Later Roman Empire

406: 1886:

Beirut pagans started praying in the Christian church, but they did not abandon all their pagan customs. Pagan temples were first closed under Constantius II, but Julian re-opened them. Inscriptions hailed Julian as "restorer of liberty and the Roman religion". He revived the system of provincial high priests and appointed a chief priest for each city. His enthusiasm for sacrifices shocked Christians and pagan intellectuals alike. Reportedly, he sacrificed so many animals while making preparations for his Persian campaign that people worried about a shortage of cattle. His short reign could not stop the Christianization of the Roman Empire. Jovian adopted a moderate approach and only repeated bans on magical practices. The pagan

2429:

were particularly attractive to young intellectuals, among them Augustine who adhered to their faith before his conversion to Christianity around 382. The persecution of Manichaeans started during Diocletian's reign primarily because of their association with Zoroastianism, although Manichaeism had been outlawed in the Sassanian Empire. Theodosius I renewed their persecution, describing them as followers of a sect who meet in "nefarious retreats and wicked recesses". From 382 Manichaeans could not inherit property and their religious meetings were forbidden, from the late 5th century they were sentenced to exile or death. Christians who were regarded heretics by state authorities were regularly labelled as Manichaeans.

2040:—for arousing Diocletian's anger against the Christians, and Galerius and his fanatically pagan mother for convincing him to take drastic measures. Diocletian outlawed Christianity on 23 February 303. His edits ordered the destruction of Christian churches and literature and the confiscation of church property. Christians were dismissed from imperial service and they were ordered to make sacrifices to pagan gods. The anti-Christian edits were not carried out consistently: in the west, Maximian and Constantius were mainly reluctant to implement them, and Constantine put an end to the purge in 306; in the east, Christians were imprisoned, tortured or executed, and the persecution lasted until Maximinus' fall in 312. 856: 648: 2094:

success primarily to the Christians' generous acts of charity, their special care for the dead and their attempt to live a virtuous life, because all these features were of particular importance for the impoverished masses of Roman society. In practice, Christian influence on Roman society and state was limited, but Christianity was quickly Romanized. The Christian God replaced the pagan gods in official documents and ceremonies, but few rich Christians renounced their wealth as Biblical stories proposed it. Church hierarchy followed the patterns of state administration: the bishops of the provincial capitals, known as

1683:

maintained through the recruitment of at least 20,000 troops each year. Most soldiers were conscripts and sons of veterans were expected to serve in the army. Imperial laws against those who mutilated themselves reveal that a military career was not attractive to all citizens. Prisoners and defeated enemies were regularly recruited, and volunteers, both Romans and foreigners, also served in the army. Although the rules changed time to time, slaves, men less than 1.65 metres (5.4 feet), heretics and urban magistrates were excluded from military service.

2049: 1663:

system, talented barbarian chieftains could launch successful invasions deep into the empire, and catastrophic events could cause mass migrations towards the borderlands. Public opinion endorsed cruelty when dealing with the enemy and prisoners of war were customarily thrown to the beasts in gladiator shows. Emperors routinely commemorated their victories over the barbarian tribes on inscriptions and coins. Quite paradoxically, even Honorius, characterized as the "most unwarlike emperor" by historian

104: 1112: 791:. When Constantius died in Britain in 306, his troops proclaimed Constantine his successor. Galerius recognized Constantine as the new Caesar in return for Constantine's consent to the appointment of Valerius as Augustus in the west. Maxentius rejected their agreement. He persuaded his retired father to again assume the title of Augustus and attacked Valerius in Italy, forcing him to commit suicide in 307. To restore internal peace, Diocletian, Galerius and Maximian held a conference at 2287:, the bishops of Constantinople would hold the second highest position in church hierarchy. Theodosius ordered the appointment of Nicene bishops to all eastern sees. The Goths and most other barbarians who settled in the empire remained Arians and their strong position in the imperial army secured the survival of Arianism. Their adherence to Arianism became a mark of their own ethnic identity and their attempts to have their own churches led to conflicts with Nicene bishops. 1443:("lord"), and Jovius or Herculius (in reference to the gods Jupiter and Hercules, respectively). The use of the adjectives "sacred" and "divine" became common when referring anything with direct contact with the emperor, including his bedchamber and treasury. Access to the emperors was increasingly controlled by new court officials. They were often chosen from among the eunuchs who were always at the emperor's mercy, and were often unpopular. Among the new dignitaries, the 1325:. Honorius made Constantius his co-emperor as Augustus in 421, but Constantius soon died of an illness. After a fierce conflict with her half-brother the widowed Galla Placidia fled to Constantinople. In response to a persecution of Persian Christians, Theodosius declared war on Persia, but a Hunnic invasion of the Balkans forced him to renew the peace with the Sassanian Empire. To prevent further plundering raids, he agreed to pay a yearly tribute of 25,200 1524: 9059: 1633:, or imperial guard. After abolishing the senators' obligation to reside in Rome and attend the meetings of the Senate, Constantine could grant senatorial rank generously. The establishment of a new Senate at Constantinople further increased the number of senators. To promote the development of his new capital, he granted Anatolian estates to all senators who built a private house in Constantinople. The unofficial title 759:—a collection of imperial rulings—in 292. The tetrarchs' involvement in the process is not documented, but it was consistent with their attempt to stabilize the empire. The spread of Christianity and the Christians' rejection of traditional cults troubled the elderly Diocletian. In concern with Galerius, he outlawed Christianity in 303, initiating the Christians' last systematic persecution in the empire. 25: 2400:. Armed conflicts between them and the local Christians were common in the late 5th century. In retaliation for their attack on Christians during Easter, their temple was transformed into a Christian church. After Justinian forbade their religious practices, tens of thousands of Samaritans fled to the Sassanian Empire. Those who remained in Palestine took up arms against the imperial government 1865: 1035:, but avaricious provincial officials enslaved many of them in return for low quality food staff. The local Roman army could not stop the influx of further refugees across the Danube. The despaired Goths revolted and they were joined by Hunnic raiders. Valens sought military assistance from Gratian but engaged the Goths and their allies 1940:, in reality Hypatia was assassinated not for religious reasons, but for political ones, as she belonged to one of the multi-confessional factions that disputed control of the city. Hypatia's death horrified Cyril, who, although he was her intellectual rival, held her in very high esteem, condemning the city for its violent nature. 890:. Unilateral divorce was limited to cases of serious crimes, like poisoning, committed by husband or wife. Constantine developed a system of client states along the Danube and Rhine taking advantage of the neighboring tribes' dependence on commerce with the empire. He established a new city on the site of the ancient Greek 1501:

imperial images sent to the cities at the beginning of an emperor's rule were received and greeted at formal assemblies. Most Christian intellectuals embraced a modified version of Rome's imperialist ideology, claiming that God destined the empire to facilitate the spread of Christianity for the salvation of all mankind.

2098:, became the superior of other bishops in the province. Episcopal elections became controlled by the aristocracy and the local communities could no more freely elect their bishops. Constantine treated the bishops as imperial officials. His frequent interventions in church affairs set a precedent for future emperors. 2392:

delivered sermons against Christians who regularly visited synagogues in Antioch in 386 and 387. Ambrose of Milan sharply attacked the Jews in his correspondence with Theodosius I about the destruction of a Syrian synagogue by Roman soldiers. Patriarch Cyril organized a series of pogroms against

1966:

The end of neoplatonism occurred during the reign of Justinian I. Around 531 he banned all who had not received the orthodox/nicean baptism from teaching and serving in state administration. Their children were to be educated in Christian environment and those who resisted were banished from the

1848:

is well documented. Individuals regularly approached sorcerers or applied magical practices to secure the support of unearthly powers although magical practices were outlawed. The regulated way of life of Egyptian priestly communities and their enthusiasm for scientific studies arrested the attention

1682:

asserts that during Diocletian's reign 389,704 troops served in the field army and 45,562 sailors in the navy. According to modern estimations, the Roman army was of 400,000–600,000 strong in the mid-4th century. For Roman soldiery served twenty-year terms, this army size could be

1603:

and senatorial offices became obsolete by the end of the 3rd century. Diocletian replaced the old system with a new hierarchy of imperial officials and made the senatorial rank available to all who held high offices in imperial administration. Under the new system, civil and military hierarchies

1353:

to the Huns to recruit mercenaries. Aetius who had spent years among the Huns as a hostage returned to Italy accompanied by Hunnic troops but by that time Ardabur had captured John. Aetius and Ardabur reached a compromise whereby Aetius acknowledged the child Valentinian III as emperor in return

363:

is a useful source of the empire's civil and military administration even if it likely contains exaggerated data: both military commanders and high-ranking civil servants tended to emphasize the importance of their office by giving overestimated numbers to official data collectors. In comparison with

2257:

from a former temple of Apollo. When a fire destroyed the roof of the temple and the statute of Apollo, Julian accused the Christians of arsonry and closed their church in Antioch. His order about the sprinkling of foods with water used by pagan priests during sacrifices was particularly provocative

1662:

Roman citizens regarded the defense of their homeland as the emperors' prime duty. They paid taxes and raised troops in return for protection against the "howling people" surrounding the Roman Empire, but the emperors were not always able to meet their expectations. Civil wars could ruin the defense

1641:

had been used in reference to the emperors' companions, but Constantine formalized it as a new rank and honor, bestowing it particularly on those in his immediate service. As a sign of the growing importance of Christianity, Constantine authorized the bishops to make judgement in civil cases between

1491:

whose authority to make, modify or even break laws was absolute. In practice, they made decisions based on information received from faraway officials and official reports often gave a distorted view of individual cases. Emperors typically intervened in local affairs on the initiative of individuals

2234:

bishop to lead a proselytizing mission among the Goths across the Danube in 341. Although seven years later Ulfilas was banned from the Gothic territory, Gothic converts continued his mission. In 338 Constantius achieved the deposition of Athanasius and Marcellus at a church council in Antioch, but

1885:

where God had appeared to Abraham according to Biblical tradition. Late sources attribute the ban on sacrifices to him, but only sacrifices associated with magical practices were forbidden during his reign. Cases of religious syncretism are well documented. For instance, after the 348 earthquake in

1214:

consolidated his position and crossed the Channel into Gaul where he recruited new troops from among the invaders. As the bulk of the Roman garrisons accompanied Constantine to Gaul, raiders from Ireland launched regular attacks against Britain. Alaric resumed the attacks against northern Italy and

1030:

from the east, masses of Goths—reportedly 100,000 men, women and children—gathered at the Lower Danube and sought asylum from Valens in the summer of 376. Valens granted their request because he wanted to muster fresh troops from among the Goths for a new war against Persia. The asylum seekers were

823:

and Constantine seized Italy and Africa. He reinforced his alliance with Licinius at a meeting in Milan in February 313. They restored religious freedom, abolishing all laws limiting the Christians' civil rights. Although their agreement was not formally enacted, it is now known inaccurately as the

814:

Maximian staged a failed coup against Constantine and committed suicide in 310. A year later, Galerius and the retired Diocletian died, leaving Constantine, Licinius, Maxentius and Maximinus on the scene. Constantine and Licinius quickly concluded an alliance against Maxentius whose realm separated

1674:

transferred messages at a speed of about 80 kilometres (50 miles) per day, and news often reached the imperial court weeks after the events. The tetrarchy addressed this issue by allocating a separate field army to each emperor. Emperors Julian and Valens were killed in action, demonstrating

1535:

State administration underwent more structural changes during the period starting with Diocletian's ascension and ending with Theodosius' death than in the previous three centuries. By the end of the 4th century, a highly centralized bureaucratic system, employing about 35,000 officials,

1389:

succeeded him as supreme commander. Aetius fled to the Huns and hired Hunnic mercenaries. On his return to Italy, Sebastianus was deposed and Aetius was appointed as his successor. He concluded a peace treaty with the Vandals, acknowledging their hold of the western regions of Roman Africa in 435.

2428:

religion: its adherents distinguished a good and an evil god, and blamed the evil god for the creation of the material world. Their communities were divided into two groups: the ascetic Elects (who abstained from sex), and the Hearers (who lived a more ordinary life). Their asceticism and dualism

1479:

and warehouses. Constantinople developed into the empire's unrivalled second capital only during the reign of Theodosius I. From the 380s, the emperors rarely held their court along the frontiers, and the eastern emperors mainly stayed in Constantinople, and their western co-rulers in Milan,

2248:

Julian allowed the bishops who had been exiled during Constantius II's reign to return to their original position, allegedly because he wanted to create instability in the Christian church. He did not persecute Christians, but failed to punish those who persecuted them. Examples include the

1924:

and his followers in 392, but Alexandria had suffer a long-term backdrop of frequent mob violence during four hundred years, since the 1st century BC, so is also possible that the Serapeum was a collateral destruction because that mob violence that has no religious background (gangs consisted of

1876:

A passionate convert to Christianity, Constantine I used harsh words when mentioning the pagans, but his legislation reflects a reconciliatory approach. In a letter to the eastern provincials, he stated that "It is one thing to take on willingly the contest for immortality, quite another to

1133:

in the west. Theodosius' death is traditionally regarded as a decisive moment in the separation of the empire's eastern and western halves. Contemporaneous observers did not consider it more than a new division of responsibilities—on this occasion between two leading figures of the two emperors'

950:

to accept Roman protection, but he mainly refrained from offensive actions against Persia. Constantine, the eldest of the three brothers, was dissatisfied with the division of the empire. In early 340, he attacked Constans to seize Italy, but died in an encounter and Constans took control of his

942:

from Armenia, Constantine decided to launch a counter-attack, but he died on 22 May 337. For Constantius believed that Dalmatius and Hannibalianus wanted to get rid of him and his brothers, he had them and their suspected supporters executed. In September 337, the three brothers assumed the

2093:

underlines, was "in some senses a democratizing and equalizing force". While classical culture claimed that only the wealthy could live a truly civilized life, hagiographies praised uneducated ascetics who abandoned civilisation for the desert. According to Emperor Julian, Christianity owed its

2064:

The details of the Edict of Milan are known from a letter that Licinius sent to the eastern provinces. He announced the restoration of the confiscated property to the Christians, but also promised a compensation for those who had seized confiscated goods during the persecution. Constantine made

1500:

After the Christianization of the empire the Senatus no more rewarded deceased emperors with a divine status, but the emperors were regarded as God's representatives on Earth. Official meetings began with acclamations in their honor emphasizing the divinely sanctioned nature of their rule. Even

2081:

and other pilgrim churches in Jerusalem and Bethlehem started during his rule. He exempted the Christian clergy from all public duties and taxes and legitimized pious donations to the church. For clerical privileges increased other citizens' burdens, town magistrates tended to ignore them. Tax

1991:

from the 260s. Official tolerance contributed to the spread of their faith, and their communities can be detected in most cities by the end of the century. Relationship between the Roman state and Christians was cordial to the extent that an Antiochene Christian group sought Emperor Aurelian's

1612:

Constantine removed the praetorian prefects' most military functions, although they remained responsible for recruitment and supply of armies. With the regular appointment of five praetorian prefects, each ruling a well defined group of dioceses, new territorial administrative units, known as

1608:

were no more responsible for military affairs, although they were occasionally ordered to lead a military campaign or build a fort. The traditional senatorial aristocracy mainly held offices with limited military responsibility, while military career became open to non-Roman soldiery. The new

1896:

The transformation of Roman religious life in Late Antiquity is poorly documented. Christian authors rarely recorded evidences of the survival of paganism. Pagan inscriptions were rare in the 4th century with the prominent exception of Rome, but it may have been the consequence of the

617:

on the Middle Danube took control of the Roman state. Located at the intersection of overland routes connecting the empire's eastern and western part, these provinces were a principal venue of military operations and recruitment. Typically born into families of long military tradition, the

2311:

and Anthony who settled in remote places in the Egyptian desert originated Christian monasticism in the late 3rd century. Some of their followers lived a solitary life, others assembled at least once a week for a communal meal or prayer. Pachomius' monastic rules for his community at

1955:

promised to restore sacrifices to secure the support of the remnants of pagan aristocracy. After Eugenius' fall, Theodosius introduced a general ban on pagan sacrifices in 391. Bans on pagan sacrifices were regularly repeated in the 5th century, indicating that they were ineffectual.

1496:

system, the legal question was raised on the top of a piece of papyrus, and it was answered by the emperor, or rather one of his legal advisors on the bottom half. The Code of Theodosius cites a number of cases when the system was misused through the falsification of imperial responses.

1381:. Aspar led Eastern Roman and Italian refinforcements to Carthage, but they could not defeat the invaders. To counterbalance Aetius' power, Galla Placidia recalled Bonifatius from Africa and made him the supreme commander of the Western Roman army. Bonifatius defeated Aetius 2146:

condemned Donatist views, Constantine ordered the confiscation of their churches, but he stopped their persecution after his troops slaughtered a Donatist congregation in 321. Donatism survived and the separate hierarchy of Donatist clergy endured for more than a century.

1752:

was based at Ravenna in the west, and first at Nicomedia then at Constantinople in the east. The reorganization of the army established a more flexible command structure and diminished the dependence of the frontier troops on the imperial field army in case of emergency.

561:

The mid-3rd century saw a period of cooling and drought, well documented in many regions. During previous years of drought, the exceptional ecological conditions of the fertile Nile valley had helped the Roman authorities to overcome famine in other regions, but the

2387:

on the Temple and to demonstrate the common features of pagan and Jewish sacrifices. The project failed because an earthquake destroyed the building site. Leading Christian intellectuals described Judaism as a major threat to Christianity from the late 4th century.

