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834:). The term "Kunlun" has also been applied to Southeastern Asian lands or islands and seemingly even Africa—although the relationship to the mountain is not clear beyond the nomenclature. In any case, Kunlun refers to distant, exotic, and mysterious places. Different locations of Kunlun have been ascribed in the various legends, myths, and semi-historical accounts in which it appears. These accounts typically describe Kunlun as the dwelling place of various gods and goddesses where fabled plants and mythical creatures may also be found. Many important events in Chinese mythology were based around Kunlun.
1215:). According to some sources, his throne is at the top tier of the mountain, known as the "Palace of Heaven." As Kunlun was sometimes viewed as the pillar holding up the sky and keeping it separated from the terrestrial plane, some accounts place the top of Kunlun in Heaven rather than locating it on Earth; in this case, the Supreme Deity's abode on Kunlun is actually in Heaven, and Kunlun functions as a sort of ladder that could be used to travel between Earth and Heaven. Accordingly, any person who succeeded in climbing up to the top of Kunlun would magically become an immortal spirit.
505:
708:
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at the base of Kunlun flowed with a liquid so lacking in density that not even a feather could float upon it. This was a major obstacle, since it could neither be swum or floated over on a vessel (Yang 2005: 162, 219). However, this was an obstacle routinely overcome by those practiced in the way of
1081:
is a "mysterious and poorly understood word, first applied to dark-skinned
Chinese and then expanded over time to encompass multiple meanings, all connoting dark skin." But she further explains: "These uses of kunlun are unrelated to the name of the Kunlun Mountains." In a footnote, she adds: "Chang
1498:
Fuxi and Nuwa's marriage took place on the mountain of Kunlun. Generally held to be brother and sister, and the last surviving human beings after a catastrophic flood, the incest taboo was waived by an explicit sign after prayerful questioning of a divine being, who approved their marriage and thus
1410:
Kunlun is described as having various structures, areas, or significant features either on or around the area of the mountain. The palace of
Xiwangmu, sometimes described as having golden ramparts, was located on Kunlun; those blessed to gather there might partake of the fruit of longevity. Often,
1174:
Kunlun
Mountain has been described in various texts, as well as being depicted in art. Sometimes Kunlun appears as a pillar of the sky (or earth)—sometimes appearing to be composed of multiple tiers, with the commonality of "mystery, grandeur, or magnificence" being emphasized in its mythological
1367:
Kunlun has a lively bestiary, with various types of more-or-less fantastic beasts and birds present in its environs. Often the tiger or beings with tiger-like features are associated with Kunlun, since the tiger is symbolic of the west, and Kunlun is often associated with the
Western Paradise.
1178:
In general, accounts emphasize the difficulty of access to the mountain and—even more strikingly—its hallowed places, due to its surrounding waters and steep cliffs of immense heights. Kunlun typically also has a strong association with various means to obtain immortality, or longevity. Poetic
1082:
Hsing-Iang writes that the Kunlun mountain 'region has been familiar to the
Chinese from the earliest times, and no Chinese work has ever described its inhabitants as being black-skinned.'" She then proceeds to explain how "Kunlun" was used to refer to places in Southeast Asia and Africa.
1166:(1662–1722). The screen depicts the Western Paradise — mythologically located on Kunlun Mountain — with scenes of mountains, valleys, seas, terraces, lakes, and palaces. Shown is the arrival of its ruler — the Queen Mother of the West (Xiwangmu), shown riding a phoenix — and the
1052:(慧琳), "They are also called Kurung. They are the barbarous men of the islands, great and small, of the Southern Seas. They are very black, and expose their naked Figures. They can tame and cow ferocious beasts, rhinoceroses, elephants, and the like." Schafer notes that—besides
1376:. Xiwangmu is often identified as having a spotted deer as a pet. Besides the cranes (traditionally thought of as the mounts or the transformations of immortals), other birds come and go from the mountain, flying errands for Xiwangmu; these blue (or green) birds are her
1026:
were traditionally associated with mountains, as hollows or caves located in/on certain mountains. The term "Kunlun
Mountain" can be translated as "Cavernous Mountain," and the mythological Kunlun Mountain has been viewed as a hollow mountain (located directly under the
1237:
Peach
Festival of the Queen Mother of the West, a Chinese Ming Dynasty painting from the early 17th century, by an anonymous artist. A mythological event traditionally occurring on the mythological Kunlun Mountain. From the Freer and Sackler Galleries of Washington
1270:) feasted on bear paws, monkey lips, and the livers of dragons, served at the edge of the Lake of Gems. Every 6,000 years, the peaches that conferred immortality upon those who ate them would be served (except during the time when they were purloined by
1187:
who are seen, coming to pay their respects to the goddess
Xiwangmu, perhaps invited to join her in a feast of immortal repast. This is the well-worn image or motif that is frequently painted, carved, or otherwise depicted in the material arts.
1179:
descriptions tend to lavish Kunlun with paradisaical detail: gem-like rocks and towering cliffs of jasper and jade, exotic jeweled plants, bizarrely formed and colored magical fungi, and numerous birds and other animals, together with
1107:
Some believed Kunlun to be located to the "far" west; in this case, the alleged location was relocated further and further to the west, along with advances in geographical knowledge. E. T. C. Werner identifies Kunlun with the
877:, and a West Paradise, identified with Kunlun Mountain. A pole replaced a former mythic system that opposed Penglai with Guixu ("Returning Mountain"), and the Guixu mythological material was transferred to the Kunlun mythos.
