. At the rate of 30 fps that had been used on occasion as far back as 1891, a film could run for almost 27 seconds. Hendricks identifies
640:, a New York music hall star since the beginning of the decade. According to one description of her live act, she "communicated an intense sexuality across the footlights that led male reporters to write long, exuberant columns about her performance"âarticles that would later be reproduced in the Edison film catalog. The Kinetoscope movie of her dance, shot at the Black Maria in mid-March 1894, was playing in the New Jersey resort town
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manager
William Gilmore had been running high for months; Dickson's eventual discovery of the Kinetoscope Company move appears to have been another central factor in his break with Edison that occurred in April 1895. The Kinetophone's debut excited little demand; a total of just forty-five of the machines were built over the next half-decade. With Dickson's departure, Edison ceased new work on sound cinema for an extended period.
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757:, it is the only surviving movie with live-recorded sound made for the Kinetophone. In March 1895, Edison offered the device for sale; involving no technological innovations, it was a Kinetoscope whose modified cabinet included an accompanying cylinder phonograph. Kinetoscope owners were also offered kits with which to retrofit their equipment. The first Kinetophone exhibitions appear to have taken place in April.
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poorly trained operators had trouble keeping picture in synchronization with sound and, like other sound-film systems of the era, the
Kinetophone had not solved the issues of insufficient amplification and unpleasant audio quality. Its drawing power as a novelty soon faded and when a fire at Edison's West Orange complex in December 1914 destroyed all of the company's Kinetophone
447:. Despite extensive promotion, a major display of the Kinetoscope, involving as many as twenty-five machines, never took place at the Chicago exposition. Kinetoscope production had been delayed in part because of Dickson's absence of more than eleven weeks early in the year with a nervous breakdown. Hendricks, referring to various accounts, including ones in the July 22
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film projection system: here the shutter is definitively placed between the projection lens and the screen; in an alternate configuration, depicted in an insert diagram, the shutter may run through "a slit in the body of the lens" itself (p. 2 ). A simplified version of Edison (1891b), diagram 1âlacking both diagram key numbers and patent application dataâis available
672:, where photographer Antoine Lumière may have seen it for the first time. In September, the first Kinetoscope parlor outside the United States opened in Buenos Aires, Argentina. The first European Kinetoscope parlor was soon operating in Paris, at 20 boulevard Poissonnière. One of the owners was a business associate of Antoine Lumière's, whom he gave a strip from
298:-powered camera, the Kinetograph, capable of shooting with the new sprocketed film. To govern the intermittent movement of the film in the camera, allowing the strip to stop long enough so each frame could be fully exposed and then advancing it quickly (in about 1/460 of a second) to the next frame, the sprocket wheel that engaged the strip was driven by an
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camera gate at a rate of 40 per second" (p. 96). The newspaper accounts both state that 150 feet of film were shot of each round, a total of 900 feet. Hendricks makes a detailed case that, rather than 150 feet, each round was likely recorded on 126 feet worth of exposed film (p. 96). The Edison film catalog, however, does claim 150 feet for each round. See
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the
Kinetoscope Exhibition Company's parlor at 83 Nassau Street in New York. A half-dozen expanded Kinetoscope machines each showed a different round of the fight for a dime, meaning 60 cents to see the complete bout. For a planned series of follow-up fights (of which the outcome of at least the first was fixed), the Lathams signed famous heavyweight
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standard biographies of Edison nor any of the leading histories of early sound film mention this "Cinemaphone". Gomery (2005) does state, "To correct synchronization malfunctions Edison inserted an adjustment dial" into the 1913 version of the Kinetophone (p. 28). Gomery does not name this device and in no way suggests that it was created in 1908.
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to Hendricks, the Latham parlor "apparently never flourished. Rector's squadron of police 'to keep order' was either Rector or Ramsaye hyperbole.... There is little question...that the comparative obscurity of the fighters...contributed to the lack of success" (pp. 98â99). Neither author references a contemporary source in support of his version.
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830:âanother venture to which Dickson had secretly contributed while working for Edison and to which he devoted himself following the Eidoloscope debut. Before year's end, the Mutoscope team, using their Mutograph camera as a basis, developed a projector. At that point, North American orders for new Kinetoscopes had all but evaporated.
235:âwhich used a strip of flexible film designed to capture sequential images at 12 frames per second. Upon his return to the United States, Edison filed another patent caveat, on November 2, which described a Kinetoscope based not just on a flexible filmstrip, but one in which the film was perforated to allow for its engagement by
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with which Braun, op. cit., agrees), (c) sheets from another supplier, Allen & Rowell, arrived on the same date, and (d) sheets from yet another source had been received in May. It was Carbutt's sheets, according to Spehr's report of Dickson's recollections, that were used in the cylinder experiments (p. 23 n. 22).
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Hendricks (1966), pp. 92â93, 97â99; Musser (1994), p. 83. There is a major disagreement about the success of the film. In Ramsaye's (1986) account, "Throngs packed the , and by the second day long lines of waiting patrons trailed back into the street. The police came to keep order" (ch. 8). According
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Spehr (2000), pp. 3â4. Along with Spehr, who has made the closest study of the development of the Kinetoscope film gauge, the historical consensus is that it was 35 mm. Two leading scholars, however, are not part of this consensus. Hendricks (1966) states of the commercial version of the device: "The
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On January 3, 1895, a British inventor received a patent for an unwieldy contraption meant to cast an enlarged Kinetoscope image onto a screen. Over the course of the year, even as new Kinetoscope exhibits opened as far afield as Mexico City, major cities across Europe, locales large and small around
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Under continuing pressure from Raff, Edison eventually conceded to investigate the possibility of developing a projection system. He seconded one of his lab's technicians to the Kinetoscope Company to initiate the work, without informing Dickson. Tensions between the latter and Edison Company general
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play synchronously other than the phonograph turned on when viewing and off when stopped." While the surviving Dickson test involves live-recorded sound, certainly most, and probably all, of the films marketed for the Kinetophone were shot as silents, predominantly march or dance subjects; exhibitors
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Hendricks (1966), pp. 28â33. Given the dates of Dickson's departure and return that Hendricks provides, Dickson was gone for at least 80 days. Hendricks describes him as taking a "ten weeks' rest" (p. 28) or spending "about ten and a half weeks in the south" (p. 33), a plausible interpretation given
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Rossell (1998), pp. 63â64; Braun (1992), pp. 189, 404 n. 47. Robinson (1997) says the lab ordered the Carbutt sheets on June 25, 1889, and that they were "marketed in 20" x 50"" size. (p. 27). Spehr (2000) says (a) the lab received them on that date, (b) they were "11 by 14" inches in size (a figure
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report on the Chicago World's Fair suggests that a Kinetograph camera accompanied by a cylinder phonograph was presented there as a demonstration of the potential to simultaneously record image and sound. The first known movie made as a test of the Kinetophone was shot at Edison's New Jersey studio
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the following year, a 25-cent entrance fee covered admission to three rides, a performing sea lion show, and a dance hall. The Kinetoscope was an immediate success, however, and by June 1, the Hollands were also operating venues in Chicago and San Francisco. Entrepreneurs (including Raff and Gammon,
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On April 14, 1894, a public Kinetoscope parlor was opened by the Holland Bros. in New York City at 1155 Broadway, on the corner of 27th Streetâthe first commercial motion picture house. The venue had ten machines, set up in parallel rows of five, each showing a different movie. For 25 cents a viewer
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magazine. Never intended for exhibition, it would become one of the most famous Edison films and the first identifiable motion picture to receive a U.S. copyright. With commercial exploitation close at hand, on April 1, the motion picture operation was formally made the Kinetograph Department of the
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Early in 1892, steps began to make coin operation, via a nickel slot, part of the mechanics of the viewing system. Before the end of the year, the design of the Kinetoscope was essentially complete. The filmstrip, based on stock manufactured first by Eastman, and then, from April 1893, by New York's
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theory by using an intermittent light source to momentarily "freeze" the projection of each image; the goal was to facilitate the viewer's retention of many minutely different stages of a photographed activity, thus producing a highly effective illusion of constant motion. By late 1890, intermittent
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sheets, supplied by John Carbutt, that could be wrapped around the cylinder, providing a far superior base for the recording of photographs. The first film made for the Kinetoscope, and apparently the first motion picture ever produced on photographic film in the United States, may have been shot at
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Dickson and his then lead assistant, Charles Brown, made halting progress at first. Edison's original idea involved recording pinpoint photographs, 1/32 of an inch wide, directly on to a cylinder (also referred to as a "drum"); the cylinder, made of an opaque material for positive images or of glass
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While Edison seems to have conceived the idea and initiated the experiments, Dickson apparently performed the bulk of the experimentation, leading most modern scholars to assign Dickson with the major credit for turning the concept into a practical reality. The Edison laboratory, though, worked as a
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announcing his plans to create a device that would do "for the Eye what the phonograph does for the Ear". It is clear that it was intended as part of a complete audiovisual system: "we may see & hear a whole Opera as perfectly as if actually present". In March 1889, a second caveat was filed, in
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See also Ramsaye (1986), ch. 9â10. Musser, referring to the film's "eight minutes of action," describes them as comprising four 90-second rounds interspersed with 30-second rest periods (p. 94); this sums to seven-and-a-half minutesâthere may have been ring entrances, referee instructions, or other
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Hendricks quotes two contemporary newspaper reports describing a rate of 46 fps (pp. 92, 95); this seems clearly incorrect, based on the camera's mechanical potential rather than its practical application. Confusingly, Hendricks himself refers in his description of the film to "frames flying by the
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Edison (1891b), diagrams 1, 2 . Diagram 1, an overhead view of the apparatus looking down on the horizontally running filmstrip, also indicates that the shutter passes over the filmâwhether directly above it or over the lens as well is unclear. A fourth diagram shows Edison's proposed stereoscopic
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Burns (1998) claims that "in a patent dated 20 May 1889 Edison and Dickson used the same general arrangement of continuous movement and momentary light flashes in their viewing device, the kinetoscope" (p. 73). It is clear that Burns's dating is wildly incorrect and that he likely acquired the May
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Dissemination of the system proceeded rapidly in Europe, as Edison had left his patents unprotected overseas. The most likely reason was the technology's reliance on a variety of foreign innovations and a consequent belief that patent applications would have little chance of success. An alternative
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In 1913, Edison finally introduced the new Kinetophoneâlike all of his sound-film exhibition systems since the first in the mid-1890s, it used a cylinder phonograph, now connected to a Projecting Kinetoscope via a fishing lineâtype belt and a series of metal pulleys. It met with early acclaim, but
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Though a Library of Congress educational website states, "The picture and sound were made somewhat synchronous by connecting the two with a belt", this is incorrect. As historian David Robinson describes, "The Kinetophone...made no attempt at synchronization. The viewer listened through tubes to a
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to make copies of them. After fulfilling the GeorgiadesâTragides contract, Paul decided to go into the movie business himself, proceeding to make dozens of additional Kinetoscope reproductions. In this pursuit, and to make films for both the original device and its knockoffs, Paul and photographer
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On June 15, a match with abbreviated rounds was staged between boxers Michael Leonard and Jack Cushing at the Black Maria. Seven-hundred-and-fifty feet worth of images or even more were shot at the rate of 30 fpsâeasily the longest motion picture to date. Several weeks later, the film premiered at
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On February 21, 1893, a patent was issued for the system that governed the intermittent movement of film in the Kinetograph (though one was not granted for a version of the camera as a whole until 1897). The escapement-based mechanism would be superseded within a few years by competing systems, in
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The question of when the Edison lab began working on a filmstrip device is a matter of historical debate. According to Dickson, in mid-1889, he began cutting the stiff celluloid sheets supplied by Carbutt into strips for use in such a prototype machine; in August, by his description, he attended a
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Millard (1990), p. 226. Rausch (2004) claims a specific invention was vital in this process: "In 1908, Edison returned with a device known as the Cinemaphone. This device adjusted the speed of a motion picture to match that of a Phonograph. This led to the Kinetophone" (p. 78). Neither any of the
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at the time (see Hendricks , p. 38). Lipton (2021) speaks of "the 20-second film" (p. 131). Musser (2004) says "fifteen seconds" (p. 16). As described later in the main text of the present article, at this point in the development of the Kinetograph and Kinetoscope, according to most accounts the
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As far back as some of the early Eidoloscope screenings, exhibitors had occasionally shown films accompanied by phonographs playing appropriate, though very roughly timed, sound effects; in the style of the Kinetophone described above, rhythmically matching recordings were also made available for
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No, if we make this screen machine that you are asking for, it will spoil everything. We are making these peep show machines and selling a lot of them at a good profit. If we put out a screen machine there will be a use for maybe about ten of them in the whole United States. With that many screen
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Even as Edison followed his dream of securing the Kinetoscope's popularity by adding sound to its allure, many in the field were beginning to suspect that film projection was the next step that should be pursued. When Norman Raff communicated his customers' interest in such a system to Edison, he
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as having been shot at 16 fps, as does the Library of Congress in its online catalog, where its duration is listed as 40 seconds. Even at the slowest of these rates, the running time would not have been enough to accommodate a satisfactory exchange of fisticuffs; 16 fps, as well, might have been
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or "Maltese cross" that would become the norm for both movie cameras and projectors. The exhibition device itselfâwhich, despite erroneous accounts to the contrary, never employed intermittent film movement, only intermittent lighting or viewingâwas finally awarded its patent, number 493,426, on
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described as "authoritative" by Hendricks, who personally examined five of the six still-extant first-generation devices, "Just above the film,...a shutter wheel having five spokes and a very small rectangular opening in the rim directly over the film. An incandescent lamp...is placed below the
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Hendricks (1961), pp. 4, 10â12; Musser (1994), pp. 49â53, 62. Robinson (1997) states that "Edison and Dickson were almost certainly in the audience" on February 25 (p. 23); Rossell (2022) is even more definitive: "Thomas Edison attended the Saturday evening lecture with his wife Minna" (p. 26).