1795:, but elements of the local cults survived. Pagan cults were mainly centered around major temples and public festivals were their important elements. When praying, a pagan often used formulas that had allegedly been disclosed to the leaders of their native town by an 2012:

indicates that the number of Christian troops was not insignificant around 295. By the end of the 3rd century, clerical hierarchy had stabilized and the bishops emerged as the paramount leaders of the local Christian communities. Regarding themselves as the

1913:, the christian praetorian prefect of the East, was accused of allowing the destruction of pagan temples by fanatic mobs, but some recent authors, however, have questioned his role in events and his overall reputation as a christian fanatic and temple destroyer. 1462:

The tetrarchs ruled the empire as members of an undivided "imperial college", but they rarely met in person. They were mainly staying along the borders and their absence from Rome gave rise to the development of new imperial centers, including Nicomedia,

963:

Caesar with responsibility for Gaul. After a Persian invasion of Mesopotamia, Constantius hurried to the east. He ordered Julian to send reinforcements but the Gallic troops revolted and proclaimed Julian Augustus. Constantius died of a mortal illness in

2239:

for protection. The Pope acknowledged their orthodoxy, but they were declared heretics by 90 eastern bishops at a new synod. After anti-Arian riots in Constantinople, Constans persuaded Constantius to convoke the bishops to a new synod in 343. The

463:, or first among the senators during the first centuries of the monarchy. This notion of equality was manifest at the relatively high level of informality in the imperial court. Distance between emperors and Roman citizens increased and the ceremony of 1307:

in Roman territory on the Middle Rhine. The Visigoths left Italy and joined the coalition supporting Jovinus in Gaul, but after Honorius promised grain supplies to them, Athaulf captured and beheaded Jovinus. He married Honorius' half-sister,

2217:

In concert with most western bishops, Constantine II and Constans insisted on the Nicene Creed, but Constantius II and the majority of the eastern clergy sympathized with the Arians. Athanasius and Marcellus were restored to their

2265:

to the see of Constantinople, but the western bishops insisted on the Nicene doctrine. Theodosius I was the first emperor to rule as a full member of the Christian community, because he received baptism during a grave illness. Born in

707:

as Caesars. The tetrarchs repelled pillaging raids by the neighboring tribes and launched offensive campaigns against them. New border fortresses were built along the Danube and a selective settlement program was introduced, allowing some

1312:

who had been captured during the sack of Rome. At the wedding, he reportedly declared the renewal of the Roman Empire "by the might of the Goths" as his main purpose, but a year later, in 415, he was murdered by a retainer. His successor

1320:

The general Constantius who had a pivotal role in the negotiations with the Visigoths married Galla Placidia in January 417. The Visigoths inflicted humiliating defeats on the Vandals and Alans, and Constantius allowed them to settle in

1274:

on 24 August 410. The plundering of the Eternal City shocked the Romans although the Goths quickly abandoned it. Alaric decided to conquer Roman Africa, but he died before the end of the year. The Goths under his rule, now known as

455:, because other written sources and archaeological evidence indicate that the empire recovered during their reign between 193 and 235. As a surviving element of Roman republican traditions, Roman emperors had been in theory no more than 2244:

ordered the restoration of Paul to Constantinople and Athanasius to Alexandria, but the conflict continued because Constantius refused the Nicene creeds and rival Christian communities continued to co-exist in the eastern provinces.

762:

After recovering from a serious illness Diocletian concluded that he and Maximian had ruled long enough. They jointly announced their retirement in May 305. A new tetrarchy was established with Constantius and Galerius as the new

832:

on Maximinus in Thrace in April 313. After their triumph, relationship between Constantine and Licinius became strained. In 317, Licinius had to surrender Illyricum to Constantine. Seven years later, Constantine routed Licinius

1074:

assumed the title of Augustus and seized Gaul. Two months later Gratian was murdered by his own guards. As Maximus quickly took control of Hispania and Africa, Valentinian could only keep Italy. In 387 Theodosius concluded a

354:

expands the Code of Theodosius with rulings issued by emperors between 437 and 529. Both legal compilations are important sources of state administration, although their actual application is unproven. The early 5th-century

173:

about the first Christian emperor is a useful collection of letters and official documents. In contrast with classical literature, Hagiographic works regularly presented women as leading characters. Examples include the

1799:. Associations of worshippers who showed specific reverence towards one of the gods mainly existed in urban environment. Their members often had the same ethnic or professional background. Soldiers primarily worshipped 1761:

Imperial Roman society was highly hierarchical. An individual's status depended on their wealth, occupation, family connections and career. The Code of Theodosius determined two major social classes, distinguishing the

490:, was assassinated by his own troops in 235. During the following fifty years, twenty emperors ruled the empire in quick succession, and most of them were killed by mutinous soldiers. With the emergence of the militant 1748:. The rest of the field army remained under the emperor's direct command and the imperial field army was divided into two units on the division of the empire between Valentinian I and Valens in 364. The main 368:

for dignitaries were still regularly commemorated in public places, in this period they were made mainly in honor of imperial officials instead of local leaders as it had been common in the previous centuries.

1231:. Honorius was planning to assume authority in Constantinople, but Stilicho prevented his travel. By hiring foreign troops, Stilicho had lost the native officers' confidence and he was murdered by plotters in 1897:

transformation of practices of commemoration. In 382, Gratian abolished all state grants to pagan cults in the city of Rome, including the Vesta Virgins' salaries (. After his death, the city's pagan prefect

1219:

and demanded 4,000 pounds of gold for a peace treaty. The senators preferred to resist, but Stilicho paid the tribute because he wanted to seize Illyricum from the Eastern Romans with Alaric's support.

2274:

warning his subject to adhere to the Nicene Creed, but did not prescribe sanctions against those who disobeyed. He dismissed Demophilus and summoned the bishops to a new synod to Constantinople in 381. The

1091:, Maximus invaded Pannonia, but Theodosius defeated and captured him at Aquileia. Theodosius restored Valentinian as emperor in the west, but put him under the guardianship of a Frankish military commander 1819:

was an other essential component of Roman traditions. It was closely associated with gladiator shows. Ideas about a single supreme god who governs the universe were widespread. For instance, the oracle at

695:—the rule of two co-emperors—resulted in the informal division of the empire: Diocletian mostly ruled in the east (including Illyricum and Egypt), and Maximian in the west. In 293, Diocletian instituted a 322:

provides a list of the achievements of Justinian's building program, but archaeological evidence sometimes contradicts it. He summarizes his true views of Justinian and Justinian's inner circle in the

239:

debates. Later church histories, primarily destined to demonstrate the effects of divine providence on human life, seldom provide sufficient information for a deeper analysis of secular history. The

594:

in the early 3rd century. The Christians were outlawed for their alleged opposition to traditional Roman values, but they were only sporadically persecuted. A drastic change came with Emperor

1051:, and appointed him as his co-emperor in January 379. Theodosius could pacify the Goths only through an unprecedented compromise in 382. He not only allowed them to settle in groups in Thrace and 955:

who was proclaimed emperor early in 350. A period of anarchy followed the coup in the west, lasting until Constantius overcame Magnentius and reunited the empire in 353. He appointed his cousin

1362:, Aetius staged a coup and had Felix murdered. Bonifatius and Aetius would be mentioned as "the last of the Romans" by Procopius, but their rivalry was a principal characteristic of their age. 258:

Most information about military and political history has been preserved in secular historians' works. When writing of events familiar to them or their acquaintances, they are mostly reliable.

2021:

was an important component of Christianity in Late Antiquity. Christian exorcists were regularly approached by pagans as well, because their practices were regarded as a magical cure against

326:, describing him as a wicked and unscrupulous figure surrounded by intrigues and scandals. The events of the second half of the 6th century are best known from the fragmentary works of 1156:

to take control of the western Balkans. Before the end of 395, the Huns launched a plundering raid against the Eastern Roman Empire from the east, and a Gothic commander in Roman service,

7228: 850: 1087:

aristocrats to rule the new provinces as hereditary governors. Maximus forced Valentinian to flee from Italy to Thessaloniki in summer 387. After Theodosius married Valentinian's sister

2077:. He sponsored the building of Christian churches in Rome, mainly in the suburbs, because he did not want to outrage the predominantly pagan Roman aristocracy. The construction of the 1492:

or municipalities who wanted of take advantage of their intercession. Roman citizens could approach the emperor directly for seeking his opinion on specific points of law. Under the

510:

made regular incursions deep into Roman territory. The central government's instability reaffirmed secessionist movements in the periphery. In the west, a rebel provincial governor,

959:

to rule the eastern provinces as Caesar, but Gallus' despotic measures caused massive discontent. In 354, Constantius had him arrested and executed, and made Gallus' half-brother

377:

Archaeological finds also abound, although "they remain understudied" (as Mitchell emphasizes it in 2015). The systematic study of archaeological evidence intensified after the

7938: 1023:

Gratian's co-emperor, likely to prevent each other from claiming the throne. As Valentinian was only four, Gratian became the sole ruler of their father's part of the empire.

2295:, to make available a church to the Gothic guards of his son, Valentinian II in the early 380s. Ambrose also came into conflict with Theodosius. After imperial troops 1951:, the deity responsible for the flooding, but the Christians destroyed Serapis' reliefs on their houses and painted crosses on their places. Theodosius I's opponent 306:, the sole prominent Later Roman historian whose full work survived, blames Christianity for the quick decline of the Roman Empire. The last outstanding Roman historian, 1459:

in 326. As only top bureaucrats could afford time-consuming and costly travels, low-level provincial officials rarely made contacts with their peers in other provinces.

1925:

christians as well as jews and pagans, no matter the religion of the member). There is evidence that pagans had taken part in citywide struggles both for and against

1877:

enforce it with sanctions". Only pagan practices that the Christians regarded especially immoral or offensive were banned under his rule. Examples include his ban on

1070:

his co-emperor. Gratian refused to confirm the child's promotion, but he soon faced insurrections in the west. In June the commander of the Roman troops in Britain

2393:

the Jews of Alexandria in 415 and 416. Judaism was never outlawed, but Christian converts to Judaism lost their property and Jews could not hold imperial offices.

1243:, but Anthemius forced him to abandon the campaign by paying off his deputies. Alaric invaded Italy and persuaded the Senatus to proclaim a pagan Roman aristocrat 1171:

Gothic troops in 399. In a year, an anti-Gothic popular riot broke out in Constantinople and Arcadius dismissed Gainas with the support of an other Gothic general

2433:, a Hispanian lay ascetic, who rejected marriage and promoted vegetarianism, was an early example. He and his closest disciplines were executed at Trier in 383. 5307: 2457: 1593:

who reported directly to the emperors. The praetorian prefects were the highest-ranking military, financial and judicial officials, and the appointment of the

943:

title of Augustus and divided the empire at a meeting in Pannonia: Constantine received the western, Constans the central and Constantius the eastern regions.

2202:, Constantine exiled them. Their banishment did not heal the schism, and the Arian exiles were allowed to return, while the most prominent anti-Arian bishops 1129:

On Theodosius I's death the Roman Empire was divided between his two sons: the eighteen-year-old Arcadius succeeded him in the east and the ten-year-old

46: 8171: 582:, after whom the plague is named, attributed the calamities to the "old age of the world", but the pagans blamed the Christians' reluctance to worship the 1176: 1963:

writes of pagan dancers marching by Christian churches and stoning them as a reprisal for the Christian clergy's attempt to hinder the pagan celebration.

622:" were mainly extremely conservatives, but they did not hesitate to overturn traditional principles of state administration for practical considerations. 1210:. Both migrations were probably triggered by the Huns' westward expansion. The Roman troops in Britain mutinied. One of their candidates to emperorship 545: 1175:. Anti-Gothic sentiments endured in Constantinople: Fravitta was executed and the Gothic military commanders were replaced by Armenians, Persians and 7151: 1435:, ordering that his subjects were to kneel before him and kiss the corner of his robe. Traditional imperial titulature was expanded with titles like 2363:

until the patriarchs' lineage died out in 429. Local Jewish communities accepted the leadership of their rabbis. Two rabbinical commentaries on the

1095:. Arbogast openly disobeyed Valentinian's orders and the young emperor committed suicide in 392. With Arbogast's support, a Roman pagan aristocrat, 983:

and acknowledged Persian protectorate over Armenia in return for a thirty-year peace. While marching towards Constantinople, he died of accidental

875:

influenced his legislation especially in cases when Christian values corroborated tendencies that had already existed in Roman law. He forbade the

119:

In comparison with previous periods, studies on Later Roman history are based on diverse but mainly biased written sources. Completed around 314,

2420:

with Christianity in the mid-3rd century. He died in prison in the Sassanian Empire, but his disciples spread his teaching and established

9047: 7401: 7302: 2299:

in Thessaloniki in retaliation for the murder of the Arian German commander of their garrison, Ambrose forced Theodosius to do public penance.

1536:

operated state affairs. In comparison, the central administration employed less than a thousand full-time bureaucrats during the reign of the

1358:

to the supreme commandership and sent Aetius to Gaul. Taking advantage of a conflict between Felix and the military commander of Roman Africa

1270:

Attalus could not provide the Goths with sufficient food and Alaric deserted him. After Alaric's negotiations with Honorius failed, the Goths

8735: 7312: 7245: 5194: 2323:'s rules became even more popular. Ascetics of aristocratic background could cede their own houses and estates to monastic communities, like 1124: 846: 7260: 7255: 5736: 2347:. A previously lively girl, Blaesilla took ascetism to the extreme, and after she died, Jerome warned her mother against excessive grief. 8336: 7322: 7297: 5778: 5766: 1354:

for his appointment as the supreme commander of the Western Roman army. Galla Placidia distrusted Aetius. She appointed a senior officer

1235:

in August. Stilicho's foreign troops and their families were massacred and those who escaped sought Alaric's protection. A Hunnic leader

8687: 8670: 7327: 7307: 5825: 1182:

Likely the Eastern Romans' hostility to the Goths persuaded Alaric to search a new homeland in northern Italy, but Stilicho routed him

112: 282:"has a claim to be the finest Latin historian of any period", according to historian Stephen Mitchell, although only fragments of his 33: 8386: 8232: 8204: 7848: 7840: 7317: 7250: 4278: 1043:

and Valens died in the battlefield on 9 August 378. Facing the new military crisis, Gratian reactivated a previously dismissed

8582: 7943: 5741: 1744:

and Antioch. On occasions, expeditionary forces developed into permanent detachments, like those dispatched to Africa, Britain and

1509:

and a few other thinkers were more critical and denied that Rome represented an ideal civilization under God's special protection.

886:, and offered financial support to poor parents to discourage infanticide. He banned gladiator games and promoted the less violent 675:

was a genuine representative of the soldier emperor's reformist zeal. He was proclaimed emperor at a meeting of senior officers at

2120:—Christians who had given up holy books to state authorities or made pagan sacrifices during the Great Persecution—intensified in 9086: 8431: 7113: 5751: 1211: 995:. Fearing of a new succession crisis, the soldiers persuaded Valentinian to appoint a co-emperor. He choose his younger brother 8911: 8436: 7058: 5746: 5480: 1083:. They divided Armenia. Two years later Western Armenia was incorporated into the Roman Empire, but Theodosius appointed local 1066:

Theodosius was the first emperor to rule primarily from Constantinople. Early in 383 he proclaimed his six-year-old elder son

679:

in November 284. He recognized that he could not rule the vast empire alone and made his former comrade-in-arms the Pannonian

405: 8835: 7595: 7588: 7144: 7028: 5853: 5380: 5162: 5110: 5087: 5064: 5038: 5012: 4986: 4937: 4888: 2065:

lavish donations to the Christian church, including 10.5 tons of silver, 2,335 pounds of gold and 34,255 gold

1670:

The making of strategic decisions was the emperor's monopoly, but in many cases he was far away from military emergency. The

1369:

realized that they could hardly resist attacks by the Visigoths and Romans for long. He led the Vandals and Alans across the

8587: 8446: 7734: 7118: 6993: 6146: 1247:

emperor in November 409. The usurper Constantine III could not prevent the Vandals, Alans and Suebi from crossing the

7578: 5699: 2375:, developed into the most important source of Jewish community life in Late Antiquity. Non-Jewish sympathizers, known as 972:

sympathies, but after his ascension he openly renounced Christianity. He died fighting the Persians on 26 June 363.

334:. Agathias emphasizes the effect of unexpected events on history, Menander mainly cover diplomacy. The early-7th-century 1555:

already listed almost 100 provinces. Diocletian grouped the provinces into 12 new territorial units, known as

8916: 8329: 5370: 922:

Caesars between 328 and 333, but none of them was promoted to Augustus during his lifetime. In 335, he made his nephew

191:, Eusebius originated another new literary genre with the focus on Christian missionaries, church leaders, martyrs and 9017: 7583: 7038: 5798: 5365: 5360: 5336: 5187: 5136: 4963: 4914: 631: 247:

is of the utmost importance for the study of the otherwise poorly documented early 7th century. A late source,

8080: 7137: 7053: 5726: 5375: 5302: 2379:

visited synagogues and conversion to Judaism was not uncommon. Emperor Julian authorized the Jews to rebuild their

1120: 152: 1625:, was first mentioned in 320. By the end of Constantine's rule, he was the head of the court secretariats and the 9052: 8874: 7406: 7174: 5319: 5252: 2276: 968:

in November 361. On his deathbed, he had allegedly named Julian as his sole heir. Julian had concealed his pagan

2401: 1844:("Unconquered Sun") as the supreme deity. On the other hand, a persistent belief in the existence of myriads of 1694:

under the command of the provincial governors. The emperors were accompanied by elite troops, including 10

9022: 9012: 8884: 8805: 8623: 8491: 8063: 8007: 7928: 7795: 6073: 5998: 5756: 5154: 4906: 2167: 1386: 1228: 860: 725: 652: 1398:

in Central Europe. Aetius regularly hired them to fight against the Burgundians, Visigoths and the rebellious

8879: 8869: 8784: 8539: 8324: 6569: 2396:

The Samaritans, who were related to the Jews, lived in Palestine and they made sacrifices in their temple on

2028:

The peaceful period came to an abrupt end with the Great Persecution under Diocletian. Lactantius blames the

494:, Rome ceased to be the sole great power in the Near East. In the west, the new tribal confederations of the 443:

concluded that the Roman Empire had descended "from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust" after Emperor

7759: 2253:

who was lynched by a pagan mob in Alexandria. He ordered the removal of the relics of a popular local saint

1716:. Constantine I dissolved the praetorians and formalized the distinction between the border troops, or 219:, he wanted to demonstrate that recent calamities cannot be regarded as a punishment for the suppression of 8953: 8921: 8825: 8534: 8506: 8314: 7853: 6409: 6013: 5465: 5180: 2262: 2078: 1373:

into northern Africa. They defeated Bonifatius who was the military commander of Roman Africa and captured

1260: 1252: 1088: 980: 816: 586:. The size of the Christian communities had significantly grown in large urban centers like Rome, Antioch, 542:, inflation became uncontrollable. Inflation increased the significance of taxes in kind, particularly the 1710:. Under Diocletian new cavalry units serving directly under the emperors were organized. They were called 1283:

his successor. Maximus attacked Constantine in Gaul and the two usurpers' conflict gave Honorius' general

8677: 8319: 8166: 7923: 7674: 7108: 7033: 6792: 5848: 5731: 5277: 1092: 390: 267: 9091: 8997: 8943: 8682: 8554: 8544: 8244: 8124: 8002: 7933: 7821: 7790: 7633: 7573: 7068: 6732: 6624: 6394: 6166: 5988: 5896: 5761: 5704: 5079: 5004: 4978: 4929: 1988: 1921: 1898: 1893:

praised his religious policy for encouraging competition among people of diverse religious background.