1142:(790–816), who records a visit in one of his extent poems; although geographical specifics of the state of Kunlun's location(s) remain uncertain, it is associated with trans-Gangetic India, possibly the
1090:
1578:
The Kunlun Slave (slave from Kunlun) was a stock character in
Chinese theater, also known in Japanese theater as "Konron." He was portrayed as exotic in appearance, possessing superhuman powers. The
1518:
Many important literary references and allusions to Kunlun
Mountain are found in traditional works—including famous novels, poems, and theatrical pieces. It also appears in popular modern fiction.
1034:
The term "Kunlun," however, had also been used in old texts to refer to people and places unrelated to the mythical mountain. It was, for example, used in reference to the southern people called
1388:
The flora of Kunlun and its environs are in keeping with the rest of its natural (and supernatural) qualities, including the Pearl and Jade Trees, the Tree of Immortality, and Tree Grain (i.e.,
1439:, black water), and the Yang River(洋水) (Yang 2005: 161). A fifth river was said to flow around the base of Kunlun, which rose in a way that was particularly steep and hard to climb. This
1094:
Dancing boy, representing one of the Kunlun boys. Painted earthenware with gilding. Tang Dynasty, 680–750 CE. From the Eumorfopoulos Collection. Victoria and Albert Museum, London
1288:
Yu Shi—a Chinese spirit or god of rain, also known as the "Lord of Rain" or "Leader of Rain"—is thought to have his dwelling place upon the Kunlun slopes. During the reign of
1274:). Originally a plague deity with tiger teeth and leopard tail, Xiwangmu became a beautiful and well-mannered goddess, responsible for guarding the herb of immortality.
1320:, the top of Kunlun is the habitation of shamans; Wu Peng is depicted holding the herb of immortality there, in the company of five other shamans called Siva Harish.
1480:
Kunlun Mountain is a major scene of action in various myths, as well as literary works derived from the myths, legends, or religious descriptions or depictions.
596:
873:
Some recent research proposed that, over time, the merging of various traditions has resulted in a duality of paradises—i.e., an East Paradise, identified with
1642:
610:
1134:, also meaning "Kings of the Mountain," referring to a mythical holy cosmic mountain. Kurung (Kunlun) is known to have flourished during the time of the
1266:), Xiwangmu—the Queen Mother of Meng Hao in the West—in later accounts was relocated to a palace protected by golden ramparts, within which immortals (
2788:
1462:")—both already on the path to immortality, one as a god and the other as a poet. Another barrier to Kunlun was the dangerous and difficult-to-cross
1402:
was a tree of fairy gems in colours of blue or green, which was reported to grow on Kunlun in the classic books of the Zhou and early Han dynasties.
1048:
description "The people south of Lin yi are curly haired and black bodied and was called kurung" and following quote by 9th century Buddhist scholar
1104:
describes it as being in the northwest, chapter sixteen says it is south of the western sea, and other sources place it in the center of the Earth.
1292:, a certain Chisongzi (Master Red Pine) performed a rain-making ceremony that successfully ended a terrible drought, leading to his promotion to "
738:
306:
19:
859:
Another historical development in the mythology of Kunlun (again with Indian influence) was that—rather than just being the source of the
2247:
1411:
her palace is described as having a park or garden, bordering a Jasper Pool. Of gardens, a (the) Hanging Garden was referenced early on.
1380:. Sometimes the poets claim to have received joyful inspiration during a visit by one of these birds, carrying a message from Xiwangmu.
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603:
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descriptions. The base of Kunlun Mountain is said to penetrate far into the earth, while its above-ground part proceeds into the sky.
2727:
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1472:(Chapter 16), Kunlun was located south of the West Sea, behind the Red River, and on the shore of Liusha (Yang 2005: 162, 219).
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2543:
1685:
1819:
Hui Lin,Yíqièjīngyīnyì(一切经音义), "崑崙語,上音昆下音論時俗語便亦曰骨論南海洲島中夷人也甚黑裸形能馴伏猛獸犀象等種類數般即有僧祇突彌骨堂閤蔑等皆鄙賤人也國無禮義抄劫為活愛啖食人如羅剎惡鬼之類也言語不正異於諸蕃善入水竟曰不死"
2217:
2118:
2100:
1340:, or Daoist immortals (i.e., humans who had metamorphosed into superhuman form), which was presided over by Xiwangmu. The
504:
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1233:
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2031:
458:
1510:, is one visitor—carried along on his trip by eight extraordinary mounts, depicted in art as "weird and unworldly."
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842:
As the mythology related to the Kunlun developed, it became influenced by the later introduction of ideas about an
182:
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Various notions about the location of the mythical Kunlun Mountain have been proposed: chapter eleven of the
863:—Kunlun began to be considered the source of four major rivers, flowing to the four quarters of the compass.
756:
410:
1356:
417:
287:
2190:"The Magical Kunlun and 'Devil Slaves:' Chinese Perceptions of Dark-skinned People and Africa before 1500"
2483:
984:'primal chaos" or "muddled confusion'), which is sometimes personified as a living creature; and
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2331:
2295:
2233:
1345:
375:
339:
280:
161:
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The mythological Kunlun is based on various sources—mythologic and geographic—of the modern so-called
2886:
2876:
2834:
2806:
2586:
2310:
2092:
1534:
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meeting Xiwangmu, according to a fictional account of his magical transportation to Kunlun Mountain.
