735:
771:
795:
759:
379:
783:
807:
723:
843:
831:
819:
54:
711:
747:
699:
33:
647:
life span. However, this defensive behavior is very important to females, which are under heavy predation pressure. Black widow spiders spend much time on web construction at night, which is also an active time for ground mice. If the webs are low above ground, it is easy for mice and other predators to attack from below. Since the spider will stay largely stationary at the web hub, such attacks are mostly successful if there is no defensive behavior.
1723:
1735:
671:. The female is more of a threat than the male in this species, however her aggressive side only comes out when she is protecting her eggs. Not only are the females fangs larger than the males, but their venomous glands are also more distinct. The effects of their bite can range from a simple irritation to severe autonomic disparities. The venom is composed of
250:). In humans, symptoms of this venom include pain, nausea, goosebumps, and localized sweating. In historical literature, fatalities were reported at anywhere between 0.5% and 12%, but studies within the past several decades have been unable to confirm any fatalities from this or any of the other U.S. species of
646:
can eject a chunk of viscid silk toward potential predators. This silk is not toxic, but its mechanical irritation can thwart most predators. However, adult males are unable to produce this defensive silk, presumably because they need to conserve energy for reproduction during their relatively short
339:
The time spent on courting varies tremendously and can be as short as ten minutes or as long as two hours. Male's genital bulbs may get injured or partially destroyed in the act of copulation, which leaves him unable to mate again in the future. This may be the reason that many male mates are found
335:
to ensure a successful courtship with the female is to minimize the escape route options for the female within her own web. This is accomplished by the male severing the female's web at various locations that the male believes could provide the female with a course of action to avoid the male. Once
613:
produces cobwebs. Cobwebs differ from orb webs, and their architecture can be broken down into three sections. Two sections are utilized to capture prey, the gumfoot threads and the mesh region. The third section provides the structural support for the web and is known as the scaffold threads. The
327:
as he actively begins to explore the web. This exploration is intermixed with resting bouts. The male's body spasms, producing a high frequency vibration throughout his abdomen. In many instances, the female will not accept the male's sexual display and will scare the male away. In some instances,
520:
in terms of how dire a situation must become, or how hungry the spider must be, to resort to cannibalism. Specifically, within siblingships the range of time lapsed before the spider siblings fell victim to cannibalism varied from two days to three weeks. There appears to be a direct relationship
398:
frequently hangs upside down near center of the web and waits for any insects to enter the web to attack. It bites its victim then wraps it in silk. There are multiple aspects of this spider's web that serve the purpose of capturing prey. The web incorporates hanging gum-footed threads that have
525:
will last before falling back on sibling cannibalism and the amount of maternal investment put into their egg sac. In other words, the more investment a mother puts into her egg sac, the longer their offspring will go before engaging in sibling cannibalism as their source of prey and nutrition.
629:
reacts to changes in prey capture by altering its web-spinning behavior. When the spider reaches satiety, it will decrease its energy expenditure on building the features of the web specifically purposed for prey capture. This is evolutionarily advantageous for the spider because it is already
601:
silk contains sexual pheromones which are perceived by the opposite sex upon contact with the web. The males are able to locate the female and begin courting behavior in response to female pheromones. The female curtails her predatory reflexes against the male in response to male pheromones.
543:
is strongly adhesive. The silk has a fiber at the center covered by some droplets of liquid adhesive protein. When rubbing against one's fingers, it feels like the texture of rubber. The droplets are about twenty times larger than the center fiber's diameter and are visible to the naked eye.