1705: 1454: 1304: 200: 8857: 8381: 8237: 8022: 7913: 7800: 7088: 6181: 6136: 6063: 5983: 5931: 5921: 5873: 5220: 5128: 2258:

for Christians. His successor, Jovian abolished Julian's anti-Christian edicts in the autumn of 363.

1609:

imperial aristocracy was based on office-holding instead of inherited wealth and family connections.

1317:

agreed to fight against the Vandals and Alans in Hispania in return for food supply from the Romans.

984: 187: 1011:

his co-ruler in the west. Valentinian survived, only to die of stroke after a heated encounter with

8156: 7908: 7395: 7274: 6689: 6599: 6108: 6088: 6083: 6068: 6021: 5961: 5916: 5718: 4955: 2296: 2223: 2203: 2121: 2018: 1926: 1378: 1287:

the opportunity to intervene. Maximus withdrew to Hispania and Constantius captured Constantine at

965: 911: 598:' edict compelling all Romans to make sacrifices to the gods in 249. Non-compliant Christians were 266:

completed short imperial biographies in the second half of the 4th century, allegedly using a

248: 220: 129: 124: 855: 215:

was the first scholar to integrate elements of classical and church history in the 420s. With his

9062: 8486: 8212: 8032: 7918: 7098: 7078: 7018: 7008: 6998: 6404: 6093: 5993: 5973: 5888: 5878: 5583: 5523: 5503: 5215: 5030: 2183: 1787:

The cities were the centres of the pagan cults all over the Roman Empire. The local deities were

1582: 1547:

in the 260s. As almost all provinces were split into two under Diocletian, the early-4th-century

1195: 795:

in 308. Diocletian and Galerius established a new tetrarchy recognizing Galerius and his protégé

729: 472: 396: 364:

the classical age, Late Roman inscriptions are available in lesser quantity. Although collective

38: 1190:

led a mixed group of people into Italy. Stilicho enclosed and captured them with the support of

8987: 8577: 8419: 7863: 7669: 7643: 7638: 7411: 7387: 7383: 7350: 7103: 7093: 7043: 7023: 6837: 6812: 6777: 6659: 6384: 6031: 5793: 5324: 2155: 2053: 2009: 2001: 1917: 1695: 1537: 1382: 1164: 1100: 741: 733: 331: 291: 192: 5053:

Imperial Tragedy: From Constantine's Empire to the Destruction of Roman Italy, AD 363–568

2279:

reaffirmed the Nicene Creed, complementing it with a statement about the full divinity of the

999:, entrusting him with the administration of the eastern half of the empire. Julian's relative 8705: 8559: 7749: 7659: 7623: 7508: 7238: 7233: 7073: 7003: 6827: 6579: 6379: 6374: 6171: 6078: 6003: 5966: 5951: 5926: 5906: 5808: 2271: 2211: 2005: 1974:

wrote of Sardinian pagans who had bribed the island's governor to tolerate their activities.

1861:

completed a coherent polytheist theological system under the Egyptian pseudonym, Abammon.

1792: 1614: 1586: 1550: 1391: 1207: 1167:

assumed power in Constantinople, but Gainas achieved his deposition after a rebellion of the

1103:

on 6 September 394. He re-unified the Roman Empire, but he died on 17 January 395.

834: 784: 657: 583: 338:

is the least reliable Later Roman historian: both his chronology and topography are chaotic.

335: 271: 263: 232: 1686:

Most Roman soldiers were stationed along the frontiers around 260. They were organized into

1333:

to the Huns. When Honorius died in August 423, his courtiers proclaimed one of their number

1039:

without waiting for the arrival of western reinforcements. The Goths nearly annihilated the

8948: 8931: 8752: 8511: 8476: 8359: 8296: 8291: 7826: 7769: 7083: 7048: 6737: 6604: 6504: 6429: 6294: 6257: 5633: 5297: 2425: 2250: 2095: 2014: 1944: 1788: 1342: 1143: 1135: 1036: 563: 378: 279: 143: 6727: 4950:(2000) . "Religious Communities". In Bowersock, G. W.; Brown, Peter; Grabar, Oleg (eds.). 4275: 1223:

Arcadius died in Constantinople on 1 May 408 leaving his successor, the six-year-old

8: 7858: 7774: 7764: 7628: 7391: 7379: 7266: 7013: 6862: 6664: 6534: 6484: 5803: 5400: 2380: 2356: 2324: 2308: 2207: 2107: 2017:, the bishops of Rome, Alexandria and Antioch claimed the right to guide all Christians. 1933: 1878: 1854: 1816: 1620: 1572: 1370: 1256: 1183: 1044: 1000: 829: 732:

in 296. Reinforced by fresh troops from the Danubian provinces, Galerius defeated Narseh

713: 700: 553: 303: 287: 179: 169: 2476:

Around 368, a provincial governor and three imperial envoys were executed on charges of

530:

in the 270s. As the continuous payment of soldiery could be secured only by the regular

8936: 8926: 8800: 8471: 8354: 8271: 8134: 7486: 7466: 7446: 7436: 7063: 6787: 6594: 6449: 6389: 6309: 6252: 6116: 5352: 5048: 2254: 2241: 2175: 2135: 2072: 2022: 1960: 1804: 1732:. Part of the field army was organized into regional units each under the command of a 1568: 1355: 1337:

emperor, but Theodosius acknowledged Galla Placidia's six-year-old son by Constantius,

1271: 1146: 1130: 1076: 1063:, or allies, but also recognized their right to live under their own chieftains' rule. 1007:

in 366. Next year Valentinian fell seriously ill and made his eight-year-old elder son

1004: 956: 864: 599: 579: 432: 424: 358: 347: 275: 242: 236: 6702: 1857:

promoted the adoption of allegedly Egyptian priestly traditions, and Porphyry's pupil

9058: 8992: 8897: 8830: 8810: 8778: 8710: 8697: 8618: 8613: 8364: 8129: 7979: 7498: 7451: 7441: 7431: 6697: 6549: 6304: 6264: 6242: 5450: 5158: 5132: 5106: 5083: 5060: 5034: 5008: 4982: 4959: 4933: 4910: 4884: 2328: 2320: 2288: 1910: 1699: 1628: 1506: 880: 756: 745: 717: 610: 571: 487: 400: 351: 286:

survived. Likewise only fragments are known from the works of Ammianus' continuator,

196: 164: 647: 8862: 8655: 8603: 8549: 8516: 8466: 8259: 8249: 8027: 7715: 7607: 7530: 7513: 7491: 7476: 7461: 7375: 7160: 6762: 6722: 6654: 6589: 6514: 6509: 6281: 6204: 6151: 5946: 5941: 5830: 5689: 5638: 5598: 5568: 5563: 5558: 5548: 5470: 5417: 5410: 5395: 5390: 5314: 5242: 5120: 4308: 2480:

based on testimonies by witnesses who had been bribed by a fifth imperial official.

2447: 2048: 1993: 1902: 1869: 1850: 1829: 1735: 1599:

eased their administrative burdens. The maintenance of two separate hierarchies of

1502: 1322: 1149: 976: 960: 939: 872: 770: 688: 619: 523: 458: 409: 224: 141:' and ascetics' biographies—form the period's most distinctive literary genre. The 138: 2210:

were exiled. On his death bed, Constantine received baptism from an Arian bishop,

1864: 9007: 8840: 8820: 8815: 8770: 8760: 8720: 8715: 8665: 8660: 8441: 8047: 7964: 7959: 7699: 7689: 7525: 7519: 7503: 7481: 7471: 7456: 6857: 6669: 6649: 6609: 6544: 6494: 6489: 6364: 6314: 6222: 6056: 6036: 5956: 5405: 5230: 5102: 4898: 4282: 2515: 2500: 2389: 2284: 1997: 1679: 1671: 1664: 1657: 1651: 1438: 1338: 1284: 1244: 1040: 744:

when Narseh acknowledged the Romans' suzerainty over Armenia and the neighboring

491: 452: 444: 346:

The systematic collection of legal texts commenced in the Late Roman period. The

259: 228: 2527:

Around 251 exorcists made up around one third of the clergy in the city of Rome.

483:, that is aliens who had been forced into submission or admitted to the empire. 8845: 8725: 8458: 8217: 8111: 8097: 7896: 7600: 7355: 6912: 6554: 6289: 6237: 6209: 6156: 6141: 6121: 5936: 5911: 5868: 5858: 5684: 5658: 5588: 5573: 5538: 5498: 5259: 5146: 4872: 2518:

could not avoid consription and served in the imperial guard for 15 years.

2442: 2417: 2413: 2151: 2139: 2066: 1971: 1544: 1518: 1350: 1309: 1071: 1052: 1020: 915: 907: 887: 876: 825: 774: 709: 684: 614: 299: 211:

are the principal sources of ecclesiastic life until the mid-5th century.

67: 5076:

From Rome to Byzantium, AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome

2404:, but the revolt was crushed and reportedly 100,000 Samaritans were executed. 2355:

Jews lived in most cities in the Roman Empire. They were theoretically led by

9080: 8765: 8642: 8608: 8346: 8281: 8254: 8139: 7754: 7694: 6444: 6414: 6329: 5863: 5840: 5653: 5508: 5493: 5440: 5247: 5056: 5022: 4880: 2397: 2340: 2236: 2219: 2090: 1825: 1741: 1556: 1528: 1240: 1224: 988: 931: 927: 515: 428: 2174:. Anxious about church unity, Constantine summoned the bishops to the first 2086:

was common and Constantine had to limit the number of clergymen to curb it.

1675:

that the personal command of the army could put the emperor's life at risk.

350:

contains about 2,500 entries and covers the period between 335 and 437. The

8526: 8501: 8481: 8286: 8264: 8119: 7367: 7362: 7196: 6922: 6782: 6227: 6176: 6131: 6126: 5978: 5788: 5674: 5618: 5613: 5385: 5269: 5203: 4996: 4947: 2360: 2339:

was the spiritual instructor of a circle of wealthy Roman women, including

2199: 1882: 1839: 1812: 1727: 1687: 1468: 1374: 1048: 969: 448: 87: 7129: 223:. Only three church historians' works survived from the 6th century: 9027: 9002: 8496: 8306: 8073: 7679: 7664: 6717: 6339: 6161: 6051: 5445: 2489:

An offspring of a traditional senatorial family could typically serve as

2452: 2430: 2421: 2280: 2163: 2083: 1906: 1446: 1430: 1296: 811:, but Maximian, Constantine and Maxentius did not accept their decision. 464: 440: 311: 134: 3316: 951:

territory. Constans fell victim to a conspiracy by a military commander

8301: 8161: 8151: 7984: 7974: 7684: 6942: 6882: 6847: 6639: 6574: 6564: 6459: 6344: 6232: 5815: 5783: 5528: 5455: 5287: 5282: 2376: 2317: 2191: 2115: 2037: 1901:

could not persuade Valentinian II to allow the restoration of the

1890: 1887: 1858: 1749: 1476: 1422: 1365:

Although the Vandals and Alans conquered southern Hispania, their king

1359: 1187: 1080: 987:

in February 364. The army leaders proclaimed another Christian officer

952: 672: 587: 531: 503: 120: 79: 5172: 5027:

The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians

4141: 290:. Scholars studying 5th-century Roman history can primarily rely on a 8850: 8730: 8222: 8090: 8037: 7969: 6972: 6967: 6927: 6852: 6822: 6802: 6679: 6619: 6529: 6479: 6474: 6399: 6359: 6247: 6217: 6026: 5901: 5694: 5578: 5553: 5432: 2344: 2332: 1719: 1617:, came into being during his reign. A new high-ranking official, the 1590: 1488: 1341:

as Honorius' lawful successor. Theodosius appointed the Alan general

1276: 1111: 1084: 1058: 947: 935: 923: 899: 792: 788: 752: 737: 696: 676: 642: 603: 478: 468: 307: 208: 155:, introduced it in the early 4th century, but a later work, the 103: 83: 4926:

The Roman Empire in Late Antiquity: A Political and Military History

1349:

to lead troops against John, while John sent a junior court officer

851:

Byzantine Empire under the Constantinian and Valentinianic dynasties

815:

their territories. Constantine invaded Italy and defeated Maxentius

8376: 8276: 8227: 8085: 8017: 7805: 6932: 6917: 6907: 6892: 6807: 6797: 6767: 6757: 6752: 6742: 6644: 6559: 6439: 6424: 6354: 6334: 6324: 6319: 6299: 6098: 5679: 5643: 5533: 5460: 5292: 4426: 2494: 2267: 2195: 2131: 2031: 1952: 1833: 1562: 1493: 1416: 1399: 1385:

in 432, but was mortally wounded during the battle. His son-in-law

1366: 1248: 1172: 1153: 1139: 1096: 1067: 1016: 919: 903: 883: 796: 704: 680: 591: 567: 537: 527: 511: 499: 327: 278:, completed concise accounts of Roman history. Pagan Greek officer 148: 699:—four co-emperors' joint rule—by appointing two Illyrian officers 439:

Looking back from the early 3rd century, the Roman historian

8742: 8628: 8569: 8068: 8042: 7720: 6952: 6947: 6937: 6902: 6897: 6887: 6832: 6817: 6634: 6629: 6614: 6584: 6539: 6519: 6499: 6454: 6186: 6041: 5820: 5628: 5623: 5513: 2490: 2477: 2384: 2368: 2313: 2292: 2231: 2227: 2171: 2124:

in the 310s. The more radical, mainly rural clergy believed that

1948: 1937: 1808: 1800: 1745: 1691: 1605: 1600: 1523: 1481: 1464: 1334: 1328: 1299:, Alans and other peoples and had himself proclaimed Augustus in 1292: 1280: 1264: 1232: 1216: 1199: 1168: 1032: 1008: 692: 669: 575: 519: 467:

was first documented during the Severans' reign. In 212, Emperor

365: 295: 212: 204: 4438: 783:. The new arrangement ignored the ambitions of Constantius' son 24: 8371: 8146: 8012: 6962: 6842: 6772: 6712: 6707: 6674: 6434: 6419: 6369: 6349: 5771: 5648: 5543: 3673: 2372: 2336: 2283:

in the Trinity. The council declared that only preceded by the

2179: 2170:, maintained that the Father and the Son were identical in the 1821: 1796: 1314: 1161: 1157: 996: 992: 721: 661: 595: 495: 413: 160: 3793: 3745: 3649: 2270:, he had rejected Arianism. After his recuperation in 380, he 2166:

was the Father's creature, while his opponents, in particular

566:

were abnormally weak from 244 to 248. Furthermore, the deadly

6747: 6469: 6196: 5488: 3049: 2792: 2364: 2187: 2182:

in May 325. The nearly 300 bishops who assembled at the

2159: 2143: 2057: 1932:

Another widespread myth is that the successor of Theophilus,

1845: 1636: 1472: 1395: 1346: 1300: 1288: 1236: 1203: 1191: 1012: 893: 820: 507: 447:' death in 180 AD. Cassius' words obviously reflect the 294:

of fragments from earlier Greek authors' works. One of them,

4975:

The Fate of Rome: Climate, Disease, and the End of an Empire

4837: 4777: 4558: 4498: 4354: 4342: 4330: 4257: 4245: 4233: 4223: 4221: 4189: 4165: 4117: 4105: 3114: 3112: 1667:, was depicted as a conqueror of enemy forces on his coins. 8650: 6957: 6524: 6464: 6046: 5422: 4678: 4510: 4486: 4208: 4206: 4204: 3901: 3889: 3829: 3805: 3769: 3622: 3496: 3184: 2977: 2600: 1959:

Festivities were the most lasting elements of pagan cults.

1947:

delayed, the pagan Egyptians wanted to make sacrifices for

1881:

and the demolition of pagan altars and sculptures near the

1259:

emperor. After realizing that the central government could

1099:

was proclaimed emperor, but Theodosius defeated him in the

1027: 3913: 3721: 3697: 3639: 3637: 3571: 3513: 3511: 3460: 3328: 3304: 3292: 3280: 3268: 3256: 3220: 3172: 3160: 3148: 3136: 3097: 3085: 3061: 3037: 1390:

The Huns had established their new center of power in the

5518: 5055:. The Profile History of the Ancient World. Vol. 4. 4789: 4755: 4753: 4726: 4666: 4618: 4546: 4522: 4390: 4218: 4045: 3853: 3535: 3448: 3376: 3196: 3109: 3073: 2989: 2953: 2941: 2768: 2720: 2708: 2696: 2672: 2660: 2648: 2424:

communities all over the Roman Empire. Manichaeism was a

1807:

and primarily eastern merchants frequented the temple of

1740:. The regional units usually wintered at Trier, Sirmium, 4801: 4738: 4714: 4702: 4654: 4642: 4450: 4402: 4320: 4318: 4201: 4153: 4129: 3973: 3588: 3586: 3424: 3412: 3388: 3340: 2833: 2780: 2732: 2624: 2612: 2588: 2564: 2540: 2222:, but in Constantinople Constantius replaced the Nicene 1527:

The Roman Empire under the first tetrarchy, showing the

1003:

challenged Valens' claim to rule, but Valens routed him

871:

Constantine was not baptised until his last illness but

526:

in 267. Both breakaway states were destroyed by Emperor

5101:. Blackwell History of the Ancient World. Vol. 3. 4825: 4630: 4570: 4534: 4462: 4378: 4081: 4069: 4033: 4009: 3997: 3949: 3937: 3925: 3877: 3841: 3757: 3733: 3634: 3598: 3508: 3472: 3232: 3208: 3124: 2576: 2552: 1206:

and other peoples stormed into Western Roman territory

819:

near the city of Rome in 312. Maxentius drowned in the

195:. This first church history was revised and resumed by 5078:. The Edinburgh History of Ancient Rome. Vol. 8. 5003:. The Edinburgh History of Ancient Rome. Vol. 7. 4879:. Fontanta History of the Ancient World. Vol. 6. 4750: 4594: 4582: 4474: 4093: 3961: 3817: 3547: 3484: 3244: 2929: 2917: 2881: 2857: 2821: 2811: 2809: 2807: 2756: 2744: 2458:

Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire

2194:

as the Father. For Arius and his supporters, known as

1853:

praised their piety, an Egyptian group using the name

1849:

of some pagan philosophers from the 3rd century.

926:

the fourth Caesar and awarded Dalmatius' half-brother

255:, is invaluable for the military history of the 620s. 4813: 4690: 4366: 4315: 4177: 4021: 3865: 3583: 3352: 3013: 2965: 2845: 2684: 2291:

was unable to convince the powerful bishop of Milan,

5099:

A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284–641

4903:

Rome and the Barbarians, 100 B.C.–A.D. 400

4606: 4414: 4057: 3985: 3661: 3610: 3559: 3523: 3436: 3364: 3001: 2905: 2893: 2636: 1531:

and the four tetrarchs' zones of influence post-299.