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671:
24:
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95:
88:
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Creatures symbolic of immortality are often seen or described in depictions of Kunlun, such as
465:
255:
870:
tradition, and Kunlun came to be perceived as more of a paradise than a dangerous wilderness.
2611:
2315:
1420:
589:
175:
136:
47:
23:
1st–2nd century lamp in the shape of Kunlun Mountain as the pillar of the sky, realm of the
1611:
692:
389:
100:
8:
2741:
2596:
1562:
1450:
1138:, and seems to have developed ambassadorial relations with the Tang court by the time of
678:
334:
2087:
The Songs of the South: An Ancient Chinese Anthology of Poems by Qu Yuan and Other Poets
1344:
were often seen as temporary residents, who visited by means of flying on the back of a
2762:
2576:
2152:
2144:
2085:
1629:
1599:
1309:
664:
538:
446:
2001:
1676:: advisors to emperors Yao and Shun, sometimes associated with four cardinal mountains
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2156:
2114:
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magic (Daoist or shamanic). Two examples of those who overcame these hindrances were
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A throne and screen from the imperial workshops in the beginning of the era of the
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1646:(2007), K'un-Lun is identified with the Fire Mountain from H. Rider Haggard's
2850:
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2422:
1633:
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1267:
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344:
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2407:
2397:
2062:
A Dictionary of Chinese Symbols: Hidden Symbols in Chinese Life and Thought
1579:
1463:
1430:
1373:
1336:
In later tradition, Kunlun was pictured as a Daoist paradise, inhabited by
1263:
1135:
860:
852:
of India. The Kunlun became identified with (or took on the attributes of)
622:
533:
429:
107:
1693:: Daoist internal alchemy diagram relating human anatomy and cosmic theory
2637:
2517:
2513:
2361:
1607:
1583:
1468:
1316:
1305:
1251:
1115:
At times, the mythical Kunlun Mountain has been confused with the modern
1100:
562:
521:
248:
1624:
2508:
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2371:
2148:
1690:
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1360:
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1228:
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206:
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1586:(1549–1615) wrote a play "How the Kunlun Slave Became an Immortal."
1419:
Four rivers were sometimes said to flow out of Kunlun Mountain: the
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2140:
1377:
1289:
1242:
1224:
1128:
830:
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707:
224:
131:
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Kunlun is believed to be the representation of the Supreme Deity (
944:
The term "Kunlun" may be semantically related to two other terms:
2678:
2498:
2346:
2080:
1603:
1455:
1398:
1049:
866:
The Kunlun mythos was also influenced by developments within the
645:
491:
262:
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199:
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76:
2002:"Iron Fist: K'un-Lun's Monastery & Danny's Powers Explained"
1628:. The term—written as K'un-Lun—is also used in the story of the
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2766:
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2581:
2533:
2493:
2488:
2376:
2366:
1702:
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1595:
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1392:, which was forty feet in height and five spans in thickness).
1293:
1283:
1206:
1022:'grotto of vacuity'), according to Kristofer Schipper.
997:
959:
946:
886:
867:
853:
776:
574:
439:
112:
1846:
1705:: Korean primordial goddess associated to a "western mountain"
1594:
Kunlun Mountain is a subject alluded to in the ancient poems "
2621:
2503:
2472:
2434:
2381:
2305:
1393:
1139:
2566:
2478:
2456:
2300:
1493:
1369:
1123:), possibly translated as "Kings of the Mountain" from the
72:
2131:, Current Perspectives in the Study of Chinese Religions,
1777:
1909:
1721:
1719:
1640:
that only appears on Earth periodically. In Alan Moore's
1258:
Although not originally located on Kunlun, but rather on
652:
2111:
The Golden Peaches of Samarkand:A Study of T'ang Exotics
1870:
1755:
1753:
1740:
1738:
1736:
1734:
1396:
are (and have been) often associated with Xiwangmu. The
1127:(formerly known as Old Cambodian) and equivalent to the
1945:
1897:
83:
2135:(3/4), Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 355–386,
1969:
1957:
1933:
1887:
1885:
1716:
1466:, also known as Flowing Sands or Liusha. According to
1981:
1834:
1789:
1750:
1731:
1921:
1858:
1822:
1643:
The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen: Black Dossier
1636:
as one of the seven Capital Cities of Heaven in the
1056:—these southerners were occasionally referred to as
1882:
1526:Among other literature, Kunlun Mountain appears in
2167:
2084:
2059:
1765:
1652:. Kunlun is also featured in many Chinese dramas.
