Late Roman army - Knowledge

5314:(70–140 tonnes) although many of the grain freighters supplying Rome were much larger up 350 tonnes and a few giants which could load 1200 like the Isis which Lucian saw in Athens circa 180 A.D. Thus, a vessel of median capacity of 100 tonnes, with a 20-man crew, could carry the same load as c. 150 wagons (which required 150 drivers and 600 oxen, plus pay for the former and fodder for the animals). A merchant ship would also, with a favourable wind, typically travel three times faster than the typical 3 km/h (2 mph) achieved by the wagons and for as long as there was daylight, whereas oxen could only haul for at most 5 hours per day. Thus freighters could easily cover 100 km (62 mi) per day, compared to c. 15 km (9 mi) by the wagons. Against this must be set the fact that most freighters of this capacity were propelled by square sails only (and no oars). They could only progress if there was a following wind, and could spend many days in port waiting for one. (However, smaller coastal and fluvial freighters called 5854:

Cavalry would be posted on the wings (light cavalry on the outside). Foot archers would form the rear rank(s) of the main infantry line. There would be a reserve line of infantry and cavalry of variable strength, to the rear of the main line, in order to deal with breaches in the main line and to exploit opportunities. At a distance of a mile or so to the rear of the army, its fortified camp of the previous night would contain its assistants and baggage, guarded by a small garrison. The camp could act as a refuge if the army was put to flight. Roman armies in the field never camped overnight without constructing defences. A ditch would be dug around the perimeter of the camp, and the spoil used to erect a rampart, which would then be topped with a palisade of sharpened wooden stakes arranged cross-hatched to form an impenetrable screen. Such defences, systematically patrolled, effectively precluded surprise attacks and enabled the troops to get a good night's sleep.

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from the Emperor to lay aside the cuirass and afterwards the helmet. In consequence of this, our troops in their engagements with the Goths were often overwhelmed with their showers of arrows. Nor was the necessity of obliging the infantry to resume their cuirasses and helmets discovered, notwithstanding such repeated defeats, which brought on the destruction of so many great cities. Troops, defenseless and exposed to all the weapons of the enemy, are more disposed to fly than fight. What can be expected from a foot-archer without cuirass or helmet, who cannot hold at once his bow and shield; or from the ensigns whose bodies are naked, and who cannot at the same time carry a shield and the colors? The foot soldier finds the weight of a cuirass and even of a helmet intolerable. This is because he is so seldom exercised and rarely puts them on.

4348: 1209:). Although the precise terms under which these people were settled in the empire are unknown (and may have varied), the common feature was the grant of land in return for an obligation of military service much heavier than the normal conscription quota. The policy had the triple benefit, from the Roman government's point of view, of weakening the hostile tribe, repopulating the plague-ravaged frontier provinces (and bringing their abandoned fields back into cultivation) and providing a pool of first-rate recruits for the army. But it could also be popular with the barbarian prisoners, who were often delighted by the prospect of a land grant within the empire. In the 4th century, such communities were known as 1100: 5058:. They are divided into two sub-groups, the "Intercisa" and "Berkasovo" types. The "Intercisa" design had a two-piece skull, it left the face unobstructed and had ear-holes in the join between the small cheek-guards and bowl to allow good hearing. It was simpler and cheaper to manufacture, and therefore probably by far the most common type, but structurally weaker and therefore offered less effective protection. The "Berkasovo" type was a more sturdy and protective ridge helmet. This type of helmet usually has 4 to 6 skull elements (and the characteristic median ridge), a nasal (nose-guard), a deep brow piece riveted inside the skull elements and large cheekpieces. Unusually the helmet discovered at 437:, altars and other dedications by Roman servicemen. Official stamps of military units on building materials (e.g., tiles) are much rarer, but this trend should probably not be seen as indicating a decline in the army's administrative sophistication. Papyrus evidence from Egypt shows that military units continued to keep detailed written records in the 4th century (the vast bulk of which are lost due to organic decomposition). Most likely, the decline in inscriptions is due to changing fashion, in part influenced by the increase in barbarian recruits and the rise of Christianity. The dearth of inscriptions leaves major gaps in our understanding of the late army and renders many conclusions tentative. 5731: 5478: 1086:, the silver coin used to pay the troops in this period, lost 95% of its silver content between its launch in 215 and its demise in the 260s. Thus, twenty times more money could be distributed with the same amount of precious metal. This led to rampant price inflation: for example, the price of wheat under Diocletian was 67 times the typical price under the Principate. The monetary economy collapsed and the army was obliged to rely on unpaid food levies to obtain supplies. Food levies were raised without regard to fairness, ruining the border provinces where the military was mainly based. Soldiers' salaries became worthless, which reduced the army's recruits to a 5497:(inaccurately translated as legionary "fortresses") or auxiliary forts, were clearly residential bases that were not designed to withstand assault. The typical rectangular "playing-card" shape, the long, thin and low walls and shallow ditch and the unfortified gates were not defensible features and their purpose was delimitation and keeping out individual intruders. This view is too extreme, as all the evidence suggests that such forts, even the more rudimentary earlier type based on the design of marching-camps (ditch, earth rampart and wooden palisade), afforded a significant level of protection. The latter is exemplified by the siege of the legionary camp at 3584: 3643:("natives"), these were an important source of recruits for the army. Groups of Germanic or Sarmatian tribespeople were granted land to settle in the Empire, in return for military service. Most likely each community was under a treaty obligation to supply a specified number of troops to the army each year. The resettlement within the empire of barbarian tribespeople in return for military service was not a new phenomenon in the 4th century: it stretches back to the days of Augustus. But it does appear that the establishment of military settlements was more systematic and on a much larger scale in the 4th century. 5212: 706: 426:, a late 4th or early 5th-century writer, and contains considerable information on the late army, although its focus is on the army of the Republic and Principate. However, Vegetius (who wholly lacked military experience) is often unreliable. For example, he stated that the army abandoned armour and helmets in the later 4th century (offering the absurd explanation that this equipment was too heavy), which is contradicted by sculptural and artistic evidence. In general, it is not safe to accept a statement from Vegetius unless it is corroborated by other evidence. 1563:, accusing Constantine of wrecking his predecessor Diocletian's work of strengthening the border defences: "By the foresight of Diocletian, the frontiers of the Roman empire were everywhere studded with cities and forts and towers... and the whole army was stationed along them, so it was impossible for the barbarians to break through... But Constantine ruined this defensive system by withdrawing the majority of the troops from the frontiers and stationing them in cities which did not require protection." Zosimus' critique is probably excessive, both because the 5448: 1013: 1371:("tax levies") with the tax demanded set in advance for 5 years and related to the amount of cultivated land in each province, backed by a thorough empire-wide census of land, peasants and livestock. To deal with the problem of rural depopulation in some areas (and consequent loss of food production), he decreed that peasants, who had always been free to leave their land during the Principate, must never leave the locality in which they were registered by the census (legal term is 'origo'). This measure had the effect of legally tying tenant farmers ( 2537: 2196: 2165: 29: 5791:(357), where the cavalry, including cataphracts, were routed by their German counterparts at an early stage, leaving the Roman infantry right wing dangerously exposed. After fleeing behind the infantry lines, it took the personal intervention of Julian to rally them and persuade them to return to the fight. (The cataphracts were later ordered to wear female clothes by Julian as punishment). (2) During his Persian campaign (363), Julian was obliged to sanction two cavalry units for fleeing when caught by surprise attacks (one unit was 5947:, contains two propositions. (1) That the late army recruited much greater numbers of barbarian-born troops than the army of the Principate; and (2) that the greater number of barbarian recruits resulted in a major decline of the army's effectiveness and was a leading factor in the collapse of the Western Roman empire. As discussed above, proposition (1) is probably correct, although it should be borne in mind that probably about three-quarters of the late army's recruits remained Roman-born. This section considers proposition (2). 165: 558:, typically starting with a period of junior administrative posts in Rome, followed by 5–10 years in the military and a final period of senior positions in either the provinces or Rome. This tiny, tightly-knit ruling oligarchy of under 10,000 men monopolised political, military and economic power in an empire of c. 80 million inhabitants and achieved a remarkable degree of political stability. During the first 200 years of its existence (30 BC – 180 AD), the empire suffered only one major episode of civil strife (the 1286:, who would act both as his ruling partner (each Caesar was assigned a quarter of the empire) and designated successor. This four-man team would thus have the flexibility to deal with multiple and simultaneous challenges as well as providing for a legitimate succession. The latter failed in its central aim, to prevent the disastrous civil wars caused by the multiple usurpations of the 3rd century. Indeed, the situation may have been made worse, by providing each pretender with a substantial 5036: 3484:(land tax assessment). Depending on the amount of land tax due on his estates, a landowner (or group of landowners) would be required to provide a commensurate number of recruits to the army. Naturally, landowners had a strong incentive to keep their best young men to work on their estates, sending the less fit or reliable for military service. There is also evidence that they tried to cheat the draft by offering the sons of soldiers (who were liable to serve anyway) and vagrants ( 753: 5678:(i.e. subject to paying tribute to Rome, in cash or in kind), in practice the loyalty of the ally was often secured by gifts or regular subsidies from Rome. This practice was applied on all the frontiers. The Romans continued to assist the client tribes to defend themselves in the 4th century. For example, Constantine I's army constructed two massive lines of defensive earthworks, 100–250 km beyond the Danube, totalling c. 1,500 km (932 mi) in length, the 790:. This had the effect of breaking down the distinction between the citizen legions and the auxiliary regiments. In the 1st and 2nd centuries, the legions were the symbol (and guarantors) of the dominance of the Italian "master nation" over its subject peoples. In the 3rd century, they were no longer socially superior to their auxiliary counterparts (although they may have retained their elite status in military terms) and the legions' special armour and equipment ( 3500:' invasion of Italy and the great barbarian invasion of Gaul). Most importantly, the conscription requirement was often commuted into a cash levy, at a fixed rate per recruit due. This was done for certain provinces, in certain years, although the specific details are largely unknown. It appears from the very slim available evidence that conscription was not applied evenly across provinces but concentrated heavily in the army's traditional recruiting areas of 5461: 3554:

confirmed in the legal code evidence: there are measures to deal with cases of self-mutilation to avoid military service (such as cutting off a thumb), including an extreme decree of 386 requiring such persons to be burnt alive. Desertion was clearly a serious problem, and was probably much worse than in the army of the Principate, since the latter was mainly a volunteer army. This is supported by the fact that the granting of leave of absence (

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before the infantry lines engaged and then withdraw behind their own infantry line. Along with the foot archers already there, they would continue to rain arrows and sling projectiles on the enemy foot by shooting over the heads of their own infantry. The cavalry's task on each wing was to scatter the enemy cavalry facing them and then, if possible, to encircle the main body of enemy infantry and attack them from the flanks and rear.

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they reached the imperial borders. This was achieved by stationing units (both legions and auxiliary regiments) right on the border and establishing and garrisoning strategic salients beyond the borders. The response to any threat would thus be a pincer movement into barbarian territory: large infantry and cavalry forces from the border bases would immediately cross the border to intercept the coalescing enemy army.

5878:(just 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) long) as the primary mêlée weapon. The extended reach of the thrusting-spear, combined with the adoption of oval or round shields, permitted a battle array where shields were interlocked to form a "shield wall", with spears protruding through the V-shaped gaps formed between overlapping shields. The late army also relied more heavily on missiles, replacing the single volley of 5230: 3379:, who were not supported directly by the state but rather by an individual, though they also took an oath of obedience to the reigning emperor. The employers of these "household troops" were usually prominent generals or high ranking civilian bureaucrats. Units of these troops were generally quite small, but, especially during the many civil wars, they could grow to number several thousand men. In effect, the 5564:. But the defensibility of late Roman forts must not be exaggerated. Late Roman forts were not always located on defensible sites, such as hilltops and they were not designed as independent logistic facilities where the garrison could survive for years on internal supplies (water in cisterns or from wells and stored food). They remained bases for troops that would sally out and engage the enemy in the field. 1393: 5572:

defence" rendered such forts unnecessary . But the existence of such a "strategy" is strongly disputed by several scholars, as many elements of the late Roman army's posture were consistent with continued forward defence. An alternative explanation is that preclusive defence was still in effect but was not working as well as previously and barbarian raids were penetrating the empire more frequently.(see

3160: 6009: 4841: 4817: 3480:) was never wholly abandoned, but was generally only used in emergencies or before major campaigns when large numbers of additional troops were required. In marked contrast, the late army relied mainly on compulsion for its recruitment of Roman citizens. Firstly, the sons of serving soldiers or veterans were required by law to enlist. Secondly, a regular annual levy was held based on the 3133: 3753:(barbarians who surrendered to the Roman authorities, often to escape strife with neighbouring tribes) and tribes who were defeated by the Romans, and obliged, as a condition of peace, to undertake to provide a specified number of recruits annually. Barbarians could be recruited directly, as individuals enrolled into regular regiments, or indirectly, as members of irregular 5702:) all the way to the Danube delta, obviously contradicting the proposition that the empire's Danubian border provinces were themselves envisaged as buffer zones. This was especially unlikely in the case of these regions, as the Illyrian emperors and officer class that dominated the late army would hardly relish seeing their native provinces reduced to combat zones. 2468:) were based in cities, probably in permanent barracks. Because units of limitanei operated in one area, had their own camps, and often recruited from the same area, they tended to maintain better relations with the locals than the comitatenses and palatini, who would often be transferred to other areas, and were often quartered in civilian homes. 5553:. The walls were strengthened by doubling the old thickness. Upgraded forts were generally much larger than new-build. New forts were rarely over one hectare in size and were normally placed to fill gaps between old forts and towns. However, not all of the old forts that continued to be used in the 4th century were upgraded e.g. the forts on 5253:, had a long (22 m) and narrow (2.8 m) shape for speed and rounded keel to allow access to shallows. It could carry 32 marines, who rowed the boat fully armed (32 oars, 16 on each side). Whilst on board, the soldiers would hang their shields on stands fixed to the gunwales so as to provide cover from missiles launched from the riverbanks. 2302:

as that is when it is believed Roman forces withdrew from Britain definitively. This reflects the confusion of the times. Army dispositions of armies and commands were constantly changing to reflect the needs of the moment. The scale of the chaos in this period is illustrated by Heather's analysis of units in the army of the West. Of 181

5646:(imperial escort-armies) stationed in the interior of the empire. A traditional view is that the escort-armies' role was precisely as a strategic reserve of last resort that could intercept really large barbarian invasions that succeeded in penetrating deep into the empire (such as the invasions of the late 3rd century). But these large 1815:' figure of 389,704 soldiers represents the army's strength in 285, while Zosimus' figures totalling 581,000 soldiers account for the army in 312. Treadgold estimates that the army's size was roughly constant during the period 235-285, followed by a rapid increase of over 50% between 285-305, and again remained roughly constant 305-395. 1240: 9906: 355:

barbarian tribes. Whatever the defence strategy, it was apparently less successful in preventing barbarian incursions than in the 1st and 2nd centuries. This may have been due to heavier barbarian pressure, or to the practice of keeping large armies of the best troops in the interior, depriving the border forces of sufficient support.

5666:. Unlike the imperial escort-armies, these were close enough to the theatre of operations to succour the border troops. But their stationing may have differed little from the location of legions in the 2nd century, even though they apparently wintered inside cities, rather than in purpose-built legionary bases. For example, the two 5024:

helmets tended to adopt the more protective features of Principate cavalry helmets. Cheek-guards could often be fastened together over the chin to protect the face, and covered the ears save for a slit to permit hearing e.g. the "Auxiliary E" type or its Niederbieber variant. Cavalry helmets became even more enclosed e.g. the "

3297:, implying that they originally belonged to the border forces. The purpose of independent artillery units was presumably to permit heavy concentration of firepower, especially useful for sieges. However, it is likely that many ordinary regiments continued to possess integral artillery, especially in the border forces. 5951:

time, the spread of barbarian customs and culture led to a decline in traditional military discipline, and internal army disunity due to friction between Romans and barbarians. Ultimately, the army degenerated into just a collection of foreign mercenary bands that were incapable of defending the empire effectively.

448:. Because of its wealth of detail and documentary references, this 1964 publication remains an essential tool for all scholars of the period. However, its primary weakness is its age, for a considerable amount of archaeological work and other relevant scholarship has transpired in the decades since its publication. 5105:, despite the difference in shape. Shields, from examples found at Dura Europos and Nydam, were of vertical plank construction, the planks glued, and mostly faced inside and out with painted leather. The edges of the shield were bound with stitched rawhide, which shrank as it dried, improving structural cohesion. 3701:

Analysis by decade shows that this proportion did not increase over the period, or indeed in the early 5th century. The latter trend implies that the proportion of barbarians in the lower ranks was not much greater, otherwise the proportion of barbarian officers would have increased over time to reflect that.

5187:= "lead"), with an effective range of c. 30 m (98 ft), well beyond that of a javelin. The darts were carried clipped to the back of the shield or in a quiver. The late foot soldier thus had greater missile capability than his predecessor from the Principate, who was often limited to just two 5840:

Just as the armour and weapons of the late army were fundamentally similar to those of earlier eras, so the army's tactics were based on traditional principles. The key elements of systematic scouting, marching formation, battle array, fortified camping, and siegecraft were all followed intact in the

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were small private armies equipped and paid by wealthy and influential people. As such they were quite often better trained and equipped, not to mention motivated, than the regular soldiers of the time. Originating in the late fourth century, they increased in importance until, in the early Byzantine

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The western section was completed considerably later than its eastern counterpart, c. 425, after the West had been overrun by Germanic peoples. However, it appears that the western section was several times revised, in the period c. 400-25: e.g. the dispositions for Britain must date from before 410,

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At the same time, more recent work has suggested that the regular army of the 2nd century was considerably larger than the c. 300,000 traditionally assumed. This is because the 2nd-century auxilia were not just equal in numbers to the legions as in the early 1st century, but some 50% larger. The army

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The traditional view of a much larger 4th century army has fallen out of favour with some historians in more recent times, as existing evidence has been reappraised and new evidence uncovered. The revisionist view is that the 4th-century army was, at its peak, roughly the same size as the 2nd-century

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unit strengths which may be too high. Jones calculated unit-strengths in Egypt under Diocletian using papyrus evidence of unit payrolls. But a rigorous reassessment of that evidence by R. Duncan-Jones concluded that Jones had overestimated unit sizes by 2–6 times. For example, Jones estimated legions

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Because of fairly detailed evidence, there is broad scholarly consensus among modern scholars regarding the size of the Roman Army in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. However, this consensus breaks down regarding the size of the Army in the 4th century. Lack of evidence about unit-strengths has resulted

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ruled until 363. These emperors restored the army to its former strength and effectiveness, but were solely concerned with the needs and interests of the military. They were also divorced from the wealthy Roman senatorial families that dominated the Senate and owned much of the empire's land. This in

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drill. In close combat, the Romans had the crucial advantage of superior armour, and such tactics very often resulted in the rout of the less well-equipped and trained barbarian foe. The mounted archers, and slingers on foot, in front of the main infantry line would loose their missiles on the enemy

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troops, which could not be easily replaced. This in turn supports the hypothesis that the late army had greater difficulty than the Principate in finding sufficient recruits, and especially high-quality recruits. The late army preferred to attack the enemy by stealth or stratagem: ambushes, surprise

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One striking difference was that late army doctrine (and practice) aimed at avoiding open battle with the enemy if possible, unlike the early doctrine from the Principate of seeking to bring the enemy to battle as often and as quickly as possible. The main motivation was likely not a reduced ability

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that in the 3rd and early 4th centuries, the empire's defence strategy mutated from "forward defence" (or "preclusive defence") in the Principate to "defence-in-depth" in the 4th century. According to Luttwak, the army of the Principate had relied on neutralising imminent barbarian incursions before

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More numerous than new-build forts were old forts upgraded to higher defensive specifications. Thus the two parallel ditches common around earlier forts could be joined by excavating the ground between them. Projecting towers were added. Gates were either rebuilt with projecting towers or sealed off

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and provincial governors), whose agents collected, stored and delivered supplies to the troops directly or to predetermined fortified points. The quantities involved were enormous and would require lengthy and elaborate planning for major campaigns. A late legion of 1,000 men would require a minimum

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added to tunics and cloaks. These colourful decorative elements usually consisted of geometrical patterns and stylised plant motifs, but could include human or animal figures. A distinctive part of a soldier's costume, though it seems to have also been worn by non-military bureaucrats, was a type of

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The basic equipment of a 4th-century foot soldier was essentially the same as in the 2nd century: metal armour cuirass, metal helmet, shield and sword. Some evolution took place during the 3rd century. Trends included the adoption of warmer clothing; the disappearance of distinctive legionary armour

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In contrast to Roman recruits, the vast majority of barbarian recruits were probably volunteers, drawn by conditions of service and career prospects that to them probably appeared desirable, in contrast to their living conditions at home. A minority of barbarian recruits were enlisted by compulsion,

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However, conscription was not in practice universal. Firstly, a land-based levy meant recruits were exclusively the sons of peasants, as opposed to townspeople. Thus some 20% of the empire's population was excluded. In addition, as during the Principate, slaves were not admissible. Nor were freedmen

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were full-time professionals. They were charged with combating the incessant small-scale barbarian raids that were the empire's enduring security problem. It is therefore likely that their combat readiness and experience were high. This was demonstrated at the siege of Amida (359) where the besieged

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According to the historian A.D. Lee, there is little evidence to support this view and compelling reasons to reject it. Firstly, the late army clearly was not, and did not become, ineffective. The regular army in the West remained a formidable force until the political disintegration of the West in

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According to this view, the barbarian officers and men recruited by the late army, coming from tribes that were traditional enemies of Rome, had no real loyalty to Rome and often betrayed her interests, colluding with invading barbarian tribes, especially if those tribes were their own. At the same

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Where battle could not be avoided, the late army broadly followed traditional practice as regards array. Heavy infantry would be drawn up in a main line, normally straight and several ranks deep. Mounted archers were stationed, together with light-armed slingers, in front of the main infantry line.

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As a consequence, most battles in the 4th century were, as in previous centuries, primarily infantry encounters, with cavalry playing a supporting role. The main qualification is that on the Eastern frontier, cavalry played a more prominent role, due to the Persian reliance on cavalry as their main

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Furthermore, the late empire maintained a central feature of the forward defence of the Principate: a system of treaties of mutual assistance with tribes living on the imperial frontiers. The Romans would promise to defend the ally from attack by its neighbours. In return, the ally would promise to

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According to Luttwak, the forward defence system was always vulnerable to unusually large barbarian concentrations of forces, as the Roman army was too thinly spread along the enormous borders to deal with such threats. In addition, the lack of any reserves to the rear of the border entailed that a

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Nevertheless, the benefits of more defensible forts are evident: they could act as temporary refuges for overwhelmed local troops during barbarian incursions, while they waited for reinforcements. The forts were difficult for the barbarians to take by assault, as they generally lacked the necessary

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Higher (av. 17.5 m) and projecting corner and interval towers. These would enable enfilading fire on attackers. Towers were normally round or half-round, and only rarely square as the latter were less defensible. Towers would be normally be spaced at 30 m (98 ft) intervals on circuit

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From the foundation of the city till the reign of the Emperor Gratian, the foot wore cuirasses and helmets. But negligence and sloth having by degrees introduced a total relaxation of discipline, the soldiers began to think their armor too heavy, as they seldom put it on. They first requested leave

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Detail of a 4th-century mosaic showing a hunting scene. The figures are probably Roman military officers, wearing the typical non-combat uniform (i.e. without armour and helmets, but with shield and spear) of late soldiers. (Throughout the imperial era, soldiers were usually portrayed in non-combat

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units, their operations were not confined to a single province. But their strategic role was quite different. The escort armies' primary role was probably to provide the emperor's ultimate insurance against usurpers: the very existence of such a powerful force would deter many potential rivals, and

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Under Diocletian, the number of legions, and probably of other units, more than doubled. But it is unlikely that overall army size increased nearly as much, since unit strengths appear to have been reduced, in some cases drastically e.g. new legions raised by Diocletian appear to have numbered just

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or Danubian emperors were especially concerned with the depopulation of the border provinces due to plague and barbarian invasions during the Crisis. The problem was especially acute in their own Danubian home provinces, where much arable land had fallen out of cultivation through lack of manpower.

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which almost resulted in its disintegration. It consisted of a series of military catastrophes in 251–271 when Gaul, the Alpine regions and Italy, the Balkans and the East were overrun by Alamanni, Sarmatians, Goths and Persians. At the same time, the Roman army was struggling with the effects of a

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There is a tendency by some modern scholars to ascribe to ancient barbarians a degree of ethnic solidarity that did not exist, according to A.H.M. Jones. Germanic tribes were constantly fighting each other and even within such tribal confederations as the Franks or Alamanni there were bitter feuds

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Compared to the 1st and 2nd centuries, the 3rd and 4th centuries saw much greater fortification activity, with many new forts built. Later Roman fortifications, both new and upgraded old ones, contained much stronger defensive features than their earlier counterparts. In addition, the late 3rd/4th

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An example of late Roman fortification. Note the protruding towers to allow enfilading fire. The original height of both walls and towers was clearly greater than today, and the crenellations are not the original ones, but crudely cut from the curtain wall itself in the medieval period. The church

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combined oars with sail and had more flexibility). Maritime transport was also completely suspended for at least four months in the winter (as stormy weather made it too hazardous) and even during the rest of the year, shipwrecks were common. Nevertheless, the surviving shipping-rates show that it

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In general, Roman cavalry helmets had enhanced protection, in the form of wider cheek-guards and deeper neck-guards, for the sides and back of the head than infantry helmets. Infantry were less vulnerable in those parts due to their tighter formation when fighting. During the 3rd century, infantry

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or "Order of Companions (of the emperor)", was an order of nobility established by Constantine I to honour senior administrative and military officials, especially in the imperial entourage. It partly overlapped with the established orders of Senators and of Knights, in that it could be awarded to

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frequently shows the same unit in two or three different locations simultaneously). Nevertheless, the weight of the archaeological evidence favours small sizes for frontier units. Archaeological evidence suggests that the army in Britain in ca. 400 just one-third its size in 200 (17,500 effectives

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The 3rd-century crisis started a chain-reaction of socio-economic effects that proved decisive for the development of the late army. The combination of barbarian devastation and reduced tax-base due to plague bankrupted the imperial government, which resorted to issuing ever more debased coin e.g.