348:
Female choosiness can be both evolutionarily advantageous and disadvantageous depending on whether the risk of delaying copulation will inevitably pay off with a better mate, or if it will instead cost the female her whole potential of producing offspring. In fact four percent of female
219:-shaped red mark on the lower abdomen. This "hourglass" mark can be yellow, and on rare occasions, white. The male of the species is around half this length and generally a tan color with lighter striping on the abdomen. The population was previously described as a subspecies of
362:". Scramble competition means that no male possesses a monopoly over the resource, which in this case is the female spider, yet because there is a finite amount of this resource, those who exploit it faster will come out on top. There are multiple ways in which the female
614:
gumfoot lines hang beneath the web, the liquid glue on these lines serves as a sticky substance to trap prey in. The line will break once prey catches on it, creating a tensile force within the web that pulls the line along with the prey up to the spider.
268:(Australia's redback), is rare in this species. Male western widows may breed several times during their relatively short lifespans. Males are known to show preference for mating with well-fed females over starved ones, taking cues from the females' webs.
662:
species because of their relatedness. The venom is exuded from the spiders' fangs and injected into the enemy. The spiders' prey is paralyzed by the venom, which enables their future digestion. For humans, the venom behaves like a
336:
the male has successfully made contact with the female's body, he swoons her by gently stroking various parts of her body. The male then creates what is known as the "bridal veil", which is simply silk thrown onto the female.
357:
has the potential to possess more than one mate during their lifespan. This is in part due to the male-bias within the sexually active population of the spider. This sex-bias allows the males to engage in what is known as
630:
satiated. Therefore, it would be a waste of energy to seek out more nutrients. Although there is a decrease in prey-capturing aspects of the web, the overall silk production remains steady or in some cases will increase.
399:
liquid glue on them. When prey come into contact with these threads, they get stuck to them, causing the thread to break and the prey to be propelled up by the web to an easy point of access for the spider. The web of
996:
Johnson, J. Chadwick; Trubl, Patricia Trubl; Blackmore, Valerie; Miles, Lindsay (2011). "Male black widows court well-fed females more than starved females: silken cues indicate sexual cannibalism risk".
683:. The venom causes an excess release of neurotransmitters which can cause a slew of symptoms. Some of these symptoms include muscle rigidity, perspiration, and nausea. Treatments include painkillers and
319:
produce sexually-specific scents that are combined with their silk; each sex responds by initiating mating when it comes in contact with a web of the opposite sex. On initiating courting, the male
403:
also allows for locomotive action by the spider when attacking prey through a sheet of silk. In the months of May through
October, there is a significant increase in the amount of prey caught by
407:, presumably because these are the months in which the female produces her egg sacs, and in which the offspring are born and their survival is dependent on their mother's ability to feed them.
328:
the females will violently jerk their abdomen, similar to courting male displays, which ultimately leads to a positive reaction from the males and a more successful insemination.
555:
silk were found to be similar to the properties of silk from orb-weaving spiders. The ultimate strength for the three kinds of silk measured in the study was about 1000
595:
were detected at all in these silks. In the inner egg case silk, although alanine remained an abundant amino acid, its abundance was less so in this silk than the others.
575:
produces three different types of silk: dragline silk, inner egg case silk, and scaffolding silk. Analysis of the amino acid composition of the various silks produced by
971:
1128:"Aspects of the Courtship Behavior of the Black Widow Spider, Latrodectus hesperus (Araneae: Theridiidae), with Evidence for the Existence of a Contact Sex Pheromone"
2030:
231:. The species, as with others of the genus, build irregular or "messy" webs: unlike the spiral webs or the tunnel-shaped webs of other spiders, the strands of a
1057:
426:
is more likely to build a home in an area that is expressing a high degree of chemical prey cues. This finding may grant us the ability of controlling
2025:
2020:
366:
can guarantee her right to choose, one of which is eating the male before copulation. The female receives chemical cues given off by other nearby
1907:
770:
340:
dead in the female's web after copulation. Females will often consume these dead males for nutrients to improve her own reproductive success.
1946:
1727:
794:
758:
806:
634:
also decrease silk investment into webs when preparing for offspring by alternatively increasing silk investment into egg sac production.
504:
may feed on conspecifics: when alternative prey options are scarce; when a spider is starving; in self-defense during antagonistic bouts.