2789:Notes of the Thatched Abode of Close Observations
1664:: has some discussion related to Kunlun beastiary
1610:, and referenced during the twentieth century in
2848:
2127:Schipper, Kristofer (1978), "The Taoist Body",
1682:: article mentioning the character from Kunlun
2241:
1434:
1424:
1069:
1060:
936:
930:
920:
911:
898:
892:
732:
2113:, Berkeley: University of California Press,
1483:
1191:
903:) is written with characters combining the "
1017:
979:
2248:
2234:
1262:neighboring to the north (and west of the
739:
725:
604:Universal Church of the Way and its Virtue
1617:
837:
2187:
2126:
2054:
2036:
1999:
1975:
1951:
1939:
1915:
1852:
1840:
1828:
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1670:: a general article on Chinese mythology
1355:
1241:
1232:
1157:
1089:
18:
2108:
1987:
1963:
1876:
1795:
1012:
974:
803:, an important symbol representing the
791:
2849:
2162:
2079:
1927:
1864:
1686:List of mythological Chinese mountains
1513:
1405:
1181:humans who have become immortal beings
2255:
2229:
2212:, New York: Oxford University Press,
2207:
1903:
1891:
1771:
1725:
1502:
2735:Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio
1699:: magical fruit providing longevity
1606:, frequently mentioned in medieval
1414:
1077:Julie Wilensky notes that the term
799:is a mountain or mountain range in
13:
2337:Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors
503:
14:
2903:
2756:What the Master Would Not Discuss
2000:Casteele, John (March 18, 2017).
307:Chinese Folk Temples' Association
2174:, New York: Dover Publications,
1810:,Book 197,"自林邑以南，皆卷髮黑身，通號為「崑崙」。"
1196:
706:
288:Lineage associations or churches
183:Chinese spiritual world concepts
56:
2821:The Cowherd and the Weaver Girl
2814:Dong Yong and the Seventh Fairy
2066:, London, New York: Routledge,
1993:
1499:the repopulation of the world.
383:Chinese communal deity religion
2857:Locations in Chinese mythology
2782:Records of the Grand Historian
2041:, Feltham: Hamlyn Publishing,
2026:. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins).
1813:
1801:
1541:Tale of King Mu, Son of Heaven
1246:A Japanese painting depicting
1153:
1002:
964:
781:
770:
760:
424:Main philosophical traditions:
404:Chinese mother goddess worship
1:
2892:Classic of Mountains and Seas
2749:In Search of the Supernatural
2665:Classic of Mountains and Seas
2210:Handbook of Chinese Mythology
2016:
411:Northeast China folk religion
16:Mountain in Chinese mythology
2109:Schafer, Edward H. (1985) ,
1622:Kunlun is used in the manga
1351:
1038:, who were slaves in China.
514:Salvation churches and sects
418:Traditional Chinese Medicine
7:
1655:
1218:
1146:or areas controlled by the
1085:
597:Indonesian Confucian Church
459:Folk ritual masters' orders
10:
2908:
2170:Myths and Legends of China
2037:Christie, Anthony (1968),
1573:
1487:
1329:
1303:
1299:
1281:
1222:
1200:
891:The Chinese name "Kunlun"
884:
508:Zhenkong, "Void of Truth".
376:Chinese ancestral religion
281:Associations of good-doing
162:Chinese gods and immortals
2835:Mulian Rescues His Mother
2807:Legend of the White Snake
2798:
2656:
2630:
2554:
2390:
2324:
2263:
2095:, London: Penguin Books,
1589:
1582:dramatist and playwright
1535:Legend of the White Snake
1521:
1484:Marriage of Nüwa and Fuxi
1475:
1435:
1425:
1383:
1277:
1192:Association with divinity
1070:
1061:
993:
955:
937:
935:(with "hill") and Kunqiu
931:
921:
912:
899:
893:
2867:Chinese poetry allusions
2707:The Peach Blossom Spring
2188:Wilensky, Julie (2002),
1709:
672:Vietnamese folk religion
275:Institutions and temples
25:Queen Mother of the West
2828:The Magic Lotus Lantern
2721:Investiture of the Gods
1323:
1183:. Sometimes, it is the
880:
2862:Mythological mountains
2643:Peaches of Immortality
2468:Chinese guardian lions
2391:Mythological creatures
2022:Birrell, Anne (1993).
1855:, pp. 6–7, 27–29.
1697:Peaches of Immortality
1618:Modern popular culture
1364:
1255:
1239:
1171:
1095:
925:. Alternate names for
907:" 山 with phonetics of
838:Historical development
509:
486:Devotional traditions:
28:
2728:The Sorcerer's Revolt
2316:Chinese folk religion
1359:
1330:Further information:
1304:Further information:
1296:," "Master of Rain."
1282:Further information:
1245:
1236:
1223:Further information:
1201:Further information:
1170:awaiting her arrival.
1161:
1093:
590:Holy Confucian Church
507:
176:Chinese creation myth
49:Chinese folk religion
27:(1st–2nd century CE).
22:
2276:Godly world concepts
2208:Yang, Lihui (2005),
2197:Sino-Platonic Papers
2129:History of Religions
1614:1935 poem "Kunlun."
1119:and with Kurung (or
693:Zhuang folk religion
390:Chinese food therapy
371:Major cultural forms
2742:Journey to the West
1906:, pp. 160–162.
1786:, pp. 365–366.
1728:, pp. 160–164.
1608:Tang dynasty poetry
1563:Journey to the West
1556:(镇魂, also known as
1514:Cultural references
1451:Journey to the West
1433:, the Black River (
1406:Palaces and Gardens
767:traditional Chinese
713:Religion portal
679:Qiang folk religion
367:Internal traditions
2763:Heavenly Questions
2577:Gate of the Ghosts
2332:Gods and immortals
2296:Gods and immortals
1600:Heavenly Questions
1365:
1310:List of wu shamans
1256:
1240:
1172:
1096:
828:(as an archetypal
757:simplified Chinese
665:Miao folk religion
582:Confucian churches
539:Maitreya teachings
510:
453:Ritual traditions:
29:
2872:Asia in mythology
2844:
2843:
2714:The Four Journeys
2257:Chinese mythology
2219:978-0-19-533263-6
2203:, New Haven: Yale
2120:978-0-520-05462-2
2102:978-0-14-044375-2
2056:Eberhard, Wolfram
2039:Chinese Mythology
2024:Chinese Mythology
1918:, pp. 78–79.