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of the late 2nd century, probably also smallpox, indicates a mortality of 15–30% in the empire as a whole. Zosimus describes the Cyprianic outbreak as even worse. The armies and, by extension, the frontier provinces where they were based (and mainly recruited), would likely have suffered deaths at

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Scholarly estimates of the size of the 4th-century army diverge widely, ranging from ca. 400,000 to over one million effectives (i.e. from roughly the same size as the 2nd-century army to 2 or 3 times larger). This is due to fragmentary evidence, unlike the much better-documented 2nd-century army.

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was in order to escape pressure from their neighbours. The few known conflicts of loyalty only arose when the Roman army was campaigning against a barbarian-born soldier's own specific clan. Ammianus himself never characterises barbarian-born troops as unreliable. On the contrary, his evidence is

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The supposedly higher status of cavalry in the 4th century is also open to doubt. This view is largely based on underestimating the importance of cavalry in the 2nd century. Cavalry always had higher status than infantry in the Principate: in the time of Domitian (r. 81–96), auxiliary cavalry was

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A traditional thesis is that cavalry assumed a much greater importance in the 4th-century army than it enjoyed in the 2nd century. According to this view, cavalry increased significantly as a proportion of the total forces and took over the leading tactical role from the infantry. It also enjoyed

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The late army's "defence" posture thus contains many elements that are similar to that of the army of the Principate, raising the question of whether defence-in-depth was ever in reality contemplated (or implemented) as a strategy. But the debate about defence-in-depth is still very much alive in

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Late Roman emperors continued major and frequent offensive operations beyond the imperial borders throughout the 4th century. These were strikingly similar to the pincer movements described by Luttwak as being characteristic of forward defence in the early Principate. For example, Valentinian I's

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could operate year-round, except during periods when the rivers were ice-bound or of high water (after heavy rains or thaw), when the river-current was dangerously strong. It is likely that the establishment of the empire's frontier on the Rhine-Danube line was dictated by the logistical need for

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sheathing. A possible explanation is that most of the surviving exemplars may have belonged to officers and that silver- or gold-plating denoted rank; and, in the case of mounted gemstones, high rank. Other academics, in contrast, consider that silver-sheathed helmets may have been widely worn by

3553:

The widespread use of conscription, the compulsory recruitment of soldiers' sons, the relaxation of age and height requirements and the branding of recruits all add up to a picture of an army that had severe difficulties in finding, and retaining, sufficient recruits. Recruitment difficulties are

1290:

to enforce his claim. Diocletian himself lived (in retirement) to see his successors fight each other for power. But the division of the empire into Eastern and Western halves, recognising both geographical and cultural realities, proved enduring: it was mostly retained during the 4th century and

1090:

existence. This in turn discouraged volunteers and forced the government to rely on conscription and large-scale recruitment of barbarians into the regular army because of the shortfalls caused by the plague. By the mid-4th century, barbarian-born men probably accounted for about a quarter of all

5626:

But the validity of Luttwak's thesis has been strongly contested by a number of scholars, especially in a powerful critique by B. Isaac, the author of a leading study of the Roman army in the East (1992). Isaac claims that the empire did not have the intelligence capacity or centralised military

5571:

The question arises as to why the 4th-century army needed forts with enhanced defensive features whereas the 2nd-century army apparently did not. Luttwak argues that defensible forts were an integral feature of a 4th-century defence-in-depth "grand strategy", while in the 2nd century "preclusive

5264:

A critical advantage enjoyed by the late army over all its foreign enemies except the Persians was a highly sophisticated organisation to ensure that the army was properly equipped and supplied on campaign. Like their enemies, the late army could rely on foraging for supplies when campaigning on

4960:

It is possible that Vegetius' statements about the abandonment of armour were a misinterpretation by him of sources mentioning Roman soldiers fighting without armour in more open formations during the Gothic wars of the 370s. Evidence that armour continued to be worn by Roman soldiers, including

3454:

was also the name of a regular infantry unit). They served alongside the regular army for the duration of particular campaigns or for a specified period. Normally their service would be limited to the region where the tribe lived, but sometimes could be deployed elsewhere. They were commanded by

1430:

in 312, Constantine disbanded the Praetorian Guard, ending the latter's 300-year existence. Although the instant reason was the Guard's support for his rival Maxentius, a force based in Rome had also become obsolete since emperors now rarely resided there. The imperial escort role of the Guard's

354:

strategy or continued the same posture of "forward defence" as in the early Principate. Many elements of the late army's defence posture were similar to those associated with forward defence, such as forward location of forts, frequent cross-border operations, and external buffer-zones of allied

5650:

were not established before 312, by which time there had not been a successful barbarian invasion for c. 40 years. Also Luttwak himself admits that they were too distant from the frontier to be of much value in intercepting barbarian incursions. Their arrival in theatre could take weeks, if not

5638:

or in the archaeological record, that units along the Rhine or Danube were stationed in the border hinterlands. On the contrary, virtually all forts identified as built or occupied in the 4th century on the Danube lay on, very near or even beyond the river, strikingly similar to the 2nd-century

5455:

at Constantinople, built 408–413, to increase the area of land protected by the original Constantinian walls. Note the massive crenellated towers and surviving sections of wall. The walls actually consisted of a triple curtain, each one overlooking the other. They proved impregnable to even the

3704:

If the proportion of barbarians was in the region of 25%, then it is probably much higher than in the 2nd-century regular army. If the same proportion had been recruited into the auxilia of the 2nd-century army, then in excess of 40% of recruits would have been barbarian-born, since the auxilia

3512:

in the period 350–476 shows that in the Western army, the Illyricum and Gaul dioceses together provided 52% of total recruits. Overall, the Danubian regions provided nearly half of the whole army's recruits, despite containing only three of the 12 dioceses. This picture is much in line with the

5984:

infantry regiments, the proportion of barbarians in the ranks appears to have numbered anywhere between a third and a half of effectives (compared to a quarter in the army as a whole). From the late 3rd century onwards, barbarian recruitment became crucial to the army's continued existence, by

5524:). These would have flat floors rather than the traditional V-shape. Such ditches would make it difficult to bring siege equipment (ladders, rams, and other engines) to the walls. It would also concentrate attackers in an enclosed area where they would be exposed to missile fire from the walls. 1864:

Agathias' and Zosimus' figures, if they have any validity at all, may represent the official, as opposed to actual, strength of the Constantinian army. In reality, the slim evidence is that late units were often severely under-strength, perhaps only about two-thirds of official. Thus Agathias'

1260:

made wide-ranging administrative, economic and military reforms that were aimed at providing the military with adequate manpower, supplies and military infrastructure. In the words of one historian, "Diocletian ... turned the entire empire into a regimented logistic base" (to supply the army).

1115:

after the Gauls sacked Rome 650 years earlier, they symbolised the pervasive insecurity of the 3rd-century empire. Original height: 8m (25 ft). Doubled in 410 to 16m (52 ft) after Gothic sack of Rome in 410. Both walls and towers were originally crenellated, but this has survived only in small

954:

The 3rd century saw a progressive reduction in the size of the legions and even some auxiliary units. Legions were broken up into smaller units, as evidenced by the shrinkage and eventual abandonment of their traditional large bases, documented for example in Britain. In addition, from the 2nd

333:

The role of cavalry in the late army does not appear to have been greatly enhanced as compared with the army of the Principate. The evidence is that cavalry was much the same proportion of overall army numbers as in the 2nd century and that its tactical role and prestige remained similar.

5959:

in 405. In any case, the Eastern empire did not collapse, even though its army probably contained at least the same proportion of barbarians as the West, if not greater. An analysis of the ethnicity of Roman army officers named in the sources shows that in the period 350–99, 23% were probably

5786:

The view of some modern scholars that the 4th-century cavalry was a more efficient service than the infantry was certainly not shared by Ammianus and his contemporaries. Ammianus describes three major battles which were actually or nearly lost due to the incompetence or cowardice of the Roman

3700:

Quantification of the proportion of barbarian-born troops in the 4th-century army is highly speculative. Elton has undertaken the most detailed analysis of the meagre evidence. According to this analysis, about a quarter of the sample of army officers was barbarian-born in the period 350–400.

1314:

Also to this end, and to provide more professional military leadership, Diocletian separated military from civil command at the lowest, provincial level. Governors of provinces on the frontiers were stripped of command of the troops stationed there in favour of purely military officers called

3574:

units were typically one-third understrength. The massive disparity between official and actual strength is powerful evidence of recruitment problems. Against this, Elton argues that the late army did not have serious recruitment problems, on the basis of the large numbers of exemptions from

1500:

as a strategic reserve which could be deployed against major barbarian invasions that succeeded in penetrating deep into the empire or as the core of large expeditionary forces sent across the borders. But more recent scholarship has viewed its primary function as insurance against potential

5873:

In the late army, while the role of archers and cavalry remained similar, the infantry's tactics were less aggressive, relying less on the charge and often waiting for the enemy to charge. During the battle, the Roman line would exert steady pressure in close formation. The thrusting-spear

3665:

The emergence of significant numbers of senior officers with barbarian names in the regular army, and eventually in the high command itself. In the early 5th century, the Western Roman forces were often controlled by barbarian-born generals or generals with some barbarian ancestry, such as

3601:

as they are here detailed to guard the emperor (left). More than third of soldiers in the palatini were barbarian-born by this time. Note the necklaces with regimental pendants and the long hair, a style imported by barbarian recruits, in contrast to the short hair that was the norm in the

5614:

The essential feature of defence-in-depth, according to Luttwak, was an acceptance that the Roman frontier provinces themselves would become the main combat-zone in operations against barbarian threats, rather than the barbarian lands across the border. Under this strategy, border-forces

5527:

Higher (av. 9 m) and thicker (av. 3 m) walls. Walls were made of stone or stone facing with rubble core. The greater thickness would protect the wall from enemy mining. The height of the walls would force attackers to use scaling-ladders. The parapet of the rampart would have

4994:

plate armour, which afforded no protection for the arms or below the hips, some pictorial and sculptural representations of Late Roman soldiers show mail or scale armours giving more extensive protection. These armours had full-length sleeves and were long enough to protect the thighs.

5568:

equipment. The forts could store sufficient supplies to enable the defenders to hold out for a few weeks, and to supply relieving troops. They could also act as bases from which defenders could make sorties against isolated groups of barbarians and to cooperate with relieving forces.

4767:

It is unknown what proportion of the corps commanders had risen from the ranks, but it is likely to have been small as most rankers would be nearing retirement age by the time they were given command of a regiment and would be promoted no further. In contrast, directly commissioned

4935:

was impenetrable to most direct and missile strikes. It was, however, uncomfortable: reenactors have discovered that chafing renders it painful to wear for longer than a few hours at a time, and it was also expensive to produce and difficult to maintain. In the 3rd century, the

1294:

Diocletian reformed the provincial administration, establishing a three-tiered provincial hierarchy, in place of the previous single-tier structure. The original 42 provinces of the Principate were almost tripled in number to c. 120. These were grouped into 12 divisions called

808:(former chief centurions). In the 3rd century, only 10% of auxiliary prefects whose origins are known were Italian equestrians, compared to the majority in the previous two centuries. At the same time, equestrians increasingly replaced the senatorial order in the top commands. 5992:

has argued that the cause of the fall of the Roman Empire in the West should not be blamed on barbarization of the late Roman Army, but on its recurrent civil wars, which seriously weakened its ability to repel or defeat invasions from outside its frontiers. The East Roman or

3238:

in the early 2nd century. Although Roman cataphracts were not new, they were far more numerous in the late army, with most regiments stationed in the East. However, several of the regiments placed in the Eastern army had Gaulish names, indicating an ultimately Western origin.

5265:

enemy soil. But this was obviously undesirable on Roman territory and impractical in winter, or in spring before the harvest. The empire's complex supply organisation enabled the army to campaign in all seasons and in areas where the enemy employed a "scorched earth" policy.

4884:) and laced boots were commonly worn in winter from the 1st century. During the 3rd century, these items of clothing became much more widespread, apparently common in Mediterranean provinces also. However, it is likely that in warmer weather, trousers were dispensed with and 3199:, c. 3.65 m (12 ft) long, that was held in both hands. Some also carried bows. The central tactic of cataphracts was the shock charge, which aimed to break the enemy line by concentrating overwhelming force on a defined section of it. A type of cataphract called a 3102:

frontier legions resisted the Persians with great skill and tenacity. Elton suggests that the lack of mention in the sources of barbarian incursions less than 400-strong implies that such were routinely dealt with by the border forces without the need of assistance from the

650:(chief centurion) of each legion to equestrian rank on completion of his year in office. This resulted in some 30 career soldiers, mostly non-Italian and risen from the ranks, joining the aristocracy each year. Far less wealthy than their Italian counterparts, many such 1869:, of 389,704 (excluding fleets) for the army of Diocletian. Lydus' figure is accorded greater credibility than Agathias' by scholars because of its precision (implying that it was found in an official document) and the fact that it is ascribed to a specific time period. 5811:

was still trying to negotiate a truce with the Goths. The attack failed, and when the Gothic cavalry appeared, the Roman cavalry fled, leaving the Roman infantry left wing exposed. The Gothic cavalry then routed the Roman left wing, and the battle was as good as lost.

5119:, a short (median length: 460 mm/18 inches) stabbing-sword that was designed for close-quarters fighting, and was standard for the infantry of the Principate (both legionary and auxiliary), also was phased out during the 3rd century. The infantry adopted the 3529:

hints that in the very late Empire (ca. AD 400) even this height requirement may have been relaxed, for "... if necessity demands, it is right to take account not so much of stature as of strength. Even Homer himself is not wanting as a witness, since he records that

1764:

in widely divergent estimates of the Late Army's strength, ranging from c. 400,000 (much the same as in the 2nd century) to well in excess of one million. However, mainstream scholarship is divided between a "low count" of c. 400,000 and a higher count of c. 600,000.

1311:(not be confused with the commanders of the Praetorian Guard, who held the same title). The aim of this fragmentation of provincial administration was probably to reduce the possibility of military rebellion by governors (by reducing the forces they each controlled). 5294:

Such vast cargoes would be carried by boat as far as possible, by sea and/or river, and only the shortest possible distance overland. That is because transport on water was far more economical than on land (as it remains today, although the differential is smaller).

4111:

The table shows that the pay differentials enjoyed by the senior officers of a 4th-century regiment were much smaller than those of their 2nd-century counterparts, a position in line with the smaller remuneration enjoyed by 4th-century high administrative officials.

3940:, etc.), ranks with quite different names are attested, seemingly modelled on the titles of local authority bureaucrats. So little is known about these ranks that it is impossible to equate them with the traditional ranks with any certainty. Vegetius states that the 1623:(c. 400), there were 6 in the West and 3 in the East. These corresponded to the border dioceses of, in the West: Britannia, Tres Galliae, Illyricum (West), Africa and Hispaniae; and in the East: Illyricum (East), Thraciae and Oriens, respectively. Thus, the regional 4828:(312). The image proves that 4th-century soldiers wore metal body armour (the Maxentian soldiers are wearing either mail or scale, it is unclear which). The Constantinian cavalry is apparently unarmoured, probably because these were units of Illyrian light cavalry ( 5006:

cavalry, from limited pictorial evidence and especially from the description of these troops by Ammianus, may have worn specialised forms of armour. In particular their limbs were protected by laminated defences, made up of curved and overlapping metal segments:

2765:

infantry regiments, originally formed by Constantine. The evidence is contradictory, suggesting that these units could have been either c. 500 or c. 1,000 strong, or somewhere in between. If the higher figure were true, then there would be little to distinguish

5917:(military cloak) over his tunic and carrying a heavy thrusting-spear and oval shield. He was made a scapegoat for the barbarian invasions of 405–6, although in reality his military skill may have saved the West from early collapse. Derived (1848) from an ivory 3537:

Once a recruit was accepted he was 'marked' on the arm, presumably a tattoo or brand, to facilitate recognition if he attempted to desert. The recruit was then issued with an identification disk (which was worn around the neck) and a certificate of enlistment

5539:

Gate towers, one on each side of the gate and projecting out from the gate to allow defenders to shoot into the area in front of the entrance. The gates themselves were normally wooden with metal covering plates to prevent destruction by fire. Some gates had

349:

The 3rd and 4th centuries saw the upgrading of many existing border forts to make them more defensible, as well as the construction of new forts with stronger defenses. The interpretation of this trend has fuelled an ongoing debate whether the army adopted a

5893:. The battle was primarily a struggle of attrition where steady pressure on the barbarians resulted in their eventual rout. Despite a long and hard-fought struggle, Roman casualties were negligible in comparison to the losses sustained by the defeated army. 1355:

1,000 men, compared to the establishment of c. 5,500 in the Principate i.e. the new legions may have increased overall legionary numbers by only c. 15%. Even so, scholars generally agree that Diocletian increased army numbers substantially, by at least 33%.

5743:

much higher status than in the 2nd century. At the same time, the infantry declined in efficiency and value in operations, leaving the cavalry as the effective arm. In fact, there is no good evidence to support this view, and plenty of evidence against it.

5623:) to arrive and intercept the invaders. Border-forces would be substantially weaker than under forward defence, but their reduction in numbers (and quality) would be compensated by the establishment of much stronger fortifications to protect themselves. 1181:

The depopulation was thus a serious threat to army recruitment and supply. In response, the Danubian Junta pursued an aggressive policy of resettling defeated barbarian tribesmen on imperial territory on a massive scale. Aurelian moved a large number of

5062:, in England, is of the Berkasovo method of construction, but has cheekpieces with earholes. Face-guards of mail or in the form of metal 'anthropomorphic masks' with eye-holes were often added to the helmets of the heaviest forms of cavalry, especially 3620:

were recruited throughout the Principate by the auxilia (the legions were closed to non-citizens). However, there is little evidence of this before the 3rd century. The scant evidence suggests that the vast majority, if not all, of auxilia were Roman

2452:

The troops of the field armies and of the border armies had different arrangements for their accommodation. The troops of the field armies were often billeted on the civilian population, while the troops of the border armies had permanent bases.

5845:

to win such encounters. The late army continued to win the great majority of its battles with barbarians. Rather, the primary concern seemed to be the need to minimise casualties. Pitched battles generally resulted in heavy losses of high-grade

760:

dating to c. 250 AD. The centre shows unarmoured light cavalry charging with lances, the foreground and background show infantry fighting with spathae (long-bladed swords); they are equipped with knee-length scale armours, some with full-length

3613:") was the generic term used by the Romans to denote peoples resident beyond the borders of the empire, and best translates as "foreigners" (it is derived from a Greek word meaning "to babble": a reference to their incomprehensible languages). 3516:

Prospective recruits had to undergo an examination. Recruits had to be 20–25 years of age, a range that was extended to 19–35 in the later 4th century. Recruits had to be physically fit and meet the traditional minimum height requirement of 6

524:, the Roman term for peoples living outside the empire's borders. At this time both legions and auxilia were almost all based in frontier provinces. The only substantial military force at the immediate disposal of the emperor was the elite 403:

as regards army and unit strength or units in existence, as he is rarely specific about either. The third major source for the late army is the corpus of imperial decrees published in the East Roman empire in the 5th and 6th centuries: the

1872:

Excavation evidence from all the imperial borders which suggests that late forts were designed to accommodate much smaller garrisons than their predecessors from the Principate. Where such sites can be identified with forts listed in the

1516:

lost their field commands and became purely administrative officials. However, they retained a central role in military affairs, as they remained responsible for military recruitment, pay and, above all, supply. It is unclear whether the

709:

Reenactor wearing the typical equipment of a late 3rd-century foot soldier. The helmet is a Niederbieber type, with cross-pattern reinforcing ridges on the top of the bowl, and cheek-guards which can be fastened together. The sword is a

2527:

The changes to unit structure in the 4th century were reduction of unit sizes and increase in unit numbers, establishment of new unit types and establishment of a hierarchy of units more complex than the old one of legions and auxilia.

4470:, a minority, again mainly the sons of high-ranking serving officers, were directly commissioned outsiders. The status of regimental commanders varied enormously depending on the grade of their unit. At the top end, some commanders of 1837:

Treadgold's estimates are based on figures for Constantine's army provided by Zosimus, who has been criticized by scholars as an unreliable chronicler, both in general and as regards figures in particular: e.g. he reports that 60,000

1383:

In parallel with restoring the size of the army, Diocletian's efforts and resources were focused on a massive upgrading of the defensive infrastructure along all the empire's borders, including new forts and strategic military roads.

1830:

The assumption that John of Lydus' figure of 390,000 for the Diocletian's army refers to the beginning of that emperor's reign is dubious as it would seem more natural for the chronicler to report the army's peak strength under that

1269:

Diocletian's administrative reforms had the twin aims of ensuring political stability and providing the bureaucratic infrastructure needed to raise the recruits and supplies needed by the army. At the top, Diocletian instituted the

279:

from outside the empire probably supplied a much larger proportion of the late army's recruits than in the army of the 1st and 2nd centuries, but there is little evidence that this adversely affected the army's combat performance.

1822:

The conclusion that the army's size remained constant between 235 and 285 appears implausible, as this period saw the Third Century Crisis, during which the army's recruitment capacity was severely diminished by the impact of the

1724:

75,000 men. If one accepts that the army at the time numbered about 350,000 men, the escort armies still contained 20–25% of the total effectives. Regiments which remained with the escort armies were, not later than 365, denoted

291:, military commands were separated from administrative governorships for the first time, in contrast to the Principate, where provincial governors were also commanders-in-chief of all military forces deployed in their provinces. 2732:

regiments, as can be seen by the wide ranges of the size estimates. It is also possible, if not likely, that unit strengths changed over the course of the 4th century. For example, it appears that Valentinian I split about 150

5053:

designs, were replaced by new forms derived from helmets developed in the Sassanid Empire. The new helmet types were characterised by a skull constructed from multiple elements united by a medial ridge, and are referred to as

1776:, gives a global total of 645,000 effectives for the army "in the old days", presumed to mean at its peak under Constantine I. This figure probably includes fleets, leaving a total of c. 600,000 for the army alone. Figures in 208:(deputy emperors). Note the woollen "Pannonian" caps commonly worn (out of combat) by officers in the late army as a result of the pervasive influence of the Danubian officer class; and the sword grips with eagle-head pommels. 3625:(second-class citizens) or Roman citizens. In any case, the 4th-century army was probably much more dependent on barbarian recruitment than its 1st/2nd-century predecessor. The evidence for this may be summarised as follows: 803:

The traditional alternation between senior civilian and military posts fell into disuse in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, as the Italian hereditary aristocracy was progressively replaced in the senior echelons of the army by the

5746:

As regards numbers, the mid-2nd-century army contained c. 80,000 cavalry out of c. 385,000 total effectives i.e. cavalry constituted c. 21% of the total forces. For the late army, about one third of the army units in the

5611:

barbarian force that successfully penetrated the perimeter defences would have unchallenged ability to rampage deep into the empire before Roman reinforcements from other border garrisons could arrive to intercept them.

3705:

constituted 60% of the regular land army. There is no evidence that recruitment of barbarians was on such a large scale in the 2nd century. An analysis of named soldiers of non-Roman origin shows that 75% were Germanic:

1889:

was housed in a fort only 10% the size of its old Trajanic fort, suggesting that it numbered only around 50 men. The evidence must be treated with caution as identification of archaeological sites with placenames in the

373:

is that it lacks any personnel figures, so as to render estimates of army size impossible. Also, it was compiled at the very end of the 4th century; it is thus difficult to reconstruct the position earlier. However, the

346:. During the later 4th century, the cavalry acquired a reputation for incompetence and cowardice for their role in three major battles. In contrast, the infantry retained its traditional reputation for excellence. 8709:

book 1, sections 2 and 8, book 3, section 1, book 12B, section 5. Although this covers a later period, going by George Dennis's translation, most horse archers did not carry shields, and the foot archers carried small

2147:

if it did not, the escort army alone was often sufficient to defeat them. Their secondary role was to accompany the emperor on major campaigns such as a foreign war or to repel a large barbarian invasion. The diocesan

3229:

in the 1st century BC and later by the Romans, who needed it to counter Parthians in the East and the Sarmatians along the Danube. The first regiment of Roman cataphracts to appear in the archaeological record is the

5073:

Despite the apparent cheapness of manufacture of their basic components, many surviving examples of Late Roman helmets, including the Intercisa type, show evidence of expensive decoration in the form of silver or

4389:

were supposed to be soldiers who had risen through the ranks by meritorious service, it became a widespread practice to admit to the corps young men from outside the army (often the sons of senior officers). The

5861:) followed by an infantry charge, which was often sufficient to shatter, or at least disorganise, the barbarian line. After that, legionaries were trained to engage in aggressive hand-to-hand combat, using the 2737:

units with his brother and co-emperor Valens. The resulting units may have been just half the strength of the parent units (unless a major recruitment drive was held to bring them all up to original strength).

1339:. In addition, Diocletian completed the exclusion of the senatorial class, still dominated by the Italian aristocracy, from all senior military commands and from all top administrative posts except in Italy. 5831:

for a detailed account). Even at the disaster of Adrianople, the Roman infantry fought on, despite being abandoned by their cavalry and surrounded on three sides by overwhelmingly superior numbers of Goths.

3558:) was more strictly regulated. While in the 2nd century, a soldier's leave was granted at the discretion of his regimental commander, in the 4th century, leave could only be granted by a far senior officer ( 399:, whose surviving books cover the period 353 to 378. Marcellinus, himself a veteran soldier, is regarded by scholars as a reliable and valuable source, but he largely fails to remedy the deficiencies of the 3681:

The adoption by the 4th-century army of barbarian (especially Germanic) dress, customs and culture, suggesting enhanced barbarian influence. For example, Roman army units adopted mock barbarian names e.g.