1152:. Their conflict enabled an ambitious Gothic leader 828:. After returning to the east, Licinius inflicted a 3781: 3025: 2804: 2150:Theological debates about the relationship between 975:Julian's successor, a Christian military commander 4952:Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World 4849: 4765: 3685: 3400: 2869: 5001:Imperial Rome, AD 284 to 363: The New Empire 3709: 1872:, the last pagan Roman emperor, on a bronze coin 1267:of Britain, urging them to fend for themselves". 1227:under the guardianship of the praetorian prefect 910:on 11 May 330. He appointed his three sons, 550:—the compulsory grain supply to the army—and the 9078: 2316:set a template for further foundations, but the 2043: 1543:The Roman Empire was divided into about 50 1019:in 376. His generals proclaimed his younger son 748:, and surrendered some border provinces in 299. 1678:A late source with access to official records, 341: 133:, is an early example of prejudiced narrative. 7520:Spain (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands) 1186:on Easter Day 402. In 405, a Gothic chieftain 712:to move from their north-Danubian homeland to 7145: 5188: 4956:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press 1427:Diocletian introduced the official ritual of 1125:Byzantine Empire under the Theodosian dynasty 847:German and Sarmatian campaigns of Constantine 728:, a buffer state under Roman suzerainty, and 82:'s proclamation as emperor) to 641 (death of 16:284 to 641 in the history of the Roman Empire 5125:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 4296:Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100-400 2497:, proconsul, Italian provincial governor or 891: 167:set a template for further works. Eusebius' 7159: 2498: 2125: 2113: 2101: 2070: 2029: 1837: 1769: 1763: 1733: 1725: 1717: 1711: 1703: 1634: 1626: 1618: 1594: 1576: 1560: 1548: 1452: 1444: 1436: 1428: 1326: 1160:murdered Rufinus. Arcadius' confidant, the 1056: 806: 800: 778: 764: 551: 543: 535: 476: 456: 356: 240: 7152: 7138: 5195: 5181: 5047: 4552: 4396: 3799: 3751: 3541: 1303:. He allowed the Burgundians to establish 1115:The Roman Empire after its division in 395 930:with the traditional Persian royal title " 298:, wrote a detailed report of his visit at 113:National Library of Russia, Codex Syriac 1 5151:The Roman Empire and Its Germanic Peoples 5119: 4684: 4660: 4648: 4212: 3979: 3739: 3727: 3604: 3466: 3334: 3310: 3238: 3190: 3154: 3142: 3130: 3103: 3091: 3067: 3043: 2130:should be rebaptized. They were known as 1828:ruling over other deities, including the 78:traditionally spans the period from 284 ( 5096: 4843: 4807: 4783: 4720: 4708: 4564: 4504: 4456: 4432: 4408: 4360: 4348: 4336: 4263: 4251: 4239: 4195: 4171: 4147: 4123: 4111: 4003: 3883: 3643: 3577: 3553: 3517: 3478: 3454: 3382: 3250: 3214: 3118: 3079: 2983: 2827: 2774: 2762: 2750: 2726: 2714: 2702: 2678: 2654: 2630: 2618: 2594: 2570: 2546: 2047: 1863: 1522: 1110: 1026:Unable to resist attacks by the nomadic 946:Constantius persuaded the Armenian king 854: 646: 475:to his all free subjects except for the 404: 102: 49:of all important aspects of the article. 8408: 5202: 5145: 5021: 4995: 4877:The Later Roman Empire, AD 284–430 4871: 4831: 4795: 4759: 4732: 4624: 4600: 4588: 4528: 4516: 4492: 4480: 4444: 4227: 4099: 4051: 3967: 3907: 3895: 3859: 3835: 3823: 3811: 3775: 3703: 3679: 3655: 3592: 3502: 3442: 3346: 3322: 3298: 3286: 3274: 3262: 3226: 3178: 3166: 2935: 2899: 2887: 2863: 2786: 2738: 2690: 2666: 2642: 2606: 2582: 2558: 2154:and Christ created a further schism. A 1512: 310:completed detailed accounts of Emperor 270:. Around 370 two imperial secretaries, 9079: 4972: 4946: 4819: 4744: 4324: 4309:"Great Library of Alexandria Archives" 4183: 4159: 4135: 3919: 3358: 3019: 2995: 2971: 2959: 2947: 2851: 2798: 1295:secured the support of a coalition of 687:(or junior emperor), a year later, as 602:and the purge continued until Emperor 45:Please consider expanding the lead to 8976: 8407: 8192: 7884: 7551: 7172: 7133: 5176: 4923: 4897: 4672: 4636: 4612: 4576: 4540: 4468: 4420: 4384: 4372: 4087: 4075: 4063: 4039: 4027: 4015: 3991: 3955: 3943: 3931: 3871: 3847: 3667: 3616: 3565: 3529: 3430: 3418: 3394: 3202: 3055: 3031: 3007: 2923: 2911: 2839: 2815: 2069:according to a list preserved in the 879:of slaves on the forehead, abolished 178:about a wealthy and pious aristocrat 8193: 2261:Valens appointed the moderate Arian 1982: 906:. His "New Rome" was consecrated as 574:first hit the Mediterranean in 249. 18: 7895: 5073: 4855: 4771: 4696: 3787: 3763: 3715: 3691: 3628: 3490: 3406: 3370: 2875: 1832:, in the 3rd century. Emperor 840: 805:, and Maximinus and Constantine as 558:—the mandatory military transport. 13: 2052:Baptism of Constantine the Great ( 1992:intervention against their bishop 381:of Late Roman pottery stabilized. 14: 9103: 9018:Greek scholars in the Renaissance 4298:(Yale University Press) 1984: 90. 3325:, pp. 297–299, 303, 312–315. 2416:combined the elements of Persian 1475:, each provided with a palace, a 1255:mutinied and acclaimed a certain 1106: 632:History of the Later Roman Empire 9057: 4301: 4288: 4269: 2521: 2508: 2483: 2470: 2331:to establish a monastery in the 2226:with Eusebius. He consecrated a 2082:avoidance through receiving the 1724:, and the field army troops, or 1263:, Honorius "sent letters to the 1121:Fall of the Western Roman Empire 981:Roman territories in Mesopotamia 683:his co-ruler, first, in 285, as 613:the military aristocracy of the 23: 7407:Decline of the Byzantine Empire 7229:Constantinian–Valentinianic era 5153:. Translated by Thomas Dunlap. 2277:First Council of Constantinople 1977: 1567:who reported to one of the two 1487:In theory, Roman emperors were 1451:was first attested in 312, the 938:expelled the Roman client king 751:The systematic codification of 736:and sacked the Persian capital 534:of the Roman silver coins, the 518:" from 259; in the east, Queen 418: 130:On the Death of the Persecutors 107:Syriac manuscript of Eusebius' 37:may be too short to adequately 9087:Roman Empire in late antiquity 8492:Great Palace of Constantinople 8233:Patriarchate of Constantinople 7552: 5155:University of California Press 4907:Johns Hopkins University Press 2514:A son of a soldier, the pious 2407: 2302: 2168:Pope Alexander I of Alexandria 1559:. Each diocese was ruled by a 861:bronze colossus of Constantine 653:Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs 372: 47:provide an accessible overview 1: 4150:, pp. 247, 249–250, 258. 2534: 2190:emphasizing that the Son was 2044:Legalization and Romanization 1916:It is popularly believed the 1405: 1279:, elected his brother-in-law 837:and enforced his abdication. 600:executed or forced into exile 384: 318:covers military actions. His 8954:University of Constantinople 8535:Arch of Galerius and Rotunda 7885: 7685:Chartoularios tou vestiariou 7374:Byzantine successor states ( 5767:Frontiers and fortifications 2079:Church of the Holy Sepulchre 1702:and a cavalry unit known as 1079:with the new Sassanian king 934:". After the Sassanian king 769:, and two Illyrian officers 636: 342:Legal texts and inscriptions 98: 7: 8624:Saint Catherine's Monastery 7680:Chartoularios tou sakelliou 7675:Logothetes tou stratiotikou 7173: 5826:Decorations and punishments 5097:Mitchell, Stephen (2017) . 2436: 2297:massacred 7,000 townspeople 2249:Arian bishop of Alexandria 2089:Christianity, as historian 1782: 1777: 1645: 1589:remained under the rule of 1410: 1251:into Hispania. His general 1239:raided Thrace and captured 991:emperor after they reached 609:With Gallienus' successor, 522:established an independent 391:Crisis of the Third Century 302:'s court in 449. The pagan 93: 10: 9108: 9013:Neo-Byzantine architecture 8977: 7634:Comes sacrarum largitionum 6733:Dionysius of Halicarnassus 5308:historiography of the fall 5080:Edinburgh University Press 5005:Edinburgh University Press 4979:Princeton University Press 4930:Cambridge University Press 4864: 4435:, pp. 69–70, 259–260. 2350: 2327:who convinced her husband 2105: 2036:—pagan priests practicing 1899:Quintus Aurelius Symmachus 1793:gods of the Roman pantheon 1756: 1655: 1649: 1516: 1420: 1414: 1118: 844: 640: 629: 625: 486:The last Severan emperor, 394: 388: 221:traditional Roman religion 217:History against the Pagans 201:Socrates of Constantinople 9040: 8983: 8972: 8893: 8793: 8751: 8696: 8641: 8596: 8583:Sant'Apollinare in Classe 8568: 8525: 8457: 8427: 8418: 8414: 8403: 8345: 8203: 8199: 8188: 8110: 8056: 7995: 7952: 7904: 7891: 7880: 7839: 7814: 7783: 7742: 7733: 7708: 7652: 7616: 7569: 7562: 7558: 7547: 7420: 7336: 7283: 7214: 7185: 7181: 7168: 7114:External wars and battles 6981: 6875: 6688: 6280: 6273: 6195: 6107: 6012: 5887: 5839: 5717: 5667: 5606: 5597: 5479: 5431: 5351: 5268: 5238: 5229: 5211: 5129:Stanford University Press 1768:("upper class") from the 1198:. In late 406, masses of 985:carbon monoxide poisoning 606:put an end to it in 260. 199:in 402. Books written by 8157:Droungarios of the Fleet 4447:, pp. 12–15, 43–44. 4285:, Michael Routery, 1997. 3682:, pp. 145–146, 250. 3058:, pp. 297, 301–302. 2463: 2204:Athanasius of Alexandria 2102:Rigorism and Christology 1936:, ordered the murder of 1927:Athanasius of Alexandria 1571:. The head of the large 1015:envoys in the Pannonian 425:persecutor of Christians 249:Theophanes the Confessor 125:Diocletianic Persecution 86:) in the history of the 8671:Early Byzantine mosaics 8033:Domestic of the Schools 7109:Roman–Iranian relations 5584:Optimates and populares 5031:Oxford University Press 3658:, pp. 98–100, 145. 3631:, p. 113 (note 7). 2801:, pp. 60, 123–125. 2505:(Roma's urban prefect). 2412:A Mesopotamian prophet 2184:First Council of Nicaea 1261:no more control Britain 397:Constitutio Antoniniana 292:10th-century collection 8988:Byzantine commonwealth 7750:Praetorian prefectures 7670:Logothetes tou genikou 7644:Quaestor sacri palatii 7639:Comes rerum privatarum 7412:Fall of Constantinople 7351:Sack of Constantinople 7119:Civil wars and revolts 6385:Sextus Pompeius Festus 6032:Conflict of the Orders 5391:Legislative assemblies 2499: 2383:, allegedly to refute 2162:argued that Christ as 2126: 2114: 2071: 2061: 2054:Basilica of Saint-Remi 2030: 2010:conscientious objector 1873: 1838: 1836:presented the sun god 1770: 1764: 1734: 1726: 1718: 1712: 1704: 1635: 1627: 1619: 1615:praetorian prefectures 1595: 1581:, while the provinces 1577: 1561: 1549: 1532: 1453: 1445: 1437: 1429: 1327: 1291:. A Gallic aristocrat 1116: 1101:Battle of the Frigidus 1057: 892: 868: 807: 801: 779: 765: 720:. The Sassanian ruler 665: 552: 544: 536: 477: 473:full Roman citizenship 457: 436: 357: 332:Menander the Guardsman 241: 116: 8688:Komnenian renaissance 8683:Macedonian period art 8588:Sant'Apollinare Nuovo 8560:Walls of Thessaloniki 7660:Logothetes tou dromou 7275:Twenty Years' Anarchy 7239:Valentinianic dynasty 7234:Constantinian dynasty 6828:Simplicius of Cilicia 6580:Quintus Curtius Rufus 5809:Siege in Ancient Rome 5418:Executive magistrates 4973:Harper, Kyle (2017). 2609:, pp. 15–16, 18. 2212:Eusebius of Nicomedia 2198:, did not accept the 2051: 2006:Maximilian of Tebessa 1867: 1642:Christian litigants. 1551:Laterculus Veronensis 1526: 1119:Further information: 1114: 858: 845:Further information: 817:at the Milvian Bridge 650: 408: 336:Theophylact Simocatta 233:Evagrius Scholasticus 106: 8885:Units of measurement 8619:Panagia Gorgoepikoos 8512:Pammakaristos Church 8360:Corpus Juris Civilis 8311:Missionary activity 7770:Exarchate of Ravenna 7596:Imperial bureaucracy 6838:Stephanus Byzantinus 6743:Eusebius of Caesaria 6605:Sidonius Apollinaris 6295:Ammianus Marcellinus 5634:Tribune of the plebs 4924:Elton, Hugh (2018). 3505:, pp. 126, 161. 3205:, pp. 330, 342. 2251:George of Cappadocia 2096:metropolitan bishops 2015:apostles' successors 1987:Christians lived in 1945:flooding of the Nile 1922:Patriarch Theophilus 1606:provincial governors 1604:were separated. The 1513:State administration 1212:Constantine III 280:Ammianus Marcellinus 144:Martyrs of Palestine 8409:Culture and society 8272:Ecumenical councils 7775:Exarchate of Africa 7765:Quaestura exercitus 7629:Magister officiorum 7624:Praetorian prefects 7267:Byzantine Dark Ages 7014:Distinguished women 6665:Velleius Paterculus 6505:Nicolaus Damascenus 6485:Marcellus Empiricus 5874:Republican currency 5074:Lee, A. D. (2013). 5049:Kulikowski, Michael 4958:. pp. 82–106. 4846:, pp. 254–255. 4786:, pp. 252–253. 4675:, pp. 132–134. 4567:, pp. 305–307. 4519:, pp. 122–126. 4507:, pp. 288–289. 4495:, pp. 121–122. 4363:, pp. 270–271. 4351:, pp. 247–248. 4339:, pp. 269–270. 4266:, pp. 267–268. 4254:, pp. 242–244. 4242:, pp. 262–265. 4198:, pp. 263–264. 4174:, pp. 262–263. 4126:, pp. 246–247. 4114:, pp. 194–195. 3922:, pp. 161–162. 3910:, pp. 123–126. 3898:, pp. 100–109. 3838:, pp. 104–106. 3814:, pp. 127–128. 3802:, pp. 197–198. 3778:, pp. 163–166. 3766:, pp. 85, 103. 3754:, pp. 192–196. 3706:, pp. 146–147. 3493:, pp. 111–112. 3433:, pp. 146–148. 3421:, pp. 142–143. 3397:, pp. 135–138. 3301:, pp. 222–223. 3289:, pp. 189–195. 3277:, pp. 215–216. 3265:, pp. 188–189. 3229:, pp. 185–186. 3181:, pp. 149–155. 3169:, pp. 111–113. 2998:, pp. 151–152. 2986:, pp. 256–258. 2962:, pp. 137–141. 2950:, pp. 131–134. 2842:, pp. 245–246. 2381:Temple in Jerusalem 2325:Melania the Younger 2208:Marcellus of Ancyra 2108:Gothic Christianity 1934:Cyril of Alexandria 1879:sacred prostitution 1855:Hermes Trismegistus 1621:magister officiorum 1573:Diocese of the East 1569:praetorian prefects 1371:Strait of Gibraltar 912:Constantine II 787:and Maximian's son 701:Constantius Chlorus 288:Sulpicius Alexander 180:Macrina the Younger 170:Life of Constantine 159:about the Egyptian 8826:Flags and insignia 8472:Baths of Zeuxippus 8355:Codex Theodosianus 8245:Oriental Orthodoxy 7203:Later Roman Empire 6788:Phlegon of Tralles 6595:Seneca the Younger 6069:Naming conventions 5799:Personal equipment 5332:Later Roman Empire 4281:2010-05-31 at the 3580:, pp. 99–100. 