642:
The black widow spiders face some predators, like mice, which are omnivorous and larger than the black widow. Juveniles and female adult
490:. The peak activity of hymenopterans in this study was May through September in British Columbia, paralleling a spike in consumption by
908:
spp. envenomation and treatment: a
National Poison Data System review. Annals of Pharmacotherapy 45(12):1491-8. doi: 10.1345/aph.1Q424
782:
370:
that indicate the population density, and therefore give them a notion as to whether their choosiness will pay off or fail to do so.
1561:"Quasistatic and continuous dynamic characterization of the mechanical properties of silk from the cobweb of the black widow spider
1170:"Black widows as plastic wallflowers: female choosiness increases with indicators of high mate availability in a natural population"
1881:
1032:
734:
1920:
1464:"Family Affects Sibling Cannibalism in the Black Widow Spider, Latrodectus hesperus: Sibling Cannibalism in Black Widow Spiders"
2035:
1739:
1656:
1246:
1925:
1708:
975:
746:
2040:
1409:"Chemical prey cues influence the urban microhabitat preferences of Western black widow spiders, Latrodectus hesperus"
2015:
291:. They are most commonly found near the Canada-US border, as well as less commonly throughout the grasslands of the
1951:
323:
will utilize his tarsi to tap the lines of the female's web. The male will continue this tapping gesture with his
842:
1794:
382:
Male western black widow: This image shows the enlarged palpal organs (large dark disks) at the tip of the
1076:
1816:
995:
1987:
1636:
1354:"The natural diet of a polyphagous predator, Latrodectus hesperus (Araneae: Theridiidae), over one year"
1226:
830:
722:
53:
1821:
1590:"Protein and amino acid composition of silks from the cob weaver, Latrodectus hesperus (black widow)"
1589:
1297:
818:
710:
1938:
1745:
1267:
1560:
378:
1912:
1756:
548:
1298:"Condition-dependent spider web architecture in the western black widow, Latrodectus hesperus"
1974:
1808:
919:
466:
accounted for the majority of the spiders' prey; the majority of prey within
Coleoptera were
264:
184:
168:
1964:
2010:
1982:
1855:
1803:
931:
561:
359:
227:
1514:"Defensive behavior of the black widow spider Latrodectus hesperus (Araneae: Theridiidae)"
8:
221:
1463:
935:
698:
1541:
1444:
1436:
1389:
1381:
1325:
1202:
1169:
1147:
1095:
1014:
947:
312:
The female is stimulated upon contact of a male's web, and vice versa. Male and female
258:
bites from 2000 through 2008). The female's consumption of the male after courtship, a
48:
1605:
1959:
1842:
1686:
1652:
1648:
1617:
1609:
1533:
1475:
1428:
1373:
1317:
1242:
1238:
1207:
1189:
1139:
292:
1545:
1448:
1393:
1329:
1018:
951:
422:
is able to detect chemical cues from their prey. As a by-product of this detection,
215:. The female's body is 14–16 mm (1/2 in) in length and is black, often with an
1847:
1644:
1601:
1525:
1471:
1420:
1365:
1309:
1234:
1197:
1181:
1081:(Araneae: Theridiidae), with Evidence for the Existence of a Contact Sex Pheromone"
1006:
939:
455:
284:
1313:
1010:
467:
943:
1678:
1185:
296:
904:
Monte AA, Bucher-Bartelson B, Heard KJ (2011) A US perspective of symptomatic
2004:
1779:
1613:
1537:
1462:
Johnson, J. Chadwick; Kitchen, Kathryn; Andrade, Maydianne C. B. (May 2010).
1432:
1377:
1321:
1193:
1143:
668:
556:
475:
471:
212:
125:
579:
show that both dragline silk and scaffolding silk are primarily composed of
1690:
1621:
1211:
247:
1168:
Scott, Catherine E.; McCann, Sean; Andrade, Maydianne C. B. (2020-06-02).