5097:, a convex rectangular shield, also disappeared during the 3rd century. All troops except archers adopted large, wide, usually dished, ovoid (or sometimes round) shields. These shields were still called 5827:

units as skilful and tenacious, if ultimately unsuccessful. At Strasbourg (357), the infantry showed remarkable skill, discipline and resilience throughout, saving the day at two critical moments.(see

5513:, despite the latter disposing of c. 8,000 Roman-trained and equipped auxiliary troops and deploying Roman-style siege engines. (The Romans were eventually forced to surrender the fort by starvation). 1363:

Diocletian's primary concern was to place the provision of food supplies to the army on a rational and sustainable basis. To this end, the emperor put an end to the arbitrary exaction of food levies (

4876:). This attire, which left the arms and legs bare, had evolved in a Mediterranean climate and was not suitable for northern Europe in cold weather. In northern Europe, long-sleeved tunics, trousers ( 3024:

Infantry units mostly fought in close order as did their forebears from the Principate. Infantry equipment was broadly similar to that of auxiliaries in the 2nd century, with some modifications (see

2358:(abbreviation: MVM, literally "master of both services", i.e. of both cavalry and infantry). This officer was in direct command of the single but large western imperial escort army based near Milan. 1595:, divided the empire between them, ruling the West (Gaul, Britain and Spain), the Centre (Italy, Africa and the Balkans), and the East respectively. They also each received a share of their father's 947:. But neither title implies the existence of an independent "cavalry army", as was suggested by some more dated scholars. The cavalry under both officers were integral to mixed infantry and cavalry 1788:(1964), which contains the fundamental study of the late Roman army, calculated a similar total of 600,000 (exc. fleets) by applying his own estimates of unit-strengths to the units listed in the 5125:, a longer (median length: 760 mm/30 in) sword that during the earlier centuries was used by the cavalry only. In addition, Vegetius mentions the use of a shorter-bladed sword termed a 4499:(lit. "Companion of the First Rank", which carried senatorial rank), retained any value beyond AD 450, the others having been cheapened by excessive grants. In many cases, the title was granted 3336:. It is unclear from the context whether any of these were independent units, specialist sub-units, or indeed just detachments of ordinary troops specially armed for a particular operation. The 697:

81–96), when over half the Roman army was deployed in the Danubian regions, the Illyrian and Thracian provinces became the most important recruiting ground of the auxilia and later the legions.

5850:

attacks, harassment and manoeuvres to corner the enemy in zones where they could not access supplies and from which they could not escape (e.g. by blocking mountain passes or river crossings).

3213:

is simply an alternative term to cataphract, or it may have been a special type of cataphract. This type of cavalry had been developed by the Iranian horse-based nomadic tribes of the Eurasian

2483:, were based in cities when not on campaign, and could be based in temporary camps when on campaign. But it seems that did not usually occupy purpose-built accommodation like the city-based 1575:

was drawn from existing frontier units. This drawdown of large numbers of the best units inevitably increased the risk of successful large-scale barbarian breaches of the frontier defences.

646:

By the late 1st century, a distinct equestrian group, non-Italian and military in character, became established. This was a result of the established custom whereby the emperor elevated the

5308:), with a maximum legal load of 1,500 lbs (680 kg), drawn by two pairs of oxen. The payload capacity of most Roman freighter-ships of the period was in the range of 10,000–20,000 5631:. In any case, claims Isaac, the empire was not interested in "defence" at all: it was fundamentally aggressive both in ideology and military posture, up to and including the 4th century. 5980:

An indication of the army's high esteem for barbarian-born troops is that they appear to have been preferentially recruited to the elite units of the late imperial era's armies. In the

2456:

Most border units were based in forts as were their predecessors, the legions and auxiliary units of the Principate; in many cases they were based in the same forts. Some of the larger

2131:). These were ordinarily based near the imperial capitals (Milan in the West, Constantinople in the East), but usually accompanied the emperors on campaign. (b) Diocesan field armies ( 1231:

turn bred a feeling of alienation from the army among the Roman aristocracy which in the later 4th century began to resist the military's exorbitant demands for recruits and supplies.

414:(528–39). These compilations of Roman laws dating from the 4th century contain numerous imperial decrees relating to all aspects of the regulation and administration of the late army. 734:) shirt and oval shield. Clothing consisted of a long-sleeved tunic, trousers and boots. The equipment of a 4th-century infantryman was very similar to the 3rd century, save that the 469:(ruled 30 BC – 14 AD) and survived until the end of the 3rd century. The regular army consisted of two distinct corps, both being made up of mainly volunteer professionals. 433:

were no longer issued to retiring auxiliaries after 203 (most likely because almost all were already Roman citizens by then). In addition, there was a huge reduction in the number of

5902: 5634:

Furthermore, there is a lack of substantial archaeological or literary evidence to support the defence-in-depth theory. J.C. Mann points out that there is no evidence, either in the

1808:

unit of 80. Even allowing for the possibility that some of these units were detachments from larger units, it is likely that Diocletianic unit-strengths were far lower than earlier.

1218:

The Danubian emperors ruled the empire for over a century, until 379. Indeed, until 363, power was held by descendants of one of the original Junta members. Constantine I' s father,

3146:, probably meaning "furnace man" in reference to the heat that would build up inside such all-encompassing armour. Note the armoured caparison for the horse. From Taq-e Bostan, Iran 1834:

Treadgold's claim that Diocletian increased the army's numbers by over 50% is considered implausible by Heather, who points out that even 33% would have required a Herculean effort.

4776:

dominated the higher echelons, as they were usually young men when they started. For such men, promotion to corps command could be swift e.g. the future emperor Theodosius I was a

8491:

Die Zeit des Vegetius. Hermes 1876 vol.11 pp. 61–83. As quoted in Milner NP. Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science, second edition, Liverpool University Press, 1996. pp. xxxvii ff

3650:

lists a large number of units with barbarian names. This was probably the result of the transformation of irregular allied units serving under their own native officers (known as

1908:) at the end of the 2nd century. Furthermore, the evidence is that the actual strength of 2nd-century units was typically much closer to official (c. 85%) than 4th century units. 5195:

as their principal weapon. This was a sophisticated, compact and powerful weapon, suitable for mounted and foot archers alike. A small number of archers may have been armed with

506:

thus contained almost all the Roman army's cavalry and archers, as well as (from the late 1st century onwards) approximately the same number of foot soldiers as the legions. The

5509:

in 69–70 AD. 5,000 legionaries succeeded in holding out for several months against vastly superior numbers of rebel Batavi and their allies under the renegade auxiliary officer

1347:

To ensure the army received sufficient recruits, Diocletian appears to have instituted systematic annual conscription of Roman citizens for the first time since the days of the

5286:. An imperial escort army of 25,000 men would thus require around 5,000 tonnes of grain-equivalent for three months' campaigning (plus fodder for the horses and pack animals). 3455:

their own leaders. It is unclear whether they used their own weapons and armour or the standard equipment of the Roman army. In the late army, the more useful and long-serving

1865:

600,000 on paper may have been no more than c. 400,000 in reality. The latter figure accords well with the other global figure from ancient sources, by the 6th-century writer

5399:

outside military bases and staffed by civilians during the Principate (although their existence cannot be excluded, as no archaeological evidence has been found for the late

3861:). The late soldier's discharge package (which included a small plot of land) was also minuscule compared with a 2nd-century legionary's, worth just a tenth of the latter's. 4872:

In the 1st and 2nd centuries, a Roman soldier's clothes consisted of a single-piece, short-sleeved tunic, the hem of which reached the knees, and special hobnailed sandals (

3277:

A distinctive feature of the late army is the appearance of independent units of artillery, which during the Principate appears to have been integral to the legions. Called

2346:, who succeeded him in the West. After Stilicho's death in 408, a succession of weak emperors ensured that this position continued, under Stilicho's successors (especially 5083:

soldiers, given as a form of pay or reward. Roman law indicates that all helmets of this construction were supposed to be sheathed in a specific amount of gold or silver.

5714:

in 356–60 and Valentinian I in 368–74 carried out several operations across the Rhine and Danube designed to force the submission of local tribes and their acceptance of

5655:

are often described as "mobile field-armies", in this context "immobile" would be a more accurate description. Hence the mainstream modern view that the central role of

5147:(Roman military dagger), which is attested until the 3rd century. 4th-century graves have yielded short, single-edged knives in conjunction with military belt fittings. 2558:

The evidence for the strength of late army units is very fragmented and equivocal. The table below gives some recent estimates of unit strength, by unit type and grade:

4752:(lit. "Master of Soldiers in the Presence ") was accorded to the commanders of imperial escort armies (typically 20-30,000 strong). The title was equivalent in rank to 3262:

regiments also contained some archers. Mounted archers appear to have been exclusively in light cavalry units. Archer units, both foot and mounted, were present in the

1130:

and their descendants, came to dominate the army's senior officer echelons. Finally, the Danubian officer-class seized control of the state itself. In 268, the emperor

2818:, of which 5 were assigned to the Western emperor and 7 to the Eastern. These regiments of imperial escort cavalry would have totalled c. 6,000 men, compared to 2,000 1772:

The traditional view of scholars is that the 4th-century army was much larger than the 2nd-century army, in the region of double the size. The late 6th-century writer

967:

in Britain. This led to the proliferation of unit types in the 4th century, generally of smaller size than those of the Principate. For example, in the 2nd century, a

2969:. Again, these titles are probably purely traditional, and do not indicate different unit types or functions. 24% of regiments were unarmoured light cavalry, denoted 5799:

cavalry regiment was ordered to march with the camp followers for deserting the field just as the infantry was on the point of breaking the Persian line. (3) At the

2785:

numbered c. 1,000 men and that the other units contained in the region of 500 men each. Others draw on papyrus and more recent archaeological evidence to argue that

1811:

More recently, Treadgold (1995) has endorsed the "Large Late Army" position in a detailed examination of the Byzantine army's strength (1995). Treadgold argues that

429:

Scholars of the late army have to contend with a dramatic diminution of the epigraphic record in the 3rd and 4th centuries, compared with the 1st and 2nd centuries.

5381:

In the 4th century, the production of weapons and equipment was highly centralised (and presumably standardised) in a number of major state-run arms factories, or

1492:. This represented about a quarter of the total regular forces, if one accepts that the Constantinian army numbered around 400,000. The rationale for such a large 5751:

are cavalry, but in numbers cavalry were a smaller proportion of the total because cavalry units were on average smaller than infantry units. For example, in the

5395:

inside legionary bases and even in the much smaller auxiliary forts, staffed by the soldiers themselves. But there is no evidence, literary or archaeological, of

1488:

is uncertain. But Constantine mobilised 98,000 troops for his war against Maxentius, according to Zosimus. It is likely that most of these were retained for his

5516:

Nevertheless, later forts were undoubtedly built to much higher defensive specifications than their 2nd-century predecessors, including the following features:

3792:, was under Diocletian worth far less than in the 2nd century. It lost its residual value under Constantine and ceased to be paid regularly in mid-4th century. 6027: 4844:

Detail of bas-relief on base of former Column of Theodosius in Constantinople (Istanbul). Date c. 390. Roman soldiers in action. Note soldier at centre had an

1548:(infantry) respectively. It is unclear how the new-style units differed from the old-style ones, but those stationed on the border (as opposed to those in the 5857:

Where the late army appears to have evolved to some extent is in battle tactics. The older army of the Principate had relied on a barrage of heavy javelins (

476:

were large infantry formations, varying between 25 and 33 in number, of c. 5,500 men each (all infantry save a small cavalry arm of 120) which admitted only

1205:

and Sarmatians. Diocletian continued the policy, transferring in 297 huge numbers of Bastarnae, Sarmatians and Carpi (the entire latter tribe, according to

975:= "standard") was any detachment from a legion or auxiliary regiment, either cavalry or infantry. In the 4th century, it denoted an elite cavalry regiment. 5011:(Thin circles of iron plates, fitted to the curves of their bodies, completely covered their limbs). Such laminated defences are attested by a fragment of 3864:

Despite the disparity with the Principate, Jones and Elton argue that 4th-century remuneration was attractive compared to the hard reality of existence at

1448:

into a major and permanent force. This was achieved by the addition of units withdrawn from the frontier provinces and by creating new units: more cavalry

5734:

Late Roman cavalry officers (bottom right) in a hunting scene. In combat, most cavalrymen would, like infantry, wear a mail shirt and helmet. Mosaic from

5141:

These trends imply a greater emphasis on fighting the enemy "at arm's length". In the 4th century, there is no archaeological or artistic evidence of the

3658:) into regular formations. During the Principate, regular units with barbarian names are not attested until the 3rd century and even then rarely e.g. the 531:

The senior officers of the army were, until the 3rd century, mainly from the Italian aristocracy. This was divided into two orders, the senatorial order (

4860:

and weapons; the adoption by the infantry of equipment used by the cavalry in the earlier period; and the greater use of heavily armoured cavalry called

3140:

heavily armoured mounted warrior. He is wearing what is probably a chain-mail face-guard. This is possibly the kind of armour denoted by the Roman term

579:(provincial governor of a border province, who was commander-in-chief of the military forces deployed there as well as heading the civil administration) 1881:, created by Diocletian, which occupied a fort just one-seventh the size of a typical Principate legionary base, implying a strength of c. 750 men. At 842:

may have provided the army with more professional leadership, but it increased military rebellions by ambitious generals. The 3rd century saw numerous

486:

consisted of around 400 much smaller units of c. 500 men each (a minority were up to 1,000 strong), which were divided into approximately 100 cavalry

4706:

regiments only. Their title may be due to the fact that they reported, at the time to the Notitia, to the emperor direct (later they reported to the

2842:("natives"). These terms appear to have become purely honorific, although they may originally have denoted special equipment or ethnic composition ( 2499:

would change their winter quarters according to operational requirements. However, in the 5th century, emperors rarely campaigned in person, so the

2365:

commanders in the West: Gaul, Britannia, Illyricum (West), Africa, Tingitania and Hispania. In contrast to their eastern counterparts, who all held

4607: 5391:. It is unknown when these were first established, but they certainly existed by the time of Diocletian. In the 2nd century, there is evidence of 5347:

gives no information about the Rhine flotillas (as the Rhine frontier had collapsed by the time the Western section was compiled), but mentions 4

2328:

The western structure differs substantially from the eastern. In the West, after 395, the emperor was no longer in direct command of his diocesan

1351:. In addition, he was probably responsible for the decree, first recorded in 313, compelling the sons of serving soldiers and veterans to enlist. 955:

century onwards, the separation of some detachments from their parent units became permanent in some cases, establishing new unit types, e.g. the

5960:

barbarian-born. The same figure for period 449–76 officers, virtually all Easterners (as the Western army had largely dissolved) was 31%. In the

1169:

of a vast Gothic army by Claudius II, which was so crushing that the Goths did not seriously threaten the empire again until a century later at

4972:(arms factories) were producing mail armour at the end of the 4th century. The Vatican Virgil manuscript, early 5th century, and the Column of 5674:

refrain from raiding imperial territory, and prevent neighbouring tribes from doing the same. Although the allies would officially be denoted

1367:) for the army, whose burden fell mainly on border provinces and which had ruined them economically. He instituted a system of regular annual 10070: 9677: 5823:, is a recurrent feature of Ammianus' history. At the Persian siege of Amida, Ammianus' eye-witness account describes the city's defence by 7808: 851:

Emperors responded to the increased insecurity with a steady build-up of the forces at their immediate disposal. These became known as the

10075: 9685: 2325:

does not accurately represent the western army structure as it stood in 395 (for which the eastern structure is probably a better guide).

4364:) and trousers. The pattern on the shield indicated the bearer's regiment. Note the bands embroidered on the sleeves and shoulders. From 3508:

provinces along the Rhine) and the Danubian provinces, with other regions presumably often commuted. An analysis of the known origins of

988:(allied troops under a military obligation to Rome) converted into regular units, a trend that was to accelerate in the 4th century. The 8504: 1004:

in c. 175. There is no evidence of irregular barbarian units becoming part of the regular army of the Principate until the 3rd century.

5763:. Overall, the available evidence suggests that the proportion of cavalry was much the same as in the 2nd century. Examples: in 478, a 5383: 3446:

In the 4th century, as during the Principate, these forces were organised into ill-defined units based on a single ethnic group called

5686:

in Romania. Garrisoned by a mix of Roman and native troops, their purpose was to protect Dacian and Sarmatian tributary tribes of the

5039:

Late Roman helmet, called the Deurne helmet. It is covered in expensive silver-gilt sheathing and is inscribed to a cavalryman of the

3890:. There is little evidence about the pay differentials between grades. But that they were substantial is shown by the example that an 3837:

that ruled the West between 284 and 395 averaged about nine years per reign. Thus the accession donatives would have averaged about 1

855:("escort", from which derives the English word "committee"). To the Praetorian Guard's 10,000 men, Septimius Severus added the legion 334:

However, the cavalry of the Late Roman army was endowed with greater numbers of specialised units, such as extra-heavy shock cavalry (

5670:

of Illyricum (East and West) are documented as wintering in Sirmium, which was the site of a major legionary base in the Principate.

1800:

on the frontiers at c. 3,000 men and other units at c. 500. But Duncan-Jones' revisions found frontier legions of around 500 men, an

5968:

between the constituent tribes and clans. Indeed, a primary reason why many tribal sub-groups surrendered to the Roman authorities (

865:

near Rome, it was the first legion to be stationed in Italy since Augustus. He doubled the size of the imperial escort cavalry, the

10085: 6043: 5943: 5619:) would not attempt to repel a large incursion. Instead, they would retreat into fortified strongholds and wait for mobile forces ( 5490:

centuries saw the fortification of many towns and cities including the City of Rome itself and its eastern sister, Constantinople.

5310: 978:

From the 3rd century are the first records of a small number of regular units bearing the names of barbarian tribes (as opposed to

5323:(i.e. the entire length of the Mediterranean – and a ways beyond – c. 5,000 km) than just 110 km (68 mi) overland. 3948:

may have been the equivalent of a centurion in the old-style units. Probably the most accurate comparison is by known pay levels:

9612:

Barlow, J.; Brennan, P. (2001). "Tribuni Scholarum Palatinarum c. A.D. 353-64: Ammianus Marcellinus and the Notitia Dignitatum".

5331:

large rivers to accommodate supply ships more than by defensibility. These rivers were dotted with purpose-built military docks (

3778:(cavalryman). Unlike his 2nd-century counterpart, the 4th-century soldier's food and equipment was not deducted from his salary ( 4394:

formed a corps that was both an officer training-school and pool of staff officers available to carry out special tasks for the

3496:(city council members) could not enlist. These rules were relaxed only in emergencies, as during the military crisis of 405–6 ( 887:

of cavalry. The trend for the emperor to gather round his person ever greater forces reached its peak in the 4th century under

9855: 9827: 9723: 9655: 5481:

Relief with the liberation of a besieged city; Western Roman Empire, early 5th century, Museum of Byzantine Art (inv. 4782),

1307:, to correspond to the areas of command assigned to the four Tetrarchs, who were each assisted by a chief-of-staff called a 9597: 9545:, Great Britain, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, paperback edition by Orion Books Ltd, London, 2010. Published in the U.S.A. as 5049:

In the late 3rd century a complete break in Roman helmet design occurred. Previous Roman helmet types, based ultimately on

4976:, reigned 395 to 408, both show armoured soldiers. Actual examples of quite large sections of mail have been recovered, at 4360:

origin, representing the universe and was commonly used by the Romans as a decorative motif. Note also the military cloak (

3868:

that most recruits' peasant families had to endure. Against that has to be set the clear unpopularity of military service.

4590:

The commanders of army corps, i.e. army groups composed of several regiments, were known as (in ascending order of rank):

1739:. Regiments were now classified in four grades, which denoted quality, prestige and pay. These were, in descending order, 1552:) may have been smaller, perhaps half the size. In sectors other than the Danube, old-style auxiliary regiments survived. 8500:

De Re Militari. Flavius Vegetius Renatus. Translated by Lieutenant John Clarke 1767. Etext version by Mads Brevik (2001)

4984:, within a late 4th-century context. Officers and some soldiers may have worn muscle cuirasses, together with decorative 9970: 5841:

late period. This section examines aspects of late tactics that differed significantly from tactics of the Principate.

5225:. The illustration includes: helmets, shields, mail coats, cuirasses and laminated limb defences, plus various weapons. 4848:-style helmet with iron crest (prob. indicating officer rank) and is wearing chain-mail or scale armour, evidence that 3522: 1780:

for the armies of contending emperors (including Constantine's) in 312 add up to a similar total of 581,000 soldiers.

714:(median blade length 900 mm/36 inches), used by the cavalry only in the 1st and 2nd centuries. This soldier carries a 10136: 9951: 9878: 9638: 5590: 2332:

chiefs, who instead reported to a military generalissimo (the late Roman equivalent to a pre-industrial-era Japanese

351: 3427:

in the East. The latter were forces supplied either by barbarian chiefs under their treaty of alliance with Rome or

1189:, removing the entire provincial population to Moesia, an act largely motivated by the same problem). His successor 1076:

the top end of the range, due to their close concentration of individuals and frequent movements across the empire.

4888:

worn instead of socks and boots. Late Roman clothing was often highly decorated, with woven or embroidered strips,

3526: 871: 369:, compiled c. 395–420, a manual of all late Roman public offices, military and civil. The main deficiency with the 152: 5407:

were located in border provinces and dioceses. Some were general manufacturers producing both armour and weapons (

5254: 2404:. However, this is out of line with the situation in the East and probably does not reflect the situation in 395. 1099: 8463:

Milner NP. Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science, second edition, Liverpool University Press, 1996. pp. xxxvii ff

3097:

of local farmers, of poor combat capability. This view is rejected by many modern scholars. The evidence is that

1603:

had become permanently based in these regions, one each in Gaul, Illyricum and the East. By the 360s, the border

1532:

In addition, Constantine appears to have reorganised the border forces along the Danube, replacing the old-style

5889:

This kind of combat was consistent with the aim of minimising casualties and its efficacy is illustrated by the

5775:

arm. This obliged the Romans to strengthen their own cavalry element, in particular by increasing the number of

1567:

already existed in Diocletian's time and because some new regiments were raised by Constantine for his expanded

1126: 7960: 4853: 4347: 4344:, lit: "solemn letter"). This was presented to the recipient by the emperor in person at a dedicated ceremony. 2781:

units, opinion is divided. Jones and Elton suggest from the scarce and ambiguous literary evidence that border

1635:. At this point, therefore, the parallel military/civil administrative structure may be summarised as follows: 181: 3459:

appear to have been absorbed into the regular late army, rapidly becoming indistinguishable from other units.

8592:

Symonds, Matthew (2015). "Fourth Century Fortlets in Britain: Sophisticated Systems or Desperate Measures?".

5807:

units started the battle by an unauthorised attack on the enemy wagon circle, at a moment when their emperor

3871:

However, pay would have been much more attractive in higher-grade units. The top of the pay pyramid were the

2247: 1091:

recruits (and over a third in elite regiments), likely a far higher share than in the 1st and 2nd centuries.

9927:"Sculca, *sculcator, exculcator and proculcator: the Scouts of the late Roman Army and a disputed Etymology" 5730: 5662:

Luttwak terminates his analysis at the end of Constantine's reign, before the establishment of the diocesan

5477: 2416:, the emperors' personal cavalry escort, lay outside the normal military chain of command. According to the 1441:. These elite cavalry regiments existed by the time of Constantine and may have been founded by Diocletian. 10131: 10010: 5955:

mid-5th century and continued to win most of its major encounters with barbarian forces e.g. the defeat of

4964:

The artistic record shows most late Roman soldiers wearing metal armour. For example, illustrations in the

4825: 4534:

commanders were routinely granted the title on appointment; (3) the commanders of a brigade of two twinned

3542:). He was then assigned to a unit. A law of 375 required those with superior fitness to be assigned to the 1701:

was a partial reversal of Constantine's policy and, in effect, a vindication of Zosimus' critique that the

1165:

The Junta reversed the military disasters of 251–71 with a string of victories, most notably the defeat at

575: 3583: 2434:, a senior civilian official. However, this was probably for administrative purposes only. On campaign, a 1619:(imperial escort army). The three regional armies became steadily more numerous until, by the time of the 10065: 10035: 7693: 5865:

short-sword to execute quick thrusts at the abdomen of their enemies, in a similar manner to more recent

4357: 3857:

was only a quarter of the disposable income of a 2nd-century legionary (which was the equivalent of c. 8

3667: 268: 9648:

The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare, vol. 2: Rome from the Late Republic to the Late Empire

7128:

Holder (2003) 120 (28 legions of 5,500 each: double-strength 1st cohorts introduced in late 1st century)

3492:

and persons in certain occupations such as bakers and innkeepers. In addition, provincial officials and

2814:, which shows the position at the end of the 4th century/early 5th century. At that time, there were 12 2151:, on the other hand, had the task of supporting the border forces of their diocese in major operations. 1327:

were given command of forces in a single province, but a few controlled more than one province e.g. the

654:

belonged to families that provided career soldiers for generations. Prominent among them were Romanised

9738: 7952: 2199:

High command structure of the West Roman army c. 410–425. Commands and army sizes based on data in the

683: 71: 5913:(commander-in-chief) of West Roman forces 395–408. The general is depicted without armour, wearing a 2168:

High command structure of the East Roman army c. AD 395. Commands and army sizes based on data in the

1031:(260), the most humiliating of the military disasters suffered by the empire in the late 3rd century. 10000: 3662:

attested in 3rd-century Britain, doubtless an offshoot of the Sarmatian horsemen posted there in 175.