3193:, pp. 41, 49. 2669:, pp. 19, 21. 2242:Council of Serdica 2192:of the same nature 2176:ecumenical council 2136:bishop of Carthage 2112:Debates about the 2073:Liber Pontificalis 2062: 2023:demonic possession 1961:Augustine of Hippo 1874: 1805:Jupiter Dolichenus 1706:equites singulares 1575:bore the title of 1533: 1345:and Ardabur's son 1147:praetorian prefect 1117: 869: 865:Capitoline Museums 666: 658:St Mark's Basilica 580:Bishop of Carthage 564:floods of the Nile 437: 433:Capitoline Museums 359:Notitia Dignitatum 348:Code of Theodosius 243:Chronicon Paschale 153:Bishop of Caesarea 123:'s work about the 117: 76:Later Roman Empire 9092:Early Middle Ages 9074: 9073: 9036: 9035: 8993:Byzantine studies 8968: 8967: 8964: 8963: 8779:Alexander Romance 8637: 8636: 8614:Nea Moni of Chios 8477:Blachernae Palace 8399: 8398: 8395: 8394: 8365:Code of Justinian 8213:Eastern Orthodoxy 8184: 8183: 8180: 8179: 8106: 8105: 7980:Scholae Palatinae 7876: 7875: 7872: 7871: 7841:Foreign relations 7835: 7834: 7729: 7728: 7543: 7542: 7539: 7538: 7342:(1204–1453) 7127: 7126: 7089:Pontifices maximi 6871: 6870: 6728:Diogenes Laërtius 6550:Pliny the Younger 6305:Asconius Pedianus 6265:Romance languages 6137:Civil engineering 5879:Imperial currency 5752:Political control 5713: 5712: 5347: 5346: 5164:978-0-520-24490-0 5121:Treadgold, Warren 5112:978-1-118-31242-1 5089:978-0-7486-2791-2 5066:978-1-78125-632-9 5040:978-0-19-532541-6 5014:978-0-7486-2053-1 4988:978-0-691-16683-4 4939:978-1-108-45631-9 4890:978-0-00-686172-0 4798:, pp. 76–77. 4747:, pp. 95–96. 4735:, pp. 81–83. 4699:, pp. 48–49. 4687:, pp. 71–72. 4639:, pp. 70–72. 4627:, pp. 76–80. 4579:, pp. 61–63. 4543:, pp. 55–58. 4531:, pp. 58–59. 4471:, pp. 53–54. 4387:, pp. 42–43. 4294:Ramsay McMullan, 4276:Kreich, Chapter 4 4230:, pp. 95–96. 4162:, pp. 85–86. 4138:, pp. 83–84. 4090:, pp. 97–99. 4078:, pp. 93–94. 4042:, pp. 88–91. 4018:, pp. 86–87. 3958:, pp. 64–65. 3946:, pp. 40–41. 3934:, pp. 37–38. 3862:, pp. 42–43. 3850:, pp. 33–35. 3730:, pp. 90–91. 3469:, pp. 82–85. 3457:, pp. 95–97. 3385:, pp. 90–92. 3373:, pp. 33–36. 3349:, pp. 20–25. 3337:, pp. 61–62. 3313:, pp. 56–62. 3157:, pp. 31–33. 3145:, pp. 29–31. 3121:, pp. 64–65. 3106:, pp. 26–29. 3094:, pp. 24–25. 3082:, pp. 63–64. 3070:, pp. 22–23. 3046:, pp. 14–15. 2926:, pp. 24–26. 2789:, pp. 28–29. 2777:, pp. 16–17. 2741:, pp. 26–27. 2729:, pp. 36–38. 2717:, pp. 30–32. 2705:, pp. 28–30. 2681:, pp. 25–26. 2657:, pp. 21–25. 2633:, pp. 21–23. 2621:, pp. 34–36. 2597:, pp. 33–34. 2585:, pp. 24–25. 2573:, pp. 17–19. 2561:, pp. 12–15. 2549:, pp. 15–17. 2385:Christ's prophecy 2343:and her daughter 2329:Valerius Pinianus 2321:Basil of Caesarea 1989:peace for decades 1983:Great Persecution 1920:was destroyed by 1911:Maternus Cynegius 1774:("lower class"). 1713:scholae palatinae 1629:scholae palatinae 1507:Melania the Elder 1194:, Goths and Huns 620:barracks emperors 611:Claudius Gothicus 572:Plague of Cyprian 570:now known as the 488:Severus Alexander 459:principes senatus 401:Roman Warm Period 352:Code of Justinian 165:Anthony the Great 139:Christian martyrs 64: 63: 9099: 9061: 8974: 8973: 8917:Imperial Library 8863:Byzantine Greeks 8604:Daphni Monastery 8555:Panagia Chalkeon 8550:Hagios Demetrios 8517:Prison of Anemas 8467:Basilica Cistern 8425: 8424: 8416: 8415: 8405: 8404: 8260:West Syriac Rite 8250:Alexandrian Rite 8201: 8200: 8194:Religion and law 8190: 8189: 8125:Maritime themata 8081:Palaiologan army 7934:Military manuals 7902: 7901: 7893: 7892: 7882: 7881: 7740: 7739: 7716:Megas logothetes 7567: 7566: 7560: 7559: 7549: 7548: 7422:By modern region 7343: 7290: 7289:(717–1204) 7221: 7183: 7182: 7170: 7169: 7161:Byzantine Empire 7154: 7147: 7140: 7131: 7130: 7079:Magistri equitum 6994:Cities and towns 6987: 6913:Constantinopolis 6723:Diodorus Siculus 6655:Valerius Maximus 6590:Seneca the Elder 6510:Nonius Marcellus 6278: 6277: 5831:Hippika gymnasia 5794:Infantry tactics 5700:Consular tribune 5690:Magister equitum 5639:Military tribune 5604: 5603: 5564:Pontifex maximus 5559:Princeps senatus 5549:Magister militum 5315:Byzantine Empire 5236: 5235: 5197: 5190: 5183: 5174: 5173: 5168: 5142: 5116: 5093: 5070: 5044: 5018: 4992: 4969: 4943: 4920: 4899:Burns, Thomas S. 4894: 4859: 4853: 4847: 4841: 4835: 4829: 4823: 4817: 4811: 4805: 4799: 4793: 4787: 4781: 4775: 4769: 4763: 4757: 4748: 4742: 4736: 4730: 4724: 4718: 4712: 4706: 4700: 4694: 4688: 4682: 4676: 4670: 4664: 4658: 4652: 4646: 4640: 4634: 4628: 4622: 4616: 4610: 4604: 4598: 4592: 4586: 4580: 4574: 4568: 4562: 4556: 4550: 4544: 4538: 4532: 4526: 4520: 4514: 4508: 4502: 4496: 4490: 4484: 4478: 4472: 4466: 4460: 4454: 4448: 4442: 4436: 4430: 4424: 4418: 4412: 4406: 4400: 4394: 4388: 4382: 4376: 4370: 4364: 4358: 4352: 4346: 4340: 4334: 4328: 4322: 4313: 4312: 4305: 4299: 4292: 4286: 4273: 4267: 4261: 4255: 4249: 4243: 4237: 4231: 4225: 4216: 4210: 4199: 4193: 4187: 4181: 4175: 4169: 4163: 4157: 4151: 4145: 4139: 4133: 4127: 4121: 4115: 4109: 4103: 4097: 4091: 4085: 4079: 4073: 4067: 4061: 4055: 4054:, p. 63–64. 4049: 4043: 4037: 4031: 4025: 4019: 4013: 4007: 4001: 3995: 3989: 3983: 3977: 3971: 3965: 3959: 3953: 3947: 3941: 3935: 3929: 3923: 3917: 3911: 3905: 3899: 3893: 3887: 3881: 3875: 3869: 3863: 3857: 3851: 3845: 3839: 3833: 3827: 3821: 3815: 3809: 3803: 3797: 3791: 3785: 3779: 3773: 3767: 3761: 3755: 3749: 3743: 3737: 3731: 3725: 3719: 3713: 3707: 3701: 3695: 3689: 3683: 3677: 3671: 3665: 3659: 3653: 3647: 3641: 3632: 3626: 3620: 3614: 3608: 3602: 3596: 3590: 3581: 3575: 3569: 3563: 3557: 3551: 3545: 3539: 3533: 3527: 3521: 3515: 3506: 3500: 3494: 3488: 3482: 3476: 3470: 3464: 3458: 3452: 3446: 3440: 3434: 3428: 3422: 3416: 3410: 3404: 3398: 3392: 3386: 3380: 3374: 3368: 3362: 3356: 3350: 3344: 3338: 3332: 3326: 3320: 3314: 3308: 3302: 3296: 3290: 3284: 3278: 3272: 3266: 3260: 3254: 3248: 3242: 3236: 3230: 3224: 3218: 3212: 3206: 3200: 3194: 3188: 3182: 3176: 3170: 3164: 3158: 3152: 3146: 3140: 3134: 3128: 3122: 3116: 3107: 3101: 3095: 3089: 3083: 3077: 3071: 3065: 3059: 3053: 3047: 3041: 3035: 3029: 3023: 3017: 3011: 3005: 2999: 2993: 2987: 2981: 2975: 2969: 2963: 2957: 2951: 2945: 2939: 2933: 2927: 2921: 2915: 2909: 2903: 2897: 2891: 2885: 2879: 2873: 2867: 2861: 2855: 2849: 2843: 2837: 2831: 2825: 2819: 2813: 2802: 2796: 2790: 2784: 2778: 2772: 2766: 2760: 2754: 2748: 2742: 2736: 2730: 2724: 2718: 2712: 2706: 2700: 2694: 2688: 2682: 2676: 2670: 2664: 2658: 2652: 2646: 2640: 2634: 2628: 2622: 2616: 2610: 2604: 2598: 2592: 2586: 2580: 2574: 2568: 2562: 2556: 2550: 2544: 2528: 2525: 2519: 2512: 2506: 2504: 2487: 2481: 2474: 2448:Migration Period 2235:they approached 2129: 2119: 2076: 2035: 2004:. The legend of 1994:Paul of Samosata 1929:in 341 and 356. 1903:Altar of Victory 1851:Porphyry of Tyre 1843: 1830:Twelve Olympians 1824:spoke about the 1773: 1767: 1739: 1736:magister militum 1731: 1723: 1715: 1709: 1692:auxiliary forces 1640: 1632: 1624: 1598: 1580: 1566: 1554: 1503:Paulinus of Nola 1458: 1450: 1442: 1434: 1332: 1323:Gallia Aquitania 1208:across the Rhine 1062: 897: 873:Christian ethics 841:Christianization 810: 804: 782: 771:Valerius Severus 768: 746:Caucasian Iberia 557: 549: 546:annona militaris 541: 524:Palmyrene Empire 482: 462: 453:Severan emperors 451:aversion to the 422: 420: 362: 312:Justinian I 246: 225:Zacharias Rhetor 59: 56: 50: 27: 19: 9107: 9106: 9102: 9101: 9100: 9098: 9097: 9096: 9077: 9076: 9075: 9070: 9067: 9032: 9008:Cyrillic script 8979: 8960: 8905: 8889: 8789: 8771:Digenes Akritas 8747: 8692: 8633: 8597:Other locations 8592: 8564: 8521: 8453: 8442:Cross-in-square 8410: 8391: 8341: 8195: 8176: 8102: 8052: 8048:Varangian Guard 7991: 7965:East Roman army 7960:Late Roman army 7948: 7887: 7868: 7831: 7810: 7779: 7725: 7704: 7700:Epi ton deeseon 7690:Epi tou eidikou 7648: 7612: 7554: 7535: 7522: 7425: 7423: 7416: 7402:Palaiologan era 7344: 7341: 7332: 7303:Nikephorian era 7291: 7288: 7279: 7222: 7220:(330–717) 7219: 7210: 7190: 7177: 7164: 7158: 7128: 7123: 6985: 6983: 6977: 6867: 6703:Aëtius of Amida 6684: 6670:Verrius Flaccus 6650:Valerius Antias 6610:Silius Italicus 6545:Pliny the Elder 6490:Marcus Aurelius 6365:Cornelius Nepos 6315:Aurelius Victor 6269: 6191: 6103: 6037:Secessio plebis 6008: 5883: 5835: 5709: 5663: 5593: 5475: 5427: 5343: 5264: 5225: 5207: 5201: 5171: 5165: 5147:Wolfram, Herwig 5139: 5113: 5103:Wiley-Blackwell 5090: 5067: 5041: 5015: 4989: 4966: 4940: 4917: 4891: 4873:Cameron, Averil 4867: 4862: 4854: 4850: 4842: 4838: 4830: 4826: 4818: 4814: 4806: 4802: 4794: 4790: 4782: 4778: 4770: 4766: 4758: 4751: 4743: 4739: 4731: 4727: 4719: 4715: 4707: 4703: 4695: 4691: 4683: 4679: 4671: 4667: 4659: 4655: 4647: 4643: 4635: 4631: 4623: 4619: 4611: 4607: 4599: 4595: 4587: 4583: 4575: 4571: 4563: 4559: 4553:Kulikowski 2019 4551: 4547: 4539: 4535: 4527: 4523: 4515: 4511: 4503: 4499: 4491: 4487: 4479: 4475: 4467: 4463: 4455: 4451: 4443: 4439: 4431: 4427: 4419: 4415: 4407: 4403: 4397:Kulikowski 2019 4395: 4391: 4383: 4379: 4371: 4367: 4359: 4355: 4347: 4343: 4335: 4331: 4323: 4316: 4307: 4306: 4302: 4293: 4289: 4283:Wayback Machine 4274: 4270: 4262: 4258: 4250: 4246: 4238: 4234: 4226: 4219: 4211: 4202: 4194: 4190: 4182: 4178: 4170: 4166: 4158: 4154: 4146: 4142: 4134: 4130: 4122: 4118: 4110: 4106: 4098: 4094: 4086: 4082: 4074: 4070: 4062: 4058: 4050: 4046: 4038: 4034: 4026: 4022: 4014: 4010: 4002: 3998: 3990: 3986: 3978: 3974: 3966: 3962: 3954: 3950: 3942: 3938: 3930: 3926: 3918: 3914: 3906: 3902: 3894: 3890: 3882: 3878: 3870: 3866: 3858: 3854: 3846: 3842: 3834: 3830: 3822: 3818: 3810: 3806: 3800:Kulikowski 2019 3798: 3794: 3786: 3782: 3774: 3770: 3762: 3758: 3752:Kulikowski 2019 3750: 3746: 3738: 3734: 3726: 3722: 3714: 3710: 3702: 3698: 3690: 3686: 3678: 3674: 3666: 3662: 3654: 3650: 3642: 3635: 3627: 3623: 3615: 3611: 3603: 3599: 3591: 3584: 3576: 3572: 3564: 3560: 3552: 3548: 3542:Kulikowski 2019 3540: 3536: 3528: 3524: 3516: 3509: 3501: 3497: 3489: 3485: 3477: 3473: 3465: 3461: 3453: 3449: 3441: 3437: 3429: 3425: 3417: 3413: 3405: 3401: 3393: 3389: 3381: 3377: 3369: 3365: 3357: 3353: 3345: 3341: 3333: 3329: 3321: 3317: 3309: 3305: 3297: 3293: 3285: 3281: 3273: 3269: 3261: 3257: 3249: 3245: 3237: 3233: 3225: 3221: 3213: 3209: 3201: 3197: 3189: 3185: 3177: 3173: 3165: 3161: 3153: 3149: 3141: 3137: 3129: 3125: 3117: 3110: 3102: 3098: 3090: 3086: 3078: 3074: 3066: 3062: 3054: 3050: 3042: 3038: 3030: 3026: 3018: 3014: 3006: 3002: 2994: 2990: 2982: 2978: 2970: 2966: 2958: 2954: 2946: 2942: 2938:, pp. 5–9. 2934: 2930: 2922: 2918: 2910: 2906: 2898: 2894: 2890:, pp. 6–7. 2886: 2882: 2878:, pp. 1–2. 2874: 2870: 2866:, pp. 3–4. 2862: 2858: 2850: 2846: 2838: 2834: 2826: 2822: 2814: 2805: 2797: 2793: 2785: 2781: 2773: 2769: 2761: 2757: 2749: 2745: 2737: 2733: 2725: 2721: 2713: 2709: 2701: 2697: 2689: 2685: 2677: 2673: 2665: 2661: 2653: 2649: 2641: 2637: 2629: 2625: 2617: 2613: 2605: 2601: 2593: 2589: 2581: 2577: 2569: 2565: 2557: 2553: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2532: 2531: 2526: 2522: 2516:Martin of Tours 2513: 2509: 2501:praefectus urbi 2488: 2484: 2475: 2471: 2466: 2439: 2410: 2390:John Chrysostom 2357:their patriarch 2353: 2305: 2289:Empress Justina 2285:Bishops of Rome 2272:issued an edict 2110: 2104: 2046: 1985: 1980: 1817:Emperor worship 1789:associated with 1785: 1780: 1759: 1680:John the Lydian 1665:Thomas S. Burns 1660: 1658:East Roman army 1654: 1652:Late Roman army 1648: 1521: 1515: 1425: 1419: 1413: 1408: 1339:Valentinian III 1245:Priscus Attalus 1127: 1109: 1041:East Roman army 940:Tigran VII 853: 843: 830:decisive defeat 755:began with the 730:routed Galerius 645: 639: 634: 628: 615:Roman provinces 492:Sasanian Empire 449:Roman senators' 445:Marcus Aurelius 417: 403: 393: 387: 375: 344: 260:Aurelius Victor 251:'s 9th-century 229:John of Ephesus 176:Life of Macrina 157:Life of Anthony 101: 96: 60: 54: 51: 44: 32:This article's 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 9105: 9095: 9094: 9089: 9072: 9071: 9069: 9068: 9066: 9065: 9055: 9050: 9044: 9041: 9038: 9037: 9034: 9033: 9031: 9030: 9025: 9020: 9015: 9010: 9005: 9000: 8995: 8990: 8984: 8981: 8980: 8970: 8969: 8966: 8965: 8962: 8961: 8959: 8958: 8957: 8956: 8946: 8941: 8940: 8939: 8929: 8924: 8919: 8914: 8908: 8906: 8904: 8903: 8900: 8894: 8891: 8890: 8888: 8887: 8882: 8877: 8872: 8867: 8866: 8865: 8855: 8854: 8853: 8848: 8838: 8833: 8828: 8823: 8818: 8813: 8808: 8803: 8797: 8795: 8791: 8790: 8788: 8787: 8782: 8775: 8774: 8773: 8763: 8757: 8755: 8749: 8748: 8746: 8745: 8740: 8739: 8738: 8733: 8728: 8718: 8713: 8708: 8702: 8700: 8694: 8693: 8691: 8690: 8685: 8680: 8675: 8674: 8673: 8663: 8658: 8653: 8647: 8645: 8639: 8638: 8635: 8634: 8632: 8631: 8626: 8621: 8616: 8611: 8606: 8600: 8598: 8594: 8593: 8591: 8590: 8585: 8580: 8574: 8572: 8566: 8565: 8563: 8562: 8557: 8552: 8547: 8542: 8540:Byzantine Bath 8537: 8531: 8529: 8523: 8522: 8520: 8519: 8514: 8509: 8504: 8499: 8494: 8489: 8484: 8479: 8474: 8469: 8463: 8461: 8459:Constantinople 8455: 8454: 8452: 8451: 8450: 8449: 8444: 8434: 8428: 8422: 8412: 8411: 8401: 8400: 8397: 8396: 8393: 8392: 8390: 8389: 8384: 8379: 8374: 8369: 8368: 8367: 8357: 8351: 8349: 8343: 8342: 8340: 8339: 8334: 8333: 8332: 8327: 8322: 8317: 8309: 8304: 8299: 8294: 8289: 8284: 8279: 8274: 8269: 8268: 8267: 8262: 8257: 8252: 8242: 8241: 8240: 8235: 8230: 8225: 8220: 8218:Byzantine Rite 8209: 8207: 8197: 8196: 8186: 8185: 8182: 8181: 8178: 8177: 8175: 8174: 8169: 8164: 8159: 8154: 8149: 8144: 8143: 8142: 8137: 8132: 8122: 8116: 8114: 8108: 8107: 8104: 8103: 8101: 8100: 8098:Grand domestic 8095: 8094: 8093: 8088: 8078: 8077: 8076: 8071: 8064:Komnenian army 8060: 8058: 8054: 8053: 8051: 8050: 8045: 8040: 8035: 8030: 8025: 8020: 8015: 8010: 8005: 7999: 7997: 7993: 7992: 7990: 7989: 7988: 7987: 7982: 