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Australia, and Auckland, New Zealand, it became evident that the system was going to lose out to projected motion pictures. In its second year of commercialization, the Kinetoscope operation's profits plummeted by more than 95 percent, to just over $ 4,000. The Latham brothers and their father,
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but also the first commercially successful movie projection system. In mid-October, a Kinetoscope parlor opened in London. At the end of November, by which point New York City was host to half a dozen Kinetophone parlors and London to nearly as many, a venue with five machines opened in Sydney,
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A Kinetoscope prototype was first semipublicly demonstrated to members of the National Federation of Women's Clubs invited to the Edison laboratory on May 20, 1891. The completed version was publicly unveiled in Brooklyn two years later, and on April 14, 1894, the first commercial exhibition of
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Rossell (2022) calls it "the first known public projection of motion pictures in the United States" (pp. 62â63). Musser (1994) uses nearly identical language (p. 94). There are old claims that one Jean AcmĂŠ LeRoy projected films in New York to an invited audience in February 1894 and to paying
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Spehr (2000), pp. 11â14. The filmstock sent by the manufacturers was actually 1 9/16 inches wide; it was trimmed and perforated at the lab. Reports that either Eastman or Blair provided 70 mm stock that was cut in half and spliced at the lab (see, e.g., Braun , p. 190) are incorrect. See Spehr
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Departing the Vitascope operation after little more than a yearâin which the Edison Company's film-related business made a $ 25,000 profitâEdison commissioned the development of his own projection systems, the Projectoscope and then multiple iterations of the Projecting Kinetoscope, eventually
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Edison (1891b), p. 1 ; MĂźnsterberg (2004), p. 7; Robinson (1997), pp. 38â39, 54â55; Musser (1994), p. 93; Hendricks (1961), pp. 127â33. Note that at one point Robinson mistakenly gives the patent issue date as March 4 (p. 38), though he states it correctly on the next page (p. 39). Bizarrely,
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Neupert (2022), pp. 23â25; Braun (1992), pp. 191â94; Schwartz (1999), p. 183. Burns (1998) says the Kinetoscope "was on exhibition in August in the Boulevard Poissoniere" (p. 73)âaside from the misspelling, this is evidently erroneous. Grieveson and Krämer (2004) date the parlor's opening to
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consisting of "Edison Kinetoscopic Records." It remains unclear what film was awarded this, the first motion picture copyright in North America. By the turn of the year, the Kinetoscope project would be reenergized. During the first week of January 1894, a five-second film starring an Edison
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Hendricks (1961), pp. 136â37. Braun (1992) explains, "except for the device used to stop and start the moving film, ... all the parts of the application describing the camera were ultimately disallowed because of previous inventors' claims" (p. 191). A patent, number 589,168, for a complete
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Hendricks (1966), pp. 56â59. The machines were modified so that they did not operate by nickel slot. According to Hendricks, in each row "attendants switched the instruments on and off for customers who had paid their twenty-five cents" (p. 13). For more on the Hollands, see Peter Morris,
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Only sporadic work was done on the Kinetoscope for much of 1890 as Dickson concentrated on Edison's unsuccessful venture into ore millingâbetween May and November, no expenses at all were billed to the lab's Kinetoscope account. By early 1891, however, Dickson and his new chief assistant,
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Quoted in Hendricks (1966), p. 14. See p. 11 for a description of Hendricks's direct examinations. Lipton (2021) supports this position: "Although the Kinetoscope disclosure is hazy on this point, the shutter disk was placed between the film gate and the viewing optics in production" (p.
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description of the press screening as involving a film of boys playing (pp. 62â63). An image from the film in Musser (1994, p. 96) shows what appears to be two men playing like boysâthey have been identified as Lauste's teenage son, Emile, and a workshop assistant. For identifications:
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began in December 1892. To take full advantage of sunlight, the tar paperâlined studio was equipped with a hinged, flip-up roof and the entire structure could rotate on a track. "It obeys no architectural rules," declared Dickson, who found it "productive of the happiest effects in the
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2319:"In the southern end of the gallery are Edison's phonograph exhibits and his latest invention, the 'kinetograph.' He photographs the face at the same time one talks into the phonograph. By this method the sound and the motion of the lips in producing it are accurately reproduced."
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In the top of the box was a hole perhaps an inch in diameter. As they looked through the hole they saw the picture of a man. It was a most marvelous picture. It bowed and smiled and waved its hands and took off its hat with the most perfect naturalness and grace. Every motion was
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to provide a photographic base. An audio cylinder would provide synchronized sound, while the rotating images, hardly operatic in scale, were viewed through a microscope-like tube. When tests were made with images expanded to a mere 1/8 of an inch in width, the coarseness of the
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1967:
Hendricks (1966), pp. 6â8; Musser (1994), p. 78. Hendricks, who tested eighteen Kinetoscope films in his personal collection, demonstrated that "n no case did the Maria camera operate as high as 46â48 frames per second," as some suggest (p. 6); he identifies the "average rate"
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1805:(Montreal and Kingston, Canada; London; and Buffalo, New York: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1978), pp. 6â7. Morris states that Edison wholesaled the Kinetoscope at $ 200 per machine; in fact, as described below, $ 250 seems to have been the most common figure at first.
1980:
website makes accessible online video copies of many Kinetoscope films, including four shot with the 35 mm Kinetograph between January and March 1894. The library provides descriptions of the films, including running time and picture rate, again based on Musser's 1998
247:
of German inventor Ottamar AnschĂźtz. This disc-based projection device, also known as the Schnellseher ("quick viewer"), is often referred to as an important conceptual source for the development of the Kinetoscope. Its crucial innovation was to take advantage of the
84:
motion pictures in history took place in New York City, using ten Kinetoscopes. Instrumental to the birth of American movie culture, the Kinetoscope also had a major impact in Europe; its influence abroad was magnified by Edison's decision not to seek international
1661:
Hendricks does almost precisely the same thingâgiving the correct March 14 (p. 127), then the incorrect March 4 (p. 133). The correct date of March 14 may be verified by reference to the patent document; see also Frank Lewis Dyer and Thomas Commerford Martin,
613:
265:
was sufficiently strong, thin, and pliable to permit the intermittent movement of the film strip behind lens at considerable speed and under great tension without tearing ... stimulat the almost immediate solution of the essential problems of cinematic
2533:
era). Rossell states that the show lasted 12 minutes and indicates that it included another film, of a horse race (p. 64). Domankiewicz implies that the GriffoâBarnett bout was initially screened alone and later joined by a variety of different filmsâfirst
940:
468:
731:
730:
1733:
Hendricks (1966), p. 40â45. Though the fair opened May 1, the Electricity Buildingâlocation of the Edison exhibit and the possible Kinetoscopeâdid not formally open until a month later (p. 44), so there is no argument that the Brooklyn presentation came
710:âbriefly Paul's business partnerâwould originate a number of important innovations in both camera and exhibition technology. Meanwhile, plans were advancing at the Black Maria to realize Edison's goal of a motion picture system uniting image with sound.
732:
173:
Edison assigned Dickson, one of his most talented employees, to the job of making the Kinetoscope a reality. Edison would take full credit for the invention, but the historiographical consensus is that the title of creator can hardly go to one man:
1724:
travel time from New Jersey to Florida, where Dickson headed. There were also apparently problemsâallegedly alcohol-fueledâwith the lab employee, James Egan, who had been contracted to build the Kinetoscopes. See Hendricks (1966), pp. 34â35, 49â50.
857:
and arranged with Edison to present himself as its creator. The Vitascope premiered in New York in April and met with swift success, but was just as quickly surpassed by the CinÊmatographe of the Lumières, which arrived in June with the backing of
2212:
Musser (1994) dates the opening to October 17 (p. 82). Rossell (2022) gives October 18 (p. 53). The advertisement seen here indicates that there was an invitational preview on the 17th, suggesting the doors were opened to the public the following
878:
film productions, the company's most creative work in the motion picture field from 1897 on involved the use of Kinetoscope-related patents in threatened or actual lawsuits for the purpose of financially pressuring or blocking commercial rivals.
99:. Film projection, which Edison initially disdained as financially nonviable, soon superseded the Kinetoscope's individual exhibition model. Numerous motion picture systems developed by Edison's firm in later years were marketed with the name
1601:
Kinetograph camera, one substantially different from that described in the original applications, was issued on August 31, 1897. Musser (1994), pp. 238â39. See also Spehr (2000), p. 18; Van Dulken (2004), p. 64; Hendricks (1961), pp. 133â34;
604:
thought to give too herky-jerky a visual effect for enjoyment of the sport. The Kinetograph and Kinetoscope were modified, possibly with Rector's assistance, so they could manage filmstrips three times longer than had previously been used.
652:
of 17 July 1894 reported that Bradley...was so shocked by the glimpse of Carmencita's ankles and lace that he complained to Mayor Ten Broeck. The showman was thereupon ordered to withdraw the offending film, which he replaced with
204:, it shows an employee of the lab in an apparently tongue-in-cheek display of physical dexterity. Attempts at synchronizing sound were soon left behind, while Dickson would also experiment with disc-based exhibition designs.
1098:
Spehr (2008), pp. 140, 149â51, 166, 210; Hendricks (1961), pp. 44â47. There is also a question about which Edison employee appears in the film. If the earlier date is correct, it is likely Fred Ott; if the latter, G. Sacco
729:
1320:
for the butterfly and vice versa. In the present case, Moore is wearing butterfly wings on her back as part of her costume. For samples of the serpentine dance, see Hendricks (1966), illustrations (following p. 143) 13,
141:, a device that projected sequential images drawn around the edge of a glass disc, producing the illusion of motion. Edison's laboratory was close by, and either or both Edison and his company's official photographer,
363:
Blair Camera Co., was 1 3/8 inches wide; each vertically sequenced frame bore a rectangular image, 1 inch wide by 3/4 inch high, and four perforations on each side. Within a few years, this basic formatâwith the
870:'s projector, the Biograph, was released; better funded than its competitors and with superior image quality, by the end of the year it was allied with Keith and soon dominated the North American projection market.
928:
2327:
While Hendricks (1966) quotes this passage in support of his argument that a Kinetoscope made it to the fair (p. 41), it both names the Kinetograph and describes the act of photographing motion, not of viewing
805:
and benefiting secretly from Dickson's assistance while he was still in Edison's employ. A few weeks after he and Edison fell out, Dickson openly participated in an April 21 screening of the Latham group's new
620:
The June 1894 LeonardâCushing bout. Each of the six one-minute rounds recorded by the Kinetograph was made available to exhibitors for $ 45. Customers who watched the final round saw Leonard score a knockdown.
3432:
for the first 14 seconds of the Library of Congress version, the image is reversed from this oneâthe Library's version splices at that point and the two versions are afterward aligned; part of The Henry Ford
3405:
twenty-five films from 1891 through 1895 (the dating of the "New York City street scene" to "1889 or 1890?" is impossibleâno camera on earth capable of shooting a 16-foot-long motion picture existed at the
1832:
The 48.5-inch height includes the 3.5-inch-tall flanged eyepiece. To calculate the height of the latter, see the description of The Henry Ford's second Kinetoscope: "Height: 45 in (missing top component)."