3597: 3472:

During the Principate, it appears that most recruits, both legionary and auxiliary, were volunteers (

2883: 1727: 1138:

organised by a clique of Danubian senior officers, including his successors Claudius II Gothicus and

559: 434: 299: 294:

The main change in structure from the 2nd-century army was the establishment of large escort armies (

144: 114: 7526:

Data from: Duncan-Jones (1990) 105–17; Elton (1996) 89; Goldsworthy (2003) 206; Mattingly (2006) 239

4418:

would normally be granted a commission by the emperor and placed in command of a military regiment.

2947:(61%) remained of the traditional semi-armoured type, similar in equipment and tactical role to the 2354:), until the dissolution of the Western empire in 476. The generalissimo was generally known as the 2338:). This anomalous structure had arisen through the ascendancy of the half–Vandal military strongman 2142:

Types (a) and (b) are both frequently defined as "mobile field armies". This is because, unlike the

9571: 5683: 5335:). The protection of supply convoys on the rivers was the responsibility of the fluvial flotillas ( 4840: 1584: 1508:

Constantine I completed the separation of military commands from the administrative structure. The

3431:. Such forces were employed by the Romans throughout imperial history e.g. the battle scenes from 363:

Much of our evidence for 4th century army unit deployments is contained in a single document, the

9715: 5792: 5055: 4845: 4816: 3865: 3440: 3340:

evidence implies that, at least in some cases, Ammianus could be referring to independent units.

2251:, the highest military rank, who reported direct to the emperor. These contained units of mainly 2191:, as suggested by Jones and Elton. Locations given indicate usual winter quarters in this period. 1087: 767: 745: 378:

remains the central source on the late Army's structure due to the dearth of other evidence. The

7812: 5211: 2487:. From the legal evidence, it seems they were normally compulsorily billeted in private houses ( 1911:

Estimates of the strength of the Army through the imperial period may be summarised as follows:

10111: 10098: 8851: 5277:

of the operational sector. He in turn controlled a hierarchy of civilian authorities (diocesan

4035: 3688:= "horned ones", a reference to the German custom of attaching horns to their helmets, and the 3193:), and their horses were often armoured also. Cataphracts carried a long, heavy lance called a 3173: 1304: 1143: 612: 430: 311: 136: 67: 9899:

Twilight of Empire: The Roman Army from the Reign of Diocletian until the Battle of Adrianople

8594:

Roman Military Architecture on the Frontiers: Armies and Their Architecturue in Late Antiquity

4633:), and fluvial flotillas, deployed in a border province. Until the time of Constantine I, the 4495:

members of either (or of neither). It was divided into three grades, of which only the first,

3587:

Late Roman soldiers, probably barbarians, as depicted (back row) by bas-relief on the base of

2846:

were barbarian tribesmen admitted to the empire on a condition of military service). Only two

310:

in the West), thus far from the empire's borders. These armies' primary function was to deter

10118:

The largest (and oldest) Late Roman group in the UK, with members located around the country.

8501: 5997:

empire on the other hand had fewer civil wars to contend with in the years from 383-432 A.D.

4400: 3845:

per annum. It is also possible, but undocumented, that the accession bonus was paid for each

1615:, Constantius retained a force that accompanied him everywhere, which was from then called a 39: 4657:). However, they were entitled to correspond directly with the emperor, as various imperial 2951:

of the Principate and suitable for mêlée combat. These regiments carry a variety of titles:

2127:

The later 4th-century army contained three types of army group: (a) Imperial escort armies (

1247:(ruled 284–305), who launched wide-ranging reforms of the Roman army and government. Bronze 705: 9566: 6022: 5890: 5828: 5800: 5788: 5694:

plains against Gothic incursions. This created a Transdanubian buffer zone, extending from

5510: 5506: 1847: 1843: 1182: 1170: 1061: 1044: 620: 562:). Otherwise, usurpation attempts by provincial governors were few and swiftly suppressed. 410: 396: 384: 237: 148: 140: 59: 4780:

at age 28. It was also possible for rungs on the rank-ladder to be skipped. Commanders of

1331:. However, at higher echelons, military and administrative command remained united in the 271:. Unlike the army of the Principate, the army of the 4th century was heavily dependent on 8: 10141: 10026:

Woods, David (1996). "Subarmachius, Bacurius, and the Schola Scutariorum Sagittariorum".

9819: 9578: 6014: 5245:

province. It is based on the remains of one of five late Roman river boats discovered at

5177:). Late Roman infantrymen often carried half a dozen lead-weighted throwing-darts called 5041: 4833: 4820:

Frieze (bottom) showing Constantine I's cavalry driving Maxentius' troops into the River

3929: 2997:, on the other hand, seem to have been regiments first raised in the 3rd century. 15% of 2961: 2721: 2430: 2318:

regiments during the period 395-425. By 460, the western army had largely disintegrated.

1777: 1556: 1227: 1219: 260: 201: 8782:, although covering an earlier period, discusses the same constraint on pp. 137 and 139. 5447: 4852:'s claim that infantry dropped helmets and armour in the later 4th century is mistaken. 3320:("scouts"). At the same time, Ammianus describes light-armed troops with various terms: 3304:

lists a few units of presumably light infantry with names denoting specialist function:

1012: 902:

may have reached 100,000 men, perhaps a quarter of the army's total effective strength.

848:

and civil wars. Few 3rd-century emperors enjoyed long reigns or died of natural causes.

10047: 9591: 8020: 5989: 5470: 5357: 5221: 4682:(lit. "Companion for Military Affairs") was generally in command of a smaller diocesan 4410: 3738: 3622: 3550:

units). This compares with 25 years in both legions and auxilia during the Principate.

3432: 3413:

Outside the regular army were substantial numbers of allied forces, generally known as

3181:, meaning "covered all over"). They were covered from neck to foot by a combination of 3120: 2891: 2550: 2536: 2343: 2201: 2170: 2135:). These were based in strategic regions, on or near the frontiers. (c) Border armies ( 1627:

commander had become the military counterpart of the diocesan administrative head, the

1414: 1017: 980: 512: 365: 213: 173: 9583: 4542:. (Such twinned regiments would always operate and transfer together e.g. the legions 3799:, or cash bonuses handed out periodically by the emperors, as these were paid in gold 3171:

The late Roman army contained a significant number of heavily armoured cavalry called

1162:, a major legionary base in Moesia Superior) and/or had served in the same regiments. 10051: 9966: 9947: 9874: 9867: 9851: 9823: 9719: 9651: 9634: 7956: 5627:

planning to sustain a grand strategy e.g. there was no equivalent to a modern army's

5554: 5456:

largest armies until the introduction of explosive artillery in the later Middle Ages

4915: 3872: 3190: 3013:, which were suitable for the shock charge (all but one such squadrons are listed as 1877:, the implication is that the resident units were also smaller. Examples include the 1824: 1177: 1166: 1057: 997: 857: 809: 796: 783: 659: 482: 9815:

The Later Roman Empire, 284-602: A Social Economic and Administrative Survey. 2 vols

8477: 5964:, 55 Eastern regiments carry barbarian names, compared with 25 in the Western army. 5009:"Laminarum circuli tenues apti corporis flexibus ambiebant per omnia membra diducti" 4573: 4562:, might be granted the title. These officers were not equal in military rank with a 3163: 3089:. But the difference should not be exaggerated. Suggestions have been made that the 2195: 2164: 1158:

of Danubian officers who were born in the same provinces (several in the same city,

1060:

which began in 251 and was still raging in 270, when it claimed the life of Emperor

844: 164: 10039: 9617: 7159:

Assuming that auxilia would be expanded by the same amount as legions. J. C. Spaul

5906: 5711: 5679: 5628: 5452: 5411:) or just one of the two. Others were specialised in one or more of the following: 3546:. In the 4th century, the minimum length of service was 20 years (24 years in some 3521:(5 ft 10in, 178 cm) until 367, when it was reduced to 5 Roman feet and 3 3400: 3384:

army, they could form major elements of expeditionary armies. Notable employers of

3376: 2993: 2988: 2971: 2761: 1846:

in 357, an absurd inflation of the 6,000 reported by the contemporary and reliable

1419: 1190: 1028: 584: 541: 525: 241: 28: 9839:"The Army" in Cambridge Ancient History 2nd Ed Vol XIII (The Later Empire 337–425) 1904:

of the Principate probably reached a peak of nearly 450,000 (excluding fleets and

9813: 8855: 8508: 8425: 7697: 6038: 5735: 5603: 5300: 5093: 4927: 4365: 3803:(which were never debased), or in pure silver. There was a regular donative of 5 3226: 3186: 2545: 1274:. This divided the empire into two halves, East and West, each to be ruled by an 1239: 1206: 1072: 1001: 905:

The rule of Gallienus saw the appointment of a senior officer, with the title of

679: 671: 405: 245: 63: 2306:

regiments listed for 425, only 84 existed before 395; and many regiments in the

943:("master of horse"), which in Republican times had been held by the deputy to a 516:: provincial subjects of the empire who did not hold Roman citizenship, but the 314:, and they usually campaigned under the personal command of their emperors. The 10115: 10102: 9809: 5595: 5258: 4981: 4702:, in command of Egypt and Isauria. Exceptionally, these men were in command of 3805: 3592: 3396: 3364: 3003: 2984: 2347: 1592: 1348: 1155: 1104: 1036: 944: 862: 554: 418: 343: 303: 249: 9775:"The Army" in Cambridge Ancient History 2nd Ed Vol XI (The High Empire 70–192) 9650:, ed. P. Sabin, H. van Wees and L.M. Whitby (Cambridge University Press 2007) 5803:(378), the Roman cavalry was largely responsible for the catastrophic defeat. 4784:, who enjoyed direct access to the emperor, often reached the highest rank of 3841:

p.a. The late soldier's disposable income would thus have averaged at least 2

2744:

are believed to have numbered c. 500 on the basis of a 6th-century reference.

927:(cavalry contingents detached from the legions), plus Illyrian light cavalry ( 539:

and their sons and grandsons, and the more numerous (several thousand-strong)

10125: 5934: 5529: 5520:

Deeper (average: 3 m) and much wider (av. 10 m) perimeter ditches (

5192: 5131: 4941: 4921: 4462:

was used colloquially to denote the commander of any regiment. Although most

1712:, the imperial escort armies remained in existence, and in the period of the 1571:, as well as incorporating existing units. Nevertheless, the majority of his 1397: 1296: 888: 786:

to all free inhabitants of the empire, ending the second-class status of the

740: 730: 477: 327: 9911:: the senior regimental officers in the late Roman army and the rise of the 9678:

Roman Legionary, AD 284-337: The Age of Diocletian and Constantine the Great

5035: 3205:

also appears in the 4th-century record. This term may be derived from Greek

2789:

units probably averaged about half the Jones/Elton strength i.e. c. 500 for

2342:(395–408), who was appointed by Theodosius I as guardian of his infant son, 1894:

is often tentative and again, the units in question may be detachments (the

10090: 10071:

Roman Legionary AD 284-337: The Age of Diocletian and Constantine the Great

5541: 5059: 4694:

were mainly found in the West, because of the fragmentation of the western

3588: 3372: 3182: 2887: 2495:

accompanied their respective emperors on campaign, while even the regional

2234: 1781: 1474: 1112: 1082: 757: 536: 473: 445: 315: 272: 267:(30 BC – 284 AD) underwent a significant transformation as a result of the 233: 225: 118: 82: 9735:

Warfare and the Military The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine

9621: 5977:

that barbarian soldiers were as loyal, and fought as hard, as Roman ones.

5771:

of Gaul, 13–15,000 strong, contained an estimated 3,000 cavalry (20–23%).

752: 552:

combined military service with civilian posts, a career path known as the

9919:

The Late Roman Army in the Near East from Diocletian to the Arab Conquest

8746:

Goldsworthy (2000) 167; (2003) 205; Dennis, "Maurice's Strategikon," 139.

7809:"Foundations of Society (Origins of Feudalism) by Paul Vinogradoff, 1913" 6425: 5482: 5246: 5075: 5025: 4861: 4670: 4073: 3633:

lists a number of barbarian military settlements in the empire. Known as

3351: 2859: 2759:

c. 1,000 strong. The greatest uncertainty concerns the size of the crack

2290: 1032: 253: 9988:

Tomlin, R.S.O. (2000), 'The Legions of the Late Empire' in R.J. Brewer,

9631:

Roman Military Equipment From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, 2nd ed

5460: 2259:, in East Illyricum, Thraciae and Oriens dioceses, consisting mostly of 992:, based in Britain, was probably composed of some of the 5,500 captured 8488: 7184:

Goldsworthy (2003) 58: 9 cohorts of 480 men each plus German bodyguards

6033: 5956: 5560:

The main features of late Roman fortification clearly presage those of

5029: 4550: 4340:

The table above indicates the ranks of officers who held a commission (

3730: 3610: 3518: 3501: 3497: 3222: 3201: 3142: 3009: 2874:

from their white uniforms, acted as the emperor's personal bodyguards.

2115: 1866: 1812: 1521:

on the border now reported direct to the emperor, or to one of the two

1257: 1244: 1147: 834:

260–268) did the same for all the other legions, giving them the title

725: 462: 339: 335: 264: 221: 217: 185: 9990:

Roman Fortresses and their Legions. Papers in Honour of George C. Boon

8257:

Based on: Jones (1964) 634; Goldsworthy (1995) 202; Holder (1980) 90–6

5155:

In addition to his thrusting-spear, a late foot soldier might carry a

4641:

of the diocese in which their forces were deployed. After c. 360, the

1185:

to Pannonia in 272. (In addition, by 275 he evacuated the province of

765:

The seminal development for the army in the early 3rd century was the

5994: 5691: 5544:. Postern gates were built into towers or near them to allow sorties. 5320: 5196: 4570:), rather than the commander of only one or two regiments (or none). 4107:

NOTE: Ranks correspond only in pay scale, not necessarily in function

3925: 3892: 3734: 3415: 3218: 3137: 3037: 1480: 1427: 1271: 1194: 1151: 1131: 1121: 993: 824: 772: 675: 655: 288: 276: 169: 126: 122: 10080: 9660:

Coulston, J.C.N. (1990) "Later Roman armour, 3rd-6th centuries AD",

5493:

According to Luttwak, Roman forts of the 1st/2nd centuries, whether

5233:

Full-scale reconstruction of a 4th-century Roman river patrol-boat (

2334: 1412:) troops, giving the late Roman army the structure described in the 10043: 9926: 6952: 5901: 5883: 5699: 5557:

and some other forts in Britannia were not significantly modified.

5179: 4986: 4973: 4948: 4940:

appears to have fallen out of use and troops were depicted wearing

4849: 4658: 4603: 4353: 4020: 3788: 3742: 3710: 3692:, a German warcry. Long hair became fashionable, especially in the 3671: 3392: 3235: 2806:

Despite existing from the early 4th century, the only full list of

2491:). This is because they often wintered in different provinces. The 2339: 1839: 1818:

But Treadgold's analysis can be criticised on a number of grounds:

1773: 1588: 1226:(deputy emperor) in Diocletian's Tetrarchy. Constantine's grandson 1139: 1108: 1053: 1049: 1024: 1020:(left, kneeling) begs for his life after being captured by Persian 687: 667: 663: 466: 423: 323: 252:) remained largely intact in size and structure until the reign of 229: 197: 189: 6469:

Famine and Pestilence in the late Roman and early Byzantine Empire

5485:, Berlin. Both cavalry and infantry are shown wearing body armour. 4430:

Regimental commanders were known by one of three possible titles:

1639:

PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE IN LATE ROMAN EMPIRE (c. 395)

1631:, in control of all military forces in the diocese, including the 756:

Fresco from the synagogue in the Roman fortified frontier city of

8071: 5918: 5866: 5550: 5466: 5137:) which became the main close order combat weapon to replace the 5115: 4544: 4481: 4356:

embroidered on the left tunic was a mystical symbol, possibly of

3722: 3684: 3675: 3214: 3132: 3094: 2826:

were "conventional" cavalry, armoured in a manner similar to the

2351: 2225:). Locations given indicate usual winter quarters in this period. 1437: 1159: 319: 110: 34: 9686:

Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith

7244:

On assumption Diocletian increased numbers by 33% (Heather 1995)

5229: 4968:, compiled after the reign of Gratian, indicate that the army's 3924:) remained the same as under the Principate up to and including 1795:

However, Jones' figure of 600,000 is based on assumptions about

1599:. By 353, when only Constantius survived, it appears that the 3 9982:"The Army of the Late Empire" in The Roman World (ed J. Wacher) 9848:

Soldiers and Ghosts: A History of Battle in Classical Antiquity

8096: 5808: 5561: 5502: 5355:

in tributaries of the Danube. Each flotilla was commanded by a

5319:

was cheaper to transport a cargo of grain by sea from Syria to

5121: 4913:

Legionary soldiers of the 1st and 2nd centuries had use of the

3795:

The soldier's sole substantial disposable income came from the

3714: 3706: 3531: 3266:. In the border forces, only mounted archers are listed in the 3195: 3189:

armour for the torso and laminated defences for the limbs (see

2862:, or heavily armoured cavalry), and a unit of mounted archers ( 2554:, a medieval copy of a Late Roman register of military commands 2447: 1392: 1249: 1198: 711: 302:

troops. These were normally based near the imperial capitals: (

188:

and his three imperial colleagues. To the left, Diocletian and

177: 10008:

The Roman Imperial Army of the First and Second Centuries A.D.

9662:

Journal of Roman Military Equipments Studies, 1 (1990) 139-60.

7690: 5465:

visible inside the walls was built in the 12th century by the

1404:(imperial escort army) and divided the army into escort army ( 1111:

in 270–5. Rome's first new wall since the construction of the

275:

and its soldiers were paid much less than in the 2nd century.

10108: 5922: 5815:

In contrast, the excellent performance of the infantry, both

5707: 5687: 5169:. Alternatively, he may have been armed with short javelins ( 5166: 5161: 5143: 5050: 4977: 4821: 4789: 4381:

A significant innovation of the 4th century was the corps of

3718: 3635: 3258:= "arrow"). As in the Principate, it is likely that many non- 2512: 2400:

also reported directly to the MVM and not to their diocesan

2110:

NOTE: Regular land forces only: excludes irregular barbarian

1496:

has been debated among scholars. A traditional view sees the

1211: 1202: 1186: 720: 307: 9766:

The Fall of the West: The Slow Death of the Roman Superpower

9543:

The Fall of the West: The Slow Death of the Roman Superpower

7256: 7119:

Goldsworthy (2000) 124–5 (map)(25 legions of 5,000 men each)

4554:); (4) finally, some tribunes without a regimental command ( 4398:

or the emperor. Those attached to the emperor were known as

4372: 2314:

units, implying the destruction or disbandment of around 76

10095: 4698:

into a number of smaller groups. In the East, there were 2

4566:, who was a corps commander (usually of a smaller diocesan 3729:

unit names. Other significant sources of recruits were the

3114:

for specific campaigns, and were sometimes retained by the

2728:

Much uncertainty remains, especially regarding the size of

2282:), Thraciae (2), Pontica (1), Oriens (6) and Aegyptum (2). 1021: 916: 391:

The main literary sources for the 4th-century army are the

388:

and numerous errors accumulated from centuries of copying.

8502:

http://www.pvv.ntnu.no/~madsb/home/war/vegetius/dere03.php

7361: 7359: 5659:

was to provide emperors with insurance against usurpers.

5369:

on the Danube disposed of at least one flotilla (one, the

5273:

The responsibility for supplying the army rested with the

4727:(lit. "Master of Soldiers") commanded the larger diocesan 4661:

show. A few border commanders were, exceptionally, styled

3770:

At the base of the rank pyramid were the common soldiers:

3046:, most types of unit were present. Infantry units include 2217:

reporting to senior officer in their diocese (whereas the

1827:, numerous civil wars and devastating barbarian invasions. 565:

As regards the military, members of the senatorial order (

440:

The seminal modern study of the late army is contained in

240:

progressively disintegrated, while its counterpart in the

7137:

Goldsworthy (2000) 152–3 (map) (33 legions of 5,500 each)

5767:

of 38,000 men contained 8,000 cavalry (21%). In 357, the

3209:(a bread oven) or from a Persian word. It is likely that 2385:

were smaller than the 20–30,000 typically commanded by a

907: 879:

thus numbered some 17,000 men, equivalent to 31 infantry

456: 10105:

group portraying the Late Roman army in northern England

9324: 9322: 8780:

The Logistics of the Roman Army at War (264 BC - AD 235)

8756: 8754: 8752: 8244: 8242: 7975:

Codex Theodosianus for December 398 (Cod. Theod. X 22,4)

7742: 7740: 7738: 7736: 7650: 7648: 7536: 7534: 7532: 5642:

Another supposed element of "defence-in-depth" were the

2983:(mounted archers), suitable for harassment and pursuit. 2822:

in the late 2nd century. The great majority (10) of the

1460:

was now placed under the command of two new officers, a

326:

adopted the more protective equipment of the Principate

318:

were split into smaller units comparable in size to the

8848: 7356: 7287:

Applying mid-point unit size estimates to Notitia units

6267: 6265: 6263: 6261: 6259: 6257: 6255: 5985:

providing a much-needed source of first-rate recruits.

5129:

At the same time, infantry acquired a thrusting-spear (

4558:), who served as staff-officers to the emperor or to a 4122:

Regimental and corps commanders in the 4th-century army

3696:

regiments, where barbarian-born recruits were numerous.

2774:, which is the strongest argument in favour of c. 500. 951:, with the infantry remaining the predominant element. 662:-speaking tribes that inhabited the Roman provinces of 6176: 6174: 6028:

Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire

5304:(imperial transport service) was typically by wagons ( 4629:(lit. "Border Leader"), was in command of the troops ( 2540:

Shield insignia of regiments under the command of the

2503:

became more static in their winter bases. The Western

1860:

one and considerably smaller in the late 4th century.

1400:(ruled 312–37), who established the first large-scale 9319: 8859:

Merchant Vessels and Maritime Commerce in Roman Times

8749: 8239: 7733: 7645: 7529: 6852: 6850: 6848: 6436: 6434: 5015:

found at Bowes Moor, dating to the late 4th century.

3900:

regiment was paid 50% more than his counterpart in a

2987:

light horse had served Rome as auxiliaries since the

1375:) and their descendants to their landlords' estates. 1116:

sections. Most of the 19km circuit still stands today

9941: 6252: 6004: 4352:

mode). Note the off-white, long-sleeved tunics. The

3944:

commanded, as the name implies, 200 men. If so, the

1720:, each 20–30,000 strong, still contained a total of 1197:

to Moesia in 279/80 and later equivalent numbers of

451: 9890:

An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire

9628: 6984: 6982: 6171: 5191:. Late Roman archers continued to use the recurved 5032:, but at the cost much reduced vision and hearing. 4931:). Testing of modern copies have demonstrated that 2241:, in the East there were 2 imperial escort armies ( 1559:strongly criticised the establishment of the large 535:), consisting of the c. 600 sitting members of the 9866: 8835: 8833: 8357: 8355: 8353: 7840: 7838: 7492: 7490: 7349: 7347: 7345: 7343: 7341: 7095: 6845: 6741: 6739: 6431: 6311: 6309: 6307: 6164: 6162: 5532:to provide protection from missiles for defenders. 4686:(typically ca. 10,000 strong). By the time of the 4421: 4385:, which contained cadet senior officers. Although 4115: 3616:Most scholars believe that significant numbers of 3371:) is a term for professional soldiers in the late 2719:** Vexillatio units could be named "Equites" e.g. 1043:The mid-3rd century saw the empire plunged into a 823:in command of the three new legions he raised and 444:(LRE) by the "high priest" of late Roman studies, 8478:https://www.academia.edu/5496690/Who_was_Vegetius 7559: 7557: 7555: 7192: 7190: 6912: 6910: 6900: 6898: 6829: 6827: 6817: 6815: 6813: 6803: 6801: 6799: 6753: 6751: 6698: 6696: 6694: 6692: 6690: 6412: 6410: 6408: 6134: 6132: 6130: 6128: 2896:In the field armies, cavalry units were known as 2438:probably reported direct to the emperor himself. 738:was usually replaced by a heavy thrusting-spear ( 10123: 7070: 7068: 7066: 6979: 6874:Zosimus II.54–5 (Translation in Jones (1964) 52) 6362: 6360: 6350: 6348: 6064: 6062: 6060: 5882:with a more prolonged discharge of javelins and 4901:round, brimless hat known as the pannonian cap ( 4220:(ii) commander, brigade of two twinned regiments 3274:infantry regiments contained their own archers. 1611:commander. However, in addition to the regional 959:based in Dacia in the early 2nd century and the 502:, meaning that they specialised in archery. The 298:), typically containing 20,000–30,000 top-grade 9629:Bishop and Coulston, M.C. & J.C.N. (2006). 8830: 8350: 7835: 7487: 7338: 6736: 6610: 6608: 6304: 6159: 4961:infantry, throughout the period is widespread. 4919:, or laminated-strip cuirass, as well as mail ( 3085:were believed to be higher quality than of the 2943:The majority of Roman cavalry regiments in the 2381:. This was presumably because all but the Gaul 8194: 7552: 7187: 6907: 6895: 6824: 6810: 6796: 6748: 6687: 6405: 6125: 4478:, a practice which became standard after 400. 3912:Regimental officer grades in old-style units ( 3782:), but was provided free. This is because the 3285:= "catapult"), 7 such units are listed in the 2850:, both in the East, were specialised units: a 1583:On Constantine's death in 337, his three sons 1478:to distinguish them from the frontier forces ( 869:, to 2,000 by drawing select detachments from 838:("prefect acting as legate"). The rise of the 9611: 7063: 6598: 6596: 6357: 6345: 6057: 6030:– article dealing with the Late Roman Empire 4980:(with a section of scale), Independența, and 4414:. After a few years' service in the corps, a 3595:(c. 390). The troops belong to a regiment of 2369:rank, the commanders of the Western regional 2361:Subordinate to the MVM were all the diocesan 1323:may have been created under Diocletian. Most 1264: 232:. During the period 395–476, the army of the 224:in AD 284, and ends in 480 with the death of 9793:Auxiliary Deployment in the Reign of Hadrian 9700: 9691: 9235:Ammianus XXVII.10, XXVIII.2, XXIX.4, XXX.5,6 7801: 7475:Southern & Dixon (1996) 169-170, 171-174 6605: 5249:in the early 1980s. The boat above, denoted 4951:reports that soldiers no longer wore armour: 3232:ala I Gallorum et Pannoniorum cataphractaria 2928:, emphasising their elite status, while the 2877: 2563:Size estimates for units in 4th-century army 1120:By the 3rd century, Romanised Illyrians and 771:(Antonine Decree) of 212, issued by Emperor 9763: 9754: 9745: 5896: 5298:Land transport of military supplies on the 4645:generally reported to the commander of the 3953:Regimental officers in the 4th-century army 2289:remained largely intact until the reign of 2267:, who also reported direct to the emperor. 915:, the origin of the medieval noble rank of 744:) and the helmet was predominantly of the " 700: 422:is a treatise on Roman military affairs by 9942:Southern & Dixon, P. & K. (1996). 8687:Codex Theodosianus 10.22.I (11 March, 374) 7175:raised in the late 2nd/early 3rd centuries 6593: 5783:paid 20–40% more than auxiliary infantry. 4514:. These included (1) the commander of the 3760: 3757:units transformed into regular regiments. 2285:The eastern structure as presented in the 2255:grade. In addition, there were 3 diocesan 1378: 1150:(ruled 284–305) and his colleagues in the 1094: 569:) exclusively filled the following posts: 528:of c. 10,000 men which was based in Rome. 520:also admitted Roman citizens and possibly 62:army disintegrated AD 425–470, whilst the 9963:Roman Military clothing (2) AD 200 to 400 9887: 4602:. These officers corresponded in rank to 3534:was small in body but a strong warrior". 2471:The units of the field armies, including 2154: 1705:had been left with insufficient support. 674:(Serbia), together with the neighbouring 498:. Some auxilia regiments were designated 220:begins with the accession of the Emperor 10016: 9733:Elton, Hugh (2006). Lenski, Noel (ed.). 9703:Money and Government in the Roman Empire 9694:Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy 9157:Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome 7998: 7996: 7994: 7992: 7990: 7513: 7511: 6044:Structural history of the Roman military 5972:) and sought to settle in the empire as 5944:The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire 5900: 5759:were probably half the size of infantry 5729: 5476: 5459: 5446: 5228: 5210: 5206: 5034: 4839: 4815: 4503:, but it could also be purely honorary. 4458:and some ethnic allied units). However, 4346: 3582: 3131: 3001:cavalry regiments were heavily armoured 2535: 2321:In consequence, the West section of the 2194: 2183:armies, reported direct to the emperor. 2163: 2118:effectives (40-50,000 during Principate) 1391: 1282:would in turn appoint a deputy called a 1238: 1098: 1011: 935:). Under Constantine I, the head of the 751: 704: 642:(commanders) of the auxiliary regiments. 631:(3rd-in-command) and its remaining five 494:and 200 mixed cavalry/infantry units or 163: 9917:in A.S. Lewin and P. Pellegrini (ed.), 9896: 9864: 9781: 9772: 8591: 6550: 6548: 6546: 6544: 6338: 6336: 6334: 6332: 6330: 6224: 6222: 5988:The former Oxford University historian 5579: 5028:" type, which is close to the medieval 4832:) and mounted archers. Detail from the 3439:troops played an important part in the 3124:, implying adequate combat capability. 2830:of the Principate, carrying the titles 2263:-grade troops. Each was commanded by a 1071:268–270). The evidence for the earlier 465:was established by the founder–emperor 50:AD 284–480 (West) and to 640 ca. (East) 10124: 10086:Single Combat in the Age of Belisarius 9979: 9960: 9845: 9790: 9666: 8530: 8528: 8518: 8516: 7946: 7611: 7609: 7274: 7272: 5376: 5268: 3907: 3817:p.a.) Also, on the accession of a new 2377:("military count") rank, save for the 2278:of their diocese: (East) Illyricum (2 2187:are shown reporting to their diocesan 1708:Despite the proliferation of regional 457:Background: the army of the Principate 10025: 9924: 9808: 9799: 9732: 9709: 7987: 7949:Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science 7508: 6671: 6669: 6279: 6277: 5874:(2–2.5 m long) had replaced the 5237:), probably under the command of the 4649:deployed in their diocese (whether a 4506:In the military sphere, the title of 3217:from the 6th century BC onwards: the 1007: 228:, being roughly coterminous with the 9547:How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower 6541: 6327: 6219: 5795:, the other dismounted). Later, the 5549:by constructing a large rectangular 5339:) under the command of the riverine 2233:is dated to c. 395, at the death of 1854: 1578: 1452:and new-style infantry units called 1193:is recorded as transferring 100,000 1142:(270–75). They and their successors 624:(commanders of the Praetorian Guard) 9836: 9712:Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 350–425 8525: 8513: 7606: 7269: 6248:Constitutio Antoniniana de Civitate 5289: 3959:Multiple of basic pay (2nd century) 2519:in the vicinity of Constantinople. 1767: 1154:formed a sort of self-perpetuating 1134:(ruled 260–68) was overthrown by a 13: 9909:Campidoctores, vicarii vel tribuni 9869:Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire 8678:Bishop & Coulston (2006) 214–5 8669:Bishop & Coulston (2006) 210–3 6666: 6274: 5909:, the half-Vandal general who was 5725: 5600:Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire 5282:of 2.3 tonnes of grain-equivalent 4788:: e.g. the barbarian-born officer 4731:(normally over 20,000-strong). A 3765: 3081:The evidence is that units of the 14: 10153: 10059: 10019:Diocletian and the Roman Recovery 9669:Unit Sizes in the late Roman Army 8476:" published on Academia.edu 2015 7590:Barlow & Brennan (2001) 240–1 5602:(1976) re-launched the thesis of 5591:Defence-in-depth (Roman military) 5442: 4947:In either the 390s or the 430s), 4714:also had command over the border 4538:regiments were apparently styled 4510:was granted to a group of senior 4474:were granted the noble title of 4466:were appointed from the corps of 2507:normally was based in and around 2237:. At this time, according to the 2205:. Reporting relationship between 2122: 1484:). The size of the Constantinian 1472:troops were now formally denoted 452:Evolution of the 4th-century army 9997:Byzantium and Its Army, 284-1081 9535: 9526: 9517: 9508: 9499: 9490: 9481: 9472: 9463: 9451: 9442: 9433: 9424: 9415: 9406: 9397: 9388: 9379: 9370: 9358: 9349: 9340: 9331: 9310: 9301: 9292: 9283: 9274: 9265: 9256: 9247: 9238: 9229: 9220: 9207: 9198: 9189: 9180: 9171: 9162: 9149: 9140: 9131: 9122: 9113: 9104: 9091: 9078: 9069: 9060: 9051: 9042: 9033: 9024: 9015: 9006: 8997: 8988: 8979: 8970: 8957: 8948: 8939: 8927: 8918: 8909: 8900: 8881: 8872: 8863: 8842: 8821: 8812: 8803: 8794: 8785: 8772: 8763: 8740: 8737:Bishop & Coulston (2006) 205 8731: 8728:Bishop & Coulston (2006) 202 8722: 8719:Bishop & Coulston (2006) 217 8713: 8699: 8690: 8681: 8672: 8663: 8660:Southern & Dixon (1996) 92–3 8654: 8645: 8636: 8627: 8618: 8609: 8600: 8585: 8576: 8567: 8558: 8549: 8537: 8494: 8482: 8466: 8457: 8448: 8439: 8430: 8418: 8409: 8400: 8391: 8382: 8373: 8364: 8341: 8332: 8323: 8314: 8305: 8296: 8287: 8278: 8269: 8260: 8251: 8230: 8221: 8212: 8203: 8185: 8176: 8167: 8158: 8149: 8140: 8131: 8122: 8113: 8104: 8090: 8081: 8065: 8053: 8044: 8035: 8026: 8014: 8005: 7978: 7969: 7940: 7931: 7919: 7910: 7901: 7892: 7883: 7874: 7865: 7856: 7847: 7826: 7792: 7783: 7774: 7761: 7749: 7724: 7715: 7706: 7684: 7675: 7666: 7657: 7636: 7627: 7618: 7593: 7584: 7575: 7566: 7543: 7520: 7499: 7478: 7469: 7460: 7451: 7442: 7430: 7417: 7408: 7399: 7390: 7381: 7372: 7332:Notitia Oriens Title I: List of 7326: 7317: 7308: 7299: 7290: 7281: 7247: 7238: 7221: 7212: 7199: 7178: 7153: 7140: 7131: 7122: 7113: 7104: 6007: 4280:(i) commander, smaller diocesan 3825:plus a pound of silver (worth 4 3575:conscription that were granted. 3570:). In addition, it appears that 3242:Archer units are denoted in the 3158: 2793:and around 250 for other units. 2542:Magister Militum Praesentalis II 2396:, all but two of the 12 Western 931:) and allied barbarian cavalry ( 27: 9931:Latomus. Revue d'Études Latines 9616:. New Series, 51 (1): 237–254. 8062:Vols IV and V: Personnel tables 7086: 7077: 7054: 7045: 7036: 7027: 7018: 7009: 7000: 6991: 6970: 6961: 6946: 6937: 6928: 6919: 6886: 6877: 6868: 6859: 6836: 6787: 6778: 6769: 6760: 6727: 6718: 6705: 6678: 6657: 6648: 6639: 6626: 6617: 6584: 6575: 6566: 6557: 6532: 6523: 6514: 6505: 6492: 6483: 6474: 6461: 6452: 6443: 6419: 6396: 6387: 6378: 6369: 6318: 6295: 6286: 6240: 6231: 6210: 6201: 6192: 6183: 6150: 5351:(Danube flotillas) and 8 other 5108: 4116:Regimental and corps commanders 3289:, all but one belonging to the 3270:, which may indicate that many 2221:places them directly under the 1503:Strategy of the Late Roman army 1319:("border commanders"). Some 20 1066: 939:cavalry was given the title of 893: 829: 814: 777: 692: 510:were mainly recruited from the 442:The Later Roman Empire, 284-602 9701:Duncan-Jones, Richard (1994). 9692:Duncan-Jones, Richard (1990). 9168:Elton (1996) 157, 159 (Fig 13) 8642:Southern and Dixon (1996) 92-4 8624:Southern and Dixon (1996) 94-5 8564:Bishop and Coulston (2006) 208 6141: 6116: 6107: 6098: 6089: 6080: 6071: 4854:Istanbul Archaeological Museum 4518:, who by 350 was known as the 4482:Senior regimental commanders ( 3525:(5 ft 7in, 170 cm). 3462: 3225:. The type was adopted by the 3127: 3025: 1387: 957:vexillatio equitum Illyricorum 666:(W Hungary/Croatia/Slovenia), 382:also suffers from significant 100: 1: 10066:Diocletian and the Roman Army 9992:(London/Cardiff 000) 159-181. 9555: 8936:Titles Oriens XI, Occidens IX 8791:Ammianus, book 17, chapter 8. 7953:University of Liverpool Press 5573: 5255:Museum für Antike Schifffahrt 4990:. In contrast to the earlier 4756:("Master of Both Services"), 4749:Magister militum praesentalis 4708:magister militum per Orientem 4373:Cadet regimental commanders ( 4318:Magister militum praesentalis 3853:. The documented income of 2 3733:from the Danubian lands; and 3578: 3399:, and the Praetorian Prefect 3363:; literally "biscuit–eater", 3343: 2866:). 40 select troops from the 2838:("armour" or "harnesses") or 2796: 2531: 2248:magister militum praesentalis 1502: 1234: 923:cavalry. This force included 196:(co-emperors); to the right, 10011:University of Oklahoma Press 9764:Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). 9755:Goldsworthy, Adrian (2003). 9746:Goldsworthy, Adrian (2000). 9601:(late 4th/early 5th century) 9119:Isaac (1992) 378, 383, 401–6 8100:Table of auxiliary regiments 8097:http://www.roman-britain.org 7832:Southern and Dixon (1996) 72 7235:(1979) 454 estimates 438,000 6842:Jones (1964) 100-1, 606, 627 6051: 4826:Battle of the Milvian Bridge 4811: 3476:). Compulsory conscription ( 3406: 3118:long-term with the title of 3031: 2801: 2522: 2379:magister equitum per Gallias 1970:(East ca. 395; West ca. 420) 1758: 1731:(lit. "of the palace", from 1464:to command the infantry and 1291:became permanent after 395. 1045:military and economic crisis 686:provinces. From the time of 615:and of a few minor provinces 593:tribunus militum laticlavius 576:legatus Augusti pro praetore 153:Catalaunian Plains (Chalons) 7: 10036:University of Chicago Press 10021:. London: B T Batsford Ltd. 8651:Goldsworthy (2003) 123, 205 8633:Goldsworthy (2003) 123, 126 8415:Goldsworthy (2003) 120, 127 7691:http://www.le.ac.uk/ar/stj/ 7229:How Big was the Roman Army? 6237:Goldsworthy (2003) 123, 209 6000: 5911:magister utriusque militiae 5682:in Hungary/Romania and the 5584: 5409:fabrica scutaria et armorum 5150: 4867: 4754:Magister utriusque militiae 4735:was also in command of the 4323:magister utriusque militiae 4306:commander, larger diocesan 4173:cadet regimental commander 3932:. In the new-style units, ( 3293:. But a number are denoted 3164:Roman cataphract cavalryman 3110:regiments often joined the 2904:; infantry units as either 2412:In both East and West, the 2356:magister utriusque militiae 2229:The eastern section of the 2223:magister utriusque militiae 1675:Comes rei militaris (West) 1607:reported to their regional 1435:, was now fulfilled by the 1358: 1342: 1052:, now thought to have been 819:193–211) placed equestrian 212:In modern scholarship, the 10: 10158: 10081:Later Roman Battle Tactics 10017:Williams, Stephen (1985). 9739:Cambridge University Press 9560: 9412:Ammianus XVI.12 (para. 44) 8915:Goldsworthy (2003) 88, 149 7572:Duncan-Jones (1990) 105–70 6976:Duncan-Jones (1990) 105–17 6958:V.13.7–8; Jones (1964) 680 5933:, ultimately derived from 5835: 5588: 5361:who reported to the local 5086: 5018: 4880:), socks (worn inside the 4760:("Master of Cavalry") and 4231:(iv) some staff officers ( 4222:or (iii) some (later all) 4098:(deputy cohort commander) 3349: 3035: 2881: 2820:equites singulares Augusti 2751:, there is consensus that 2445: 2407: 1697:The evolution of regional 1555:The 5th-century historian 1433:equites singulares Augusti 1265:Military command structure 996:horsemen sent to garrison 984:tribal names). These were 867:equites singulares Augusti 595:(legion deputy commander). 358: 101:Range: ca. 400,000–600,000 10001:Stanford University Press 9995:Treadgold, Warren (1995) 9980:Tomlin, R. S. O. (1988). 9888:Mattingly, David (2006). 9810:Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin 9605: 9385:Webster G. (1998), p. 129 8893:Titles XXXIX to XLII and 7387:Jones (1964) 609 (note 4) 6189:Goldsworthy (2003) 60, 66 6122:Goldsworthy (2003) 50, 78 5435:(cataphract armour), and 4908: 4739:in the diocese where his 3786:, paid in debased silver 3488:) to fulfil their quota. 3467: 3368: 3157: 3152: 2884:Palatini (Roman military) 2878:Palatini and Comitatenses 1916:ROMAN ARMY NUMBERS 24–420 1444:Constantine expanded his 1329:dux Pannoniae I et Norici 1303:, in turn grouped into 4 658:, the descendants of the 132: 106: 96: 88: 78: 54: 46: 26: 21: 10137:Military of ancient Rome 9865:Luttwak, Edward (1976). 9784:Fall of the Roman Empire 9298:Goldsworthy (2000) 176–7 9086:Journal of Roman Studies 8078:28; Dio Cassius, LXXI.11 7167:(2000) 523–7 identify 4 7110:Goldsworthy (2003) 144–5 6663:Lee (1997) 221 (note 58) 6283:Goldsworthy (2000) 164–5 5897:The barbarisation theory 5684:Brazda lui Novac de Nord 4764:("Master of Infantry"). 3849:and/or a bonus for each 3066:. Cavalry units include 2441: 1673:Magister militum (East)/ 724:-type javelin. Note the 701:3rd-century developments 548:Hereditary senators and 461:The regular army of the 9961:Sumner, Graham (2003). 9782:Heather, Peter (2005). 9716:Oxford University Press 9355:Elton (1996) 216, 218–9 8573:Coulston (1990) 142-143 8436:Sumner and D'Amato, 7–9 8060:Roman Military Diplomas 7278:Treadgold (1995) 53, 55 6997:Duncan-Jones (1990) 117 6511:Duncan-Jones (1990) 115 6502:in Wacher (1988) 576–7. 6216:Goldsworthy (2003) 65–6 6207:Goldsworthy (2003) 64–5 6147:Goldsworthy (2003) 56–8 5365:. It appears that each 4792:was promoted direct to 4422:Regimental commanders ( 3961:or annona (4th century) 3809:every five years of an 3761:Ranks, pay and benefits 2296: 2245:), each commanded by a 2159: 1379:Military infrastructure 1095:Danubian military junta 889:Constantine I the Great 782:211–217). This granted 768:Constitutio Antoniniana 635:(senior staff officers) 107:Unit seniority and type 10112:Historical reenactment 10099:Historical reenactment 9925:Rance, Philip (2014). 9921:( Oxford 2007) 395-409 9897:Nicasie, M.J. (1998). 9773:Hassall, Mark (2000). 9532:Goldsworthy (2003) 209 9394:Goldsworthy (2000) 137 9328:Goldsworthy (2000) 182 9057:Luttwak (1976) Fig.3.3 8760:Goldsworthy (2000) 168 8615:Goldsworthy (2003) 126 8606:Goldsworthy (2003) 137 8454:Goldsworthy (2003) 129 8445:Sumner and D'Amato, 37 8379:Notitia Occidens Title 8284:Goldsworthy (2003) 118 8248:Goldsworthy (2003) 202 8209:Duncan-Jones (1990) 35 8002:Goldsworthy (2003) 208 7947:Milner, N. P. (1993). 7862:Goldsworthy (2003) 204 7746:Goldsworthy (2000) 169 7730:Goldsworthy (2003) 138 7721:Goldsworthy (2000) 213 7712:Goldsworthy (2003) 139 7663:Goldsworthy (2003) 203 7654:Goldsworthy (2000) 172 7540:Goldsworthy (2003) 206 7314:Goldsworthy (2000) 171 7015:Treadgold (1995) 49-59 6684:Goldsworthy (2000) 166 6572:Goldsworthy (2000) 165 6467:D. Ch. Stathakopoulos 6402:Goldsworthy (2000) 219 6342:Goldsworthy (2000) 170 6301:Goldsworthy (2000) 164 6271:Goldsworthy (2003) 205 6246:The Roman Law Library 6113:Mattingly (2006) 247–8 6077:Treadgold (1995) 43-60 5926: 5739: 5657:comitatus praesentales 5653:comitatus praesentales 5644:comitatus praesentales 5486: 5474: 5473:, England. 3rd century 5457: 5453:Walls of Theodosius II 5261: 5226: 5091:The classic legionary 5046: 4958: 4856: 4837: 4667:comes litoris Saxonici 4438:regiments plus border 4404:and organised in four 4369: 4333:comitatus praesentalis 4264:border army commander 3603: 3513:2nd-century position. 3250:(mounted archers) and 3221:and their kinsmen the 3147: 2898:vexillationes palatini 2555: 2548:c. 395. Page from the 2515:) and the two Eastern 2505:comitatus praesentalis 2493:comitatus praesentales 2373:were all of the lower 2270:The 13 eastern border 2243:comitatus praesentales 2226: 2192: 2155:High Command structure 2129:comitatus praesentales 1718:comitatus praesentales 1617:comitatus praesentalis 1423: 1305:praetorian prefectures 1254: 1117: 1040: 919:), to command all the 762: 749: 296:comitatus praesentales 209: 10091:Roman army reenactors 10076:Milvian Bridge AD 312 9846:Lendon, J.E. (2005). 9791:Holder, Paul (2003). 9541:Goldsworthy, Adrian, 8967:IV.22, 23, 29, 30, 60 8897:Titles XXXII to XXXIV 8827:Jones (1964) 843, 868 8266:Jones (1964) 640, 643 8227:Jones (1964) 626, 647 8191:Goldsworthy (2003) 94 7937:Jones (1964) 614, 616 7926:Roman Diplomas Online 7889:Goldsworthy (2003) 77 7006:Treadgold (1995) 44-5 6198:Goldsworthy (2003) 60 6180:Goldsworthy (2003) 58 6156:Goldsworthy (2003) 80 5904: 5738:, Sicily. 