7977: 7972: 7962: 7956: 7954: 7950: 7949: 7947: 7946: 7941: 7939:Military units 7936: 7931: 7926: 7921: 7916: 7911: 7909:Battle tactics 7905: 7899: 7889: 7888: 7878: 7877: 7874: 7873: 7870: 7869: 7867: 7866: 7861: 7856: 7851: 7845: 7843: 7837: 7836: 7833: 7832: 7830: 7829: 7824: 7818: 7816: 7812: 7811: 7809: 7808: 7803: 7798: 7793: 7787: 7785: 7781: 7780: 7778: 7777: 7772: 7767: 7762: 7757: 7752: 7746: 7744: 7737: 7731: 7730: 7727: 7726: 7724: 7723: 7718: 7712: 7710: 7706: 7705: 7703: 7702: 7697: 7692: 7687: 7682: 7677: 7672: 7667: 7662: 7656: 7654: 7650: 7649: 7647: 7646: 7641: 7636: 7631: 7626: 7620: 7618: 7614: 7613: 7611: 7610: 7605: 7604: 7603: 7601:Medieval Greek 7593: 7592: 7591: 7586: 7581: 7570: 7564: 7556: 7555: 7545: 7544: 7541: 7540: 7537: 7536: 7534: 7533: 7528: 7523: 7518: 7516: 7511: 7506: 7501: 7496: 7495: 7494: 7489: 7479: 7474: 7469: 7464: 7459: 7454: 7449: 7444: 7439: 7434: 7428: 7426: 7421: 7418: 7417: 7415: 7414: 7409: 7404: 7399: 7372: 7371: 7370: 7360: 7359: 7358: 7356:Fourth Crusade 7347: 7345: 7337: 7334: 7333: 7331: 7330: 7325: 7320: 7315: 7313:Macedonian era 7310: 7305: 7300: 7294: 7292: 7284: 7281: 7280: 7278: 7277: 7272: 7271: 7270: 7258: 7253: 7248: 7246:Theodosian era 7243: 7242: 7241: 7236: 7225: 7223: 7215: 7212: 7211: 7209: 7208: 7207: 7206: 7193: 7191: 7186: 7179: 7178: 7166: 7165: 7157: 7156: 7149: 7142: 7134: 7125: 7124: 7122: 7121: 7116: 7111: 7106: 7101: 7096: 7091: 7086: 7081: 7076: 7071: 7066: 7061: 7056: 7051: 7046: 7041: 7036: 7031: 7026: 7021: 7016: 7011: 7006: 7001: 6996: 6990: 6988: 6979: 6978: 6976: 6975: 6970: 6965: 6960: 6955: 6950: 6945: 6940: 6935: 6930: 6925: 6920: 6915: 6910: 6905: 6900: 6895: 6890: 6885: 6879: 6877: 6873: 6872: 6869: 6868: 6866: 6865: 6860: 6855: 6850: 6845: 6840: 6835: 6830: 6825: 6820: 6815: 6810: 6805: 6800: 6795: 6790: 6785: 6780: 6775: 6770: 6765: 6760: 6755: 6750: 6745: 6740: 6735: 6730: 6725: 6720: 6715: 6710: 6705: 6700: 6694: 6692: 6686: 6685: 6683: 6682: 6677: 6672: 6667: 6662: 6657: 6652: 6647: 6642: 6637: 6632: 6627: 6622: 6617: 6612: 6607: 6602: 6597: 6592: 6587: 6582: 6577: 6572: 6567: 6562: 6557: 6555:Pomponius Mela 6552: 6547: 6542: 6537: 6532: 6527: 6522: 6517: 6512: 6507: 6502: 6497: 6492: 6487: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6447: 6442: 6437: 6432: 6427: 6422: 6417: 6412: 6407: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6387: 6382: 6377: 6372: 6367: 6362: 6357: 6352: 6347: 6342: 6337: 6332: 6327: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6290:Aelius Donatus 6286: 6284: 6275: 6271: 6270: 6268: 6267: 6262: 6261: 6260: 6258:Ecclesiastical 6255: 6250: 6245: 6240: 6235: 6230: 6225: 6220: 6212: 6207: 6201: 6199: 6193: 6192: 6190: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6154: 6149: 6144: 6139: 6134: 6129: 6124: 6119: 6113: 6111: 6105: 6104: 6102: 6101: 6096: 6091: 6086: 6081: 6076: 6071: 6066: 6061: 6060: 6059: 6049: 6044: 6039: 6034: 6029: 6024: 6018: 6016: 6010: 6009: 6007: 6006: 6001: 5999:Toys and games 5996: 5991: 5986: 5981: 5976: 5971: 5970: 5969: 5959: 5954: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5929: 5924: 5919: 5914: 5909: 5904: 5899: 5893: 5891: 5885: 5884: 5882: 5881: 5876: 5871: 5866: 5861: 5856: 5851: 5845: 5843: 5837: 5836: 5834: 5833: 5828: 5823: 5818: 5813: 5812: 5811: 5806: 5801: 5796: 5791: 5781: 5776: 5775: 5774: 5764: 5759: 5754: 5749: 5744: 5739: 5734: 5729: 5723: 5721: 5715: 5714: 5711: 5710: 5708: 5707: 5702: 5697: 5692: 5687: 5682: 5677: 5671: 5669: 5665: 5664: 5662: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5610: 5608: 5601: 5595: 5594: 5592: 5591: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5561: 5556: 5551: 5546: 5541: 5539:Vigintisexviri 5536: 5531: 5526: 5521: 5516: 5511: 5506: 5501: 5499:Cursus honorum 5496: 5491: 5485: 5483: 5477: 5476: 5474: 5473: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5437: 5435: 5429: 5428: 5426: 5425: 5420: 5415: 5414: 5413: 5408: 5403: 5398: 5388: 5383: 5378: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5357: 5355: 5349: 5348: 5345: 5344: 5342: 5341: 5340: 5339: 5329: 5328: 5327: 5322: 5312: 5311: 5310: 5305: 5298:Western Empire 5295: 5290: 5285: 5280: 5274: 5272: 5266: 5265: 5263: 5262: 5257: 5256: 5255: 5245: 5239: 5233: 5227: 5226: 5224: 5223: 5218: 5212: 5209: 5208: 5200: 5199: 5192: 5185: 5177: 5170: 5169: 5163: 5143: 5137: 5117: 5111: 5094: 5088: 5071: 5065: 5045: 5039: 5023:Heather, Peter 5019: 5013: 4993: 4987: 4970: 4964: 4944: 4938: 4921: 4915: 4895: 4889: 4868: 4866: 4863: 4861: 4860: 4848: 4836: 4834:, p. 166. 4824: 4812: 4810:, p. 139. 4800: 4788: 4776: 4764: 4749: 4737: 4725: 4723:, p. 268. 4713: 4711:, p. 312. 4701: 4689: 4685:Treadgold 1997 4677: 4665: 4661:Treadgold 1997 4653: 4649:Treadgold 1997 4641: 4629: 4617: 4605: 4593: 4581: 4569: 4557: 4545: 4533: 4521: 4509: 4497: 4485: 4473: 4461: 4459:, p. 260. 4449: 4437: 4425: 4413: 4411:, p. 249. 4401: 4389: 4377: 4375:, p. 294. 4365: 4353: 4341: 4329: 4314: 4300: 4287: 4268: 4256: 4244: 4232: 4217: 4213:Treadgold 1997 4200: 4188: 4176: 4164: 4152: 4140: 4128: 4116: 4104: 4092: 4080: 4068: 4056: 4044: 4032: 4030:, p. 326. 4020: 4008: 3996: 3984: 3980:Treadgold 1997 3972: 3960: 3948: 3936: 3924: 3912: 3900: 3888: 3876: 3874:, p. 135. 3864: 3852: 3840: 3828: 3816: 3804: 3792: 3790:, p. 116. 3780: 3768: 3756: 3744: 3740:Treadgold 1997 3732: 3728:Treadgold 1997 3720: 3708: 3696: 3694:, p. 115. 3684: 3672: 3670:, p. 181. 3660: 3648: 3646:, p. 118. 3633: 3621: 3619:, p. 179. 3609: 3605:Treadgold 1997 3597: 3582: 3570: 3568:, p. 158. 3558: 3546: 3544:, p. 152. 3534: 3532:, p. 176. 3522: 3520:, p. 214. 3507: 3495: 3483: 3481:, p. 102. 3471: 3467:Treadgold 1997 3459: 3447: 3435: 3423: 3411: 3409:, p. 139. 3399: 3387: 3375: 3363: 3361:, p. 193. 3351: 3339: 3335:Treadgold 1997 3327: 3315: 3311:Treadgold 1997 3303: 3291: 3279: 3267: 3255: 3243: 3239:Treadgold 1997 3231: 3219: 3217:, p. 337. 3207: 3195: 3191:Treadgold 1997 3183: 3171: 3159: 3155:Treadgold 1997 3147: 3143:Treadgold 1997 3135: 3131:Treadgold 1997 3123: 3108: 3104:Treadgold 1997 3096: 3092:Treadgold 1997 3084: 3072: 3068:Treadgold 1997 3060: 3048: 3044:Treadgold 1997 3036: 3024: 3022:, p. 164. 3012: 3010:, p. 261. 3000: 2988: 2976: 2974:, p. 130. 2964: 2952: 2940: 2928: 2916: 2914:, p. 260. 2904: 2892: 2880: 2868: 2856: 2854:, p. 128. 2844: 2832: 2820: 2803: 2791: 2779: 2767: 2755: 2743: 2731: 2719: 2707: 2695: 2683: 2671: 2659: 2647: 2635: 2623: 2611: 2599: 2587: 2575: 2563: 2551: 2538: 2536: 2533: 2530: 2529: 2520: 2507: 2482: 2468: 2467: 2465: 2462: 2461: 2460: 2455: 2450: 2445: 2443:Late Antiquity 2438: 2435: 2418:Zoroastrianism 2409: 2406: 2352: 2349: 2335:. The ascetic 2307:Ascetics like 2304: 2301: 2228:moderate Arian 2220:episcopal sees 2152:God the Father 2142:. After three 2140:Donatus Magnus 2103: 2100: 2045: 2042: 1998:excommunicated 1996:whom they had 1984: 1981: 1979: 1976: 1972:Pope Gregory I 1784: 1781: 1779: 1776: 1758: 1755: 1650:Main article: 1647: 1644: 1578:Comes Orientis 1538:first emperors 1519:Cursus honorum 1514: 1511: 1415:Main article: 1412: 1409: 1407: 1404: 1351:Flavius Aetius 1310:Galla Placidia 1108: 1107:Divided empire 1105: 1072:Magnus Maximus 1053:Dacia Ripensis 1021:Valentinian II 916:Constantius II 908:Constantinople 888:chariot racing 842: 839: 835:at Chrysopolis 826:Edict of Milan 775:Maximinus Daia 757:Gregorian Code 641:Main article: 638: 635: 630:Main article: 627: 624: 421: 249–251 389:Main article: 386: 383: 374: 371: 343: 340: 324:Secret History 300:Attila the Hun 264:unknown author 188:Church History 109:Church History 100: 97: 95: 92: 68:historiography 62: 61: 55:September 2021 41:the key points 31: 29: 22: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9104: 9093: 9090: 9088: 9085: 9084: 9082: 9064: 9060: 9056: 9054: 9051: 9049: 9046: 9045: 9043: 9042: 9039: 9029: 9026: 9024: 9021: 9019: 9016: 9014: 9011: 9009: 9006: 9004: 9001: 8999: 8996: 8994: 8991: 8989: 8986: 8985: 8982: 8975: 8971: 8955: 8952: 8951: 8950: 8947: 8945: 8942: 8938: 8935: 8934: 8933: 8930: 8928: 8925: 8923: 8920: 8918: 8915: 8913: 8912:Encyclopedias 8910: 8909: 8907: 8901: 8899: 8896: 8895: 8892: 8886: 8883: 8881: 8878: 8876: 8873: 8871: 8868: 8864: 8861: 8860: 8859: 8856: 8852: 8849: 8847: 8844: 8843: 8842: 8839: 8837: 8836:Hellenization 8834: 8832: 8829: 8827: 8824: 8822: 8819: 8817: 8814: 8812: 8809: 8807: 8804: 8802: 8799: 8798: 8796: 8794:Everyday life 8792: 8786: 8783: 8781: 8780: 8776: 8772: 8769: 8768: 8767: 8766:Acritic songs 8764: 8762: 8759: 8758: 8756: 8754: 8750: 8744: 8741: 8737: 8734: 8732: 8729: 8727: 8724: 8723: 8722: 8719: 8717: 8714: 8712: 8709: 8707: 8704: 8703: 8701: 8699: 8695: 8689: 8686: 8684: 8681: 8679: 8676: 8672: 8669: 8668: 8667: 8664: 8662: 8659: 8657: 8654: 8652: 8649: 8648: 8646: 8644: 8640: 8630: 8627: 8625: 8622: 8620: 8617: 8615: 8612: 8610: 8609:Hosios Loukas 8607: 8605: 8602: 8601: 8599: 8595: 8589: 8586: 8584: 8581: 8579: 8576: 8575: 8573: 8571: 8567: 8561: 8558: 8556: 8553: 8551: 8548: 8546: 8543: 8541: 8538: 8536: 8533: 8532: 8530: 8528: 8524: 8518: 8515: 8513: 8510: 8508: 8505: 8503: 8500: 8498: 8495: 8493: 8490: 8488: 8485: 8483: 8480: 8478: 8475: 8473: 8470: 8468: 8465: 8464: 8462: 8460: 8456: 8448: 8445: 8443: 8440: 8439: 8438: 8435: 8433: 8430: 8429: 8426: 8423: 8421: 8417: 8413: 8406: 8402: 8388: 8385: 8383: 8380: 8378: 8375: 8373: 8370: 8366: 8363: 8362: 8361: 8358: 8356: 8353: 8352: 8350: 8348: 8344: 8338: 8335: 8331: 8328: 8326: 8323: 8321: 8318: 8316: 8313: 8312: 8310: 8308: 8305: 8303: 8300: 8298: 8295: 8293: 8290: 8288: 8285: 8283: 8282:Monophysitism 8280: 8278: 8275: 8273: 8270: 8266: 8263: 8261: 8258: 8256: 8255:Armenian Rite 8253: 8251: 8248: 8247: 8246: 8243: 8239: 8236: 8234: 8231: 8229: 8226: 8224: 8221: 8219: 8216: 8215: 8214: 8211: 8210: 8208: 8206: 8202: 8198: 8191: 8187: 8173: 8172:Naval battles 8170: 8168: 8165: 8163: 8160: 8158: 8155: 8153: 8150: 8148: 8145: 8141: 8138: 8136: 8133: 8131: 8128: 8127: 8126: 8123: 8121: 8118: 8117: 8115: 8113: 8109: 8099: 8096: 8092: 8089: 8087: 8084: 8083: 8082: 8079: 8075: 8072: 8070: 8067: 8066: 8065: 8062: 8061: 8059: 8055: 8049: 8046: 8044: 8041: 8039: 8036: 8034: 8031: 8029: 8026: 8024: 8021: 8019: 8016: 8014: 8011: 8009: 8006: 8004: 8001: 8000: 7998: 7994: 7986: 7983: 7981: 7978: 7976: 7973: 7971: 7968: 7967: 7966: 7963: 7961: 7958: 7957: 7955: 7951: 7945: 7942: 7940: 7937: 7935: 7932: 7930: 7927: 7925: 7922: 7920: 7917: 7915: 7912: 7910: 7907: 7906: 7903: 7900: 7898: 7894: 7890: 7883: 7879: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7846: 7844: 7842: 7838: 7828: 7825: 7823: 7820: 7819: 7817: 7813: 7807: 7804: 7802: 7799: 7797: 7794: 7792: 7789: 7788: 7786: 7782: 7776: 7773: 7771: 7768: 7766: 7763: 7761: 7758: 7756: 7753: 7751: 7748: 7747: 7745: 7741: 7738: 7736: 7732: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7713: 7711: 7707: 7701: 7698: 7696: 7695:Protasekretis 7693: 7691: 7688: 7686: 7683: 7681: 7678: 7676: 7673: 7671: 7668: 7666: 7663: 7661: 7658: 7657: 7655: 7651: 7645: 7642: 7640: 7637: 7635: 7632: 7630: 7627: 7625: 7622: 7621: 7619: 7615: 7609: 7606: 7602: 7599: 7598: 7597: 7594: 7590: 7587: 7585: 7582: 7580: 7577: 7576: 7575: 7572: 7571: 7568: 7565: 7561: 7557: 7550: 7546: 7532: 7529: 7527: 7524: 7521: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7493: 7490: 7488: 7485: 7484: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7458: 7455: 7453: 7450: 7448: 7445: 7443: 7440: 7438: 7435: 7433: 7430: 7429: 7427: 7419: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7403: 7400: 7397: 7393: 7389: 7385: 7381: 7377: 7373: 7369: 7366: 7365: 7364: 7361: 7357: 7354: 7353: 7352: 7349: 7348: 7346: 7340: 7335: 7329: 7326: 7324: 7323:Komnenian era 7321: 7319: 7316: 7314: 7311: 7309: 7306: 7304: 7301: 7299: 7296: 7295: 7293: 7287: 7282: 7276: 7273: 7268: 7264: 7263: 7262: 7261:Heraclian era 7259: 7257: 7256:Justinian era 7254: 7252: 7249: 7247: 7244: 7240: 7237: 7235: 7232: 7231: 7230: 7227: 7226: 7224: 7218: 7213: 7205: 7204: 7200: 7199: 7198: 7195: 7194: 7192: 7189: 7184: 7180: 7176: 7171: 7167: 7162: 7155: 7150: 7148: 7143: 7141: 7136: 7135: 7132: 7120: 7117: 7115: 7112: 7110: 7107: 7105: 7102: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7087: 7085: 7082: 7080: 7077: 7075: 7072: 7070: 7067: 7065: 7062: 7060: 7057: 7055: 7052: 7050: 7047: 7045: 7042: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7032: 7030: 7027: 7025: 7022: 7020: 7017: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7005: 7002: 7000: 6997: 6995: 6992: 6991: 6989: 6980: 6974: 6971: 6969: 6966: 6964: 6961: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6936: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6916: 6914: 6911: 6909: 6906: 6904: 6901: 6899: 6896: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6886: 6884: 6881: 6880: 6878: 6874: 6864: 6861: 6859: 6856: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6846: 6844: 6841: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6831: 6829: 6826: 6824: 6821: 6819: 6816: 6814: 6811: 6809: 6806: 6804: 6801: 6799: 6796: 6794: 6791: 6789: 6786: 6784: 6781: 6779: 6776: 6774: 6771: 6769: 6766: 6764: 6761: 6759: 6756: 6754: 6751: 6749: 6746: 6744: 6741: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6731: 6729: 6726: 6724: 6721: 6719: 6716: 6714: 6711: 6709: 6706: 6704: 6701: 6699: 6696: 6695: 6693: 6691: 6687: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6663: 6661: 6658: 6656: 6653: 6651: 6648: 6646: 6643: 6641: 6638: 6636: 6633: 6631: 6628: 6626: 6623: 6621: 6618: 6616: 6613: 6611: 6608: 6606: 6603: 6601: 6598: 6596: 6593: 6591: 6588: 6586: 6583: 6581: 6578: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6568: 6566: 6563: 6561: 6558: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6548: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6538: 6536: 6533: 6531: 6528: 6526: 6523: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6508: 6506: 