1879:, pp. 47–48.
1668:Chinese mythology
1508:Mu, son of Heaven
1503:Mu, Son of Heaven
1314:According to the
1040:Edward H. Schafer
1020:
982:
801:Chinese mythology
749:
748:
686:Yao folk religion
635:Related religions
480:Chinese shamanism
473:Nuo folk religion
466:Jitong mediumship
256:Jitong mediumship
169:Chinese mythology
2899:
2887:Sacred mountains
2877:Kunlun Mountains
2799:Other folk tales
2529:Nine-headed Bird
2524:Peng (mythology)
2430:Four Holy Beasts
2325:Major personages
2250:
2243:
2236:
2227:
2226:
2222:
2204:
2194:
2184:
2173:
2164:Werner, E. T. C.
2159:
2123:
2105:
2091:, translated by
2090:
2076:
2065:
2051:
2010:
2009:
1997:
1991:
1985:
1979:
1973:
1967:
1961:
1955:
1949:
1943:
1937:
1931:
1925:
1919:
1913:
1907:
1901:
1895:
1889:
1880:
1874:
1868:
1862:
1856:
1850:
1844:
1838:
1832:
1826:
1820:
1817:
1811:
1808:Old Book of Tang
1805:
1799:
1793:
1787:
1781:
1775:
1769:
1763:
1757:
1748:
1742:
1729:
1723:
1438:
1437:
1428:
1427:
1415:Rivers and Sands
1203:Chinese theology
1117:Kunlun Mountains
1112:mountain range.
1073:
1072:
1064:
1063:
1045:Old Book of Tang
1021:
1018:
1014:
1004:
995:
983:
980:
976:
966:
957:
941:(with "mound").
940:
939:
934:
933:
929:include Kunling
924:
923:
915:
914:
905:mountain radical
902:
901:
896:
895:
818:Kunlun Mountains
793:
783:
774:
764:
741:
734:
727:
711:
710:
611:Phoenix churches
551:Tianxian miaodao
546:Tiandi teachings
397:Chinese geomancy
300:Ancestral shrine
263:Precious scrolls
155:Chinese theology
60:
50:
42:
39:
31:
30:
2907:
2906:
2902:
2901:
2900:
2898:
2897:
2896:
2847:
2846:
2845:
2840:
2794:
2652:
2626:
2592:Kunlun Mountain
2550:
2539:Nine-tailed fox
2386:
2342:Eight Immortals
2320:
2264:Overview topics
2259:
2254:
2220:
2192:
2182:
2121:
2103:
2074:
2049:
2019:
2014:
2013:
1998:
1994:
1986:
1982:
1974:
1970:
1962:
1958:
1950:
1946:
1938:
1934:
1926:
1922:
1914:
1910:
1902:
1898:
1890:
1883:
1875:
1871:
1863:
1859:
1851:
1847:
1839:
1835:
1827:
1823:
1818:
1814:
1806:
1802:
1794:
1790:
1782:
1778:
1770:
1766:
1758:
1751:
1743:
1732:
1724:
1717:
1712:
1662:Chi (mythology)
1658:
1638:Marvel Universe
1620:
1592:
1576:
1566:(also known as
1524:
1516:
1505:
1496:
1488:Main articles:
1486:
1478:
1417:
1408:
1386:
1354:
1334:
1328:
1312:
1302:
1286:
1280:
1231:
1221:
1209:
1199:
1194:
1185:Eight Immortals
1168:Eight Immortals
1156:
1150:thalassocracy.
1144:Malay Peninsula
1088:
889:
883:
840:
822:Tibetan Plateau
745:
705:
698:
697:
636:
628:
627:
499:Wang Ye worship
368:
360:
359:
320:
312:
311:
276:
268:
267:
220:
212:
211:
189:Model humanity:
150:
142:
141:
68:
48:
37:
34:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2905:
2895:
2894:
2889:
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2800:
2796:
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2778:
2771:
2759:
2752:
2745:
2738:
2731:
2724:
2717:
2710:
2703:
2696:
2693:Shenxian Zhuan
2689:
2682:
2675:
2668:
2660:
2658:
2657:Literary works
2654:
2653:
2651:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2634:
2632:
2628:
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2619:
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2548:
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2521:
2518:Four Evildoers
2511:
2506:
2501:
2496:
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2486:
2481:
2476:
2470:
2465:
2459:
2454:
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2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2427:
2426:
2425:
2420:
2418:Vermilion Bird
2415:
2410:
2405:
2403:Black Tortoise
2394:
2392:
2388:
2387:
2385:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2357:Yellow Emperor
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2328:
2326:
2322:
2321:
2319:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2291:Shenmo fiction
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2267:
2265:
2261:
2260:
2253:
2252:
2245:
2238:
2230:
2224:
2223:
2218:
2205:
2185:
2180:
2160:
2141:10.1086/462798
2124:
2119:
2106:
2101:
2077:
2072:
2052:
2047:
2034:
2018:
2015:
2012:
2011:
1992:
1980:
1968:
1966:, p. 246.