1791:
Musser (1991), p. 44. Descriptions of Gilmore's involvement over the following year make clear that the passing mention of his having been hired in April 1895 in Musser's introduction (p. 13) is erroneous.
590:
One of the new firms to enter the field was the Kinetoscope Exhibition Company (no relation to Raff and Gammon's Kinetoscope Company); the firm's partners, brothers Otway and Grey Latham, Otway's friend
1054:
676:
and a request for cheaper alternatives to the expensive Edison-produced films he was showing. Along with the stir created by the Kinetoscope itself, this was one of the primary inspirations for the
239:, making its mechanical conveyance much more smooth and reliable. The first motion picture system to employ a perforated image band was apparently the ThÊâtre Optique, patented by French inventor
261:'s new flexible film and was given a roll by an Eastman representative, which was immediately applied to experiments with the prototype. As described by historian Marta Braun, Eastman's product
153:âa combination system that would play sound and images concurrently. No such collaboration was undertaken, but in October 1888, Edison filed a preliminary claim, known as a caveat, with the
382:
As for the Kinetoscope itself, there have been differing descriptions of the location of the shutter providing the crucial intermittent visibility effect. According to a report by inventor
612:
325:
On May 20, 1891, the first invitational demonstration of a prototype Kinetoscope was given at the laboratory for approximately 150 members of the National Federation of Women's Clubs. The
1949:
For the profits from April 1, 1894, through February 28, 1895, see Musser (1994), who gives the total as $ 85,337.83 (p. 84). Lipton (2021) puts the profits at "about $ 89,000" (p. 132).
661:
467:
2347:
770:
could then choose from a variety of musical cylinders offering a rhythmic match. For example, three different cylinders with orchestral performances were proposed as accompaniments for
629:, stipulating that his image could not be recorded by any other Kinetoscope companyâthe first movie star contract. In sum, seventy-five films were shot at the Edison facility in 1894.
243:
in 1888. Reynaud's system did not use photographic film, but images painted on gelatine frames. At the Exposition Universelle, Edison would have seen both the ThÊâtre Optique and the
1591:
Hendricks (1966), illustration 2. Patent historian Stephen van Dulken (2004) errs twice, describing a shutter with "slits" that is located between the lens and the peephole (p. 64).
728:
695:, for instance, claims that Edison "apparently thought so little of his invention that he failed to pay the $ 150 that would have granted him an international copyright [
1922:
Musser (1994), pp. 81â83. For extensive lists of North American locales with Kinetoscope exhibits in 1894 and 1895, see Rossell (2022), p. 56; Hendricks (1966), pp. 60â65, 68â69.
2529:
opening or closing pendants to the action. It is also possible that the film was projected at a slower speed than it was shot (though the reverse was more often true in the preâ
2030:
at 40 fps (he does not discuss "Athlete with wand") (p. 7). The Library of Congress catalog does support Hendricks's assertion that no Kinetoscope film was shot at 46 fps.
1126:
Baldwin (2001), pp. 208â9. Baldwin describes the meeting as taking place in mid-September (p. 209); Burns (1998) says it was August (p. 73). See also Braun (1992), p. 189.
685:
Australia. By January 3, 25,000 filmgoers had paid the one-shilling fee (roughly equivalent to 25 cents, the same price for five film viewings as in the New York debut).
179:
collaborative organization. Laboratory assistants were assigned to work on many projects while Edison supervised and involved himself and participated to varying degrees.
355:
and at least two other films made with the Kinetograph in 1891 were shot at 30 frames per second or even slower. The Kinetoscope application also included a plan for a
1300:
A September 29, 1894, order from a London Kinetoscope parlor demonstrates that Moore had already performed at least three different dances for Edison; the order lists
668:
The Kinetoscope was also gaining notice abroad. On July 16, 1894, it was demonstrated publicly for the first time in Europe at the 20 boulevard Montmartre newsroom of
912:
837:
In the first decade of the 1900s, years before the compact Home Projecting Kinetoscope, Edison marketed an essentially theatrical 35 mm version for domestic use.
3143:
Musser, Charles (2004). "At the Beginning: Motion Picture Production, Representation and Ideology at the Edison and Lumière Companies," in Grieveson and Krämer,
2040:
Ramsaye (1986) reports that Rector was central to the modification process (ch. 8), but no other source confirms this. See also Hendricks (1966), pp. 90, 99â100.
1761:
Rossell (2022), p. 47; see also p. 46. The image of seven Schnellsehers at the fair on p. 47 shows that they were designed for peephole, not projection, viewing.
952:
4250:
3402:
2673:. In Musser's description, the "21mm strip contained three 5.7mm images across its width." The Henry Ford describes the strip as "22-mm in width." See also
1380:
3989:
3887:
3872:
574:
Twenty-five cents for no more than a few minutes of entertainment was hardly cheap diversion. For the same amount, one could purchase a ticket to a major
4832:
4805:
511:, for which Edison appointed a new vice president and general manager: William E. Gilmore. Two weeks later, the Kinetoscope's epochal moment arrived.
4076:
4827:
2593:
Musser (2002), pp. 13â14; Musser (1994), pp. 109â11. The Vitascope was at least once billed as an "Edison Kinematograph". Rossell (2022), p. 135.
1443:
has four separate samples of original Kinetoscope films: it measures each as 1.375 inches in widthâthat is, 1 3/8 inches or precisely 34.925 mm.
783:
machines you could show the pictures to everybody in the countryâand then it would be done. Let's not kill the goose that lays the golden egg.
5059:
3422:
2175:
Musser (1994), p. 78; Jenness (1894), p. 47. Hendricks (1966) states that the secretary of the organization himself made the arrest (p. 78).
1835:
1575:
1496:
1462:
1266:
302:
disc mechanismâthe first practical system for the high-speed stop-and-go film movement that would be the foundation for the next century of
5150:
4800:
3480:
3436:
3130:
1816:
1558:
1479:
1284:
3409:
1714:
Spehr (2008) notes that "at least three blacksmith subjects were made, one in 1891, a second in 1892? and the final one in 1893" (p. 212).
1698:
1445:
814:, the world's first run of commercial motion picture screenings began: the Eidoloscope show's prime attraction was a boxing match between
4081:
1900:, however, was shot at 16 fps, at which speed it lasted 40 seconds. If all of the Kinetoscopes in the parlor were set to play at 40 fps,
5442:
3365:
2652:
810:
for at least one member of the New York press, which historians describe as the first public film projection in the U.S. On May 20, in
371:âwould be adopted globally as the standard for motion picture film, which it remains to this day. The publication in the October 1892
4842:
4029:
3973:
2538:(featuring an organ grinder and children at play), then the horse race, and eventually wrestling contests and a vaudeville dance act.
1896:
As noted below, most of the films were probably shot at or near 40 frames per second (fps) and presumably played back at that speed.
154:
4091:
4071:
2915:
Selected Attempts at Stereoscopic Moving Pictures and Their Relationship to the Development of Motion Picture Technology, 1852â1903
379:
sequences shot in the format demonstrates that the Kinetograph had already been reconfigured to produce movies with the new film.
5165:
4912:
4128:
4086:
3985:
866:. The Eidoloscope's prospects, meanwhile, were crippled by projection deficiencies and business disputes. In September 1896, the
736:
Kinetephone test film, c. 1894â95. In 1998, the soundless film and audio from a repaired wax cylinder were digitally combined by
2550:
765:
concurs, " did not try to synchronize sound and image." Leading production sound mixer Mark Ulano writes that Kinetophones "did
5155:
5054:
1651:
Salt (1992), p. 32. As Salt describes, subsequent, post-Kinetoscope models of the Edison camera incorporated the Maltese cross.
223:
in Paris, for which he departed August 2 or 3, 1889. During his two months abroad, Edison visited with scientist-photographer
60:
bearing sequential images over a light source with a high-speed shutter. First described in conceptual terms by U.S. inventor
4837:
4822:
3892:
3310:
3254:
3057:
Light and Movement: Incunabula of the Motion Picture, 1420â1896/Luce e movimento: Incunaboli dell'immagine animata, 1420â1896
3050:
2838:
5396:
5170:
4790:
4059:
4054:
3978:
1035:
Quoted in Robinson (1997), p. 23. The caveat was written on October 8 and filed on October 17. Hendricks (1961), pp. 14â16.
3059:. London: BFI Publishing/Le Giornate Del CInema Muto, CinĂŠmathèque françaiseâMusĂŠe du CinĂŠma, Museo Nazionale del Cinema.
722:
The 1895 version of the Kinetophone in use, showing the earphones that lead to the cylinder phonograph within the cabinet.
4101:
3882:
3658:
885:
754:
563:. As historian Charles Musser describes, a "profound transformation of American life and performance culture" had begun.
2007:(the one of these four films to be shown at the April 14 commercial premiere): filmed Mar. 6, 1894; 40 seconds at 16 fps
1958:
Hendricks (1966), p. 15. Per Hendricks, evidence suggests 48 feet (15 m) feet was the longest length actually used.
1696:
made available online by The Henry Ford runs 40 seconds without a loop. The effective presentation speed is not stated.
219:
The project would soon head off in more productive directions, largely impelled by a trip of Edison's to Europe and the
52:, but it introduced the basic approach that would become the standard for all cinematic projection before the advent of
5447:
3751:
3159:
818:
and Charles Barnett, approximately eight minutes long. European inventors, most prominently the Lumières and Germany's
1638:(Note that van Dulken makes a total botch of describing the Kinetoscope and Kinetograph patent history in his earlier
632:
Just three months after the commercial debut of the motion picture came the first recorded instance of motion picture
88:
on the device, facilitating numerous imitations of and improvements on the technology. In 1895, Edison introduced the
3968:
3352:
3338:
3324:
3296:
3282:
3268:
3240:
3226:
3205:
3191:
3177:
3138:
3120:
3106:
3092:
3078:
3064:
3036:
2996:
2974:
2950:
2936:
2922:
2908:
2894:
2866:
2852:
2824:
2810:
2796:
2782:
2768:
2288:
Rossell (1998), pp. 91â94; Rossell (2022), pp. 59â61, 64â68, 71, 73, 75â76, 78â81; Christie (2019), pp. 15â17 passim.
822:
brothers, were moving forward with similar systems. Another challenge came from a new "peep show" device, the cheap,
3125:
Musser, Charles (2002). "Introducing Cinema to the American Public: The Vitascope in the United States, 1896â7," in
5411:
5371:
4096:
3877:
3799:
3473:
3403:
Library of CongressâInventing Entertainment: The Early Motion Pictures and Sound Recordings of the Edison Companies
1235:
Musser (1994), pp. 68, 71; Hendricks (1961), pp. 99â100; Spehr (2000), pp. 7â8, 10â11; Robinson (1997), pp. 31, 33.
5231:
4019:
422:
964:
5452:
5175:
5109:
5094:
5084:
4034:
3963:
3859:
3829:
3809:
1007:
274:
Charles Kayser of the Edison lab seated behind the Kinetograph. Portability was not among the camera's virtues.
142:
65:
761:
phonograph concealed in the cabinet and performing approximately appropriate music or other sound." Historian
5324:
5135:
4477:
4246:
4044:
3834:
3814:
595:, and their employer, Samuel J. Tilden Jr., sought to combine the popularity of the Kinetoscope with that of
220:
212:
160:
5437:
5300:
5273:
5074:
4368:
4039:
3864:
3854:
3839:
3819:
508:
198:
this time (there is an unresolved debate over whether it was made in June 1889 or November 1890); known as
193:
used on the cylinder became unacceptably apparent. Around June 1889, the lab began working with sensitized
677:
5432:
5281:
5064:
4947:
4905:
4000:
3849:
3824:
3466:
2512:
2484:
2430:
Ramsaye (1986), ch. 9. For Dickson's departure, see also Rossell (2022), p. 62; Musser (1991), pp. 51â52.
3043:
The Cinema in Flux: The Evolution of Motion Picture Technology from the Magic Lantern to the Digital Era
744:
The Kinetophone (also known as Phonokinetoscope) was an early attempt by Edison and Dickson to create a
5145:
5119:
5079:
4373:
4326:
2878:
Edison, Thomas A. (1891b). "Apparatus for Exhibiting Photographs of Moving Objects" in Mannoni et al.,
841:
By the beginning of 1896, Edison was turning his focus to the promotion of a projector technology, the
80:, to photograph movies for in-house experiments and, eventually, commercial Kinetoscope presentations.
2885:
Gomery, Douglas (1985). "The Coming of Sound: Technological Change in the American Film Industry," in
691:
166:
4336:
4049:
3946:
3804:
3711:
2700:
See, e.g., Gunning (1994), pp. 61â65, 143â44; Musser (1994), pp. 239, 240, 254, 272, 290, 292 passim.