6503: 6501: 6498: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6453: 6451: 6448: 6446: 6445:Julius Paulus 6443: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6428: 6426: 6423: 6421: 6418: 6416: 6413: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6383: 6381: 6380:Fabius Pictor 6378: 6376: 6373: 6371: 6368: 6366: 6363: 6361: 6358: 6356: 6353: 6351: 6348: 6346: 6343: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6328: 6326: 6323: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6287: 6285: 6283: 6279: 6276: 6272: 6266: 6263: 6259: 6256: 6254: 6251: 6249: 6246: 6244: 6241: 6239: 6236: 6234: 6231: 6229: 6226: 6224: 6221: 6219: 6216: 6215: 6213: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6202: 6200: 6198: 6194: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6158: 6155: 6153: 6150: 6148: 6145: 6143: 6140: 6138: 6135: 6133: 6130: 6128: 6125: 6123: 6120: 6118: 6117:Amphitheatres 6115: 6114: 6112: 6110: 6106: 6100: 6097: 6095: 6092: 6090: 6087: 6085: 6082: 6080: 6077: 6075: 6072: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6062: 6058: 6055: 6054: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6045: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6033: 6030: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6019: 6017: 6015: 6011: 6005: 6002: 6000: 5997: 5995: 5992: 5990: 5987: 5985: 5982: 5980: 5977: 5975: 5972: 5968: 5965: 5964: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5953: 5950: 5948: 5945: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5928: 5925: 5923: 5920: 5918: 5915: 5913: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5903: 5900: 5898: 5895: 5894: 5892: 5890: 5886: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5854:Deforestation 5852: 5850: 5847: 5846: 5844: 5842: 5838: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5822: 5819: 5817: 5814: 5810: 5807: 5805: 5804:Siege engines 5802: 5800: 5797: 5795: 5792: 5790: 5787: 5786: 5785: 5782: 5780: 5777: 5773: 5770: 5769: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5755: 5753: 5750: 5748: 5745: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5737:Establishment 5735: 5733: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5724: 5722: 5720: 5716: 5706: 5703: 5701: 5698: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5683: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5672: 5670: 5668:Extraordinary 5666: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5654:Promagistrate 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5612: 5611: 5609: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5596: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5522: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5486: 5484: 5482: 5478: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5441:Twelve Tables 5439: 5438: 5436: 5434: 5430: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5416: 5412: 5409: 5407: 5404: 5402: 5399: 5397: 5394: 5393: 5392: 5389: 5387: 5384: 5382: 5379: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5358: 5356: 5354: 5350: 5338: 5335: 5334: 5333: 5330: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5317: 5316: 5313: 5309: 5306: 5304: 5301: 5300: 5299: 5296: 5294: 5291: 5289: 5286: 5284: 5281: 5279: 5276: 5275: 5273: 5271: 5267: 5261: 5258: 5254: 5251: 5250: 5249: 5246: 5244: 5241: 5240: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5228: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5213: 5210: 5205: 5198: 5193: 5191: 5186: 5184: 5179: 5178: 5175: 5166: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5138:0-8047-2630-2 5134: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5108: 5104: 5100: 5095: 5091: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5072: 5068: 5062: 5058: 5057:Profile Books 5054: 5050: 5046: 5042: 5036: 5032: 5028: 5024: 5020: 5016: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4997:Harries, Jill 4994: 4990: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4971: 4967: 4965:0-674-51173-5 4961: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4948:Fowden, Garth 4945: 4941: 4935: 4931: 4927: 4922: 4918: 4916:0-8018-7306-1 4912: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4892: 4886: 4882: 4881:Fontana Press 4878: 4874: 4870: 4869: 4858:, p. 47. 4857: 4852: 4845: 4844:Mitchell 2017 4840: 4833: 4828: 4822:, p. 95. 4821: 4816: 4809: 4808:Mitchell 2017 4804: 4797: 4792: 4785: 4784:Mitchell 2017 4780: 4774:, p. 55. 4773: 4768: 4762:, p. 76. 4761: 4756: 4754: 4746: 4741: 4734: 4729: 4722: 4721:Mitchell 2017 4717: 4710: 4709:Mitchell 2017 4705: 4698: 4693: 4686: 4681: 4674: 4669: 4663:, p. 62. 4662: 4657: 4651:, p. 55. 4650: 4645: 4638: 4633: 4626: 4621: 4615:, p. 70. 4614: 4609: 4603:, p. 70. 4602: 4597: 4591:, p. 60. 4590: 4585: 4578: 4573: 4566: 4565:Mitchell 2017 4561: 4555:, p. 19. 4554: 4549: 4542: 4537: 4530: 4525: 4518: 4513: 4506: 4505:Mitchell 2017 4501: 4494: 4489: 4483:, p. 55. 4482: 4477: 4470: 4465: 4458: 4457:Mitchell 2017 4453: 4446: 4441: 4434: 4433:Mitchell 2017 4429: 4423:, p. 43. 4422: 4417: 4410: 4409:Mitchell 2017 4405: 4399:, p. 17. 4398: 4393: 4386: 4381: 4374: 4369: 4362: 4361:Mitchell 2017 4357: 4350: 4349:Mitchell 2017 4345: 4338: 4337:Mitchell 2017 4333: 4327:, p. 82. 4326: 4321: 4319: 4311:. April 2024. 4310: 4304: 4297: 4291: 4284: 4280: 4277: 4272: 4265: 4264:Mitchell 2017 4260: 4253: 4252:Mitchell 2017 4248: 4241: 4240:Mitchell 2017 4236: 4229: 4224: 4222: 4215:, p. 60. 4214: 4209: 4207: 4205: 4197: 4196:Mitchell 2017 4192: 4186:, p. 91. 4185: 4180: 4173: 4172:Mitchell 2017 4168: 4161: 4156: 4149: 4148:Mitchell 2017 4144: 4137: 4132: 4125: 4124:Mitchell 2017 4120: 4113: 4112:Mitchell 2017 4108: 4102:, p. 10. 4101: 4096: 4089: 4084: 4077: 4072: 4066:, p. 94. 4065: 4060: 4053: 4048: 4041: 4036: 4029: 4024: 4017: 4012: 4006:, p. 73. 4005: 4004:Mitchell 2017 4000: 3994:, p. 66. 3993: 3988: 3982:, p. 40. 3981: 3976: 3970:, p. 54. 3969: 3964: 3957: 3952: 3945: 3940: 3933: 3928: 3921: 3916: 3909: 3904: 3897: 3892: 3886:, p. 94. 3885: 3884:Mitchell 2017 3880: 3873: 3868: 3861: 3856: 3849: 3844: 3837: 3832: 3826:, p. 42. 3825: 3820: 3813: 3808: 3801: 3796: 3789: 3784: 3777: 3772: 3765: 3760: 3753: 3748: 3742:, p. 90. 3741: 3736: 3729: 3724: 3718:, p. 82. 3717: 3712: 3705: 3700: 3693: 3688: 3681: 3676: 3669: 3664: 3657: 3652: 3645: 3644:Mitchell 2017 3640: 3638: 3630: 3625: 3618: 3613: 3607:, p. 88. 3606: 3601: 3595:, p. 98. 3594: 3589: 3587: 3579: 3578:Mitchell 2017 3574: 3567: 3562: 3556:, p. 99. 3555: 3554:Mitchell 2017 3550: 3543: 3538: 3531: 3526: 3519: 3518:Mitchell 2017 3514: 3512: 3504: 3499: 3492: 3487: 3480: 3479:Mitchell 2017 3475: 3468: 3463: 3456: 3455:Mitchell 2017 3451: 3444: 3439: 3432: 3427: 3420: 3415: 3408: 3403: 3396: 3391: 3384: 3383:Mitchell 2017 3379: 3372: 3367: 3360: 3355: 3348: 3343: 3336: 3331: 3324: 3319: 3312: 3307: 3300: 3295: 3288: 3283: 3276: 3271: 3264: 3259: 3253:, p. 75. 3252: 3251:Mitchell 2017 3247: 3241:, p. 48. 3240: 3235: 3228: 3223: 3216: 3215:Mitchell 2017 3211: 3204: 3199: 3192: 3187: 3180: 3175: 3168: 3163: 3156: 3151: 3144: 3139: 3133:, p. 29. 3132: 3127: 3120: 3119:Mitchell 2017 3115: 3113: 3105: 3100: 3093: 3088: 3081: 3080:Mitchell 2017 3076: 3069: 3064: 3057: 3052: 3045: 3040: 3034:, p. 29. 3033: 3028: 3021: 3016: 3009: 3004: 2997: 2992: 2985: 2984:Mitchell 2017 2980: 2973: 2968: 2961: 2956: 2949: 2944: 2937: 2932: 2925: 2920: 2913: 2908: 2901: 2896: 2889: 2884: 2877: 2872: 2865: 2860: 2853: 2848: 2841: 2836: 2830:, p. 60. 2829: 2828:Mitchell 2017 2824: 2818:, p. 36. 2817: 2812: 2810: 2808: 2800: 2795: 2788: 2783: 2776: 2775:Mitchell 2017 2771: 2765:, p. 41. 2764: 2763:Mitchell 2017 2759: 2753:, p. 39. 2752: 2751:Mitchell 2017 2747: 2740: 2735: 2728: 2727:Mitchell 2017 2723: 2716: 2715:Mitchell 2017 2711: 2704: 2703:Mitchell 2017 2699: 2693:, p. 15. 2692: 2687: 2680: 2679:Mitchell 2017 2675: 2668: 2663: 2656: 2655:Mitchell 2017 2651: 2645:, p. 18. 2644: 2639: 2632: 2631:Mitchell 2017 2627: 2620: 2619:Mitchell 2017 2615: 2608: 2603: 2596: 2595:Mitchell 2017 2591: 2584: 2579: 2572: 2571:Mitchell 2017 2567: 2560: 2555: 2548: 2547:Mitchell 2017 2543: 2539: 2524: 2517: 2511: 2503: 2502: 2496: 2492: 2486: 2479: 2473: 2469: 2459: 2456: 2454: 2451: 2449: 2446: 2444: 2441: 2440: 2434: 2432: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2405: 2403: 2399: 2398:Mount Gerizim 2394: 2391: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2359:of allegedly 2358: 2348: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2319: 2315: 2310: 2300: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2273: 2269: 2264: 2259: 2256: 2252: 2246: 2243: 2238: 2237:Pope Julius I 2233: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2215: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2148: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2128: 2123: 2118: 2117: 2109: 2099: 2097: 2092: 2091:Peter Heather 2087: 2085: 2080: 2075: 2074: 2068: 2059: 2055: 2050: 2041: 2039: 2034: 2033: 2026: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1990: 1975: 1973: 1970:Still in 591 1968: 1964: 1962: 1957: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1941: 1939: 1935: 1930: 1928: 1923: 1919: 1914: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1894: 1892: 1889: 1884: 1880: 1871: 1866: 1862: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1847: 1842: 1841: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1775: 1772: 1766: 1754: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1742:Marcianopolis 1738: 1737: 1730: 1729: 1722: 1721: 1714: 1708: 1707: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1684: 1681: 1676: 1673: 1672:imperial post 1668: 1666: 1659: 1653: 1643: 1639: 1638: 1631: 1630: 1623: 1622: 1616: 1610: 1607: 1602: 1597: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1579: 1574: 1570: 1565: 1564: 1558: 1553: 1552: 1546: 1541: 1539: 1530: 1525: 1520: 1510: 1508: 1504: 1498: 1495: 1490: 1485: 1483: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1460: 1457: 1456: 1449: 1448: 1441: 1440: 1433: 1432: 1424: 1418: 1403: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1363: 1361: 1357: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1331: 1330: 1324: 1318: 1316: 1311: 1306: 1305:their kingdom 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1273: 1268: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1241:Castra Martis 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1225:Theodosius II 1221: 1218: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1180: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1148: 1145: 1144:Eastern Roman 1141: 1137: 1136:Western Roman 1132: 1126: 1122: 1113: 1104: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1073: 1069: 1064: 1061: 1060: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1037:at Adrianople 1034: 1029: 1024: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 989:Valentinian I 986: 982: 978: 973: 971: 967: 962: 958: 954: 949: 944: 941: 937: 933: 932:King of Kings 929: 928:Hannibalianus 925: 921: 917: 913: 909: 905: 901: 896: 895: 889: 885: 882: 881:penalties for 878: 874: 866: 862: 857: 852: 848: 838: 836: 831: 827: 822: 818: 812: 809: 803: 798: 794: 790: 786: 781: 776: 772: 767: 760: 758: 754: 749: 747: 743: 739: 735: 731: 727: 723: 719: 715: 711: 706: 702: 698: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 671: 663: 659: 655: 654: 649: 644: 633: 623: 621: 616: 612: 607: 605: 601: 597: 593: 589: 585: 581: 577: 573: 569: 565: 559: 556: 555: 548: 547: 540: 539: 533: 529: 525: 521: 517: 516:Gallic Empire 513: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 489: 484: 481: 480: 474: 470: 466: 461: 460: 454: 450: 446: 442: 434: 430: 429:Palazzo Nuovo 426: 423:), a staunch 415: 411: 407: 402: 398: 392: 382: 380: 379:dating system 370: 367: 361: 360: 353: 349: 339: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 314:'s rule. His 313: 309: 305: 301: 297: 293: 289: 285: 281: 277: 273: 269: 268:common source 265: 261: 256: 254: 253:Chronographia 250: 245: 244: 238: 234: 230: 226: 222: 218: 214: 210: 206: 202: 198: 194: 190: 189: 183: 181: 177: 172: 171: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 145: 140: 136: 135:Hagiographies 132: 131: 126: 122: 114: 110: 105: 91: 89: 85: 81: 77: 73: 69: 58: 48: 42: 40: 35: 30: 26: 21: 20: 8777: 8545:Hagia Sophia 8527:Thessalonica 8502:Hagia Sophia 8482:Chora Church 8420:Architecture 8297:Great Schism 8287:Paulicianism 8265:Miaphysitism 8120:Karabisianoi 7424:or territory 7384:Thessalonica 7368:Latin Empire 7363:Frankokratia 7338: 7298:Isaurian era 7285: 7216: 7202: 7201: 7197:Roman Empire 7187: 7059:Institutions 6923:Leptis Magna 6876:Major cities 6783:Philostratus 6570:Quadrigarius 6390:Rufus Festus 6253:Contemporary 5974:Romanization 5897:Architecture 5504:Collegiality 5353:Constitution 5331: 5204:Ancient Rome 5150: 5124: 5098: 5075: 5052: 5026: 5000: 4974: 4951: 4925: 4902: 4876: 4851: 4839: 4832:Cameron 1993 4827: 4815: 4803: 4796:Cameron 1993 4791: 4779: 4767: 4760:Cameron 1993 4740: 4733:Cameron 1993 4728: 4716: 4704: 4692: 4680: 4668: 4656: 4644: 4632: 4625:Heather 2006 4620: 4608: 4601:Cameron 1993 4596: 4589:Cameron 1993 4584: 4572: 4560: 4548: 4536: 4529:Cameron 1993 4524: 4517:Heather 2006 4512: 4500: 4493:Heather 2006 4488: 4481:Cameron 1993 4476: 4464: 4452: 4445:Cameron 1993 4440: 4428: 4416: 4404: 4392: 4380: 4368: 4356: 4344: 4332: 4303: 4295: 4290: 4271: 4259: 4247: 4235: 4228:Cameron 1993 4191: 4179: 4167: 4155: 4143: 4131: 4119: 4107: 4100:Cameron 1993 4095: 4083: 4071: 4059: 4052:Heather 2006 4047: 4035: 4023: 4011: 3999: 3987: 3975: 3968:Cameron 1993 3963: 3951: 3939: 3927: 3915: 3908:Heather 2006 3903: 3896:Heather 2006 3891: 3879: 3867: 3860:Cameron 1993 3855: 3843: 3836:Heather 2006 3831: 3824:Cameron 1993 3819: 3812:Wolfram 1997 3807: 3795: 3783: 3776:Wolfram 1997 3771: 3759: 3747: 3735: 3723: 3711: 3704:Wolfram 1997 3699: 3687: 3680:Wolfram 1997 3675: 3663: 3656:Wolfram 1997 3651: 3624: 3612: 3600: 3593:Wolfram 1997 3573: 3561: 3549: 3537: 3525: 3503:Wolfram 1997 3498: 3486: 3474: 3462: 3450: 3445:, p. 1. 