500:
is an "opportunistic cannibal". There are three circumstances under which
32:
1933:
1894:
1788:
463:
259:
188:
145:
135:
95:
1513:
1440:
1408:
1385:
1353:
618:
seeks refuge in the location from which the web originates and emerges.
1886:
1834:
1529:
1151:
1127:
1099:
895:
Bettini, S. (1964). Epidemiology of latrodectism. Toxicon, 2(2), 93–102
867:
664:
592:
566:
459:
239:
1424:
920:"Sexual Selection for Male Sacrifice in the Australian Redback Spider"
559:(145,000 psi). The ultimate strength reported in a previous study for
1899:
1868:
1369:
684:
487:
451:
383:
216:
85:
65:
1750:
418:
follows prey cues when determining where to settle down. The female
1873:
1829:
1773:
1722:
680:
588:
516:
is an opportunistic cannibal. There of course is variation amongst
324:
288:
105:
676:
672:
584:
580:
1860:
1588:
Casem, Merri Lynn; Turner, Dianna; Houchin, Kelly (1999-03-01).
1734:
438:
to relocate to a location where there are more available prey.
280:
243:
115:
75:
1077:"Aspects of the Courtship Behavior of the Black Widow Spider,
565:
was 1290±160 MPa (188,000 psi). The ultimate strength of
1677:
Williams, Mollie; Anderson, Jackie; Nappe, Thomas M. (2020),
1407:
Johnson, Amanda; Revis, Orenda; Johnson, J. Chadwick (2011).
1296:
Blackledge, Todd A.; Zevenbergen, Jacquelyn M. (2007-05-01).
483:
211:, is a venomous spider species found in western regions of
1711:" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed March 8, 2009
1635:
Salyer, Steven W. (2007-01-01), Salyer, Steven W. (ed.),
479:
812:
Female, front view, with moth and funnel web spider prey
386:
and the spider's eight eyes when the image is expanded.
450:
are polyphagous and feed on prey from eight different
1676:
1461:
1295:
434:, there will be a correlated side-effect that pushes
279:
can be found in western regions of North
America. In
1406:
238:Female black widows have potent venom containing a
1594:International Journal of Biological Macromolecules
1587:
1229:, in Jørgensen, Sven Erik; Fath, Brian D. (eds.),
1167:
225:and it is closely related to the northern species
1643:, Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, pp. 183–260,
2002:
2031:Fauna of the California chaparral and woodlands
1685:, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing,
254:(e.g. zero fatalities among 23,409 documented
1233:, Oxford: Academic Press, pp. 695–700,
1033:"Western Black Widow (Latrodectus hesperus)"
752:Female with typical red hourglass on abdomen
918:Andrade, Maydianne C. B. (5 January 1996).
31:
1201:
1125:
860:
430:infestations. By killing off the prey of
1224:
1126:Ross, Kenneth; Smith, Robert L. (1979).
377:
2026:Fauna of the Northwestern United States
2021:Fauna of the Southwestern United States
1637:"Chapter 6 - Environmental Emergencies"
1351:
1268:"How to Get Rid of Black Widow Spiders"
964:
917:
478:, and the most common Hymenoptera were
2003:
1634:
1558:
1511:
1507:
1505:
989:
507:
1755:
1754:
1583:
1581:
1512:Vetter, Richard S. (September 1980).
1503:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1495:
1493:
1491:
1489:
1487:
1485:
1347:
1345:
1343:
1341:
1339:
1291:
1289:
1287:
1163:
1161:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1050:
1025:
776:Male, ventral view (light coloration)
637:
569:is about 800 MPa (116,000 psi).
307:
1074:
800:Male, ventral view (dark coloration)
764:Male, dorsal view (light coloration)
343:
1518:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
1075:Ross, Kenneth; et al. (1979).