1956:
1954:, p. 320.
1944:
1932:
1920:
1908:
1896:
1894:, p. 160.
1881:
1869:
1857:
1845:
1833:
1821:
1812:
1800:
1798:, p. 290.
1788:
1776:
1774:, p. 163.
1764:
1749:
1730:
1714:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1707:
1706:
1700:
1694:
1688:
1683:
1677:
1674:Four Mountains
1671:
1665:
1657:
1654:
1619:
1616:
1591:
1588:
1575:
1572:
1529:Fengshen Yanyi
1523:
1520:
1515:
1512:
1504:
1501:
1485:
1482:
1477:
1474:
1458:in his poem ("
1416:
1413:
1407:
1404:
1385:
1382:
1353:
1350:
1327:
1322:
1301:
1298:
1279:
1276:
1220:
1217:
1198:
1195:
1193:
1190:
1164:Kangxi Emperor
1155:
1152:
1087:
1084:
1024:Grotto-heavens
882:
879:
839:
836:
747:
746:
744:
743:
736:
729:
721:
718:
717:
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682:
681:
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619:
618:
613:
607:
606:
600:
599:
593:
592:
578:
577:
572:
570:Zaili teaching
566:
565:
560:
554:
553:
548:
542:
541:
536:
530:
529:
524:
502:
501:
495:
494:
483:
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476:
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468:
462:
461:
450:
449:
443:
442:
437:
421:
420:
414:
413:
407:
406:
400:
399:
393:
392:
386:
385:
379:
378:
369:
366:
365:
362:
361:
358:
357:
352:
347:
342:
337:
332:
327:
321:
318:
317:
314:
313:
310:
309:
303:
302:
297:
295:Chinese temple
291:
290:
284:
283:
277:
274:
273:
270:
269:
266:
265:
259:
258:
252:
251:
245:
244:
239:
233:
232:
227:
221:
218:
217:
214:
213:
210:
209:
203:
202:
197:
186:
185:
179:
178:
172:
171:
165:
164:
158:
157:
151:
148:
147:
144:
143:
140:
139:
134:
128:
127:
122:
116:
115:
110:
104:
103:
98:
92:
91:
86:
80:
79:
69:
66:
65:
62:
61:
53:
52:
44:
43:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2904:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2854:
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2837:
2836:
2832:
2830:
2829:
2825:
2823:
2822:
2818:
2816:
2815:
2811:
2809:
2808:
2804:
2803:
2801:
2797:
2791:
2790:
2786:
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2779:
2777:
2776:
2772:
2770:
2768:
2764:
2760:
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2753:
2751:
2750:
2746:
2744:
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2739:
2737:
2736:
2732:
2730:
2729:
2725:
2723:
2722:
2718:
2716:
2715:
2711:
2709:
2708:
2704:
2702:
2701:
2697:
2695:
2694:
2690:
2688:
2687:
2686:Liexian Zhuan
2683:
2681:
2680:
2676:
2674:
2673:
2669:
2667:
2666:
2662:
2661:
2659:
2655:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2635:
2633:
2629:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2587:Jade Mountain
2585:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2572:Eight Pillars
2570:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2559:
2557:
2553:
2547:
2546:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2519:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2451:
2450:Spirit turtle
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2432:
2431:
2428:
2424:
2423:Yellow Dragon
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2400:
2399:
2396:
2395:
2393:
2389:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2329:
2327:
2323:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2271:Creation myth
2269:
2268:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2251:
2246:
2244:
2239:
2237:
2232:
2231:
2228:
2221:
2215:
2211:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2191:
2186:
2183:
2181:0-486-28092-6
2177:
2172:
2171:
2165:
2161:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2125:
2122:
2116:
2112:
2107:
2104:
2098:
2094:
2089:
2088:
2082:
2078:
2075:
2073:0-415-00228-1
2069:
2064:
2063:
2057:
2053:
2050:
2044:
2040:
2035:
2033:
2032:0-8018-6183-7
2029:
2025:
2021:
2020:
2007:
2003:
1996:
1990:, p. 59.
1989:
1984:
1978:, p. 72.
1977:
1976:Christie 1968
1972:
1965:
1960:
1953:
1952:Eberhard 2003
1948:
1942:, p. 34.
1941:
1940:Christie 1968
1936:
1930:, p. 45.
1929:
1924:
1917:
1916:Christie 1968
1912:
1905:
1900:
1893:
1888:
1886:
1878:
1873:
1867:, p. 16.
1866:
1861:
1854:
1853:Wilensky 2002
1849:
1842:
1841:Wilensky 2002
1837:
1830:
1829:Wilensky 2002
1825:
1816:
1809:
1804:
1797:
1792:
1785:
1784:Schipper 1978
1780:
1773:
1768:
1762:, p. 75.
1761:
1760:Christie 1968
1756:
1754:
1747:, p. 74.