3443:Cameron 1993 3438: 3426: 3414: 3402: 3390: 3378: 3366: 3354: 3347:Harries 2012 3342: 3330: 3323:Harries 2012 3318: 3306: 3299:Harries 2012 3294: 3287:Harries 2012 3282: 3275:Harries 2012 3270: 3263:Harries 2012 3258: 3246: 3234: 3227:Harries 2012 3222: 3210: 3198: 3186: 3179:Harries 2012 3174: 3167:Harries 2012 3162: 3150: 3138: 3126: 3099: 3087: 3075: 3063: 3051: 3039: 3027: 3015: 3003: 2991: 2979: 2967: 2955: 2943: 2936:Cameron 1993 2931: 2919: 2907: 2902:, p. 3. 2900:Cameron 1993 2895: 2888:Harries 2012 2883: 2871: 2864:Cameron 1993 2859: 2847: 2835: 2823: 2794: 2787:Cameron 1993 2782: 2770: 2758: 2746: 2739:Cameron 1993 2734: 2722: 2710: 2698: 2691:Cameron 1993 2686: 2674: 2667:Cameron 1993 2662: 2650: 2643:Cameron 1993 2638: 2626: 2614: 2607:Cameron 1993 2602: 2590: 2583:Cameron 1993 2578: 2566: 2559:Cameron 1993 2554: 2542: 2523: 2510: 2485: 2472: 2411: 2395: 2361:Davidic line 2354: 2306: 2260: 2247: 2216: 2200:Nicene Creed 2149: 2111: 2088: 2063: 2027: 1986: 1978:Christianity 1969: 1965: 1958: 1942: 1931: 1915: 1907:Senate House 1895: 1883:Oak of Mamre 1875: 1868:Portrait of 1840:Sol Invictus 1813:Leptis Magna 1786: 1760: 1728:comitatenses 1685: 1677: 1669: 1661: 1611: 1542: 1534: 1499: 1486: 1480:Aquileia or 1469:Thessalonica 1461: 1426: 1392:plains along 1375:Hippo Regius 1364: 1319: 1269: 1222: 1184:at Pollentia 1181: 1134:courts, the 1128: 1077:peace treaty 1065: 1025: 974: 945: 870: 813: 761: 750: 742:was restored 667: 651: 608: 584:ancient gods 560: 485: 438: 376: 345: 323: 319: 315: 283: 257: 252: 216: 186: 184: 175: 168: 156: 142: 128: 118: 108: 88:Roman Empire 75: 71: 65: 52: 36: 34:lead section 9028:Megali Idea 9003:Byzantinism 8706:Agriculture 8497:Hagia Irene 8330:Kievan Rus' 8307:Mount Athos 8130:Cibyrrhaeot 8074:Vestiaritai 7929:Mercenaries 7806:Catepanates 7665:Sakellarios 7584:Family tree 7509:Mesopotamia 7328:Angelid era 7308:Amorian era 7054:Geographers 6738:Dioscorides 6718:Cassius Dio 6340:Cassiodorus 6243:Renaissance 5849:Agriculture 5821:Auxiliaries 5762:Engineering 5599:Magistrates 5451:Citizenship 5446:Mos maiorum 5381:Late Empire 4820:Fowden 2000 4745:Fowden 2000 4325:Fowden 2000 4184:Fowden 2000 4160:Fowden 2000 4136:Fowden 2000 3920:Harper 2017 3359:Harper 2017 3020:Harper 2017 2996:Harper 2017 2972:Harper 2017 2960:Harper 2017 2948:Harper 2017 2852:Harper 2017 2799:Harper 2017 2453:Gothic Wars 2431:Priscillian 2408:Manichaeism 2377:god-fearers 2318:Cappadocian 2303:Monasticism 2281:Holy Spirit 2164:God the Son 2084:holy orders 2008:, an early 1826:Highest God 1765:honestiores 1750:Roman fleet 1700:praetorians 1455:praepositus 1447:primicerius 1387:Sebastianus 1297:Burgundians 1285:Constantius 1272:sacked Rome 1196:at Florence 1031:settled in 970:Neoplatonic 785:Constantine 777:as the new 465:prostration 441:Cassius Dio 412:of Emperor 373:Archaeology 237:theological 9081:Categories 9023:Third Rome 8949:University 8932:Philosophy 8922:Inventions 8785:Historians 8753:Literature 8736:Varangians 8578:San Vitale 8507:Hippodrome 8487:City Walls 8387:Mutilation 8382:Hexabiblos 8302:Bogomilism 8292:Iconoclasm 8162:Megas doux 8152:Greek fire 8135:Aegean Sea 8008:Kleisourai 7985:Excubitors 7975:Bucellarii 7827:Despotates 7796:Kleisourai 7735:Provincial 7579:Coronation 7553:Governance 7318:Doukid era 7251:Leonid era 6943:Mediolanum 6883:Alexandria 6848:Themistius 6813:Porphyrius 6640:Tertullian 6575:Quintilian 6565:Propertius 6460:Lactantius 6410:Fulgentius 6345:Censorinus 6167:Sanitation 6152:Metallurgy 6109:Technology 6074:Demography 6022:Patricians 5989:Spectacles 5947:Literature 5942:Hairstyles 5779:Technology 5529:Praefectus 5481:Government 5471:Litigation 5456:Auctoritas 5401:Centuriate 5288:Principate 5283:Pax Romana 5243:Foundation 4673:Elton 2018 4637:Elton 2018 4613:Elton 2018 4577:Elton 2018 4541:Elton 2018 4469:Elton 2018 4421:Elton 2018 4385:Elton 2018 4373:Elton 2018 4088:Elton 2018 4076:Elton 2018 4064:Elton 2018 4040:Elton 2018 4028:Burns 2003 4016:Elton 2018 3992:Elton 2018 3956:Elton 2018 3944:Elton 2018 3932:Elton 2018 3872:Elton 2018 3848:Elton 2018 3668:Elton 2018 3617:Elton 2018 3566:Elton 2018 3530:Elton 2018 3431:Elton 2018 3419:Elton 2018 3395:Elton 2018 3203:Burns 2003 3056:Burns 2003 3032:Elton 2018 3008:Burns 2003 2924:Elton 2018 2912:Burns 2003 2840:Burns 2003 2816:Elton 2018 2535:References 2422:Manichaean 2263:Demophilus 2186:adopted a 2134:for their 2127:traditores 2116:traditores 2106:See also: 2038:divination 2032:haruspices 1891:Themistius 1888:panegyrist 1859:Iamblichus 1771:humiliores 1656:See also: 1601:equestrian 1591:proconsuls 1517:See also: 1477:hippodrome 1423:Principate 1421:See also: 1406:Government 1394:the river 1360:Bonifatius 1188:Radagaisus 1081:Shapur III 1049:Theodosius 979:abandoned 953:Magnentius 859:Head of a 734:in Armenia 673:Diocletian 588:Alexandria 532:debasement 504:Sarmatians 395:See also: 385:Background 121:Lactantius 80:Diocletian 8851:Octoechos 8731:Silk Road 8223:Hesychasm 8091:Paramonai 8038:Hetaireia 7970:Foederati 7859:Diplomacy 7854:Diplomats 7760:Provinces 7589:Empresses 7392:Trebizond 7188:Preceding 7099:Quaestors 7029:Empresses 7019:Dynasties 7009:Dictators 6984:and other 6973:Volubilis 6968:Vindobona 6928:Londinium 6853:Theodoret 6823:Procopius 6803:Polyaenus 6778:Pausanias 6680:Vitruvius 6625:Symmachus 6620:Suetonius 6530:Petronius 6515:Obsequens 6480:Macrobius 6475:Lucretius 6400:Frontinus 6375:Eutropius 6360:Columella 6310:Augustine 6300:Appuleius 6248:Neo-Latin 6223:Classical 6214:Versions 6122:Aqueducts 6064:Patronage 5984:Sexuality 5957:Mythology 5932:Education 5922:Cosmetics 5747:Campaigns 5742:Structure 5695:Decemviri 5554:Imperator 5253:overthrow 5025:(2006) . 2426:dualistic 2345:Blaesilla 2333:Holy Land 2309:Pachomius 2132:Donatists 1943:When the 1720:limitanei 1545:provinces 1489:autocrats 1402:of Gaul. 1383:at Rimini 1329:nomismata 1277:Visigoths 1253:Gerontius 1229:Anthemius 1202:, Alans, 1177:Isaurians 1165:Eutropius 1059:foederati 1045:Hispanian 1001:Procopius 948:Arshak II 936:Shapur II 924:Dalmatius 900:Byzantium 793:Carnuntum 789:Maxentius 753:Roman law 738:Ctesiphon 697:tetrarchy 677:Nicomedia 643:Tetrarchy 637:Tetrarchy 604:Gallienus 514:ruled a " 479:dediticii 469:Caracalla 320:Buildings 308:Procopius 284:Histories 272:Eutropius 235:focus on 209:Theodoret 185:With his 127:, titled 99:Histories 84:Heraclius 39:summarize 8944:Scholars 8937:Rhetoric 8927:Medicine 8902:Learning 8801:Calendar 8678:Painters 8377:Basilika 8315:Bulgaria 8277:Arianism 8228:Hayhurum 8205:Religion 8167:Admirals 8086:Allagion 8018:Droungos 7924:Generals 7886:Military 7849:Treaties 7755:Dioceses 7574:Emperors 7487:Sardinia 7467:Dalmatia 7447:Bulgaria 7437:Anatolia 7396:Theodoro 7390: / 7386: / 7378: / 7104:Tribunes 7094:Praetors 7044:Generals 7024:Emperors 6933:Lugdunum 6918:Eboracum 6908:Carthage 6893:Aquileia 6808:Polybius 6798:Plutarch 6768:Libanius 6758:Josephus 6753:Herodian 6645:Tibullus 6560:Priscian 6535:Phaedrus 6495:Manilius 6440:Jordanes 6425:Hydatius 6355:Claudian 6335:Catullus 6325:Boëthius 6320:Ausonius 6238:Medieval 6210:Alphabet 6182:Theatres 6157:Numerals 6142:Concrete 6132:Circuses 6099:Bagaudae 6089:Adoption 6084:Marriage 6057:Assembly 5962:Religion 5937:Folklore 5917:Clothing 5912:Calendar 5869:Currency 5859:Commerce 5757:Strategy 5719:Military 5705:Triumvir 5685:Dictator 5680:Interrex 5659:Governor 5644:Quaestor 5607:Ordinary 5589:Province 5579:Tetrarch 5569:Augustus 5534:Vicarius 5524:Officium 5461:Imperium 5411:Plebeian 5371:Republic 5293:Dominate 5260:Republic 5221:Timeline 5149:(1997). 5123:(1997). 5051:(2019). 4999:(2012). 4901:(2003). 4875:(1993). 4856:Lee 2013 4772:Lee 2013 4697:Lee 2013 4279:Archived 3788:Lee 2013 3764:Lee 2013 3716:Lee 2013 3692:Lee 2013 3629:Lee 2013 3491:Lee 2013 3407:Lee 2013 3371:Lee 2013 2876:Lee 2013 2495:quaestor 2437:See also 2371:and the 2268:Hispania 2158:priests 2019:Exorcism 1967:empire. 1953:Eugenius 1918:Serapeum 1834:Aurelian 1783:Paganism 1778:Religion 1646:Military 1563:vicarius 1557:dioceses 1529:dioceses 1494:rescript 1431:adoratio 1417:Dominate 1411:Monarchy 1400:Bagaudae 1367:Gaiseric 1249:Pyrenees 1173:Fravitta 1169:Phrygian 1154:Alaric I 1142:and the 1140:Stilicho 1138:general 1131:Honorius 1097:Eugenius 1093:Arbogast 1085:Armenian 1068:Arcadius 1047:general 1017:Brigetio 1005:in Lydia 920:Constans 904:Bosporus 884:celibacy 877:branding 808:Caesares 797:Licinius 780:Caesares 740:. Peace 724:invaded 714:Pannonia 710:Carpians 705:Galerius 689:Augustus 681:Maximian 670:Illyrian 592:Carthage 568:pandemic 554:angareia 528:Aurelian 512:Postumus 500:Alemanni 471:granted 366:ovations 328:Agathias 193:heretics 149:Eusebius 94:Evidence 9053:Outline 8998:Museums 8898:Science 8875:Slavery 8831:Gardens 8811:Cuisine 8743:Dynatoi 8711:Coinage 8698:Economy 8666:Mosaics 8629:Mystras 8570:Ravenna 8432:Secular 8320:Moravia 8069:Pronoia 8043:Akritai 8028:Tagmata 8003:Themata 7944:Revolts 7914:Battles 7822:Kephale 7791:Themata 7721:Mesazon 7563:Central 7499:Maghreb 7452:Corsica 7442:Armenia 7432:Albania 7175:History 7074:Legions 7034:Fiction 7004:Consuls 6999:Climate 6953:Ravenna 6948:Pompeii 6938:Lutetia 6903:Bononia 6898:Berytus 6888:Antioch 6863:Zosimus 6858:Zonaras 6833:Sozomen 6818:Priscus 6793:Photius 6635:Terence 6630:Tacitus 6615:Statius 6600:Servius 6585:Sallust 6540:Plautus 6520:Orosius 6500:Martial 6455:Juvenal 6430:Hyginus 6415:Gellius 6274:Writers 6205:History 6187:Thermae 6177:Temples 6127:Bridges 6094:Slavery 6042:Equites 6014:Society 5994:Theatre 5967:Deities 5927:Cuisine 5907:Bathing 5889:Culture 5864:Finance 5841:Economy 5732:Borders 5727:History 5629:Tribune 5624:Praetor 5514:Legatus 5509:Emperor 5396:Curiate 5366:Kingdom 5361:History 5337:History 5320:decline 5278:History 5248:Kingdom 5231:History 5216:Outline 4865:Sources 2491:praetor 2478:perjury 2369:Mishnah 2351:Judaism 2314:Tabenna 2293:Ambrose 2255:Babylas 2232:Ulfilas 2230:priest 2172:Trinity 2122:Numidia 1949:Serapis 1938:Hypatia 1905:in the 1809:Serapis 1801:Mithras 1757:Society 1746:Isauria 1696:cohorts 1688:legions 1596:vicarii 1482:Ravenna 1465:Serdica 1439:dominus 1379:Numidia 1343:Ardabur 1293:Jovinus 1281:Athaulf 1257:Maximus 1233:Ravenna 1217:Noricum 1200:Vandals 1150:Rufinus 1013:Quadian 1009:Gratian 966:Cilicia 902:on the 867:, Rome) 802:Augusti 766:Augusti 726:Armenia 693:diarchy 626:History 576:Cyprian 538:denarii 520:Zenobia 435:, Rome) 304:Zosimus 296:Priscus 262:and an 213:Orosius 205:Sozomen 197:Rufinus 9063:Portal 8978:Impact 8858:People 8806:Cities 8656:Enamel 8437:Sacred 8372:Ecloga 8238:Saints 8147:Dromon 8023:Bandon 8013:Tourma 7996:Middle 7919:Beacon 7801:Bandon 7784:Middle 7653:Middle 7608:Senate 7531:Thrace 7514:Serbia 7492:Sicily 7477:Greece 7462:Cyprus 7380:Epirus 7376:Nicaea 7286:Middle 7163:topics 7084:Nomina 7069:Legacy 7049:Gentes 6986:topics 6982:Lists 6963:Smyrna 6843:Strabo 6773:Lucian 6763:Julian 6713:Arrian 6708:Appian 6698:Aelian 6675:Vergil 6450:Justin 6435:Jerome 6420:Horace 6405:Fronto 6395:Florus 6370:Ennius 6350:Cicero 6330:Caesar 6228:Vulgar 6052:Tribes 5979:Romans 5789:Legion 5772:castra 5649:Aedile 5619:Censor 5614:Consul 5574:Caesar 5544:Lictor 5466:Status 5406:Tribal 5386:Senate 5376:Empire 5270:Empire 5206:topics 5161: 5135: 5109: 5086: 5063: 5037: 5011: 4985: 4962: 4936: 4913: 4887: 2402:in 529 2373:Talmud 2367:, the 2337:Jerome 2196:Arians 2180:Nicaea 2156:Libyan 2144:synods 2067:solidi 2002:heresy 1870:Julian 1846:demons 1822:Claros 1797:oracle 1583:Africa 1315:Wallia 1265:cities 1162:eunuch 1158:Gainas 1033:Thrace 997:Valens 993:Nicaea 977:Jovian 961:Julian 957:Gallus 918:, and 722:Narseh 718:Moesia 691:. The 685:Caesar 662:Venice 596:Decius 496:Franks 414:Decius 276:Festus 161:hermit 70:, the 9048:Index 8880:Death 8870:Women 8841:Music 8821:Dress 8816:Dance 8761:Novel 8721:Trade 8716:Mints 8661:Glass 8651:Icons 8447:Domes 8325:Serbs 8140:Samos 7953:Early 7743:Early 7617:Early 7526:Syria 7504:Malta 7482:Italy 7472:Egypt 7457:Crete 7388:Morea 7217:Early 6748:Galen 6690:Greek 6660:Varro 6470:Lucan 6282:Latin 6197:Latin 6172:Ships 6162:Roads 6147:Domes 6079:Women 6027:Plebs 5952:Music 5494:Forum 5489:Curia 2464:Notes 2365:Torah 2341:Paula 2188:creed 2160:Arius 2058:Reims 1637:comes 1473:Trier 1396:Tisza 1356:Felix 1347:Aspar 1301:Mainz 1289:Arles 1237:Uldin 1204:Suebi 1192:Alans 1089:Galla 894:polis 821:Tiber 508:Goths 8846:Lyra 8726:silk 8337:Jews 8112:Navy 8057:Late 7897:Army 7864:Wars 7815:Late 7709:Late 7339:Late 7064:Laws 7039:Film 6958:Roma 6525:Ovid 6465:Livy 6233:Late 6047:Gens 6004:Wine 5816:Navy 5784:Army 5423:SPQR 5325:fall 5303:fall 5159:ISBN 5133:ISBN 5107:ISBN 5084:ISBN 5061:ISBN 5035:ISBN 5009:ISBN 4983:ISBN 4960:ISBN 4934:ISBN 4911:ISBN 4885:ISBN 2414:Mani 2224:Paul 2206:and 2000:for 1791:the 1690:and 1587:Asia 1585:and 1471:and 1335:John 1123:and 1028:Huns 849:and 773:and 716:and 703:and 668:The 590:and 506:and 410:Bust 399:and 330:and 316:Wars 274:and 231:and 207:and 72:Late 8643:Art 8347:Law 6218:Old 5902:Art 5675:Rex 5519:Dux 5433:Law 2178:to 1811:at 1803:or 1698:of 1377:in 1055:as 898:of 799:as 147:by 74:or 66:In 9083:: 5157:. 5131:. 5127:. 5105:. 5082:. 5059:. 5033:. 5029:. 5007:. 4981:. 4977:. 4954:. 4932:. 4928:. 4909:. 4905:. 4883:. 4752:^ 4317:^ 4220:^ 4203:^ 3636:^ 3585:^ 3510:^ 3111:^ 2806:^ 2493:, 2214:. 2138:, 2056:, 2025:. 1909:. 1815:. 1540:. 1505:, 1484:. 1467:, 1179:. 914:, 660:, 578:, 502:, 498:, 431:, 419:r. 227:, 203:, 182:. 163:, 151:, 90:. 7398:) 7394:– 7382:– 7269:" 7265:" 7153:e 7146:t 7139:v 5196:e 5189:t 5182:v 5167:. 5141:. 5115:. 5092:. 5069:. 5043:. 5017:. 4991:. 4968:. 4942:. 4919:. 4893:. 2060:) 863:( 664:) 656:( 618:" 427:( 416:( 137:— 115:) 111:( 57:) 53:( 43:.

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