1640:
Inventing the 19th Century: 100 Inventions that Shaped the Victorian Age from Aspirin to the Zeppelin
883:
march and dance subjects. While Edison oversaw cursory sound-cinema experiments after the success of
158:
which the proposed motion picture device was given a name, Kinetoscope, derived from the Greek roots
5467:
5457:
5316:
4615:
4595:
3995:
2983:. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Reprinted in Hendricks, Gordon (1972).
2157:
Robinson (1996), p. 349. For an extended excerpt from the article, see Hendricks (1966), pp. 77â78.
1687:
viewing is unclear. Baldwin (2001) says "thirty seconds" (p. 238), the figure also reported by the
894:
644:
by summer. The town's founder, James A. Bradley, a real estate developer and leading member of the
318:
2889:(2005), ed. Andrew Utterson, pp. 53â67. Oxford and New York: Routledge/Taylor & Francis.
1339:
Edison (1891a), p. 1 ; Edison (1891b), p. 1 ; Hendricks (1961), p. 130; Rossell (2022), pp. 40â41.
500:, as it is now widely known, was made expressly to produce a sequence of images for an article in
240:
5406:
5140:
5023:
5013:
5003:
4710:
4570:
4024:
3651:
3291:, ed. John Fullerton and Astrid SĂśderbergh Widding, pp. 3â28. Sydney: John Libbey & Co.
2676:
859:
846:
801:, had been developing a film projection system, retaining the services of former Edison employee
641:
444:
413:
326:
146:
3021:
664:
Advertisement announcing the initial Kinetoscope exhibition in London, held on October 17, 1894.
443:
by Heise, it was produced at the new Edison moviemaking studio, the world's first, known as the
5462:
5197:
5049:
4937:
4898:
4610:
4388:
4341:
3756:
3731:
2352:
Inventing Entertainment: The Early Motion Pictures and Sound Recordings of the Edison Companies
2058:
Musser (1994), p. 82; Rossell (2022), p. 51. Camera speed confirmed by Hendricks (1966), p. 7;
1385:
Inventing Entertainment: The Early Motion Pictures and Sound Recordings of the Edison Companies
1316:
were subsequently filmed. Hendricks (1966), pp. 112, 129. Some authors apparently mistake the
1059:
Inventing Entertainment: The Early Motion Pictures and Sound Recordings of the Edison Companies
341:
The man was Dickson; the little movie, approximately three seconds long, is now referred to as
2547:
Rossell (2022), pp. 2 passim, 66 passim; Neupert (2022), pp. 23â26; Braun (1992), pp. 193â94.
224:
5332:
4736:
4705:
4695:
4620:
4580:
4351:
4120:
3686:
997:
249:
77:
68:
between 1889 and 1892. Dickson and his team at the Edison lab in New Jersey also devised the
2660:
5381:
5308:
5069:
4977:
4879:
4685:
4533:
4517:
4378:
4308:
4278:
4260:
4191:
4180:
3926:
3791:
3781:
3741:
3610:
2602:
Musser (1994), pp. 109, 111â33, 135â39; Rossell (2022), pp. 90â91, 106, 113, 117, 125, 140.
1002:
496:
477:
321:, in the format that would become standard for motion picture photography around the world.
2279:
For the cost of the Kinetoscope's development: Millard (1990), p. 148; Spehr (2000), p. 7.
680:, Antoine's sons, who would go on to develop not only improved motion picture cameras and
8:
5391:
5376:
5028:
4998:
4758:
4600:
4538:
3766:
3721:
3691:
490:
455:
200:
93:
1429:(2000), pp. 7â8, 12, for details on the width of the film supplied by Eastman to Edison.
5355:
4864:
4785:
4715:
4660:
4492:
4482:
4465:
4383:
4241:
3953:
3931:
3776:
3746:
3736:
3706:
3644:
3489:
3331:
American Inventions: A History of Curious, Extraordinary, and Just Plain Useful Patents
3018:
The Charities of San Francisco: A Directory of the Benevolent and Correctional Agencies
3010:
2988:
2224:
134:
126:
41:
2967:
D. W. Griffith and the Origins of American Narrative Film: The Early Years at Biograph
5246:
5160:
4942:
4870:
4470:
4197:
4138:
3919:
3761:
3726:
3696:
3530:
3520:
3348:
3334:
3320:
3306:
3292:
3278:
3264:
3250:
3236:
3222:
3201:
3187:
3173:
3169:
3155:
3134:
3116:
3102:
3088:
3074:
3060:
3046:
3032:
2992:
2970:
2958:(n.a.; 1895â96). Milan: Edita dall' "ElettricitĂ ." Selected pages in Mannoni et al.,
2946:
2932:
2918:
2904:
2890:
2862:
2848:
2834:
2820:
2806:
2792:
2778:
2764:
1969:
898:
853:. The rights to the system had been acquired by Raff and Gammon, who redubbed it the
449:
244:
228:
190:
57:
44:
exhibition device, designed for films to be viewed by one person at a time through a
3249:. New Barnet, UK, and Bloomington: John Libbey Publishing/Indiana University Press.
1026:
Neither adduces any evidence for such assertions (and Edison's wife was named Mina).
475:
The first U.S. copyright for an identifiable motion picture was given to Edison for
5215:
5104:
4874:
4817:
4700:
4675:
4442:
4415:
4331:
4214:
4187:
3941:
3844:
3129:, ed. Gregory Waller, pp. 13â26. Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell (available
2466:
Musser (1994), p. 84. For the business year of February 28, 1895, to March 1, 1896.
1541:
1317:
934:
Rear view of a cabinet Kinetophone, showing its belt-driven wax cylinder phonograph
919:
867:
819:
798:
626:
552:
431:
343:
279:
145:, may have attended. Two days later, Muybridge and Edison met at the Edison lab in
1603:
863:
5238:
5223:
4812:
4731:
4680:
4670:
4625:
4356:
4273:
4202:
4066:
3701:
3580:
3003:
The Kinetoscope: America's First Commercially Successful Motion Picture Exhibitor
1282:
Spehr (2000), pp. 3â4. For individual frames and a video of the entire film, see
811:
426:
368:
194:
49:
2650:
Stross (2007), pp. 228â29; Zielinski (1999), p. 190; Musser (1991), pp. 473â74;
1117:
Robinson (1997) gives August 2 (p. 27). Hendricks (1961) gives August 3 (p. 48).
485:
Work proceeded, though slowly, on the Kinetoscope project. On October 6, a U.S.
5401:
5265:
5191:
5099:
5089:
4741:
4630:
4512:
4487:
4346:
4298:
4288:
4153:
3771:
3575:
3560:
3540:
3510:
3374:
3305:. New Barnet and Bloomington: John Libbey Publishing/Indiana University Press.
2945:, 15th ed, vol. 15, pp. 898â918. Chicago et al.: EncyclopĂŚdia Britannica.
2457:
Musser (1994), pp. 84â89, 147; Rossell (2022), pp. 57, 59â60, 64â66, 68, 71â72.
1862:
1440:
946:
Triple-column film being threaded through the Home Projecting Kinetoscope, 1912
875:
762:
702:
579:
440:
388:
376:
348:
303:
295:
258:
133:
to pursue the development of a motion picture system. On February 25, 1888, in
3449:
2746:
Altman (2004), pp. 175â78; Gomery (1985), pp. 54â55; Gomery (2005), pp. 28â29.
2375:
1147:
5426:
5386:
4957:
4921:
4497:
4430:
4283:
4176:
4143:
3625:
3555:
3545:
2298:
1880:
802:
383:
291:
138:
130:
61:
3099:
Before the Nickelodeon: Edwin S. Porter and the Edison Manufacturing Company
332:
described what the club women saw in the "small pine box" they encountered:
5018:
4952:
4795:
4664:
4605:
4585:
4565:
4507:
4460:
4361:
4293:
3958:
3936:
3585:
3505:
850:
815:
737:
592:
583:
548:
396:
149:
and discussed the possibility of joining the zoopraxiscope with the Edison
121:
films (c. 1889â90) produced as tests of an early version of the Kinetoscope
117:
73:
3317:
The Wizard of Menlo Park: How Thomas Alva Edison Invented the Modern World
2941:
Griffith, Richard, and Stanley William Reed (1971). "Motion Pictures," in
2321:
F.C.B. (October 21, 1893). "Notes from the World's Columbian Exposition".
5033:
5008:
4763:
4543:
4321:
4163:
4148:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3515:
3500:
3389:
3383:
2203:
September (p. 12). Rossell (2022) puts it precisely at October 1 (p. 52).
1683:
Rossell (2022), p. 47; Lipton (2021), pp. 130â31, 148. The duration of a
1480:"Edison Kinetoscope Film, 'The Butterfly Dance,' 1894-1895 [alt]"
1285:"Edison Kinetoscope Film, 'The Butterfly Dance,' 1894-1895 [alt]"
989:
842:
807:
502:
356:
3055:
Mannoni, Laurent, Donata Pesenti Campagnoni, and David Robinson (1996).
270:
5114:
4972:
4967:
4768:
4635:
4548:
4231:
4226:
4171:
3620:
3590:
2530:
1628:. U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. August 31, 1897. ( 493,426 Edison)
1357:. U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. August 31, 1897. ( 493,426 Edison)
1181:
20 date from the first public demonstration of the Kinetoscope in 1891.
745:
707:
681:
660:
637:
633:
575:
566:
364:
299:
150:
96:
3287:
Spehr, Paul C. (2000). "Unaltered to Date: Developing 35 mm Film," in
3166:
A Million and One Nights: A History of the Motion Picture Through 1925
2861:, vol. 1 (2000), ed. Stephen Herbert. London and New York: Routledge.
1397:
The work by Musser referenced in each of the individual film pages is
5350:
4982:
4778:
4748:
4558:
4502:
4452:
4420:
4219:
4207:
4133:
3667:
3570:
3565:
3535:
3525:
3458:
3277:. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press.
3127:
Moviegoing in America: A Sourcebook in the History of Film Exhibition
3115:. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press.
3101:. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and Oxford: University of California Press.
2871:
Edison, Thomas A. (1891a). "Kinetographic Camera" in Mannoni et al.,
2391:
See also Hendricks (1966), pp. 48â50, 118â25; Millard (1990), p. 169.
2109:
2076:
2060:
854:
827:
823:
645:
486:
236:
185:
20:
2009:
2002:
1997:
1988:
1621:
1350:
833:
309:
137:, Muybridge gave a lecture amid a tour in which he demonstrated his
111:
4773:
4640:
4590:
4575:
4553:
4425:
4402:
3914:
3636:
3615:
3221:. New York and Chichester, West Sussex: Columbia University Press.
1913:
Grieveson and Krämer (2004), p. 34; Cross and Walton (2005), p. 39.
45:
32:
Interior view of Kinetoscope with peephole viewer at top of cabinet
718:
636:. The film in question showed a performance by the Spanish dancer
3347:, trans. Gloria Custance. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
2857:
Dickson, W.K.L. (1907). "Edison's Kinematograph Experiments," in
1859:
Hendricks (1966), pp. 56, 59â60 n. 16, 60; Musser (1994), p. 78.
4890:
3275:
Spectacular Realities: Early Mass Culture in Fin-de-siècle Paris
2225:"Conversion Computation: 1894 [+] ÂŁ.05 [+] 1894"
429:
on May 9, 1893. The first film publicly shown on the system was
408:
4435:
4410:
4316:
3390:
Voice TrialâKinetophone Actor Audition by Siegfried Von Schultz
596:
232:
85:
421:
The premiere of the completed Kinetoscope was held not at the
56:: it created the illusion of movement by conveying a strip of
28:
4690:
3716:
3392:
mp3 audio file of undated audition; part of Project Gutenberg
3386:
mp3 audio file of undated audition; part of Project Gutenberg
2500:
For description of Emile as "teenage": Lipton (2021), p. 140.
207:
125:
An encounter with the work and ideas of photographic pioneer
53:
3345:
Audiovisions: Cinema and Television as Entr'actes in History
774:: "Valse Santiago", "La Paloma", and "Alma-Danza Spagnola".
4268:
3031:. New Brunswick, NJ, and London: Rutgers University Press.
2845:
The Playful Crowd: Pleasure Places in the Twentieth Century
2817:
Television: An International History of the Formative Years
2803:
Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830â1904)
1973:
1463:"Edison Kinetoscope Film, 'The Butterfly Dance,' 1894-1895"
1399:
Edison Motion Pictures, 1890â1900: An Annotated Filmography
1267:"Edison Kinetoscope Film, 'The Butterfly Dance,' 1894-1895"
689:
view, however, used to be popular: The 1971 edition of the
648:
community, had recently been elected a state senator: "The
2629:
Lipton (2021), pp. 155â57; Musser (1994), pp. 130â32, 166.