1746:
1745:Christie 1968
1741:
1739:
1737:
1735:
1727:
1722:
1720:
1715:
1704:
1701:
1698:
1695:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1681:
1678:
1675:
1672:
1669:
1666:
1663:
1660:
1659:
1653:
1651:
1650:
1645:
1644:
1639:
1635:
1634:Marvel Comics
1631:
1627:
1626:
1615:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1587:
1585:
1581:
1571:
1569:
1565:
1564:
1559:
1555:
1554:
1549:
1548:
1543:
1542:
1537:
1536:
1531:
1530:
1519:
1511:
1509:
1500:
1495:
1491:
1481:
1473:
1471:
1470:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1452:
1447:
1442:
1432:
1422:
1412:
1403:
1401:
1400:
1395:
1391:
1381:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1362:
1361:Chiang Tzŭ-ya
1358:
1349:
1347:
1346:magical crane
1343:
1339:
1333:
1332:Xian (Taoism)
1326:
1321:
1319:
1318:
1311:
1307:
1297:
1295:
1291:
1285:
1275:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1260:Jade Mountain
1253:
1249:
1244:
1235:
1230:
1226:
1216:
1214:
1208:
1204:
1197:Supreme Deity
1189:
1186:
1182:
1176:
1169:
1165:
1160:
1151:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1113:
1111:
1105:
1103:
1102:
1092:
1083:
1080:
1075:
1068:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1046:
1041:
1037:
1032:
1030:
1025:
1015:
1009:
1005:
999:
991:
987:
977:
971:
967:
961:
953:
949:
948:
942:
928:
919:
910:
906:
888:
878:
876:
875:Mount Penglai
871:
869:
864:
862:
857:
855:
851:
847:
846:
835:
833:
832:
827:
826:Mount Kailash
823:
819:
814:
812:
808:
807:
802:
798:
794:
788:
784:
778:
773:
768:
763:
758:
754:
742:
737:
735:
730:
728:
723:
722:
720:
719:
714:
709:
704:
703:
702:
701:
694:
691:
690:
687:
684:
683:
680:
677:
676:
673:
670:
669:
666:
663:
662:
659:
656:
654:
651:
650:
647:
644:
642:
639:
638:
632:
631:
624:
621:
620:
617:
614:
612:
609:
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602:
601:
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595:
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591:
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583:
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567:
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561:
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531:
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525:
523:
520:
519:
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517:
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489:
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481:
478:
477:
474:
471:
470:
467:
464:
463:
460:
457:
456:
455:
454:
448:
447:Other schools
445:
444:
441:
438:
435:
431:
428:
427:
426:
425:
419:
416:
415:
412:
409:
408:
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398:
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364:
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343:
341:
338:
336:
333:
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316:
315:
308:
305:
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292:
289:
286:
285:
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279:
278:
272:
271:
264:
261:
260:
257:
254:
253:
250:
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216:
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184:
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180:
177:
174:
173:
170:
167:
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163:
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146:
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138:
135:
133:
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111:
109:
106:
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102:
99:
97:
94:
93:
90:
87:
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82:
81:
78:
74:
71:
70:
64:
63:
59:
55:
54:
51:
46:
45:
40:
33:
32:
26:
21:
2833:
2826:
2819:
2812:
2805:
2787:
2780:
2773:
2761:
2754:
2747:
2740:
2733:
2726:
2719:
2712:
2705:
2698:
2691:
2684:
2677:
2670:
2663:
2602:Moving Sands
2591:
2544:
2464:(Fox spirit)
2408:Azure Dragon
2398:Four Symbols
2209:
2200:
2196:
2169:
2132:
2128:
2110:
2093:David Hawkes
2086:
2061:
2038:
2023:
2005:
1995:
1988:Schafer 1985
1983:
1971:
1964:Schafer 1985
1959:
1947:
1935:
1923:
1911:
1899:
1877:Schafer 1985
1872:
1860:
1848:
1843:, p. 4.
1836:
1831:, p. 2.
1824:
1815:
1803:
1796:Schafer 1985
1791:
1779:
1767:
1647:
1641:
1623:
1621:
1612:Mao Zedong's
1593:
1580:Ming dynasty
1577:
1567:
1561:
1557:
1551:
1545:
1539:
1533:
1527:
1525:
1517:
1506:
1497:
1479:
1467:
1464:Moving Sands
1449:
1431:Yellow River
1418:
1409:
1397:
1389:
1387:
1366:
1341:
1337:
1335:
1324:
1315:
1313:
1287:
1264:Moving Sands
1257:
1212:
1210:
1177:
1173:
1136:Tang dynasty
1131:
1120:
1114:
1106:
1099:
1097:
1078:
1076:
1066:
1057:
1053:
1043:
1035:
1033:
1011:
1001:
985:
973:
963:
945:
943:
926:
917:
908:
890:
872:
865:
861:Yellow River
858:
854:Mount Sumeru
843:
841:
829:
815:
804:
796:
790:
780:
752:
750:
623:Taigu school
580:
579:
558:Xia teaching
534:Luo teaching
512:
511:
485:
484:
452:
451:
430:Confucianism
423:
422:
370:
249:Wu shamanism
188:
187:
2700:Shenyi Jing
2514:Four Perils
2413:White Tiger
2362:Yan Emperor
2006:Screen Rant
1928:Hawkes 2011
1865:Werner 1994
1584:Mei Dingzuo
1469:Shanhaijing
1363:at K’un-lun
1348:or dragon.