4th century 5733: 5706:campaign against the 5651:months. Although the 5480: 5463: 5450: 5415:(sword manufacture), 5373:, controlled three). 5232: 5214: 5207:Supply infrastructure 5038: 4953: 4843: 4819: 4804:in 360, skipping the 4700:comites rei militaris 4596:comites rei militaris 4580:comites rei militaris 4516:protectores domestici 4401:protectores domestici 4350: 4212:protectores domestici 4194:regimental commander 3896:(quartermaster) of a 3878:regiments. Next came 3586: 3359:(the Latin plural of 3135: 3058:as well as old-style 2711:were not technically 2539: 2310:were simply upgraded 2213:as in the East, with 2198: 2167: 1735:), a higher grade of 1691:Praefectus praetorio 1395: 1242: 1102: 1015: 836:praefectus pro legato 755: 708: 670:(Croatia/Bosnia) and 182:Basilica di San Marco 167: 40:Constantine the Great 9820:Taylor & Francis 9710:Elton, Hugh (1996). 9683:Cowan, Ross (2016). 9675:Cowan, Ross (2015). 9567:Ammianus Marcellinus 9110:Isaac (1992) 372–418 9039:Luttwak (1976) 132–4 8954:Luttwak (1976) 134–5 8849:http://www.2.rgzm.de 7898:Mattingly (2006) 356 7448:Mattingly (2006) 245 7101:MacMullen (1979) 454 6856:Mattingly (2006) 239 6440:Holder (1980) 109–24 6393:Mattingly (2006) 223 6375:Mattingly (2006) 244 6023:Battle of Strasbourg 5931:barbarisation theory 5891:Battle of Strasbourg 5829:Battle of Strasbourg 5801:Battle of Adrianople 5789:Battle of Strasbourg 5580:Strategy and tactics 5507:revolt of the Batavi 5387:, documented in the 5333:portus exceptionales 5275:praefectus praetorio 5215:The products of the 4925:) and scale armour ( 4746:The highest rank of 4029:(centurion's deputy) 3833:) were paid. The 12 3725:are attested in the 3450:("troops", although 3254:(foot archers, from 2924:were only graded as 2810:available is in the 2424:(commanders) of the 1887:Cohors III Brittonum 1848:Ammianus Marcellinus 1844:Battle of Strasbourg 1309:praefectus praetorio 1062:Claudius II Gothicus 875:on the borders. His 629:praefectus castrorum 411:Corpus Juris Civilis 397:Ammianus Marcellinus 184:, shows the emperor 66:continued until the 16:Roman army after 284 10132:Late Roman military 10028:Classical Philology 10006:Webster, G. (1998) 9944:The Late Roman Army 9757:Complete Roman Army 9741:CCOL0521818389.015. 9667:Coello, T. (1996). 9622:10.1093/cq/51.1.237 9614:Classical Quarterly 9421:Lendon (2005) 261–8 9366:Acies contra Alanos 9316:Elton (1996) 243–63 9262:Tomlin (1998) 117–8 9128:Isaac (1992) 387–93 8945:Elton (1996) 161–71 8293:Jones (1964) 636–40 8155:Jones (1964) 619–20 8110:Zosimus books IV, V 7633:Jones (1964) 649–51 7414:Jones (1964) 609–10 7296:Treadgold (1995) 55 7253:Treadgold (1995) 44 7205:Implied by Tacitus 7042:Thompson (1982) 446 7024:Treadgold (1995) 59 6934:Treadgold (1995) 45 6563:Elton (1996) 148–52 6500:The Monetary System 6015:Ancient Rome portal 5377:Weapons manufacture 5269:Supply organisation 5042:equites stablesiani 4892:circular roundels, 4834:Arch of Constantine 4712:comes rei militaris 4679:Comes rei militaris 4564:comes rei militaris 4508:comes primi ordinis 4497:comes primi ordinis 4273:Comes rei militaris 4131:(multiple of pedes) 4124: 3955: 3908:Regimental officers 3504:(including the two 2962:equites stablesiani 2722:Equites Stablesiani 2565: 2431:magister officiorum 2375:comes rei militaris 2137:exercitus limitanei 1918: 1885:on the Danube, the 1842:were killed at the 1804:of just 160 and an 1640: 1514:praefecti praetorio 1337:praefecti praetorio 1220:Constantius Chlorus 621:praefecti praetorio 607:(a) the governors ( 322:of the Principate. 320:auxiliary regiments 269:chaotic 3rd century 261:Imperial Roman army 202:Constantius Chlorus 74:system was created. 9837:Lee, A.D. (1997). 9800:Isaac, B. (1992). 9592:Notitia Dignitatum 9575:(late 4th century) 9478:Jones (1964) 621–2 9458:Notitia Dignitatum 9430:Goldsworthy (2000) 9376:Elton (1996) 251–2 9253:Hassall (2000) 336 9244:Elton (1996) 105–6 9177:Luttwak (1976) 190 9075:Luttwak (1976) 132 9066:Luttwak (1976) 136 9048:Mann (1979) 175–83 9012:Elton (1996) 165–7 8994:Elton (1996) 162–3 8854:2013-08-13 at the 8507:2012-07-16 at the 8329:Jones (1964) 640–1 8182:Elton (1996) 120–1 8164:Elton (1996) 121–2 8128:Elton (1996) 148–9 8119:Elton (1996) 144–5 8050:Heather (2005) 119 8021:Vindolanda Tablets 7871:Jones (1964) 611–2 7789:Rance (2014) 475-6 7696:2017-09-26 at the 7624:Luttwak (1976) 173 7601:Notitia Dignitatum 7581:Woods (1996) 368–9 7484:Jones (1964) 631–2 7437:Notitia Dignitatum 7405:Heather (2007) 247 7396:Heather (2005) 246 7378:Ammianus XVIII.7.3 7323:Elton (1996) 214–5 7218:Hassall (2000) 320 7163:(1996) 257–60 and 7051:Cameron (1969) 247 6988:Jones (1964) 681–2 6892:Luttwak (1976) 179 6675:Luttwak (1976) 177 6104:Elton (1996) 110–5 6086:Elton (1994) 106–7 5990:Adrian Goldsworthy 5927: 5740: 5722:academic circles. 5636:Notitia Dignitatum 5487: 5475: 5471:Portchester Castle 5458: 5358:praefectus classis 5262: 5227: 5222:Notitia dignitatum 5047: 4966:Notitia Dignitatum 4896:or square panels, 4857: 4838: 4610:in modern armies. 4574:Corps commanders ( 4520:comes domesticorum 4411:comes domesticorum 4370: 4216:comes domesticorum 4120: 3964:2nd-century cohors 3951: 3902:pseudocomitatensis 3774:(infantryman) and 3604: 3435:in Rome show that 3295:pseudocomitatenses 3248:equites sagittarii 3148: 3121:pseudocomitatenses 2991:500 years before. 2981:equites sagittarii 2932:are graded either 2918:pseudocomitatenses 2892:Pseudocomitatenses 2561: 2556: 2551:Notitia Dignitatum 2481:pseudocomitatenses 2227: 2202:Notitia Dignitatum 2193: 2171:Notitia Dignitatum 1914: 1790:Notitia Dignitatum 1786:Later Roman Empire 1638: 1540:with new units of 1424: 1415:Notitia Dignitatum 1255: 1118: 1107:of Rome, built by 1041: 1008:3rd-century crisis 929:equites Dalmatarum 800:) was phased out. 763: 750: 588:(legion commander) 496:cohortes equitatae 366:Notitia Dignitatum 210: 70:, after which the 9857:978-0-300-11979-4 9829:978-0-8018-3354-0 9725:978-0-19-815241-5 9656:978-0-521-85779-6 9137:Mann (1979) 180–1 8474:Who was Vegetius? 8388:Tomlin (1988) 115 7672:Tomlin (1988) 112 7517:Tomlin (1988) 113 7466:Lee 2007, p. 175. 7083:Heather (1995) 63 6943:Elton (1996) 94–5 6793:Jones (1964) 55–6 6775:Jones (1964) 61–2 6745:Tomlin (1988) 111 6520:Tomlin (1988) 110 6384:Holder (2003) 133 6324:Tomlin (1988) 107 6315:Tomlin (1988) 108 6228:Tomlin (1988) 109 6168:Holder (2003) 145 6138:Holder (2003) 120 5787:cavalry. (1) The 5495:castra legionaria 5413:fabrica spatharia 5349:classes Histricae 4916:lorica segmentata 4903:pileus pannonicus 4338: 4337: 4138:(ascending order) 4108: 4104: 4103: 4093:(chief centurion) 4091:centurio princeps 4038:standard-bearer) 3974:(ascending ranks) 3971:4th-century units 3967:(ascending ranks) 3866:subsistence level 3390:magistri militiae 3312:("interceptors") 3169: 3168: 3093:were a part-time 3017:regiments by the 2914:leg. comitatenses 2906:legiones palatini 2902:vex. comitatenses 2725: 2715: 2704: 2703: 2392:According to the 2119: 2107: 2106: 2020:PRAETORIAN GUARD 1879:Legio II Herculia 1855:Smaller Late Army 1825:Plague of Cyprian 1695: 1694: 1579:Later 4th century 1178:Illyrian emperors 1088:subsistence-level 1073:Antonine pandemic 1058:Plague of Cyprian 1039:near Shiraz, Iran 1027:(mounted) at the 965:numerus Hnaufridi 933:equites foederati 810:Septimius Severus 797:lorica segmentata 784:Roman citizenship 682:(N Bulgaria) and 560:Civil War of 68–9 256:(r. AD 527–565). 159: 158: 10149: 10055: 10022: 9985: 9976: 9957: 9938: 9902: 9893: 9884: 9872: 9861: 9842: 9833: 9805: 9802:Limits of Empire 9796: 9787: 9778: 9769: 9760: 9751: 9742: 9729: 9706: 9697: 9672: 9644: 9625: 9550: 9539: 9533: 9530: 9524: 9523:Lee (1997) 223–4 9521: 9515: 9514:Elton (1996) 152 9512: 9506: 9505:Jones (1964) 621 9503: 9497: 9496:Elton (1996) 151 9494: 9488: 9487:Elton (1996) 138 9485: 9479: 9476: 9470: 9469:Jones (1964) 622 9467: 9461: 9455: 9449: 9448:Elton (1996) 148 9446: 9440: 9437: 9431: 9428: 9422: 9419: 9413: 9410: 9404: 9403:Elton (1996) 109 9401: 9395: 9392: 9386: 9383: 9377: 9374: 9368: 9362: 9356: 9353: 9347: 9346:Elton (1996) 218 9344: 9338: 9337:Elton (1996) 216 9335: 9329: 9326: 9317: 9314: 9308: 9307:Ammianus XXXI.13 9305: 9299: 9296: 9290: 9289:Ammianus XIX.1–8 9287: 9281: 9278: 9272: 9269: 9263: 9260: 9254: 9251: 9245: 9242: 9236: 9233: 9227: 9224: 9218: 9211: 9205: 9204:Elton (1996) 209 9202: 9196: 9193: 9187: 9186:Elton (1996) 215 9184: 9178: 9175: 9169: 9166: 9160: 9153: 9147: 9144: 9138: 9135: 9129: 9126: 9120: 9117: 9111: 9108: 9102: 9095: 9089: 9082: 9076: 9073: 9067: 9064: 9058: 9055: 9049: 9046: 9040: 9037: 9031: 9030:Isaac (1992) 198 9028: 9022: 9021:Elton (1996) 167 9019: 9013: 9010: 9004: 9003:Elton (1996) 164 9001: 8995: 8992: 8986: 8985:Elton (1996) 163 8983: 8977: 8976:Elton (1996) 161 8974: 8968: 8961: 8955: 8952: 8946: 8943: 8937: 8931: 8925: 8924:Elton (1996) 116 8922: 8916: 8913: 8907: 8906:Jones (1964) 834 8904: 8898: 8885: 8879: 8878:Jones (1964) 844 8876: 8870: 8869:Jones (1964) 843 8867: 8861: 8846: 8840: 8839:Jones (1964) 842 8837: 8828: 8825: 8819: 8818:Jones (1964) 831 8816: 8810: 8809:Elton (1996) 237 8807: 8801: 8800:Elton (1996) 236 8798: 8792: 8789: 8783: 8776: 8770: 8769:Elton (1996) 108 8767: 8761: 8758: 8747: 8744: 8738: 8735: 8729: 8726: 8720: 8717: 8711: 8703: 8697: 8696:Elton (1996) 115 8694: 8688: 8685: 8679: 8676: 8670: 8667: 8661: 8658: 8652: 8649: 8643: 8640: 8634: 8631: 8625: 8622: 8616: 8613: 8607: 8604: 8598: 8597: 8589: 8583: 8582:Ammianus, XVI 10 8580: 8574: 8571: 8565: 8562: 8556: 8555:Elton (1996) 112 8553: 8547: 8541: 8535: 8534:Elton (1996) 111 8532: 8523: 8522:Elton (1996) 110 8520: 8511: 8498: 8492: 8486: 8480: 8470: 8464: 8461: 8455: 8452: 8446: 8443: 8437: 8434: 8428: 8422: 8416: 8413: 8407: 8406:Elton (1996) 107 8404: 8398: 8397:Jones (1964) 639 8395: 8389: 8386: 8380: 8377: 8371: 8368: 8362: 8361:Jones (1964) 641 8359: 8348: 8347:Jones (1964) 105 8345: 8339: 8338:Jones (1964) 526 8336: 8330: 8327: 8321: 8320:Jones (1964) 642 8318: 8312: 8311:Elton (1996) 101 8309: 8303: 8302:Jones (1964) 640 8300: 8294: 8291: 8285: 8282: 8276: 8275:Jones (1964) 636 8273: 8267: 8264: 8258: 8255: 8249: 8246: 8237: 8236:Jones (1964) 634 8234: 8228: 8225: 8219: 8218:Jones (1964) 647 8216: 8210: 8207: 8201: 8198: 8192: 8189: 8183: 8180: 8174: 8173:Jones (1964) 623 8171: 8165: 8162: 8156: 8153: 8147: 8146:Jones (1964) 619 8144: 8138: 8137:Elton (1996) 136 8135: 8129: 8126: 8120: 8117: 8111: 8108: 8102: 8094: 8088: 8087:Lee (1997) 222–3 8085: 8079: 8069: 8063: 8057: 8051: 8048: 8042: 8041:Elton (1996) 154 8039: 8033: 8032:Jones (1964) 633 8030: 8024: 8018: 8012: 8011:Lee (1997) 221–2 8009: 8003: 8000: 7985: 7984:Jones (1964) 617 7982: 7976: 7973: 7967: 7966: 7944: 7938: 7935: 7929: 7923: 7917: 7916:Elton (1996) 134 7914: 7908: 7907:Jones (1964) 614 7905: 7899: 7896: 7890: 7887: 7881: 7878: 7872: 7869: 7863: 7860: 7854: 7853:Rossi (1971) 104 7851: 7845: 7844:Jones (1964) 611 7842: 7833: 7830: 7824: 7823: 7821: 7820: 7811:. Archived from 7805: 7799: 7798:Elton (1996) 104 7796: 7790: 7787: 7781: 7780:Elton (1996) 105 7778: 7772: 7765: 7759: 7753: 7747: 7744: 7731: 7728: 7722: 7719: 7713: 7710: 7704: 7688: 7682: 7681:Elton (1996) 206 7679: 7673: 7670: 7664: 7661: 7655: 7652: 7643: 7640: 7634: 7631: 7625: 7622: 7616: 7615:Elton (1996) 106 7613: 7604: 7597: 7591: 7588: 7582: 7579: 7573: 7570: 7564: 7561: 7550: 7549:Jones (1964) 684 7547: 7541: 7538: 7527: 7524: 7518: 7515: 7506: 7503: 7497: 7496:Elton (1996) 208 7494: 7485: 7482: 7476: 7473: 7467: 7464: 7458: 7457:Jones (1964) 631 7455: 7449: 7446: 7440: 7439:Titles IX and XI 7434: 7428: 7421: 7415: 7412: 7406: 7403: 7397: 7394: 7388: 7385: 7379: 7376: 7370: 7363: 7354: 7353:Jones (1964) 610 7351: 7336: 7330: 7324: 7321: 7315: 7312: 7306: 7305:Lee (1997) 215–6 7303: 7297: 7294: 7288: 7285: 7279: 7276: 7267: 7260: 7254: 7251: 7245: 7242: 7236: 7225: 7219: 7216: 7210: 7203: 7197: 7194: 7185: 7182: 7176: 7157: 7151: 7144: 7138: 7135: 7129: 7126: 7120: 7117: 7111: 7108: 7102: 7099: 7093: 7092:Coello (1996) 51 7090: 7084: 7081: 7075: 7072: 7061: 7058: 7052: 7049: 7043: 7040: 7034: 7031: 7025: 7022: 7016: 7013: 7007: 7004: 6998: 6995: 6989: 6986: 6977: 6974: 6968: 6967:Jones (1964) 683 6965: 6959: 6950: 6944: 6941: 6935: 6932: 6926: 6923: 6917: 6916:Elton (1996) 201 6914: 6905: 6904:Jones (1964) 125 6902: 6893: 6890: 6884: 6881: 6875: 6872: 6866: 6863: 6857: 6854: 6843: 6840: 6834: 6833:Elton (1996) 120 6831: 6822: 6821:Jones (1964) 613 6819: 6808: 6807:Jones (1964) 100 6805: 6794: 6791: 6785: 6782: 6776: 6773: 6767: 6764: 6758: 6757:Jones (1964) 681 6755: 6746: 6743: 6734: 6731: 6725: 6722: 6716: 6709: 6703: 6702:Jones (1964) 608 6700: 6685: 6682: 6676: 6673: 6664: 6661: 6655: 6652: 6646: 6643: 6637: 6630: 6624: 6621: 6615: 6612: 6603: 6600: 6591: 6588: 6582: 6579: 6573: 6570: 6564: 6561: 6555: 6554:Jones (1964) 615 6552: 6539: 6536: 6530: 6527: 6521: 6518: 6512: 6509: 6503: 6496: 6490: 6487: 6481: 6478: 6472: 6465: 6459: 6456: 6450: 6447: 6441: 6438: 6429: 6423: 6417: 6416:Jones (1964) 620 6414: 6403: 6400: 6394: 6391: 6385: 6382: 6376: 6373: 6367: 6364: 6355: 6352: 6343: 6340: 6325: 6322: 6316: 6313: 6302: 6299: 6293: 6292:Holder (1982) 65 6290: 6284: 6281: 6272: 6269: 6250: 6244: 6238: 6235: 6229: 6226: 6217: 6214: 6208: 6205: 6199: 6196: 6190: 6187: 6181: 6178: 6169: 6166: 6157: 6154: 6148: 6145: 6139: 6136: 6123: 6120: 6114: 6111: 6105: 6102: 6096: 6093: 6087: 6084: 6078: 6075: 6069: 6068:Jones (1964) 609 6066: 6017: 6012: 6011: 6010: 5982:auxilia palatina 5937:'s 18th-century 5907:Flavius Stilicho 5562:medieval castles 5290:Supply transport 5165:, similar to an 4830:equites Dalmatae 4794:magister militum 4786:magister militum 4762:Magister peditum 4758:Magister equitum 4733:magister militum 4724:Magister militum 4718:in his diocese. 4651:magister militum 4637:reported to the 4600:magistri militum 4584:magistri militum 4560:magister militum 4556:tribuni vacantes 4530:: after c. 400, 4396:magistri militum 4298:magister equitum 4293:Magister militum 4233:tribuni vacantes 4164:Several hundreds 4151:Job description 4125: 4119: 4106: 4024:standard-bearer) 3956: 3950: 3813:reign (i.e. one 3660:ala I Sarmatarum 3568:magister militum 3377:Byzantine Empire 3370: 3177:(from the Greek 3162: 3161: 3150: 3149: 3136:Bas-relief of a 2994:Equites Dalmatae 2989:Second Punic War 2972:equites Dalmatae 2957:equites scutarii 2910:auxilia palatini 2834:("shield-men"), 2777:For the size of 2762:auxilia palatina 2755:were c. 500 and 2718: 2706: 2566: 2560: 2479:, and sometimes 2436:tribunus scholae 2428:reported to the 2387:magister militum 2367:magister militum 2276:magister militum 2274:reported to the 2265:magister militum 2189:magister militum 2179:, in command of 2177:magistri militum 2109: 2043:Total Roman Army 1919: 1913: 1768:Larger Late Army 1688:Augustus/Caesar 1641: 1637: 1466:magister equitum 1462:magister peditum 1426:After defeating 1420:Musei Capitolini 1278:(emperor). Each 1070: 1068: 1029:Battle of Edessa 990:ala I Sarmatarum 941:magister equitum 897: 895: 833: 831: 818: 816: 781: 779: 696: 694: 585:legatus legionis 526:Praetorian Guard 352:defence-in-depth 68:Muslim conquests 31: 19: 18: 10157: 10156: 10152: 10151: 10150: 10148: 10147: 10146: 10122: 10121: 10062: 9973: 9954: 9905:Rance, Philip, 9881: 9858: 9830: 9726: 9641: 9608: 9563: 9558: 9553: 9540: 9536: 9531: 9527: 9522: 9518: 9513: 9509: 9504: 9500: 9495: 9491: 9486: 9482: 9477: 9473: 9468: 9464: 9456: 9452: 9447: 9443: 9438: 9434: 9429: 9425: 9420: 9416: 9411: 9407: 9402: 9398: 9393: 9389: 9384: 9380: 9375: 9371: 9363: 9359: 9354: 9350: 9345: 9341: 9336: 9332: 9327: 9320: 9315: 9311: 9306: 9302: 9297: 9293: 9288: 9284: 9279: 9275: 9271:Ammianus XVI.12 9270: 9266: 9261: 9257: 9252: 9248: 9243: 9239: 9234: 9230: 9226:Ammianus XVI.11 9225: 9221: 9212: 9208: 9203: 9199: 9195:Mann (1979) 181 9194: 9190: 9185: 9181: 9176: 9172: 9167: 9163: 9159:(1995) 87 (map) 9154: 9150: 9146:Mann (1979) 180 9145: 9141: 9136: 9132: 9127: 9123: 9118: 9114: 9109: 9105: 9096: 9092: 9083: 9079: 9074: 9070: 9065: 9061: 9056: 9052: 9047: 9043: 9038: 9034: 9029: 9025: 9020: 9016: 9011: 9007: 9002: 8998: 8993: 8989: 8984: 8980: 8975: 8971: 8962: 8958: 8953: 8949: 8944: 8940: 8932: 8928: 8923: 8919: 8914: 8910: 8905: 8901: 8886: 8882: 8877: 8873: 8868: 8864: 8856:Wayback Machine 8847: 8843: 8838: 8831: 8826: 8822: 8817: 8813: 8808: 8804: 8799: 8795: 8790: 8786: 8778:Jonathan Roth, 8777: 8773: 8768: 8764: 8759: 8750: 8745: 8741: 8736: 8732: 8727: 8723: 8718: 8714: 8704: 8700: 8695: 8691: 8686: 8682: 8677: 8673: 8668: 8664: 8659: 8655: 8650: 8646: 8641: 8637: 8632: 8628: 8623: 8619: 8614: 8610: 8605: 8601: 8590: 8586: 8581: 8577: 8572: 8568: 8563: 8559: 8554: 8550: 8542: 8538: 8533: 8526: 8521: 8514: 8509:Wayback Machine 8499: 8495: 8487: 8483: 8472:Rosenbaum, S; " 8471: 8467: 8462: 8458: 8453: 8449: 8444: 8440: 8435: 8431: 8426:Piazza Armerina 8423: 8419: 8414: 8410: 8405: 8401: 8396: 8392: 8387: 8383: 8378: 8374: 8370:Elton (1996) 91 8369: 8365: 8360: 8351: 8346: 8342: 8337: 8333: 8328: 8324: 8319: 8315: 8310: 8306: 8301: 8297: 8292: 8288: 8283: 8279: 8274: 8270: 8265: 8261: 8256: 8252: 8247: 8240: 8235: 8231: 8226: 8222: 8217: 8213: 8208: 8204: 8200:Jones (1964) 31 8199: 8195: 8190: 8186: 8181: 8177: 8172: 8168: 8163: 8159: 8154: 8150: 8145: 8141: 8136: 8132: 8127: 8123: 8118: 8114: 8109: 8105: 8095: 8091: 8086: 8082: 8070: 8066: 8058: 8054: 8049: 8045: 8040: 8036: 8031: 8027: 8019: 8015: 8010: 8006: 8001: 7988: 7983: 7979: 7974: 7970: 7963: 7945: 7941: 7936: 7932: 7924: 7920: 7915: 7911: 7906: 7902: 7897: 7893: 7888: 7884: 7880:Elton (1996) 92 7879: 7875: 7870: 7866: 7861: 7857: 7852: 7848: 7843: 7836: 7831: 7827: 7818: 7816: 7807: 7806: 7802: 7797: 7793: 7788: 7784: 7779: 7775: 7766: 7762: 7754: 7750: 7745: 7734: 7729: 7725: 7720: 7716: 7711: 7707: 7703:7 February 2008 7698:Wayback Machine 7689: 7685: 7680: 7676: 7671: 7667: 7662: 7658: 7653: 7646: 7641: 7637: 7632: 7628: 7623: 7619: 7614: 7607: 7598: 7594: 7589: 7585: 7580: 7576: 7571: 7567: 7563:Elton (1996) 99 7562: 7553: 7548: 7544: 7539: 7530: 7525: 7521: 7516: 7509: 7504: 7500: 7495: 7488: 7483: 7479: 7474: 7470: 7465: 7461: 7456: 7452: 7447: 7443: 7435: 7431: 7422: 7418: 7413: 7409: 7404: 7400: 7395: 7391: 7386: 7382: 7377: 7373: 7364: 7357: 7352: 7339: 7331: 7327: 7322: 7318: 7313: 7309: 7304: 7300: 7295: 7291: 7286: 7282: 7277: 7270: 7261: 7257: 7252: 7248: 7243: 7239: 7226: 7222: 7217: 7213: 7204: 7200: 7196:Rankov (1994) 8 7195: 7188: 7183: 7179: 7158: 7154: 7145: 7141: 7136: 7132: 7127: 7123: 7118: 7114: 7109: 7105: 7100: 7096: 7091: 7087: 7082: 7078: 7074:Elton (1996) 89 7073: 7064: 7059: 7055: 7050: 7046: 7041: 7037: 7032: 7028: 7023: 7019: 7014: 7010: 7005: 7001: 6996: 6992: 6987: 6980: 6975: 6971: 6966: 6962: 6951: 6947: 6942: 6938: 6933: 6929: 6924: 6920: 6915: 6908: 6903: 6896: 6891: 6887: 6883:Jones (1964) 52 6882: 6878: 6873: 6869: 6865:Jones (1964) 58 6864: 6860: 6855: 6846: 6841: 6837: 6832: 6825: 6820: 6811: 6806: 6797: 6792: 6788: 6784:Jones (1964) 68 6783: 6779: 6774: 6770: 6765: 6761: 6756: 6749: 6744: 6737: 6733:Jones (1964) 17 6732: 6728: 6724:Jones (1964) 50 6723: 6719: 6710: 6706: 6701: 6688: 6683: 6679: 6674: 6667: 6662: 6658: 6653: 6649: 6645:Eutropius IX.25 6644: 6640: 6631: 6627: 6623:Eutropius IX.15 6622: 6618: 6613: 6606: 6601: 6594: 6589: 6585: 6580: 6576: 6571: 6567: 6562: 6558: 6553: 6542: 6538:Jones (1964) 29 6537: 6533: 6529:Jones (1964) 32 6528: 6524: 6519: 6515: 6510: 6506: 6497: 6493: 6488: 6484: 6479: 6475: 6466: 6462: 6457: 6453: 6449:Jones (1964) 25 6448: 6444: 6439: 6432: 6424: 6420: 6415: 6406: 6401: 6397: 6392: 6388: 6383: 6379: 6374: 6370: 6366:Jones (1964) 97 6365: 6358: 6353: 6346: 6341: 6328: 6323: 6319: 6314: 6305: 6300: 6296: 6291: 6287: 6282: 6275: 6270: 6253: 6245: 6241: 6236: 6232: 6227: 6220: 6215: 6211: 6206: 6202: 6197: 6193: 6188: 6184: 6179: 6172: 6167: 6160: 6155: 6151: 6146: 6142: 6137: 6126: 6121: 6117: 6112: 6108: 6103: 6099: 6094: 6090: 6085: 6081: 6076: 6072: 6067: 6058: 6054: 6039:East Roman army 6013: 6008: 6006: 6003: 5899: 5838: 5736:Piazza Armerina 5728: 5726:Role of cavalry 5604:Theodor Mommsen 5593: 5587: 5582: 5445: 5431:(body armour), 5379: 5301:cursus publicus 5292: 5271: 5209: 5153: 5111: 5089: 5021: 4928:lorica squamata 4911: 4870: 4814: 4673:") in Britain. 4669:("Count of the 4588: 4488: 4484:tribuni comites 4428: 4379: 4366:Piazza Armerina 4320: 4295: 4284: 4240: 4230: 4221: 4219: 4210:(i) commander, 4165: 4143: 4136: 4129: 4118: 4094: 4089: 4071: 4066: 4061: 4044: 4030: 4025: 3972: 3965: 3960: 3910: 3768: 3766:Common soldiers 3763: 3581: 3470: 3465: 3433:Trajan's Column 3423:= "treaty") or 3411: 3354: 3348: 3326:leves armaturae 3159: 3130: 3040: 3034: 2967:equites promoti 2894: 2880: 2804: 2799: 2595:(inc. palatini) 2593: 2588: 2577:(inc. palatini) 2575: 2570: 2546:East Roman army 2534: 2525: 2450: 2444: 2410: 2299: 2162: 2157: 2125: 2099: 2088: 2077: 2066: 1968: 1961: 1954: 1947: 1940: 1933: 1926: 1899:versus 55,000). 