1803:
Embattled Shadows: A History of Canadian Cinema, 1895â1939
1208:
Hendricks (1961), pp. 79, 182â83, and photo facing p. 143.
253:
visibility would be integral to the Kinetoscope's design.
4753:
3377:
illustrated survey of early cinematic equipment; part of
3005:. New York: Theodore Gaus' Sons. Reprinted in Hendricks,
2509:
Musser (1994), pp. 91â96; Rossell (2022), pp. 58, 62â64;
1904:
would have run 16 seconds. See Hendricks (1966), pp. 6â8.
697:
1940:
Hendricks (1966), pp. 13, 56, 59; Lipton (2021), p. 131.
1217:
Robinson (1997), p. 29; Spehr (2000), pp. 7â8, 23 n. 24.
958:
Promotion of projecting Kinetophone system, January 1913
2775:
The Chicago World's Fair of 1893: A Photographic Record
2400:
Altman (2004), pp. 81â83; Hendricks (1966), pp. 124â25.
3384:
Voice TrialâKinetophone Actor Audition by Frank Lenord
3020:. San Francisco: Book Room Print/Stanford University (
1401:(Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1998).
359:
film projection system that was apparently abandoned.
313:
1 3/8âinch (35 mm) filmstrip of the Edison production
2240:
Australia was still on the British pound at the time.
3219:
From Peep Show to Palace: The Birth of American Film
3113:
The Emergence of Cinema: The American Screen to 1907
2969:. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
2620:
Musser (1994), pp. 145, 148, 150â52, 155â57, 176â77.
2018:
As noted, Hendricks (1966) gives the same speed for
979:
523:(Ena Bertoldi, a British vaudeville contortionist),
400:
March 14. The Kinetoscope was ready to be unveiled.
4833:
List of animated television series by episode count
2833:. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
2107:Ramsaye (1986), ch. 8â9; Musser (1994), pp. 82â84;
2014:: filmed c. Mar. 10â16, 1894; 21 seconds at 30 fps
1699:"Edison Kinetoscope Film, 'Blacksmith Scene,' 1893"
1446:"Edison Kinetoscope Film, 'Blacksmith Scene,' 1893"
753:in late 1894 or early 1895; now referred to as the
2956:Guida practica per l'uso...del kinetoscopio Edison
2584:Rossell (2022), p. 56 n. 59; Musser (1994), p. 86.
1861:Anthony, Barry; McKernan, Luke; Herbert, Stephen.
1860:
64:in 1888, it was largely developed by his employee
2575:Rossell (2022), p. 54; Musser (1994), pp. 145â48.
2184:Rossell (2022), pp. 51â52; Neupert (2022), p. 23.
1931:Financial analysis based on Musser (1994), p. 81.
1548:. The large dotted circle represents the shutter.
1497:"Edison Kinetoscope Film, 'The Strong Man,' 1895"
1256:Gosser (1977), pp. 206â7; Dickson (1907), part 3.
5424:
2709:Musser (1994), p. 178; Altman (2004), pp. 89â90.
4828:List of animated films by box office admissions
3261:Film Style and Technology: History and Analysis
3210:Robinson, David (1996). "," in Mannoni et al.,
2927:Grieveson, Lee, and Peter Krämer, eds. (2004).
2819:. London: Institution of Electrical Engineers.
2376:"The Movies Are Born a Child of the Phonograph"
2348:"Early Edison Experiments with Sight and Sound"
1995:: filmed c. Jan. 2â7, 1894; 5 seconds at 16 fps
570:A San Francisco Kinetoscope parlor, c. 1894â95.
489:was issued for a "publication" received by the
3235:. Albany: State University of New York Press.
2372:Robinson (1997), p. 51; Gomery (1985), p. 54;
1665:(Boston and London: Kessinger, 2004 ), p. 370.
391:and one that appears in Hendricks's own book.
5060:Edison Gower-Bell Telephone Company of Europe
4906:
3652:
3474:
3073:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
2831:Robert Paul and the Origins of British Cinema
2641:Lipton (2021), p. 157; Musser (1991), p. 474.
2337:Robinson (1997), p. 51; Musser (1994), p. 87.
2222:Rossell (2022), p. 55; Musser (1994), p. 82.
1055:"Origins of Motion Pictures: The Kinetoscope"
2551:"The Skladanowsky Brothers: The Devil Knows"
2510:
2482:
1989:Edison kinetoscopic record of a sneeze (aka
918:Advertisement for Kinetoscope exhibition in
215:included an entire electrical power station.
3247:Chronology of the Birth of Cinema 1833â1896
2843:Cross, Gary S., and John K. Walton (2005).
1243:
1241:
78:intermittent, or stop-and-go, film movement
4913:
4899:
3659:
3645:
3481:
3467:
3366:Edison Motion Picture Equipment Chronology
3233:Living Pictures: The Origins of the Movies
3154:. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
1814:Musser (1994), p. 81. For the height, see
2325:. Vol. 69, no. 17. p. 262.
1817:"Edison Kinetoscope Peepshow, circa 1894"
1559:"Edison Kinetoscope Peepshow, circa 1894"
1135:Musser (1994), p. 66; Spehr (2000), p. 8.
211:An acre in size, Edison's exhibit at the
48:viewer window. The Kinetoscope was not a
3289:Moving Images: From Edison to the Webcam
2805:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2791:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2674:
2248:
2246:
2000:: filmed Feb. 1894; 37 seconds at 16 fps
1238:
832:
725:
717:
659:
606:
565:
494:technician was shot at the Black Maria;
461:
407:
395:particular those based on the so-called
308:
269:
206:
110:
27:
3333:. New York: New York University Press.
3303:The Man Who Made Movies: W.K.L. Dickson
3029:New Jersey's Multiple Municipal Madness
2987:. New York: Arno Press/New York Times (
2847:. New York: Columbia University Press.
2763:. New York: Columbia University Press.
1674:Quoted in Baldwin (2001), pp. 232, 233.
427:Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences
5425:
5055:Edison and Swan Electric Light Company
3488:
2887:Technology and CultureâThe Film Reader
2637:
2635:
2548:
2513:"Happy 125th Birthday, Cinema! Part 2"
2485:"Happy 125th Birthday, Cinema! Part 2"
2320:
1863:"Ena Bertoldi (Beatrice Mary Claxton)"
1778:
1776:
1378:, "Men boxing", and "Newark athlete".
791:
425:, as originally scheduled, but at the
115:Sheet of images from one of the three
92:, which joined the Kinetoscope with a
4894:
3640:
3462:
3071:Edison and the Business of Innovation
2373:
2243:
5171:General Electric Research Laboratory
4801:Films with live action and animation
3666:
3396:
2903:. New York and Oxon, UK: Routledge.
2675:Bealmear, Bart (December 18, 2013).
2511:Domankiewicz, Peter (May 20, 2020).
2483:Domankiewicz, Peter (May 20, 2020).
1410:Edison (1891b), pp. 2â3, diagram 4 .
231:"âthe first portable motion picture
2632:
2130:Grieveson and Krämer (2004), p. 12.
1985:(all retrieved November 23, 2022):
1773:
1145:
13:
3430:, 1894 [misdated as 1895])
2931:. London and New York: Routledge.
2166:Quoted in Hendricks (1966), p. 78.
2148:Karcher (1998), pp. 39, 82, 92â93.
1312:. Additional versions of at least
14:
5479:
5443:Audiovisual introductions in 1893
4920:
3893:Modern TV cable and streaming era
3446:part of The Henry Ford collection
3419:part of The Henry Ford collection
3359:
3170:available at the Internet Archive
3022:available at the Internet Archive
3011:available at the Internet Archive
2989:available at the Internet Archive
2299:"Dickson Experimental Sound Film"
2261:Griffith and Reed (1971), p. 900.
1881:"Eugen Sandow (Frederick Muller)"
1878:
1330:Quoted in Robertson (2001), p. 5.
1190:Spehr (2000), pp. 7, 23 n. 21â22.
1079:Braun (1992), pp. 188, 404 n. 44.
5412:Thomas Alva Edison silver dollar
5372:Thomas Edison in popular culture
5166:Storage Battery Company Building
4869:
4860:
4859:
3016:Jenness, Charles Kelley (1894).
2740:
2731:
2721:
2712:
2703:
2694:
2644:
2623:
2614:
2605:
2549:Barber, Stephen (October 2010).
2421:Quoted in Ramsaye (1986), ch. 9.
1836:"Edison Kinetoscope, circa 1894"
1576:"Edison Kinetoscope, circa 1894"
1348:Edison (1891a), p. 1 . See also
982:
963:
951:
939:
927:
911:
551:, a German strongman managed by
367:known by its metric equivalent,
16:Motion picture exhibition device
5232:The Wizard of Evergreen Terrace
3085:The Film: A Psychological Study
2659:. November 1999. Archived from
2596:
2587:
2578:
2569:
2541:
2503:
2469:
2460:
2451:
2442:
2433:
2424:
2415:
2403:
2394:
2366:
2340:
2331:
2313:
2291:
2282:
2273:
2264:
2255:
2216:
2206:
2196:
2187:
2178:
2169:
2160:
2151:
2142:
2133:
2124:
2101:
2091:
2052:
2043:
2034:
1961:
1952:
1943:
1934:
1925:
1916:
1907:
1853:
1808:
1794:
1785:
1764:
1755:
1746:
1737:
1727:
1717:
1677:
1668:
1663:Edison, His Life and Inventions
1654:
1645:
1594:
1551:
1533:
1523:
1514:
1432:
1422:
1413:
1404:
1369:
1342:
1333:
1324:
1259:
1250:
1229:
1220:
1211:
1202:
1193:
1184:
1174:
1165:
1138:
1129:
1120:
845:, developed by young inventors
778:summarily rejected the notion:
755:Dickson Experimental Sound Film
403:
5110:Motion Picture Patents Company
5095:Edison Storage Battery Company
5085:Edison Portland Cement Company
3370:Professor Hall's Silent Movies
3343:Zielinski, Siegfried (1999 ).
3273:Schwartz, Vanessa R. (1999 ).
3184:Turning Points in Film History
3152:French Film History, 1895â1946
2981:The Edison Motion Picture Myth
2901:The Coming of Sound: A History
2517:William Friese-Greene & Me
2489:William Friese-Greene & Me
2049:Hendricks (1966), p. 96 n. 18.
1111:
1102:
1092:
1082:
1073:
1047:
1038:
1029:
1019:
1008:Motion Picture Patents Company
713:
578:theater; when America's first
284:The Edison Motion Picture Myth
106:
66:William Kennedy Laurie Dickson
1:
4823:Most expensive animated films
4478:Direct manipulation animation
4129:Barrier-grid and stereography
3379:Who's Who of Victorian Cinema
3200:. New York: Billboard Books.
2789:Edison: Inventing the Century
1885:Who's Who of Victorian Cinema
1867:Who's Who of Victorian Cinema
1770:Hendricks (1966), pp. 47, 71.
1608:Who's Who in Victorian Cinema
1546:Who's Who in Victorian Cinema
1152:Who's Who of Victorian Cinema
535:(some manner of cock fight),
412:Construction of the imposing
278:Some scholarsâin particular,
184:for negatives, was coated in
5301:The Execution of Mary Stuart
5075:Edison Manufacturing Company
4369:Non-photorealistic rendering
3329:Van Dulken, Stephen (2004).
3007:Origins of the American Film
2985:Origins of the American Film
1604:"Kinetograph Patent Diagram"
970:Projecting Kinetoscope, 1914
901:, the system was abandoned.
509:Edison Manufacturing Company
7:
5282:Tales from the Bully Pulpit
5065:Edison Illuminating Company
4001:International Animation Day
3451:Anna Belle Serpentine Dance
3315:Stross, Randall E. (2007).
3196:Robertson, Patrick (2001).
3186:. New York: Citadel Press.
3083:MĂźnsterberg, Hugo (2004 ).
2773:Appelbaum, Stanley (1980).
1306:Anna Belle Serpentine Dance
975:
525:Bertoldi (table contortion)
439:); directed by Dickson and
10:
5484:
5120:Oriental Telephone Company
5080:Edison Ore-Milling Company
4471:Linear Animation Generator
4374:Physically based animation
3442:Anna Belle Butterfly Dance
3182:Rausch, Andrew J. (2004).
3001:Hendricks, Gordon (1966).