1317:Shanhaijing
1306:Wu (shaman)
1272:Monkey King
1252:Han Dynasty
1154:Description
1121:Kurung Bnam
1101:Shanhaijing
1042:quotes the
1013:k'ung-t'ung
927:Kunlun shan
797:Kunlun Shan
616:Xuanyuanism
563:Xiantiandao
522:De teaching
434:state rites
2851:Categories
2617:Weak River
2509:Fox spirit
2048:0600006379
2017:References
1691:Neijing Tu
1446:Sun Wukong
1441:Weak River
1423:(Chishui,
1248:Emperor Wu
1229:Sun Wukong
1110:Hindu Kush
1008:Wade–Giles
970:Wade–Giles
885:See also:
845:axis mundi
806:axis mundi
787:Wade–Giles
584:and sects:
527:Jiugongdao
340:Jiuhuangye
207:Wen and wu
2775:Huainanzi
2672:Shi Yi Ji
2612:Red River
2462:Huli jing
2440:Fenghuang
2281:Astrology
2166:(1994) ,
2157:161297296
2083:(2011) ,
2058:(2003) ,
1904:Yang 2005
1892:Yang 2005
1772:Yang 2005
1726:Yang 2005
1630:Iron Fist
1547:Kunlun Nu
1421:Red River
1352:Creatures
1148:Sailendra
1132:Śailarāja
1125:Old Khmer
1029:pole star
850:cosmology
848:from the
658:Dongbaism
641:Benzhuism
330:Zhongyuan
319:Festivals
237:Feng shui
230:Jingxiang
219:Practices
101:Xian ling
2882:Divinity
2445:Yinglong
2352:Shennong
1656:See also
1625:3×3 Eyes
1558:Guardian
1553:Zhen Hun
1378:qingniao
1290:Shennong
1225:Xiwangmu
1219:Xiwangmu
1129:Sanskrit
1086:Location
1003:kōngdòng
986:kongdong
975:hun-t'un
831:omphalos
811:divinity
792:K'un-lun
335:Zhongqiu
325:Qingming
225:Fenxiang
67:Concepts
38:a series
35:Part of
2679:Bowuzhi
2607:Penglai
2597:Longmen
2545:more...
2499:Wuzhiqi
2475:(Bixie)
2372:Chang'e
2347:Youchao
2286:Dragons
2149:1062436
2081:Qu Yuan
1604:Qu Yuan
1598:" and "
1574:Theater
1560:), and
1456:Qu Yuan
1429:), the
1399:langgan
1394:Peaches
1300:Shamans
1250:of the
1050:Hui Lin
990:Chinese
952:Chinese
820:of the
646:Bimoism
492:Mazuism
242:Miaohui
200:Zhenren
132:Baoying
125:Yuanfen
120:Mingyun
108:Yinyang
77:Shangdi
2767:Chu Ci
2648:Xirang
2582:Fusang
2562:Buzhou
2555:Places
2534:Tianma
2494:Xiezhi
2489:Hundun
2484:Horses
2377:Hou Yi
2367:Chiyou
2311:Ghosts
2216:
2178:
2155:
2147:
2117:
2099:
2070:
2045:
2030:
1703:Sungmo
1680:Gigaku
1649:Ayesha
1596:Li Sao
1590:Poetry
1568:Monkey
1538:, the
1522:Novels
1476:Events
1460:Li Sao
1454:) and
1384:Plants
1374:cranes
1294:Yu Shi
1284:Yu Shi
1278:Yu Shi
1207:Heaven
1079:Kunlun
1058:Gulong
1054:Kunlun
1036:Gurong
1010::
1000::
998:pinyin
992::
972::
965:hùndùn
962::
960:pinyin
954::
947:Hundun
887:Gunung
868:Taoist
789::
782:Kūnlún
779::
777:pinyin
769::
759::
753:Kunlun
575:Qigong
440:Taoism
350:Duanwu
149:Theory
113:Hundun
2631:Items
2622:Youdu
2504:Yeren
2473:Pixiu
2435:Qilin
2382:Kuafu
2306:Pangu
2193:(PDF)
2153:S2CID
2145:JSTOR
1710:Notes
1602:" by
1213:Taidi
1140:Li He
1067:Gulun
795:) or
2567:Diyu
2479:Nian
2457:Bixi
2301:Tian
2214:ISBN
2176:ISBN
2115:ISBN
2097:ISBN
2068:ISBN
2043:ISBN
2028:ISBN
1494:Fuxi
1492:and
1490:Nüwa
1390:Muhe
1370:deer
1342:xian
1338:xian
1325:Xian
1308:and
1268:xian
1238:D.C.
1227:and
1205:and
1019:lit.
981:lit.
916:and
897:(or
881:Name
824:and
809:and
751:The
355:Nian
345:Qixi
195:Xian
96:Ling
89:Shen
73:Tian
2201:122
2137:doi
1632:in
1570:).
1372:or
1065:or
1031:).
918:lun
909:kun
653:Bon
2853::
2638:Gu
2199:,
2195:,
2151:,
2143:,
2133:17
2004:.
1884:^
1752:^
1733:^
1718:^
1550:,
1544:,
1532:,
1436:黑水
1426:赤水
1074:.
1071:骨論
1062:古龍
1016:;
1006:;
996:;
994:空洞
978:;
968:;
958:;
956:混沌
938:崑丘
932:崑陵
900:崐崘
894:崑崙
856:.
813:.
785:;
775:;
772:崑崙
765:;
762:昆仑
137:Wu
84:Qi
41:on
2769:)
2765:(
2520:)
2516:(
2249:e
2242:t
2235:v
2139::
2008:.
1448:(
988:(
950:(
922:侖
913:昆
755:(
740:e
733:t
726:v
516::
436:)
432:(
75:—
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