1857: 1770: 1761: 1716:(c. 400) three 1684: 1674: 1653: 1648: 1581: 1501:usurpers. (See 1456:. The expanded 1390: 1381: 1361: 1345: 1299:, each under a 1267: 1237: 1097: 1065: 1010: 1002:Marcus Aurelius 961:equites promoti 925:equites promoti 898:306–337) whose 892: 828: 813: 776: 703: 691: 680:Moesia Inferior 672:Moesia Superior 633:tribuni militum 627:(c) a legion's 533:ordo senatorius 490:, 100 infantry 459: 454: 406:Theodosian code 361: 344:mounted archers 246:East Roman army 244:, known as the 162: 64:East Roman army 42: 22:Late Roman army 17: 12: 11: 5: 10155: 10145: 10144: 10139: 10134: 10120: 10119: 10116:Living history 10106: 10103:Living history 10093: 10088: 10083: 10078: 10073: 10068: 10061: 10060:External links 10058: 10057: 10056: 10044:10.1086/367528 10023: 10014: 10004: 9993: 9986: 9977: 9972:978-1841765594 9971: 9958: 9952: 9939: 9922: 9903: 9894: 9885: 9879: 9862: 9856: 9843: 9834: 9828: 9806: 9797: 9788: 9779: 9770: 9761: 9752: 9743: 9730: 9724: 9707: 9698: 9689: 9681: 9673: 9664: 9658: 9645: 9639: 9626: 9607: 9604: 9603: 9602: 9588: 9576: 9562: 9559: 9557: 9554: 9552: 9551: 9534: 9525: 9516: 9507: 9498: 9489: 9480: 9471: 9462: 9450: 9441: 9439:Lee (1997) 233 9432: 9423: 9414: 9405: 9396: 9387: 9378: 9369: 9357: 9348: 9339: 9330: 9318: 9309: 9300: 9291: 9282: 9273: 9264: 9255: 9246: 9237: 9228: 9219: 9206: 9197: 9188: 9179: 9170: 9161: 9148: 9139: 9130: 9121: 9112: 9103: 9090: 9084:J. C. Mann in 9077: 9068: 9059: 9050: 9041: 9032: 9023: 9014: 9005: 8996: 8987: 8978: 8969: 8956: 8947: 8938: 8926: 8917: 8908: 8899: 8880: 8871: 8862: 8841: 8829: 8820: 8811: 8802: 8793: 8784: 8771: 8762: 8748: 8739: 8730: 8721: 8712: 8698: 8689: 8680: 8671: 8662: 8653: 8644: 8635: 8626: 8617: 8608: 8599: 8584: 8575: 8566: 8557: 8548: 8536: 8524: 8512: 8493: 8481: 8465: 8456: 8447: 8438: 8429: 8417: 8408: 8399: 8390: 8381: 8372: 8363: 8349: 8340: 8331: 8322: 8313: 8304: 8295: 8286: 8277: 8268: 8259: 8250: 8238: 8229: 8220: 8211: 8202: 8193: 8184: 8175: 8166: 8157: 8148: 8139: 8130: 8121: 8112: 8103: 8089: 8080: 8064: 8052: 8043: 8034: 8025: 8013: 8004: 7986: 7977: 7968: 7961: 7939: 7930: 7918: 7909: 7900: 7891: 7882: 7873: 7864: 7855: 7846: 7834: 7825: 7800: 7791: 7782: 7773: 7760: 7748: 7732: 7723: 7714: 7705: 7683: 7674: 7665: 7656: 7644: 7642:Lee (1997) 234 7635: 7626: 7617: 7605: 7592: 7583: 7574: 7565: 7551: 7542: 7528: 7519: 7507: 7505:Lee (1997) 214 7498: 7486: 7477: 7468: 7459: 7450: 7441: 7429: 7416: 7407: 7398: 7389: 7380: 7371: 7355: 7337: 7325: 7316: 7307: 7298: 7289: 7280: 7268: 7255: 7246: 7237: 7220: 7211: 7198: 7186: 7177: 7152: 7139: 7130: 7121: 7112: 7103: 7094: 7085: 7076: 7062: 7053: 7044: 7035: 7033:Heather (1995) 7026: 7017: 7008: 6999: 6990: 6978: 6969: 6960: 6945: 6936: 6927: 6925:Lee (1997) 216 6918: 6906: 6894: 6885: 6876: 6867: 6858: 6844: 6835: 6823: 6809: 6795: 6786: 6777: 6768: 6766:Heather (2005) 6759: 6747: 6735: 6726: 6717: 6704: 6686: 6677: 6665: 6656: 6647: 6638: 6625: 6616: 6604: 6592: 6583: 6574: 6565: 6556: 6540: 6531: 6522: 6513: 6504: 6491: 6482: 6473: 6460: 6451: 6442: 6430: 6418: 6404: 6395: 6386: 6377: 6368: 6356: 6344: 6326: 6317: 6303: 6294: 6285: 6273: 6251: 6239: 6230: 6218: 6209: 6200: 6191: 6182: 6170: 6158: 6149: 6140: 6124: 6115: 6106: 6097: 6095:Lee (1997) 212 6088: 6079: 6070: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6049: 6048: 6047: 6046: 6041: 6031: 6025: 6019: 6018: 6002: 5999: 5898: 5895: 5837: 5834: 5727: 5724: 5639:distribution. 5596:Edward Luttwak 5589:Main article: 5586: 5583: 5581: 5578: 5555:Hadrian's Wall 5546: 5545: 5537: 5533: 5525: 5444: 5443:Fortifications 5441: 5403:either). Late 5378: 5375: 5291: 5288: 5270: 5267: 5259:Mainz, Germany 5208: 5205: 5152: 5149: 5110: 5107: 5088: 5085: 5020: 5017: 4982:Weiler-la-Tour 4910: 4907: 4869: 4866: 4813: 4810: 4743:was deployed. 4608:field marshals 4587: 4572: 4487: 4480: 4450:regiments) or 4427: 4420: 4378: 4371: 4342:sacra epistula 4336: 4335: 4329: 4326: 4315: 4311: 4310: 4304: 4301: 4290: 4286: 4285: 4278: 4275: 4270: 4266: 4265: 4262: 4259: 4246: 4242: 4241: 4208: 4205: 4203:Tribunus comes 4200: 4196: 4195: 4192: 4189: 4179: 4175: 4174: 4171: 4170:under Julian) 4162: 4157: 4153: 4152: 4149: 4140: 4133: 4117: 4114: 4102: 4101: 4099: 4096:beneficiarius? 4083: 4079: 4078: 4055: 4053: 4049: 4048: 4039: 4013: 4009: 4008: 4003: 3997: 3993: 3992: 3987: 3986:(infantryman) 3981: 3977: 3976: 3969: 3962: 3909: 3906: 3886:, and finally 3767: 3764: 3762: 3759: 3698: 3697: 3679: 3663: 3644: 3593:Constantinople 3591:'s obelisk in 3580: 3577: 3469: 3466: 3464: 3461: 3410: 3405: 3350:Main article: 3347: 3342: 3316:("trackers"), 3234:, attested in 3174:cataphractarii 3167: 3166: 3155: 3154: 3153:External image 3129: 3126: 3074:and old-style 3036:Main article: 3033: 3030: 3004:cataphractarii 2879: 2876: 2803: 2800: 2798: 2795: 2702: 2701: 2698: 2696: 2693: 2691: 2689: 2686: 2682: 2681: 2678: 2676: 2673: 2671: 2669: 2666: 2662: 2661: 2658: 2655: 2652: 2650: 2647: 2645: 2641: 2640: 2637: 2635: 2632: 2630: 2627: 2625: 2621: 2620: 2618: 2615: 2612: 2610: 2607: 2605: 2601: 2600: 2597: 2590: 2585: 2582: 2579: 2572: 2533: 2530: 2524: 2521: 2443: 2440: 2409: 2406: 2298: 2295: 2161: 2158: 2156: 2153: 2124: 2123:Army structure 2121: 2105: 2104: 2093: 2082: 2071: 2060: 2055: 2050: 2045: 2039: 2038: 2036: 2034: 2032: 2030: 2027: 2024: 2021: 2017: 2016: 2014: 2012: 2010: 2008: 2005: 2002: 1999: 1995: 1994: 1992: 1990: 1988: 1986: 1983: 1980: 1977: 1973: 1972: 1965: 1958: 1951: 1949:start rule 284 1944: 1937: 1930: 1923: 1901: 1900: 1870: 1856: 1853: 1852: 1851: 1835: 1832: 1828: 1769: 1766: 1760: 1757: 1693: 1692: 1689: 1686: 1680: 1679: 1676: 1671: 1667: 1666: 1663: 1660: 1656: 1655: 1654:administrator 1650: 1645: 1593:Constantius II 1585:Constantine II 1580: 1577: 1544:(cavalry) and 1408:) and border ( 1389: 1386: 1380: 1377: 1360: 1357: 1349:Roman Republic 1344: 1341: 1266: 1263: 1236: 1233: 1156:military junta 1105:Aurelian Walls 1096: 1093: 1037:Naqsh-e Rostam 1016:Roman emperor 1009: 1006: 998:Hadrian's Wall 945:Roman dictator 911:(plural form: 863:Albano Laziale 702: 699: 644: 643: 636: 625: 616: 597: 596: 589: 580: 555:cursus honorum 545:or "knights". 478:Roman citizens 458: 455: 453: 450: 419:De re militari 408:(438) and the 360: 357: 304:Constantinople 250:Byzantine army 248:(or the early 160: 157: 156: 134: 130: 129: 108: 104: 103: 98: 94: 93: 90: 86: 85: 80: 76: 75: 56: 52: 51: 48: 44: 43: 32: 24: 23: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10154: 10143: 10140: 10138: 10135: 10133: 10130: 10129: 10127: 10117: 10113: 10110: 10107: 10104: 10100: 10097: 10094: 10092: 10089: 10087: 10084: 10082: 10079: 10077: 10074: 10072: 10069: 10067: 10064: 10063: 10053: 10049: 10045: 10041: 10037: 10033: 10029: 10024: 10020: 10015: 10012: 10009: 10005: 10002: 9998: 9994: 9991: 9987: 9983: 9978: 9974: 9968: 9964: 9959: 9955: 9953:0-300-06843-3 9949: 9945: 9940: 9936: 9932: 9928: 9923: 9920: 9916: 9914: 9910: 9904: 9900: 9895: 9891: 9886: 9882: 9880:9780801818639 9876: 9871: 9870: 9863: 9859: 9853: 9849: 9844: 9840: 9835: 9831: 9825: 9821: 9817: 9816: 9811: 9807: 9803: 9798: 9794: 9789: 9785: 9780: 9776: 9771: 9767: 9762: 9758: 9753: 9749: 9748:Roman Warfare 9744: 9740: 9736: 9731: 9727: 9721: 9717: 9713: 9708: 9704: 9699: 9695: 9690: 9688: 9687: 9682: 9680: 9679: 9674: 9670: 9665: 9663: 9659: 9657: 9653: 9649: 9646: 9642: 9640:1-84217-159-3 9636: 9632: 9627: 9623: 9619: 9615: 9610: 9609: 9600: 9599: 9594: 9593: 9589: 9587:(5th century) 9586: 9585: 9584:Historia Nova 9580: 9577: 9574: 9573: 9572:Roman History 9568: 9565: 9564: 9548: 9544: 9538: 9529: 9520: 9511: 9502: 9493: 9484: 9475: 9466: 9459: 9454: 9445: 9436: 9427: 9418: 9409: 9400: 9391: 9382: 9373: 9367: 9361: 9352: 9343: 9334: 9325: 9323: 9313: 9304: 9295: 9286: 9280:Ammianus XXXI 9277: 9268: 9259: 9250: 9241: 9232: 9223: 9216: 9210: 9201: 9192: 9183: 9174: 9165: 9158: 9152: 9143: 9134: 9125: 9116: 9107: 9100: 9097:F. Miller in 9094: 9087: 9081: 9072: 9063: 9054: 9045: 9036: 9027: 9018: 9009: 9000: 8991: 8982: 8973: 8966: 8960: 8951: 8942: 8935: 8930: 8921: 8912: 8903: 8896: 8892: 8889: 8884: 8875: 8866: 8860: 8857: 8853: 8850: 8845: 8836: 8834: 8824: 8815: 8806: 8797: 8788: 8781: 8775: 8766: 8757: 8755: 8753: 8743: 8734: 8725: 8716: 8708: 8702: 8693: 8684: 8675: 8666: 8657: 8648: 8639: 8630: 8621: 8612: 8603: 8595: 8588: 8579: 8570: 8561: 8552: 8545: 8540: 8531: 8529: 8519: 8517: 8510: 8506: 8503: 8497: 8490: 8485: 8479: 8475: 8469: 8460: 8451: 8442: 8433: 8427: 8421: 8412: 8403: 8394: 8385: 8376: 8367: 8358: 8356: 8354: 8344: 8335: 8326: 8317: 8308: 8299: 8290: 8281: 8272: 8263: 8254: 8245: 8243: 8233: 8224: 8215: 8206: 8197: 8188: 8179: 8170: 8161: 8152: 8143: 8134: 8125: 8116: 8107: 8101: 8098: 8093: 8084: 8077: 8073: 8068: 8061: 8056: 8047: 8038: 8029: 8022: 8017: 8008: 7999: 7997: 7995: 7993: 7991: 7981: 7972: 7964: 7958: 7955:. p. 6. 7954: 7951:. Liverpool: 7950: 7943: 7934: 7927: 7922: 7913: 7904: 7895: 7886: 7877: 7868: 7859: 7850: 7841: 7839: 7829: 7815:on 2016-03-03 7814: 7810: 7804: 7795: 7786: 7777: 7770: 7764: 7757: 7752: 7743: 7741: 7739: 7737: 7727: 7718: 7709: 7702: 7699: 7695: 7692: 7687: 7678: 7669: 7660: 7651: 7649: 7639: 7630: 7621: 7612: 7610: 7602: 7596: 7587: 7578: 7569: 7560: 7558: 7556: 7546: 7537: 7535: 7533: 7523: 7514: 7512: 7502: 7493: 7491: 7481: 7472: 7463: 7454: 7445: 7438: 7433: 7426: 7420: 7411: 7402: 7393: 7384: 7375: 7368: 7362: 7360: 7350: 7348: 7346: 7344: 7342: 7335: 7329: 7320: 7311: 7302: 7293: 7284: 7275: 7273: 7265: 7259: 7250: 7241: 7234: 7230: 7224: 7215: 7208: 7202: 7193: 7191: 7181: 7174: 7170: 7166: 7162: 7156: 7149: 7143: 7134: 7125: 7116: 7107: 7098: 7089: 7080: 7071: 7069: 7067: 7057: 7048: 7039: 7030: 7021: 7012: 7003: 6994: 6985: 6983: 6973: 6964: 6957: 6954: 6949: 6940: 6931: 6922: 6913: 6911: 6901: 6899: 6889: 6880: 6871: 6862: 6853: 6851: 6849: 6839: 6830: 6828: 6818: 6816: 6814: 6804: 6802: 6800: 6790: 6781: 6772: 6763: 6754: 6752: 6742: 6740: 6730: 6721: 6714: 6708: 6699: 6697: 6695: 6693: 6691: 6681: 6672: 6670: 6660: 6654:Zosimus II.40 6651: 6642: 6635: 6629: 6620: 6611: 6609: 6599: 6597: 6587: 6578: 6569: 6560: 6551: 6549: 6547: 6545: 6535: 6526: 6517: 6508: 6501: 6495: 6486: 6477: 6470: 6464: 6455: 6446: 6437: 6435: 6427: 6422: 6413: 6411: 6409: 6399: 6390: 6381: 6372: 6363: 6361: 6354:Zosimus II.43 6351: 6349: 6339: 6337: 6335: 6333: 6331: 6321: 6312: 6310: 6308: 6298: 6289: 6280: 6278: 6268: 6266: 6264: 6262: 6260: 6258: 6256: 6249: 6243: 6234: 6225: 6223: 6213: 6204: 6195: 6186: 6177: 6175: 6165: 6163: 6153: 6144: 6135: 6133: 6131: 6129: 6119: 6110: 6101: 6092: 6083: 6074: 6065: 6063: 6061: 6056: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6036: 6035: 6032: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6020: 6016: 6005: 5998: 5996: 5991: 5986: 5983: 5978: 5975: 5971: 5965: 5963: 5958: 5952: 5948: 5946: 5945: 5940: 5936: 5935:Edward Gibbon 5932: 5924: 5920: 5916: 5912: 5908: 5903: 5894: 5892: 5887: 5885: 5881: 5877: 5871: 5868: 5864: 5860: 5855: 5851: 5848: 5842: 5833: 5830: 5826: 5822: 5818: 5813: 5810: 5806: 5802: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5784: 5780: 5778: 5772: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5757:vexillationes 5754: 5750: 5744: 5737: 5732: 5723: 5719: 5717: 5713: 5709: 5703: 5701: 5697: 5693: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5680:Devil's Dykes 5677: 5671: 5669: 5665: 5660: 5658: 5654: 5649: 5645: 5640: 5637: 5632: 5630: 5629:general staff 5624: 5622: 5618: 5612: 5608: 5605: 5601: 5597: 5592: 5577: 5575: 5569: 5565: 5563: 5558: 5556: 5552: 5543: 5538: 5534: 5531: 5530:crenellations 5526: 5523: 5519: 5518: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5508: 5505:) during the 5504: 5500: 5499:Castra Vetera 5496: 5491: 5484: 5479: 5472: 5468: 5462: 5454: 5449: 5440: 5439:(catapults). 5438: 5434: 5430: 5426: 5422: 5418: 5414: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5394: 5390: 5386: 5385: 5374: 5372: 5371:dux Pannoniae 5368: 5364: 5360: 5359: 5354: 5350: 5346: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5329: 5324: 5322: 5317: 5313: 5312: 5307: 5303: 5302: 5296: 5287: 5285: 5280: 5276: 5266: 5260: 5256: 5252: 5248: 5244: 5240: 5236: 5231: 5224: 5223: 5218: 5213: 5204: 5202: 5201:manuballistae 5198: 5194: 5193:composite bow 5190: 5186: 5182: 5181: 5176: 5172: 5168: 5164: 5163: 5158: 5148: 5146: 5145: 5140: 5136: 5135: 5134: 5128: 5124: 5123: 5118: 5117: 5106: 5104: 5100: 5096: 5095: 5084: 5082: 5077: 5071: 5069: 5065: 5064:catafractarii 5061: 5057: 5056:ridge helmets 5052: 5044: 5043: 5037: 5033: 5031: 5027: 5016: 5014: 5010: 5005: 5001: 5000:catafractarii 4996: 4993: 4989: 4988: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4971: 4967: 4962: 4957: 4952: 4950: 4945: 4943: 4939: 4934: 4930: 4929: 4924: 4923: 4922:lorica hamata 4918: 4917: 4906: 4904: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4865: 4863: 4855: 4851: 4847: 4842: 4835: 4831: 4827: 4823: 4818: 4809: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4765: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4750: 4744: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4725: 4719: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4680: 4674: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4627: 4622: 4619:(or, rarely, 4618: 4617: 4611: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4592:duces limitis 4585: 4581: 4577: 4571: 4569: 4565: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4552: 4547: 4546: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4504: 4502: 4498: 4493: 4485: 4479: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4425: 4419: 4417: 4413: 4412: 4407: 4403: 4402: 4397: 4393: 4388: 4384: 4376: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4358:Indo-European 4355: 4349: 4345: 4343: 4334: 4330: 4327: 4324: 4319: 4316: 4313: 4312: 4309: 4305: 4302: 4299: 4294: 4291: 4288: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4276: 4274: 4271: 4268: 4267: 4263: 4260: 4258: 4254: 4251:(or, rarely, 4250: 4247: 4244: 4243: 4238: 4234: 4229: 4225: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4206: 4204: 4201: 4198: 4197: 4193: 4190: 4187: 4183: 4180: 4177: 4176: 4172: 4169: 4163: 4161: 4158: 4155: 4154: 4150: 4147: 4141: 4139: 4134: 4132: 4127: 4126: 4123: 4113: 4109: 4100: 4097: 4092: 4087: 4084: 4081: 4080: 4076: 4075: 4069: 4064: 4059: 4056: 4054: 4051: 4050: 4047: 4043: 4040: 4037: 4033: 4028: 4023: 4022: 4017: 4014: 4011: 4010: 4007: 4004: 4002:("corporal") 4001: 3998: 3995: 3994: 3991: 3988: 3985: 3982: 3979: 3978: 3975: 3970: 3968: 3963: 3958: 3957: 3954: 3949: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3934:vexillationes 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3905: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3894: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3876:elite cavalry 3875: 3869: 3867: 3862: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3829:, totaling 9 3828: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3807: 3802: 3798: 3793: 3791: 3790: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3758: 3756: 3752: 3746: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3702: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3686: 3680: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3664: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3642: 3638: 3637: 3632: 3628: 3627: 3626: 3624: 3619: 3614: 3612: 3608: 3600: 3599: 3594: 3590: 3585: 3576: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3551: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3535: 3533: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3514: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3489: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3460: 3458: 3453: 3449: 3444: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3417: 3409: 3404: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3391: 3388:included the 3387: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3353: 3346: 3341: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3306:superventores 3303: 3298: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3275: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3240: 3237: 3233: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3203: 3198: 3197: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3175: 3165: 3156: 3151: 3145: 3144: 3139: 3134: 3125: 3123: 3122: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3079: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3039: 3029: 3027: 3022: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3011: 3006: 3005: 3000: 2996: 2995: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2977:equites Mauri 2974: 2973: 2968: 2964: 2963: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2941: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2875: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2794: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2775: 2773: 2769: 2764: 2763: 2758: 2754: 2753:vexillationes 2750: 2745: 2743: 2739: 2736: 2731: 2726: 2724: 2723: 2716: 2714: 2710: 2699: 2697: 2694: 2692: 2690: 2687: 2685:Vexillatio** 2684: 2683: 2679: 2677: 2674: 2672: 2670: 2667: 2664: 2663: 2659: 2656: 2653: 2651: 2648: 2646: 2643: 2642: 2638: 2636: 2633: 2631: 2628: 2626: 2623: 2622: 2619: 2616: 2613: 2611: 2608: 2606: 2603: 2602: 2598: 2596: 2591: 2586: 2583: 2580: 2578: 2573: 2568: 2567: 2564: 2559: 2553: 2552: 2547: 2543: 2538: 2529: 2520: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2469: 2467: 2466:vexillationes 2463: 2459: 2454: 2449: 2439: 2437: 2433: 2432: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2405: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2390: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2359: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2336: 2331: 2326: 2324: 2319: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2294: 2292: 2288: 2283: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2268: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2249: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2203: 2197: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2172: 2166: 2152: 2150: 2145: 2140: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2120: 2117: 2113: 2103: 2098: 2094: 2092: 2087: 2083: 2081: 2076: 2072: 2070: 2065: 2061: 2059: 2056: 2054: 2051: 2049: 2046: 2044: 2041: 2040: 2037: 2035: 2033: 2031: 2028: 2025: 2022: 2019: 2018: 2015: 2013: 2011: 2009: 2006: 2003: 2000: 1997: 1996: 1993: 1991: 1989: 1987: 1984: 1981: 1978: 1975: 1974: 1971: 1966: 1964: 1960:Constantine I 1959: 1957: 1952: 1950: 1945: 1943: 1938: 1936: 1931: 1929: 1924: 1921: 1920: 1917: 1912: 1909: 1907: 1897: 1893: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1871: 1868: 1863: 1862: 1861: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1836: 1833: 1829: 1826: 1821: 1820: 1819: 1816: 1814: 1809: 1807: 1803: 1798: 1793: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1765: 1756: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1729: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1706: 1704: 1700: 1690: 1687: 1682: 1681: 1677: 1672: 1669: 1668: 1664: 1661: 1658: 1657: 1651: 1646: 1643: 1642: 1636: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1576: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1553: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1530: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1515: 1511: 1506: 1504: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1482: 1477: 1476: 1471: 1468:for cavalry. 