2979:Hendricks, Gordon (1961).
2815:Burns, Richard W. (1998).
2752:
2611:Musser (1994), pp. 133â35.
1622:"Document ID US 0589168 A"
1351:"Document ID US 0589168 A"
1310:Anna Belle Butterfly Dance
904:
18:
5448:Film and video technology
5364:
5343:
5292:
5274:Edison's Conquest of Mars
5257:
5207:
5184:
5151:Memorial Tower and Museum
5128:
5042:
4991:
4928:
4855:
4724:
4653:
4526:
4451:
4401:
4307:
4259:
4240:
4162:
4119:
4112:
4060:Children's animated films
4009:
3907:
3790:
3682:
3675:
3496:
3150:Neupert, Richard (2022).
3111:Musser, Charles (1994 ).
3027:Karcher, Alan J. (1998).
2737:Gomery (2005), pp. 27â28.
2718:Hendricks (1966), p. 123.
2536:The Sidewalks of New York
2252:Braun (1992), pp. 190â91.
2022:. However, he lists both
748:system. The October 1893
5156:National Historical Park
4948:Edison's Phonograph Doll
3969:Animation film festivals
3217:Robinson, David (1997).
3168:. New York: Touchstone (
3164:Ramsaye, Terry (1986 ).
3097:Musser, Charles (1991).
2929:The Silent Cinema Reader
2917:. New York: Arno Press.
2913:Gosser, H. Mark (1977).
2899:Gomery, Douglas (2005).
1752:Appelbaum (1980), p. 47.
1013:
521:Bertoldi (mouth support)
319:Annabelle Whitford Moore
317:(c. 1894â95), featuring
129:appears to have spurred
19:Not to be confused with
5407:Statue of Thomas Edison
5014:Incandescent light bulb
4791:Twelve basic principles
4711:Instructional animation
3301:Spehr, Paul C. (2008).
3069:Millard, Andre (1990).
2943:EncyclopĂŚdia Britannica
2859:A History of Early Film
2787:Baldwin, Neil (2001 ).
2110:"Leonard-Cushing fight"
2077:"Leonard-Cushing fight"
2061:"Leonard-Cushing fight"
1978:Inventing Entertainment
1743:Robinson (1997), p. 40.
1247:Robinson (1997), p. 34.
1226:Robinson (1997), p. 28.
1148:"Charles-Ămile Reynaud"
1144:Rossell (1998), p. 21;
1108:Dickson (1907), part 2.
886:The Great Train Robbery
847:Charles Francis Jenkins
692:EncyclopĂŚdia Britannica
191:silver bromide emulsion
5198:Theodore Miller Edison
5115:Mine Safety Appliances
5050:Thomas A. Edison, Inc.
4938:List of Edison patents
4389:Virtual cinematography
3986:Highest-grossing films
3888:Early TV broadcast era
3245:Rossell, Deac (2022).
3231:Rossell, Deac (1998).
3087:. Mineola, NY: Dover.
3045:. New York: Springer.
3041:Lipton, Lenny (2021).
2965:Gunning, Tom (1994 ).
2829:Christie, Ian (2019).
2448:Rossell (2022), p. 57.
2193:Rossell (2022), p. 52.
2016:
1983:Edison Motion Pictures
838:
785:
741:
723:
665:
621:
571:
482:
418:
339:
322:
275:
268:
229:chronophotographic gun
221:Exposition Universelle
216:
213:Exposition Universelle
181:
122:
101:Projecting Kinetoscope
33:
5453:Film sound production
4706:Independent animation
4696:Educational animation
2801:Braun, Marta (1992).
2759:Altman, Rick (2004).
2677:"Home Projector Wars"
2439:Musser (1994), p. 88.
2354:. Library of Congress
2139:Musser (2004), p. 22.
2112:. Library of Congress
2079:. Library of Congress
2063:. Library of Congress
1986:
1782:Musser (2002), p. 21.
1520:Musser (1994), p. 72.
1387:. Library of Congress
1199:Braun (1992), p. 155.
1171:Braun (1992), p. 189.
1061:. Library of Congress
1044:Musser (2004), p. 63.
998:William Friese-Greene
836:
780:
735:
721:
663:
619:
569:
474:
411:
334:
312:
273:
263:
250:persistence of vision
245:electrical tachyscope
241:Charles-Ămile Reynaud
227:, who had devised a "
210:
176:
114:
74:motion picture camera
31:
5382:Pearl Street Station
5070:Edison Machine Works
4978:Quadruplex telegraph
4686:Animated documentary
4518:Whiteboard animation
4411:Traditional puppetry
4055:Adult animated films
3964:Biologist simulators
3927:Animation department
3263:. London: Starword.
3259:Salt, Barry (1992).
3145:Silent Cinema Reader
2374:Ulano, Mark (2000).
2270:Rausch (2004), p. 8.
1626:Patent Public Search
1419:Spehr (2000), p. 13.
1355:Patent Public Search
1302:Anna Belle Sun Dance
1003:List of film formats
423:Chicago World's Fair
42:early motion picture
5438:American inventions
5392:Thomas Edison House
5377:War of the currents
5029:Thermionic emission
5024:Nickelâiron battery
5004:EdisonâLalande cell
4999:Consolidated Edison
4759:Character animation
4539:Character animation
4077:Children's animated
3455:hand-tinted version
3438:The Butterfly Dance
3319:. New York: Crown.
2777:. New York: Dover.
2412:(1895â96), p. 126 .
2323:Scientific American
1689:Scientific American
864:vaudeville theaters
862:and his circuit of
792:Projection wins out
750:Scientific American
670:Le petit Parisienne
650:Newark Evening News
491:Library of Congress
456:Scientific American
453:and the October 21
225:Ătienne-Jules Marey
201:Monkeyshines, No. 1
5433:Precursors of film
5356:Edisonian approach
4786:Creature animation
4716:Virtual newscaster
4661:Abstract animation
4493:Ink-wash animation
4483:Humanoid animation
4466:Audio-Animatronics
4030:Lost or unfinished
3954:Animation database
3932:Animation director
3490:Precursors of film
3212:Light and Movement
2960:Light and Movement
2880:Light and Movement
2873:Light and Movement
2653:"Pic of the Month"
2301:. Internet Archive
1381:"Collection Items"
1146:Herbert, Stephen.
839:
742:
724:
666:
622:
572:
483:
419:
323:
276:
217:
155:U.S. Patent Office
135:Orange, New Jersey
127:Eadweard Muybridge
123:
34:
5420:
5419:
5325:A Night of Terror
4943:Carbon microphone
4888:
4887:
4649:
4648:
4576:Erasure animation
4397:
4396:
4139:Limited animation
4082:Computer-animated
4020:Computer-animated
3942:Animation studios
3903:
3902:
3634:
3633:
3531:Electrotachyscope
3521:Chronophotography
3397:Kinetoscope films
3311:978-0-86196-695-0
3255:978-0-86196-716-2
3147:, pp. 15â28.
3051:978-1-0716-0950-7
2839:978-0-226-10562-8
2761:Silent Film Sound
2663:on March 10, 2007
2024:Fred Ott's Sneeze
1998:Athlete with wand
1991:Fred Ott's Sneeze
1610:. August 31, 1897
868:Mutoscope Company
860:Benjamin F. Keith
733:
617:
497:Fred Ott's Sneeze
478:Fred Ott's Sneeze
472:
257:demonstration of
164:("movement") and
5475:
5216:Young Tom Edison
5105:General Electric
4915:
4908:
4901:
4892:
4891:
4873:
4863:
4862:
4843:anime franchises
4818:Cartoon violence
4806:highest grossing
4701:Erotic animation
4676:Animated cartoon
4443:Supermarionation
4416:Digital puppetry
4337:Facial animation
4257:
4256:
4117:
4116:
3990:Opening weekends
3680:
3679:
3661:
3654:
3647:
3638:
3637:
3483:
3476:
3469:
3460:
3459:
3411:Blacksmith Scene
2747:
2744:
2738:
2735:
2729:
2725:
2719:
2716:
2710:
2707:
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2698:
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2600:
2594:
2591:
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2576:
2573:
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2566:
2564:
2562:
2555:Senses of Cinema
2545:
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2507:
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1965:
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1956:
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1941:
1938:
1932:
1929:
1923:
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1914:
1911:
1905:
1895:
1893:
1891:
1879:Brown, Richard.
1877:
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1694:Blacksmith Scene
1685:Blacksmith Scene
1681:
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1396:
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1376:Dickson Greeting
1373:
1367:
1366:
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1346:
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1318:serpentine dance
1314:Serpentine Dance
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1036:
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1027:
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992:
987:
986:
985:
967:
955:
943:
931:
922:, September 1894
920:Elmira, New York
915:
734:
678:Lumière brothers
627:James J. Corbett
618:
553:Florenz Ziegfeld
473:
432:Blacksmith Scene
353:Dickson Greeting
344:Dickson Greeting
280:Gordon Hendricks
72:, an innovative
5483:
5482:
5478:
5477:
5476:
5474:
5473:
5472:
5468:Display devices
5458:History of film
5423:
5422:
5421:
5416:
5360:
5339:
5288:
5253:
5239:The Current War
5224:Edison, the Man
5203:
5180:
5124:
5038:
4987:
4930:
4924:
4919:
4889:
4884:
4851:
4813:Cartoon physics
4732:Animation music
4720:
4681:Animated sitcom
4671:Adult animation
4645:
4626:Special effects
4522:
4447:
4393:
4303:
4244:
4236:
4158:
4108:
4087:Direct-to-video
4005:
3899:
3786:
3671:
3665:
3635:
3630:
3611:ThÊâtre Optique
3581:Phenakistiscope
3492:
3487:
3440:(also known as
3426:(also known as
3413:(also known as
3399:
3362:
3357:
2755:
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2008:
2001:
1996:
1966:
1962:
1957:
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1939:
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1125:
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1097:
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1048:
1043:
1039:
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1024:
1020:
1016:
988:
983:
981:
978:
971:
968:
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956:
947:
944:
935:
932:
923:
916:
907:
812:Lower Manhattan
794:
726:
716:
607:
462:
435:(also known as
406:
377:cinematographic
315:Butterfly Dance
143:William Dickson
109:
58:perforated film
50:movie projector
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5481:
5471:
5470:
5465:
5460:
5455:
5450:
5445:
5440:
5435:
5418:
5417:
5415:
5414:
5409:
5404:
5402:Telephonoscope
5399:
5394:
5389:
5384:
5379:
5374:
5368:
5366:
5362:
5361:
5359:
5358:
5353:
5347:
5345:
5341:
5340:
5338:
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5329:
5321:
5313:
5305:
5296:
5294:
5290:
5289:
5287:
5286:
5278:
5270:
5266:The Future Eve
5261:
5259:
5255:
5254:
5252:
5251:
5243:
5235:
5228:
5220:
5211:
5209:
5205:
5204:
5202:
5201:
5195:
5192:Charles Edison
5188:
5186:
5182:
5181:
5179:
5178:
5176:Winter Estates
5173:
5168:
5163:
5158:
5153:
5148:
5143:
5138:
5132:
5130:
5126:
5125:
5123:
5122:
5117:
5112:
5107:
5102:
5100:Edison Studios
5097:
5092:
5090:Edison Records
5087:
5082:
5077:
5072:
5067:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5046:
5044:
5040:
5039:
5037:
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5031:
5026:
5021:
5016:
5011:
5006:
5001:
4995:
4993:
4989:
4988:
4986:
4985:
4980:
4975:
4970:
4965:
4960:
4955:
4950:
4945:
4940:
4934:
4932:
4931:and inventions
4926:
4925:
4918:
4917:
4910:
4903:
4895:
4886:
4885:
4883:
4882:
4877:
4867:
4856:
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4852:
4850:
4849:
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4845:
4830:
4825:
4820:
4815:
4810:
4809:
4808:
4798:
4793:
4788:
4783:
4782:
4781:
4776:
4771:
4766:
4756:
4751:
4746:
4745:
4744:
4742:Mickey Mousing
4739:
4728:
4726:
4725:Related topics
4722:
4721:
4719:
4718:
4713:
4708:
4703:
4698:
4693:
4688:
4683:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4657:
4655:
4651:
4650:
4647:
4646:
4644:
4643:
4638:
4633:
4628:
4623:
4618:
4616:Straight ahead
4613:
4608:
4603:
4598:
4596:Paint-on-glass
4593:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4568:
4563:
4562:
4561:
4556:
4551:
4546:
4536:
4530:
4528:
4524:
4523:
4521:
4520:
4515:
4513:Squigglevision
4510:
4505:
4500:
4495:
4490:
4488:Idle animation
4485:
4480:
4475:
4474:
4473:
4468:
4457:
4455:
4449:
4448:
4446:
4445:
4440:
4439:
4438:
4433:
4428:
4423:
4413:
4407:
4405:
4399:
4398:
4395:
4394:
4392:
4391:
4386:
4381:
4376:
4371:
4366:
4365:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4347:Motion capture
4344:
4339:
4334:
4329:
4324:
4319:
4313:
4311:
4305:
4304:
4302:
4301:
4299:Onion skinning
4296:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4265:
4263:
4254:
4238:
4237:
4235:
4234:
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4200:
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4185:
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4154:Exposure sheet
4151:
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4141:
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4125:
4123:
4114:
4110:
4109:
4107:
4106:
4105:
4104:
4099:
4094:
4089:
4084:
4079:
4074:
4072:Adult animated
4064:
4063:
4062:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4025:Feature-length
4022:
4013:
4011:
4007:
4006:
4004:
4003:
3998:
3993:
3983:
3982:
3981:
3976:
3966:
3961:
3956:
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3934:
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3924:
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3911:
3909:
3905:
3904:
3901:
3900:
3898:
3897:
3896:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3878:The Golden Age
3875:
3869:United States
3867:
3865:United Kingdom
3862:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3822:
3817:
3812:
3807:
3802:
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3719:
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3699:
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3656:
3649:
3641:
3632:
3631:
3629:
3628:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3576:Phantasmagoria
3573:
3568:
3563:
3561:Megalethoscope
3558:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3541:Kaiserpanorama
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3511:Camera obscura
3508:
3503:
3497:
3494:
3493:
3486:
3485:
3478:
3471:
3463:
3457:
3456:
3447:
3434:
3424:The Strong Man
3420:
3407:
3398:
3395:
3394:
3393:
3387:
3381:
3372:
3361:
3360:External links
3358:
3356:
3355:
3341:
3327:
3313:
3299:
3285:
3271:
3257:
3243:
3229:
3215:
3208:
3194:
3180:
3162:
3160:978-0299337704
3148:
3141:
3123:
3109:
3095:
3081:
3067:
3053:
3039:
3025:
3014:
2999:
2977:
2963:
2953:
2939:
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2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2748:
2739:
2730:
2720:
2711:
2702:
2693:
2681:The Henry Ford
2657:The Henry Ford
2643:
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2613:
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2577:
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2502:
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2423:
2414:
2410:Guida practica
2402:
2393:
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2312:
2290:
2281:
2272:
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2254:
2242:
2229:MeasuringWorth
2215:
2205:
2195:
2186:
2177:
2168:
2159:
2150:
2141:
2132:
2123:
2100:
2090:
2051:
2042:
2033:
1960:
1951:
1942:
1933:
1924:
1915:
1906:
1852:
1840:The Henry Ford
1821:The Henry Ford
1807:
1793:
1784:
1772:
1763:
1754:
1745:
1736:
1726:
1716:
1703:The Henry Ford
1676:
1667:
1653:
1644:
1593:
1580:The Henry Ford
1563:The Henry Ford
1550:
1532:
1522:
1513:
1501:The Henry Ford
1484:The Henry Ford
1467:The Henry Ford
1450:The Henry Ford
1441:The Henry Ford
1431:
1421:
1412:
1403:
1368:
1341:
1332:
1323:
1289:The Henry Ford
1271:The Henry Ford
1258:
1249:
1237:
1228:
1219:
1210:
1201:
1192:
1183:
1173:
1164:
1137:
1128:
1119:
1110:
1101:
1091:
1081:
1072:
1046:
1037:
1028:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1011:
1010:
1005:
1000:
994:
993:
977:
974:
973:
972:
969:
962:
960:
957:
950:
948:
945:
938:
936:
933:
926:
924:
917:
910:
906:
903:
876:Edison Studios
793:
790:
763:Douglas Gomery
715:
712:
703:Robert W. Paul
580:amusement park
537:Highland Dance
405:
402:
389:The Henry Ford
349:Charles Musser
304:cinematography
259:George Eastman
108:
105:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5480:
5469:
5466:
5464:
5463:Thomas Edison
5461:
5459:
5456:
5454:
5451:
5449:
5446:
5444:
5441:
5439:
5436:
5434:
5431:
5430:
5428:
5413:
5410:
5408:
5405:
5403:
5400:
5398:
5395:
5393:
5390:
5388:
5387:Edison Museum
5385:
5383:
5380:
5378:
5375:
5373:
5370:
5369:
5367:
5363:
5357:
5354:
5352:
5349:
5348:
5346:
5342:
5335:
5334:
5330:
5327:
5326:
5322:
5319:
5318:
5314:
5311:
5310:
5306:
5303:
5302:
5298:
5297:
5295:
5291:
5284:
5283:
5279:
5276:
5275:
5271:
5268:
5267:
5263:
5262:
5260:
5256:
5249:
5248:
5244:
5241:
5240:
5236:
5233:
5229:
5226:
5225:
5221:
5218:
5217:
5213:
5212:
5210:
5206:
5199:
5196:
5193:
5190:
5189:
5187:
5183:
5177:
5174:
5172:
5169:
5167:
5164:
5162:
5159:
5157:
5154:
5152:
5149:
5147:
5144:
5142:
5139:
5137:
5134:
5133:
5131:
5127:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5103:
5101:
5098:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5076:
5073:
5071:
5068:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5051:
5048:
5047:
5045:
5041:
5035:
5032:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5020:
5017:
5015:
5012:
5010:
5007:
5005:
5002:
5000:
4997:
4996:
4994:
4990:
4984:
4981:
4979:
4976:
4974:
4971:
4969:
4966:
4964:
4961:
4959:
4958:Etheric force
4956:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4939:
4936:
4935:
4933:
4927:
4923:
4922:Thomas Edison
4916:
4911:
4909:
4904:
4902:
4897:
4896:
4893:
4881:
4878:
4876:
4872:
4868:
4866:
4858:
4857:
4854:
4844:
4841:
4840:
4839:
4836:
4835:
4834:
4831:
4829:
4826:
4824:
4821:
4819:
4816:
4814:
4811:
4807:
4804:
4803:
4802:
4799:
4797:
4794:
4792:
4789:
4787:
4784:
4780:
4777:
4775:
4772:
4770:
4767:
4765:
4762:
4761:
4760:
4757:
4755:
4752:
4750:
4747:
4743:
4740:
4738:
4737:Bouncing ball
4735:
4734:
4733:
4730:
4729:
4727:
4723:
4717:
4714:
4712:
4709:
4707:
4704:
4702:
4699:
4697:
4694:
4692:
4689:
4687:
4684:
4682:
4679:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4669:
4666:
4662:
4659:
4658:
4656:
4652:
4642:
4639:
4637:
4634:
4632:
4629:
4627:
4624:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4614:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4581:Hydrotechnics
4579:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4571:Drawn-on-film
4569:
4567:
4564:
4560:
4557:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
4545:
4542:
4541:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4531:
4529:
4527:Other methods
4525:
4519:
4516:
4514:
4511:
4509:
4506:
4504:
4501:
4499:
4498:Magic Lantern
4496:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4481:
4479:
4476:
4472:
4469:
4467:
4464:
4463:
4462:
4459:
4458:
4456:
4454:
4450:
4444:
4441:
4437:
4434:
4432:
4431:Virtual human
4429:
4427:
4424:
4422:
4419:
4418:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4408:
4406:
4404:
4400:
4390:
4387:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4372:
4370:
4367:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4357:hand tracking
4355:
4353:
4350:
4349:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4315:
4314:
4312:
4310:
4306:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4266:
4264:
4262:
4258:
4255:
4252:
4248:
4243:
4239:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4221:
4218:
4217:
4216:
4213:
4209:
4206:
4205:
4204:
4201:
4199:
4196:
4193:
4189:
4186:
4182:
4178:
4177:clay painting
4175:
4174:
4173:
4170:
4169:
4167:
4165:
4161:
4155:
4152:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4140:
4137:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4126:
4124:
4122:
4118:
4115:
4111:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4070:
4069:
4068:
4065:
4061:
4058:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4017:
4015:
4014:
4012:
4008:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3991:
3987:
3984:
3980:
3977:
3975:
3974:international
3972:
3971:
3970:
3967:
3965:
3962:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3948:
3945:
3944:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3925:
3921:
3918:
3917:
3916:
3913:
3912:
3910:
3906:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3870:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3798:
3797:
3795:
3793:
3789:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3777:United States
3775:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3684:
3681:
3678:
3674:
3669:
3662:
3657:
3655:
3650:
3648:
3643:
3642:
3639:
3627:
3626:Zoopraxiscope
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3556:Magic lantern
3554:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3546:Kinematoscope
3544:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3499:
3498:
3495:
3491:
3484:
3479:
3477:
3472:
3470:
3465:
3464:
3461:
3454:
3452:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3401:
3400:
3391:
3388:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3367:
3364:
3363:
3354:
3353:90-5356-303-2
3350:
3346:
3342:
3340:
3339:0-8147-8813-0
3336:
3332:
3328:
3326:
3325:1-4000-4763-3
3322:
3318:
3314:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3298:
3297:1-86462-054-4
3294:
3290:
3286:
3284:
3283:0-520-22168-0
3280:
3276:
3272:
3270:
3269:0-9509066-0-3
3266:
3262:
3258:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3242:
3241:0-7914-3767-1
3238:
3234:
3230:
3228:
3227:0-231-10338-7
3224:
3220:
3216:
3213:
3209:
3207:
3206:0-8230-7943-0
3203:
3199:
3195:
3193:
3192:0-8065-2592-4
3189:
3185:
3181:
3179:
3178:0-671-62404-0
3175:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3146:
3142:
3140:
3139:0-631-22591-9
3136:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3122:
3121:0-520-08533-7
3118:
3114:
3110:
3108:
3107:0-520-06986-2
3104:
3100:
3096:
3094:
3093:0-486-43386-2
3090:
3086:
3082:
3080:
3079:0-8018-3306-X
3076:
3072:
3068:
3066:
3065:88-86155-05-0
3062:
3058:
3054:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3038:
3037:0-8135-2565-9
3034:
3030:
3026:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2998:
2997:0-405-03919-0
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2976:
2975:0-252-06366-X
2972:
2968:
2964:
2961:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2951:0-85229-151-5
2948:
2944:
2940:
2938:
2937:0-415-25283-0
2934:
2930:
2926:
2924:
2923:0-405-09890-1
2920:
2916:
2912:
2910:
2909:0-415-96900-X
2906:
2902:
2898:
2896:
2895:0-415-31984-6
2892:
2888:
2884:
2881:
2877:
2874:
2870:
2868:
2867:0-415-21152-2
2864:
2860:
2856:
2854:
2853:0-231-12724-3
2850:
2846:
2842:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2826:
2825:0-85296-914-7
2822:
2818:
2814:
2812:
2811:0-226-07173-1
2808:
2804:
2800:
2798:
2797:0-226-03571-9
2794:
2790:
2786:
2784:
2783:0-486-23990-X
2780:
2776:
2772:
2770:
2769:0-231-11662-4
2766:
2762:
2758:
2757:
2743:
2734:
2724:
2715:
2706:
2697:
2682:
2678:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2647:
2638:
2636:
2626:
2617:
2608:
2599:
2590:
2581:
2572:
2557:. No. 56
2556:
2552:
2544:
2537:
2532:
2518:
2514:
2506:
2490:
2486:
2479:
2472:
2463:
2454:
2445:
2436:
2427:
2418:
2411:
2406:
2397:
2381:
2380:FilmSound.org
2377:
2369:
2353:
2349:
2343:
2334:
2324:
2316:
2300:
2294:
2285:
2276:
2267:
2258:
2249:
2247:
2230:
2226:
2219:
2209:
2199:
2190:
2181:
2172:
2163:
2154:
2145:
2136:
2127:
2111:
2104:
2094:
2078:
2062:
2055:
2046:
2037:
2031:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2015:
2013:
2012:
2006:
2005:
1999:
1994:
1992:
1984:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1964:
1955:
1946:
1937:
1928:
1919:
1910:
1903:
1899:
1886:
1882:
1868:
1864:
1856:
1841:
1837:
1822:
1818:
1811:
1804:
1797:
1788:
1779:
1777:
1767:
1758:
1749:
1740:
1730:
1720:
1704:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1686:
1680:
1671:
1664:
1657:
1648:
1641:
1627:
1623:
1609:
1605:
1597:
1581:
1577:
1564:
1560:
1554:
1547:
1543:
1536:
1526:
1517:
1502:
1498:
1485:
1481:
1468:
1464:
1451:
1447:
1442:
1435:
1425:
1416:
1407:
1400:
1386:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1356:
1352:
1345:
1336:
1327:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1290:
1286:
1272:
1268:
1262:
1253:
1244:
1242:
1232:
1223:
1214:
1205:
1196:
1187:
1177:
1168:
1153:
1149:
1141:
1132:
1123:
1114:
1105:
1095:
1085:
1076:
1060:
1056:
1050:
1041:
1032:
1022:
1018:
1009:
1006:
1004:
1001:
999:
996:
995:
991:
980:
966:
961:
954:
949:
942:
937:
930:
925:
921:
914:
909:
908:
902:
900:
899:sound masters
896:
890:
888:
887:
880:
877:
871:
869:
865:
861:
856:
852:
848:
844:
835:
831:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
809:
804:
803:Eugene Lauste
800:
789:
784:
779:
775:
773:
768:
764:
758:
756:
751:
747:
739:
720:
711:
709:
704:
700:
699:
694:
693:
686:
683:
679:
675:
671:
662:
658:
656:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
630:
628:
605:
602:
598:
597:prizefighting
594:
588:
585:
581:
577:
568:
564:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
541:Horse Shoeing
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
512:
510:
505:
504:
499:
498:
492:
488:
480:
479:
460:
458:
457:
452:
451:
446:
442:
438:
434:
433:
428:
424:
415:
410:
401:
398:
392:
390:
385:
384:Herman Casler
380:
378:
374:
370:
366:
360:
358:
354:
350:
346:
345:
338:
333:
331:
330:
320:
316:
311:
307:
305:
301:
297:
293:
292:William Heise
287:
285:
281:
272:
267:
262:
260:
254:
251:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
214:
209:
205:
203:
202:
196:
192:
187:
180:
175:
171:
170:("to view").
169:
168:
163:
162:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
139:zoopraxiscope
136:
132:
131:Thomas Edison
128:
120:
119:
113:
104:
102:
98:
95:
91:
87:
81:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
62:Thomas Edison
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
30:
26:
22:
5397:Edison Hotel
5331:
5323:
5317:Frankenstein
5315:
5307:
5299:
5280:
5272:
5264:
5245:
5237:
5222:
5214:
5146:Depot Museum
5019:Movie camera
4992:Advancements
4962:
4953:Edison screw
4838:anime series
4796:Motion comic
4665:visual music
4611:Pose to pose
4586:Inbetweening
4566:Chuckimation
4508:Shadowmation
4461:Animatronics
4362:eye tracking
4342:Morph target
4294:Multi-sketch
4045:Short series
3959:Art pipeline
3937:Story artist
3883:World War II
3752:South Africa
3586:Praxinoscope
3550:
3506:Anorthoscope
3450:
3441:
3437:
3427:
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2696:
2686:November 22,
2684:. Retrieved
2680:
2665:. Retrieved
2661:the original
2656:
2646:
2625:
2616:
2607:
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2589:
2580:
2571:
2561:November 10,
2559:. Retrieved
2554:
2543:
2535:
2522:November 15,
2520:. Retrieved
2516:
2505:
2494:November 15,
2492:. Retrieved
2488:
2477:
2471:
2462:
2453:
2444:
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2426:
2417:
2409:
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2379:
2368:
2358:November 24,
2356:. Retrieved
2351:
2342:
2333:
2322:
2315:
2303:. Retrieved
2293:
2284:
2275:
2266:
2257:
2234:November 10,
2232:. Retrieved
2228:
2218:
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2189:
2180:
2171:
2162:
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2116:November 23,
2114:. Retrieved
2103:
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2083:November 23,
2081:. Retrieved
2067:November 23,
2065:. Retrieved
2054:
2045:
2036:
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2023:
2019:
2017:
2010:
2003:
1990:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1963:
1954:
1945:
1936:
1927:
1918:
1909:
1901:
1897:
1890:November 22,
1888:. Retrieved
1884:
1872:November 22,
1870:. Retrieved
1866:
1855:
1845:November 22,
1843:. Retrieved
1839:
1826:November 22,
1824:. Retrieved
1820:
1810:
1802:
1796:
1787:
1766:
1757:
1748:
1739:
1729:
1719:
1708:November 23,
1706:. Retrieved
1702:
1693:
1688:
1684:
1679:
1670:
1662:
1656:
1647:
1639:
1630:. Retrieved
1625:
1612:. Retrieved
1607:
1596:
1585:November 22,
1583:. Retrieved
1579:
1568:November 22,
1566:. Retrieved
1562:
1553:
1545:
1535:
1525:
1516:
1506:November 22,
1504:. Retrieved
1500:
1489:November 21,
1487:. Retrieved
1483:
1472:November 21,
1470:. Retrieved
1466:
1455:November 22,
1453:. Retrieved
1449:
1434:
1424:
1415:
1406:
1398:
1391:November 22,
1389:. Retrieved
1384:
1375:
1371:
1359:. Retrieved
1354:
1344:
1335:
1326:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1294:November 21,
1292:. Retrieved
1288:
1276:November 21,
1274:. Retrieved
1270:
1261:
1252:
1231:
1222:
1213:
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1195:
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1167:
1157:November 22,
1155:. Retrieved
1151:
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1122:
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1104:
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1084:
1075:
1065:November 24,
1063:. Retrieved
1058:
1049:
1040:
1031:
1021:
891:
884:
881:
872:
851:Thomas Armat
840:
820:Skladanowsky
816:Young Griffo
795:
786:
781:
776:
771:
766:
759:
749:
743:
738:Walter Murch
696:
690:
687:
673:
669:
667:
654:
649:
631:
623:
600:
593:Enoch Rector
589:
584:Coney Island
573:
560:
556:
549:Eugen Sandow
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
513:
501:
495:
484:
476:
454:
448:
436:
430:
420:
404:Going public
397:Geneva drive
393:
381:
372:
361:
357:stereoscopic
352:
342:
340:
335:
328:
324:
314:
288:
283:
277:
264:
255:
218:
199:
182:
177:
172:
165:
159:
124:
118:Monkeyshines
116:
100:
89:
82:
69:
37:
35:
25:
5293:Productions
5141:Black Maria
5034:Ticker tape
5009:Fluoroscopy
4963:Kinetoscope
4929:Discoveries
4764:model sheet
4621:Rubber hose
4544:model sheet
4322:Cel shading
4164:Stop motion
4149:Rotoscoping
4121:Traditional
4050:Stop-motion
3996:Outsourcing
3757:South Korea
3737:Philippines
3732:North Korea
3606:Thaumatrope
3601:Stereoscope
3596:Shadow play
3551:Kinetoscope
3516:Chromatrope
3501:Alethoscope
3415:Blacksmiths
2667:October 22,
2385:October 22,
2305:October 23,
1632:November 6,
1614:November 6,
1361:November 6,
990:Film portal
843:Phantoscope
808:Eidoloscope
714:Kinetophone
674:Barber Shop
655:Boxing Cats
642:Asbury Park
529:Blacksmiths
517:Barber Shop
445:Black Maria
437:Blacksmiths
414:Black Maria
337:perfect....
147:West Orange
107:Development
90:Kinetophone
76:with rapid
70:Kinetograph
38:Kinetoscope
5427:Categories
5258:Literature
5161:State Park
5136:Birthplace
4973:Phonomotor
4968:Phonograph
4769:walk cycle
4636:Syncro-Vox
4549:walk cycle
4453:Mechanical
4379:Procedural
4279:PowerPoint
4232:Puppetoons
4227:Pixilation
4192:silhouette
4181:strata-cut
4172:Claymation
4113:Techniques
4102:Television
3873:Silent Era
3805:Bangladesh
3800:Azerbaijan
3687:Bangladesh
3676:By country
3621:Zograscope
3591:Raree show
3444:, 1894/95)
3433:collection
3368:; part of
3198:Film Facts
2531:sound film
2028:Carmencita
2011:Carmencita
1642:, p. 126.)
772:Carmencita
746:sound-film
708:Birt Acres
682:film stock
638:Carmencita
634:censorship
582:opened in
576:vaudeville
300:escapement
266:invention.
151:phonograph
97:phonograph
5351:Edisonade
5333:Kidnapped
5129:Monuments
4983:Tasimeter
4779:off-model
4749:Key frame
4606:Pixel art
4601:Pinscreen
4559:off-model
4503:Scanimate
4421:Machinima
4220:Brickfilm
4208:go motion
4134:Flip book
3668:Animation
3571:Peep show
3566:Mutoscope
3536:Flip book
3526:Cosmorama
1099:Albanese.
855:Vitascope
828:Mutoscope
824:flip-book
799:Woodville
646:Methodist
561:Wrestling
487:copyright
373:Phonogram
327:New York
237:sprockets
195:celluloid
186:collodion
21:Kinescope
5309:The Kiss
5234:" (1998)
5043:Ventures
4865:Category
4774:lip sync
4654:Variants
4641:Zoetrope
4591:Morphing
4554:lip sync
4534:Blocking
4426:Aniforms
4403:Puppetry
4384:Skeletal
4251:timeline
4242:Computer
4097:Internet
3979:regional
3915:Animator
3908:Industry
3772:Thailand
3742:Portugal
3722:Malaysia
3616:Zoetrope
3375:Machines
976:See also
533:Roosters
503:Harper's
94:cylinder
46:peephole
5365:Related
4880:Outline
4247:history
4198:Graphic
4144:Masking
4035:Package
3860:Ukraine
3830:Hungary
3792:History
3782:Vietnam
3747:Romania
3707:Estonia
3702:Czechia
3417:, 1893)
2753:Sources
905:Gallery
826:-based
557:Trapeze
450:Science
417:films."
161:kineto-
86:patents
5336:(1917)
5328:(1911)
5320:(1910)
5312:(1896)
5304:(1895)
5285:(2004)
5277:(1898)
5269:(1886)
5250:(2020)
5242:(2017)
5227:(1940)
5219:(1940)
5185:Family
4875:Portal
4436:Live2D
4352:facial
4317:T-pose
4215:Object
4188:Cutout
4067:Series
4016:Films
3855:Russia
3825:France
3815:Canada
3810:Brazil
3767:Taiwan
3727:Mexico
3692:Bhutan
3670:topics
3453:(1895)
3428:Sandow
3351:
3337:
3323:
3309:
3295:
3281:
3267:
3253:
3239:
3225:
3214:, n.p.
3204:
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3137:
3131:online
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2004:Sandow
1972:, not
1902:Sandow
1898:Sandow
1734:first.
1542:online
1308:, and
601:Sandow
559:, and
545:Sandow
233:camera
167:scopos
40:is an
5344:Terms
5247:Tesla
5208:Films
5200:(son)
5194:(son)
4691:Anime
4332:Crowd
4274:Flash
4203:Model
4092:Flash
4040:Short
4010:Works
3850:Korea
3845:Japan
3835:India
3820:China
3762:Spain
3717:Japan
3712:India
3697:China
3406:time)
1530:128).
1014:Notes
895:image
369:35 mm
365:gauge
296:motor
282:, in
54:video
4631:Sand
4269:2.5D
3947:List
3920:List
3840:Iran
3349:ISBN
3335:ISBN
3321:ISBN
3307:ISBN
3293:ISBN
3279:ISBN
3265:ISBN
3251:ISBN
3237:ISBN
3223:ISBN
3202:ISBN
3188:ISBN
3174:ISBN
3156:ISBN
3135:ISBN
3117:ISBN
3103:ISBN
3089:ISBN
3075:ISBN
3061:ISBN
3047:ISBN
3033:ISBN
2993:ISBN
2971:ISBN
2947:ISBN
2933:ISBN
2919:ISBN
2905:ISBN
2891:ISBN
2863:ISBN
2849:ISBN
2835:ISBN
2821:ISBN
2807:ISBN
2793:ISBN
2779:ISBN
2765:ISBN
2688:2022
2669:2006
2563:2022
2524:2022
2496:2022
2387:2006
2360:2022
2307:2022
2236:2022
2213:day.
2118:2022
2085:2022
2069:2022
2026:and
1974:mean
1970:mode
1892:2022
1874:2022
1847:2022
1828:2022
1710:2022
1634:2022
1616:2022
1587:2022
1570:2022
1508:2022
1491:2022
1474:2022
1457:2022
1393:2022
1363:2022
1296:2022
1278:2022
1159:2022
1067:2022
897:and
849:and
441:shot
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4754:Cel
4327:CGI
4289:CSS
4284:SVG
3172:).
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2991:).
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767:not
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