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1450:vexillationes 1447: 1442: 1440: 1439: 1434: 1431:cavalry, the 1429: 1421: 1417: 1416: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1398:Constantine I 1394: 1385: 1376: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1356: 1352: 1350: 1340: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1317:duces limitis 1312: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1292: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1262: 1259: 1252: 1251: 1246: 1241: 1232: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1216: 1214: 1213: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1179: 1174: 1172: 1168: 1163: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1146:(276–82) and 1145: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1128: 1123: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1101: 1092: 1089: 1085: 1084: 1077: 1074: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1046: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1023: 1019: 1014: 1005: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 983: 982: 976: 974: 970: 966: 962: 958: 952: 950: 946: 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 910: 909: 903: 901: 890: 886: 882: 878: 874: 873: 868: 864: 860: 859: 854: 849: 847: 846: 841: 837: 826: 822: 811: 807: 801: 799: 798: 793: 789: 785: 774: 770: 769: 759: 754: 747: 743: 742: 737: 733: 732: 731:lorica hamata 727: 723: 722: 717: 713: 707: 698: 689: 685: 681: 677: 673: 669: 665: 661: 657: 653: 649: 641: 637: 634: 630: 626: 623: 622: 617: 614: 610: 606: 605: 604: 602: 594: 590: 587: 586: 581: 578: 577: 572: 571: 570: 568: 563: 561: 557: 556: 551: 546: 544: 543: 538: 534: 529: 527: 523: 519: 515: 514: 509: 505: 501: 500:sagittariorum 497: 493: 489: 485: 484: 479: 475: 470: 468: 464: 449: 447: 443: 438: 436: 432: 427: 425: 421: 420: 415: 413: 412: 407: 402: 398: 395:(History) of 394: 389: 387: 386: 381: 377: 372: 368: 367: 356: 353: 347: 345: 341: 337: 331: 329: 325: 321: 317: 313: 309: 306:in the East, 305: 301: 297: 292: 290: 285: 281: 278: 274: 270: 266: 262: 257: 255: 251: 247: 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 223: 219: 215: 214:"late" period 207: 203: 199: 195: 191: 187: 183: 179: 175: 171: 166: 161:Military unit 154: 150: 146: 142: 138: 135: 131: 128: 124: 120: 116: 112: 109: 105: 102: 99: 95: 91: 87: 84: 81: 77: 73: 69: 65: 61: 57: 53: 49: 45: 41: 37: 36: 30: 25: 20: 10031: 10027: 10018: 10007: 9999:, Stanford: 9996: 9989: 9981: 9962: 9943: 9934: 9930: 9918: 9912: 9908: 9898: 9889: 9868: 9847: 9838: 9814: 9801: 9792: 9783: 9774: 9765: 9756: 9747: 9734: 9711: 9702: 9693: 9684: 9676: 9668: 9661: 9647: 9630: 9613: 9596: 9590: 9582: 9570: 9546: 9542: 9537: 9528: 9519: 9510: 9501: 9492: 9483: 9474: 9465: 9457: 9453: 9444: 9435: 9426: 9417: 9408: 9399: 9390: 9381: 9372: 9365: 9360: 9351: 9342: 9333: 9312: 9303: 9294: 9285: 9276: 9267: 9258: 9249: 9240: 9231: 9222: 9214: 9209: 9200: 9191: 9182: 9173: 9164: 9156: 9151: 9142: 9133: 9124: 9115: 9106: 9098: 9093: 9085: 9080: 9071: 9062: 9053: 9044: 9035: 9026: 9017: 9008: 8999: 8990: 8981: 8972: 8964: 8959: 8950: 8941: 8933: 8929: 8920: 8911: 8902: 8894: 8890: 8887: 8883: 8874: 8865: 8858: 8844: 8823: 8814: 8805: 8796: 8787: 8779: 8774: 8765: 8742: 8733: 8724: 8715: 8706: 8701: 8692: 8683: 8674: 8665: 8656: 8647: 8638: 8629: 8620: 8611: 8602: 8593: 8587: 8578: 8569: 8560: 8551: 8543: 8539: 8496: 8484: 8473: 8468: 8459: 8450: 8441: 8432: 8424:Mosaic from 8420: 8411: 8402: 8393: 8384: 8375: 8366: 8343: 8334: 8325: 8316: 8307: 8298: 8289: 8280: 8271: 8262: 8253: 8232: 8223: 8214: 8205: 8196: 8187: 8178: 8169: 8160: 8151: 8142: 8133: 8124: 8115: 8106: 8099: 8092: 8083: 8075: 8067: 8059: 8055: 8046: 8037: 8028: 8016: 8007: 7980: 7971: 7948: 7942: 7933: 7928:Introduction 7925: 7921: 7912: 7903: 7894: 7885: 7876: 7867: 7858: 7849: 7828: 7817:. Retrieved 7813:the original 7803: 7794: 7785: 7776: 7768: 7763: 7755: 7751: 7726: 7717: 7708: 7700: 7686: 7677: 7668: 7659: 7638: 7629: 7620: 7600: 7595: 7586: 7577: 7568: 7545: 7522: 7501: 7480: 7471: 7462: 7453: 7444: 7436: 7432: 7424: 7419: 7410: 7401: 7392: 7383: 7374: 7366: 7333: 7328: 7319: 7310: 7301: 7292: 7283: 7263: 7258: 7249: 7240: 7232: 7228: 7223: 7214: 7206: 7201: 7180: 7172: 7168: 7164: 7160: 7155: 7147: 7142: 7133: 7124: 7115: 7106: 7097: 7088: 7079: 7056: 7047: 7038: 7029: 7020: 7011: 7002: 6993: 6972: 6963: 6955: 6948: 6939: 6930: 6921: 6888: 6879: 6870: 6861: 6838: 6789: 6780: 6771: 6762: 6729: 6720: 6712: 6707: 6680: 6659: 6650: 6641: 6633: 6628: 6619: 6614:Victor 39.43 6602:Jones (1964) 6590:Zosimus I.23 6586: 6581:Zosimus I.22 6577: 6568: 6559: 6534: 6525: 6516: 6507: 6499: 6494: 6489:Zosimus I.20 6485: 6480:Zosimus I.16 6476: 6468: 6463: 6458:Zosimus I.24 6454: 6445: 6421: 6398: 6389: 6380: 6371: 6320: 6297: 6288: 6247: 6242: 6233: 6212: 6203: 6194: 6185: 6152: 6143: 6118: 6109: 6100: 6091: 6082: 6073: 5987: 5981: 5979: 5973: 5969: 5966: 5961: 5953: 5949: 5942: 5938: 5930: 5928: 5914: 5910: 5888: 5879: 5875: 5872: 5862: 5858: 5856: 5852: 5847:comitatenses 5846: 5843: 5839: 5824: 5820: 5817:comitatenses 5816: 5814: 5804: 5796: 5785: 5781: 5776: 5773: 5768: 5764: 5760: 5756: 5752: 5748: 5745: 5741: 5720: 5715: 5704: 5695: 5675: 5672: 5667: 5663: 5661: 5656: 5652: 5647: 5643: 5641: 5635: 5633: 5625: 5621:comitatenses 5620: 5616: 5613: 5609: 5599: 5594: 5570: 5566: 5559: 5547: 5542:portcullises 5521: 5515: 5498: 5494: 5492: 5488: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5382: 5380: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5356: 5352: 5348: 5344: 5340: 5336: 5332: 5327: 5325: 5315: 5309: 5305: 5299: 5297: 5293: 5283: 5278: 5274: 5272: 5263: 5251:Mainz Type A 5250: 5242: 5238: 5234: 5220: 5216: 5200: 5188: 5184: 5178: 5174: 5170: 5160: 5159:, a kind of 5156: 5154: 5142: 5138: 5132: 5130: 5126: 5120: 5114: 5112: 5109:Hand weapons 5102: 5098: 5092: 5090: 5081:comitatenses 5080: 5072: 5067: 5063: 5060:Burgh Castle 5048: 5040: 5022: 5012: 5008: 5003: 4999: 4997: 4991: 4985: 4969: 4965: 4963: 4959: 4954: 4946: 4937: 4932: 4926: 4920: 4914: 4912: 4902: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4881: 4877: 4873: 4871: 4858: 4829: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4785: 4781: 4777: 4773: 4769: 4766: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4748: 4747: 4745: 4740: 4736: 4732: 4728: 4723: 4722: 4720: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4678: 4677: 4675: 4666: 4662: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4625: 4624: 4620: 4615: 4614: 4612: 4599: 4595: 4591: 4589: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4549: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4505: 4500: 4496: 4491: 4489: 4483: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4446:(most other 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4429: 4423: 4415: 4409: 4405: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4386: 4382: 4380: 4374: 4361: 4341: 4339: 4332: 4322: 4317: 4307: 4297: 4292: 4281: 4272: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4236: 4232: 4227: 4223: 4215: 4211: 4202: 4185: 4181: 4167: 4159: 4145: 4142:No. of posts 4137: 4130: 4121: 4110: 4105: 4095: 4090: 4085: 4072: 4067: 4062: 4057: 4045: 4041: 4031: 4026: 4019: 4015: 4005: 3999: 3989: 3983: 3973: 3966: 3952: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3911: 3901: 3897: 3891: 3887: 3884:comitatenses 3883: 3882:units, then 3879: 3873: 3870: 3863: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3794: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3769: 3754: 3750: 3747: 3726: 3703: 3699: 3693: 3689: 3683: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3640: 3634: 3630: 3617: 3615: 3606: 3605: 3596: 3589:Theodosius I 3571: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3552: 3547: 3544:comitatenses 3543: 3539: 3536: 3515: 3510:comitatenses 3509: 3505: 3493: 3490: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3471: 3456: 3451: 3447: 3445: 3436: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3414: 3412: 3407: 3389: 3385: 3380: 3369:βουκελλάριοι 3360: 3356: 3355: 3344: 3337: 3333: 3330:exculcatores 3329: 3325: 3321: 3318:exploratores 3317: 3314:exculcatores 3313: 3310:praeventores 3309: 3305: 3301: 3299: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3276: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3246:by the term 3243: 3241: 3231: 3210: 3206: 3200: 3194: 3179:kataphraktos 3178: 3172: 3170: 3141: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3098: 3090: 3086: 3083:comitatenses 3082: 3080: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3041: 3023: 3018: 3014: 3008: 3002: 2998: 2992: 2980: 2976: 2970: 2966: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2942: 2938:comitatenses 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2895: 2888:Comitatenses 2871: 2867: 2863: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2805: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2776: 2771: 2767: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2746: 2741: 2740: 2734: 2729: 2727: 2720: 2717: 2713:comitatenses 2712: 2708: 2705: 2594: 2592:Comitatenses 2576: 2574:Comitatenses 2562: 2557: 2549: 2541: 2526: 2516: 2508: 2504: 2501:praesentales 2500: 2496: 2492: 2489:hospitalitas 2488: 2484: 2480: 2477:comitatenses 2476: 2472: 2470: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2455: 2451: 2435: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2411: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2391: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2360: 2355: 2333: 2329: 2327: 2322: 2320: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2300: 2286: 2284: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2269: 2264: 2261:comitatenses 2260: 2256: 2252: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2235:Theodosius I 2230: 2228: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2200: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2169: 2148: 2143: 2141: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2126: 2111: 2108: 2101: 2096: 2090: 2085: 2079: 2074: 2068: 2063: 2057: 2052: 2047: 2042: 1969: 1963:end rule 337 1962: 1956:end rule 305 1955: 1948: 1941: 1934: 1927: 1915: 1910: 1905: 1902: 1895: 1891: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1858: 1817: 1810: 1805: 1801: 1796: 1794: 1789: 1785: 1782:A.H.M. Jones 1771: 1762: 1752: 1749:comitatenses 1748: 1744: 1740: 1737:comitatenses 1736: 1732: 1726: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1707: 1702: 1698: 1696: 1662:Dux limitis 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1582: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1554: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1531: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1513: 1509: 1507: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1479: 1475:comitatenses 1473: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1443: 1436: 1432: 1425: 1413: 1409: 1406:comitatenses 1405: 1401: 1396:The emperor 1382: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1362: 1353: 1346: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1313: 1308: 1300: 1293: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1268: 1256: 1248: 1243:The emperor 1223: 1217: 1210: 1175: 1164: 1135: 1127:primipilares 1125: 1119: 1113:Servian Wall 1083:antoninianus 1081: 1078: 1048:devastating 1042: 989: 985: 979: 977: 972: 968: 964: 960: 956: 953: 948: 940: 936: 932: 928: 924: 920: 912: 906: 904: 899: 884: 880: 876: 870: 866: 856: 852: 850: 843: 840:primipilares 839: 835: 821:primipilares 820: 806:primipilares 805: 802: 795: 791: 787: 766: 764: 758:Dura Europos 739: 735: 729: 719: 715: 651: 647: 645: 639: 632: 628: 619: 618:(b) the two 609:procuratores 608: 600: 598: 592: 583: 574: 566: 564: 553: 549: 547: 540: 537:Roman Senate 532: 530: 521: 517: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 481: 471: 460: 446:A.H.M. Jones 441: 439: 428: 417: 416: 409: 400: 392: 390: 383: 379: 375: 370: 364: 362: 348: 336:cataphractii 332: 295: 293: 286: 282: 273:conscription 258: 238:western half 234:Roman Empire 226:Julius Nepos 211: 205: 193: 119:Comitatenses 83:Roman Empire 33: 10038:: 365–371. 9913:campidoctor 8707:Strategikon 7771:Oriens.XXXI 7264:De Mensibus 7262:John Lydus 7060:Zosimus III 6715:Title XXXIV 6632:Hist. Aug. 6426:Dio Cassius 5939:magnum opus 5905:Drawing of 5777:cataphracti 5483:Bode Museum 5437:ballistaria 5326:On rivers, 5247:Moguntiacum 5219:, from the 5127:semispatha. 5076:silver-gilt 5026:Heddernheim 4944:or scale. 4862:cataphracts 4770:protectores 4671:Saxon Shore 4522:; (2) some 4468:protectores 4452:praepositus 4392:protectores 4387:protectores 4383:protectores 4375:protectores 4331:commander, 4088:(centurion) 4074:primicerius 4058:centenarius 4032:vexillarius 4000:tesserarius 3946:centenarius 3523:Roman palms 3463:Recruitment 3441:Dacian Wars 3361:bucellarius 3352:Bucellarius 3279:ballistarii 3211:clibanarius 3202:clibanarius 3143:clibanarius 3128:Specialists 2860:cataphracts 2291:Justinian I 2100:Treadgold: 2095:Low count: 2089:Treadgold: 2078:Treadgold: 2073:Low count: 2067:Treadgold: 2062:Low count: 1685:prefecture 1388:Constantine 1369:indictiones 1365:indictiones 1136:coup d'état 1033:Rock relief 1000:by emperor 861:. Based at 858:II Parthica 845:coup d'état 648:primuspilus 254:Justinian I 133:Engagements 10142:Diocletian 10126:Categories 9937:: 474–501. 9556:References 9155:C. Scarre 7962:0853232288 7819:2016-03-18 7227:MacMullen 7171:and 20–30 6034:Roman army 5957:Radagaisus 5755:, cavalry 5716:tributarii 5692:Wallachian 5676:tributarii 5433:clibanaria 5427:(arrows), 5425:sagittaria 5419:(spears), 5243:Germania I 5068:clibanarii 5030:great helm 5004:clibanarii 4992:segmentata 4938:segmentata 4933:segmentata 4551:Herculiani 4501:ex officio 4444:praefectus 4239:or emperor 4186:praefectus 4063:ducenarius 4006:semissalis 3942:ducenarius 3904:regiment. 3784:stipendium 3780:stipendium 3731:Sarmatians 3611:barbarians 3602:Principate 3579:Barbarians 3540:probatoria 3519:Roman feet 3498:Radagaisus 3474:voluntarii 3386:bucellarii 3381:bucellarii 3357:Bucellarii 3345:Bucellarii 3260:sagittarii 3252:sagittarii 3223:Sarmatians 3028:, below). 3010:clibanarii 2882:See also: 2864:sagittarii 2856:clibanarii 2797:Unit types 2660:500–1,000 2657:800–1,200 2617:400–1,200 2599:Limitanei 2532:Unit sizes 2509:Mediolanum 2446:See also: 2293:(525-65). 2175:. Eastern 2116:Roman Navy 2114:units and 1953:Diocletian 1946:Diocletian 1939:S. Severus 1922:Army corps 1867:John Lydus 1813:John Lydus 1683:Praetorian 1665:Corrector 1418:. Bust in 1258:Diocletian 1245:Diocletian 1235:Diocletian 1171:Adrianople 1148:Diocletian 969:vexillatio 726:chain mail 718:, a heavy 603:provided: 472:The elite 463:Principate 435:tombstones 393:Res Gestae 340:clibanarii 287:Under the 277:Barbarians 265:Principate 222:Diocletian 218:Roman army 204:, the two 192:, the two 190:Maximianus 186:Diocletian 176:statue on 151:(378) and 149:Adrianople 141:Strasbourg 60:West Roman 10109:Britannia 10096:Comitatus 10052:161695207 9812:(1986) . 9598:Augustana 9101:13 (1982) 9099:Britannia 9088:69 (1979) 8965:Historiae 8546:Oriens.XI 7701:Retrieved 6471:(2007) 95 6052:Citations 5995:Byzantine 5970:dediticii 5825:limitanei 5821:limitanei 5793:decimated 5769:comitatus 5765:comitatus 5753:comitatus 5668:comitatus 5664:comitatus 5648:comitatus 5617:limitanei 5576:, below) 5429:loricaria 5417:lanciaria 5328:actuariae 5321:Lusitania 5316:actuariae 5284:every day 5197:crossbows 5180:plumbatae 4894:orbiculi, 4846:Intercisa 4812:Equipment 4741:comitatus 4729:comitatus 4704:limitanei 4696:comitatus 4684:comitatus 4665:e.g. the 4659:rescripts 4647:comitatus 4631:limitanei 4568:comitatus 4536:comitatus 4448:limitanei 4436:comitatus 4416:protector 4325:in West) 4308:comitatus 4300:in West) 4282:comitatus 4168:domestici 4160:Protector 4128:Pay scale 4052:2.5 to 5 3926:centurion 3898:comitatus 3893:actuarius 3888:limitanei 3755:foederati 3751:dediticii 3741:from the 3735:Armenians 3656:foederati 3623:peregrini 3572:comitatus 3556:commeatus 3548:limitanei 3506:Germaniae 3443:(101–6). 3437:foederati 3429:dediticii 3416:foederati 3408:Foederati 3291:comitatus 3272:limitanei 3264:comitatus 3227:Parthians 3219:Scythians 3138:Sassanian 3116:comitatus 3112:comitatus 3108:Limitanei 3104:comitatus 3099:limitanei 3091:limitanei 3087:limitanei 3044:limitanei 3038:Limitanei 3032:Limitanei 3026:Equipment 3015:comitatus 2999:comitatus 2945:comitatus 2872:candidati 2870:, called 2836:armaturae 2787:limitanei 2779:limitanei 2749:comitatus 2735:comitatus 2730:limitanei 2709:Scholares 2614:Auxilium 2589:unit type 2581:Limitanei 2571:unit type 2523:Regiments 2517:comitatus 2497:comitatus 2485:limitanei 2458:limitanei 2383:comitatus 2371:comitatus 2363:comitatus 2330:comitatus 2316:comitatus 2312:limitanei 2308:comitatus 2304:comitatus 2257:comitatus 2181:comitatus 2149:comitatus 2144:limitanei 2133:comitatus 2112:foederati 1906:foederati 1797:limitanei 1759:Army size 1753:limitanei 1741:scholares 1710:comitatus 1703:limitanei 1699:comitatus 1678:Vicarius 1659:Province 1649:commander 1625:comitatus 1613:comitatus 1609:comitatus 1601:comitatus 1597:comitatus 1573:comitatus 1569:comitatus 1565:comitatus 1561:comitatus 1550:comitatus 1527:comitatus 1498:comitatus 1494:comitatus 1490:comitatus 1486:comitatus 1481:limitanei 1470:Comitatus 1458:comitatus 1446:comitatus 1428:Maxentius 1410:limitanei 1402:comitatus 1288:comitatus 1272:Tetrarchy 1195:Bastarnae 1152:Tetrarchy 1132:Gallienus 1124:, mostly 1122:Thracians 994:Sarmatian 986:foederati 981:peregrini 949:comitatus 937:comitatus 921:comitatus 900:comitatus 877:comitatus 853:comitatus 825:Gallienus 788:peregrini 773:Caracalla 746:Intercisa 684:Macedonia 676:Thracians 656:Illyrians 640:praefecti 567:senatorii 513:peregrini 289:Tetrarchy 170:Tetrarchs 145:Ctesiphon 127:Foederati 123:Limitanei 55:Disbanded 8963:Tacitus 8895:Occidens 8852:Archived 8710:shields. 8505:Archived 8489:Seeck O. 8076:Germania 7758:Oriens.V 7694:Archived 7425:Occidens 7423:Notitia 7365:Notitia 7173:cohortes 7165:COHORS 2 7146:Tacitus 6953:Agathias 6713:Occidens 6711:Notitia 6498:J. Kent 6001:See also 5797:Tertiaci 5761:legiones 5718:status. 5710:in 375. 5700:Budapest 5696:Aquincum 5585:Strategy 5574:Strategy 5423:(bows), 5421:arcuaria 5405:fabricae 5401:fabricae 5397:fabricae 5393:fabricae 5384:fabricae 5306:angariae 5217:fabricae 5157:spiculum 5151:Missiles 5139:gladius. 4987:pteruges 4974:Arcadius 4970:fabricae 4949:Vegetius 4898:tabulae, 4868:Clothing 4850:Vegetius 4798:tribunus 4639:vicarius 4604:generals 4492:comitiva 4460:tribunus 4440:cohortes 4432:tribunus 4408:under a 4368:, Sicily 4354:swastika 4237:magister 4182:Tribunus 4166:(200 in 4086:centurio 4046:biarchus 4042:circitor 4021:centuria 4016:signifer 3930:decurion 3922:cohortes 3914:legiones 3880:palatini 3847:Augustus 3819:Augustus 3811:Augustus 3797:donativa 3745:region. 3743:Caucasus 3739:Iberians 3711:Alamanni 3694:palatini 3690:barritus 3672:Stilicho 3668:Arbogast 3641:gentiles 3598:palatini 3527:Vegetius 3494:curiales 3482:indictio 3478:dilectus 3425:symmachi 3393:Stilicho 3334:expediti 3283:ballista 3236:Pannonia 3207:klibanos 3187:lamellar 3064:cohortes 3060:legiones 2934:palatini 2930:legiones 2926:palatini 2844:gentiles 2840:gentiles 2832:scutarii 2791:legiones 2783:legiones 2772:legiones 2757:legiones 2700:200–300 2695:Numerus 2688:400–600 2680:200–300 2675:Milites 2665:Schola* 2644:Equites 2639:160–500 2629:200–300 2609:120–500 2587:Infantry 2473:palatini 2462:legiones 2344:Honorius 2340:Stilicho 2253:palatini 2173:Orientis 2097:350,000? 2064:260,000? 2029:~15,000 2026:~~8,000 2023:~~5,000 2007:250,000 2004:218,000 2001:125,000 1998:AUXILIA 1985:182,000 1982:155,000 1979:125,000 1976:LEGIONS 1925:Tiberius 1840:Alamanni 1831:emperor. 1774:Agathias 1745:palatini 1733:palatium 1728:palatini 1670:Diocese 1647:Military 1629:vicarius 1589:Constans 1538:cohortes 1523:magistri 1505:below). 1359:Supplies 1343:Manpower 1301:vicarius 1297:dioceses 1280:Augustus 1276:Augustus 1222:, was a 1140:Aurelian 1109:Aurelian 1054:smallpox 1050:pandemic 1025:Shapur I 1018:Valerian 973:vexillum 881:cohortes 761:sleeves. 736:spiculum 716:spiculum 688:Domitian 668:Dalmatia 664:Pannonia 660:Illyrian 638:(d) the 492:cohortes 467:Augustus 431:Diplomas 424:Vegetius 324:Infantry 312:usurpers 300:palatini 230:Dominate 198:Galerius 174:porphyry 115:Palatini 9579:Zosimus 9561:Ancient 9364:Arrian 9213:Scarre 8934:Notitia 8888:Notitia 8544:Notitia 8072:Tacitus 7769:Notitia 7756:Notitia 7427:Title V 7369:Title I 7207:Annales 7148:Annales 6956:History 6428:LXXI.16 5962:Notitia 5925:, Italy 5919:diptych 5915:chlamys 5876:gladius 5867:bayonet 5863:gladius 5836:Tactics 5805:Scholae 5749:Notitia 5551:bastion 5511:Civilis 5467:Normans 5389:Notitia 5353:classes 5345:Notitia 5337:classes 5279:vicarii 5235:lusoria 5185:plumbum 5175:lanceae 5171:verruta 5116:gladius 5087:Shields 5019:Helmets 4886:caligae 4882:caligae 4874:caligae 4824:at the 4808:stage. 4782:scholae 4774:tribuni 4692:comites 4688:Notitia 4626:limitis 4545:Ioviani 4540:comites 4532:scholae 4528:scholae 4524:tribuni 4512:tribuni 4472:scholae 4464:tribuni 4456:milites 4424:tribuni 4406:scholae 4362:chlamys 4257:limitis 4228:scholae 4224:tribuni 4191:c. 800 4146:Notitia 4082:Over 5 4068:senator 3938:auxilia 3874:scholae 3839:solidus 3835:Augusti 3815:solidus 3789:denarii 3749:namely 3727:Notitia 3723:Vandals 3685:Cornuti 3676:Ricimer 3648:Notitia 3631:Notitia 3618:barbari 3607:Barbari 3452:numerus 3401:Rufinus 3338:Notitia 3322:velites 3302:Notitia 3287:Notitia 3268:Notitia 3256:sagitta 3244:Notitia 3215:steppes 3185:and/or 3095:militia 3068:equites 3056:auxilia 3048:milites 3042:In the 3019:Notitia 2953:comites 2922:Auxilia 2868:scholae 2848:scholae 2824:scholae 2816:scholae 2812:Notitia 2808:scholae 2802:Scholae 2768:auxilia 2747:In the 2742:Scholae 2649:80–300 2634:Cohors 2624:Cuneus 2569:Cavalry 2544:of the 2460:units ( 2426:scholae 2422:tribuni 2418:Notitia 2414:scholae 2408:Scholae 2394:Notitia 2352:Ricimer 2323:Notitia 2287:Notitia 2239:Notitia 2231:Notitia 2219:Notitia 2211:comites 2102:514,500 2091:581,000 2086:410,000 2084:Elton: 2080:581,000 2075:389,704 2069:389,704 2058:447,000 2053:381,000 2048:255,000 1967:Notitia 1932:Hadrian 1896:Notitia 1892:Notitia 1883:Abusina 1875:Notitia 1806:equites 1778:Zosimus 1714:Notitia 1621:Notitia 1557:Zosimus 1546:auxilia 1525:of the 1510:vicarii 1454:auxilia 1438:scholae 1333:vicarii 1173:(378). 1167:Naissus 1160:Sirmium 1069: 896: 883:and 11 832: 817: 780: 695: 652:equites 601:equites 550:equites 542:equites 522:barbari 518:auxilia 508:auxilia 504:auxilia 483:auxilia 474:legions 401:Notitia 385:lacunae 380:Notitia 376:Notitia 371:Notitia 359:Sources 328:cavalry 316:legions 263:of the 216:of the 206:Caesars 194:Augusti 147:(363), 143:(357), 139:(298), 111:Scholae 79:Country 35:Labarum 10050: 9969: 9950: 9877: 9854: 9826: 9722: 9654: 9637: 9606:Modern 9460:passim 8891:Oriens 8023:166–77 7959: 7367:Oriens 6634:Probus 5809:Valens 5712:Julian 5536:walls. 5522:fossae 5503:Xanten 5343:. The 5183:(from 5122:spatha 5103:Clipei 5094:scutum 5051:Celtic 5013:manica 4909:Armour 4890:clavi, 4878:bracae 4836:, Rome 4802:schola 4598:, and 4036:cohort 3859:solidi 3855:solidi 3851:Caesar 3843:solidi 3831:solidi 3827:solidi 3823:solidi 3806:solidi 3801:solidi 3721:, and 3715:Saxons 3707:Franks 3532:Tydeus 3468:Romans 3457:numeri 3448:numeri 3421:foedus 3419:(from 3397:Aetius 3281:(from 3196:contus 3191:manica 3052:numeri 2916:, and 2890:, and 2852:schola 2654:Legio 2448:Castra 2420:, the 2348:Aetius 2335:shōgun 1935:c. 130 1422:, Rome 1373:coloni 1284:Caesar 1250:follis 1228:Julian 1224:Caesar 1207:Victor 1199:Gepids 1191:Probus 1144:Probus 1056:, the 971:(from 748:type". 712:spatha 480:. 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