788:Male, dorsal view (dark coloration)
605:
373:
331:One strategy performed by the male
235:web have no apparent organization.
13:
1578:
1482:
1336:
1284:
1158:
1112:
974:. Hastings Reserve. Archived from
687:if the toxicity is severe enough.
353:did not acquire mates. The female
262:and suicidal behavior observed in
14:
2052:
1715:
667:, affecting the neurotransmitter
658:bite is similar to that of other
551:and other physical properties of
529:
1988:urn:lsid:nmbe.ch:spidersp:007811
1733:
1721:
1649:10.1016/b978-141602971-7.10006-6
1476:10.1111/j.1439-0310.2010.01792.x
1239:10.1016/b978-008045405-4.00005-7
841:
829:
817:
805:
793:
781:
769:
757:
745:
733:
721:
709:
697:
52:
1670:
1628:
1552:
1455:
1400:
1260:
1218:
621:
446:Like other web-building spiders
1559:Blackledge, Todd; et al.
1068:
911:
898:
889:
848:Typical female from California
1:
2036:Natural history of California
1679:"Black Widow Spider Toxicity"
1606:10.1016/S0141-8130(98)00078-6
1314:10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.10.014
1011:10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.05.018
878:. Natural History Museum Bern
853:
521:between the length of time a
1641:Essential Emergency Medicine
872:Chamberlin & Ivie, 1935"
410:
7:
1567:. The Company of Biologists
1225:Łomnicki, A. (2008-01-01),
1062:National Convergency Canada
944:10.1126/science.271.5245.70
10:
2057:
1413:The Journal of Arachnology
1358:The Journal of Arachnology
1227:"Competition and Behavior"
1186:10.1038/s41598-020-65985-z
1132:The Journal of Arachnology
1088:The Journal of Arachnology
690:
390:
242:active against a range of
205:western black widow spider
2041:Spiders described in 1935
1763:
1352:Salomon, Maxence (2011).
512:As previously discussed,
302:
174:
167:
49:Scientific classification
47:
39:
30:
23:
2016:Spiders of North America
1037:The Royal Alberta Museum
650:
534:
454:orders. In one study in
271:
1231:Encyclopedia of Ecology
1064:. Government of Canada.
441:
387:
972:"Black Widow Spiders"
656:Latrodectus hesperus'
599:Latrodectus hesperus'
539:The silk produced by
494:during these months.
416:Latrodectus hesperus
381:
283:it can be found from
265:Latrodectus hasseltii
1809:Latrodectus_hesperus
1795:Latrodectus hesperus
1765:Latrodectus hesperus
1742:at Wikimedia Commons
1740:Latrodectus hesperus
1728:Latrodectus hesperus
1709:Latrodectus hesperus
1563:Latrodectus hesperus
1079:Latrodectus hesperus
876:World Spider Catalog
870:Latrodectus hesperus
836:Female, ventral view
627:Latrodectus hesperus
573:Latrodectus hesperus
562:Trichonephila edulis
498:Latrodectus hesperus
396:Latrodectus hesperus
360:scramble competition
277:Latrodectus hesperus
228:Latrodectus variolus
200:Latrodectus hesperus
178:Latrodectus hesperus
41:Latrodectus hesperus
25:Latrodectus hesperus
1746:Western black widow
936:1996Sci...271...70A
716:Female with egg sac
508:Sibling cannibalism
222:Latrodectus mactans
1530:10.1007/bf00299363
1174:Scientific Reports
638:Defensive behavior
587:, in fact neither
388:
308:Courtship behavior
1998:
1997:
1960:Open Tree of Life
1757:Taxon identifiers
1738:Media related to
1707:Minus, A. 2001. "
1658:978-1-4160-2971-7
1425:10.1636/Hi11-19.1
1248:978-0-08-045405-4
1058:"NCC Black Widow"
824:Female, side view
549:ultimate strength
344:Female choosiness
293:Canadian Prairies
196:
195:
16:Species of spider
2048:
1991:
1990:
1978:
1977:
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1967:
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1941:
1929:
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1889:
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1850:
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1812:
1811:
1799:
1798:
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1784:
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1751:
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1726:Data related to
1725:
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1632:
1626:
1625:
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1509:
1480:
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1459:
1453:
1452:
1404:
1398:
1397:
1370:10.1636/P10-25.1
1349:
1334:
1333:
1302:Animal Behaviour
1293:
1282:
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1278:
1264:
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1215:
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1123:
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1085:
1072:
1066:
1065:
1054:
1048:
1047:
1045:
1043:
1029:
1023:
1022:
999:Animal Behaviour
993:
987:
986:
984:
983:
968:
962:
961:
959:
958:
915:
909:
902:
896:
893:
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884:
883:
864:
845:
833:
821:
809:
797:
785:
773:
761:
749:
737:
725:
713:
701:
606:Web architecture
468:darkling beetles
456:British Columbia
374:Hunting and diet
285:British Columbia
180:
160:L. hesperus
57:
56:
35:
21:
20:
2056:
2055:
2051:
2050:
2049:
2047:
2046:
2045:
2001:
2000:
1999:
1994:
1986:
1981:
1973:
1971:
1963:
1958:
1950:
1945:
1937:
1932:
1924:
1919:
1911:
1906:
1898:
1893:
1885:
1880:
1872:
1867:
1859:
1854:
1846:
1841:
1833:
1828:
1820:
1815:
1807:
1802:
1793:
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1787:
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1777:
1772:
1759:
1718:
1704:
1703:
1695:
1693:
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1671:
1663:
1661:
1659:
1633:
1629:
1586:
1579:
1570:
1568:
1557:
1553:
1510:
1483:
1460:
1456:
1405:
1401:
1350:
1337:
1294:
1285:
1276:
1274:
1266:
1265:
1261:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1223:
1219:
1166:
1159:
1124:
1113:
1104:
1102:
1083:
1073:
1069:
1056:
1055:
1051:
1041:
1039:
1031:
1030:
1026:
994:
990:
981:
979:
970:
969:
965:
956:
954:
916:
912:
903:
899:
894:
890:
881:
879:
868:"Taxon details
866:
865:
861:
856:
849:
846:
837:
834:
825:
822:
813:
810:
801:
798:
789:
786:
777:
774:
765:
762:
753:
750:
741:
740:Immature female
738:
729:
728:Immature female
726:
717:
714:
705:
702:
693:
653:
640:
624:
608:
537:
532:
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1716:External links
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213:North America
210:
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169:Binomial name
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1094:(1): 69–77.
1091:
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1036:
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622:Web behavior
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248:latrodectism
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199:
198:
197:
177:
175:
159:
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122:Infraorder:
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2011:Latrodectus
1934:NatureServe
1895:iNaturalist
1789:Wikispecies
1180:(1): 8981.
906:Latrodectus
660:Latrodectus
644:L. hesperus
632:L. hesperus
616:L. hesperus
611:L. hesperus
577:L. hesperus
553:L. hesperus
541:L. hesperus
523:L. hesperus
518:L. hesperus
514:L. hesperus
502:L. hesperus
492:L. hesperus
464:Hymenoptera
436:L. hesperus
432:L. hesperus
428:L. hesperus
424:L. hesperus
420:L. hesperus
405:L. hesperus
401:L. hesperus
368:L. hesperus
364:L. hesperus
355:L. hesperus
351:L. hesperus
333:L. hesperus
321:L. hesperus
256:Latrodectus
252:Latrodectus
233:Latrodectus
147:Latrodectus
136:Theridiidae
96:Chelicerata
92:Subphylum:
2005:Categories
1696:2020-12-16
1683:StatPearls
1664:2020-12-16
1571:2009-01-23
1565:, table 1"
1277:2020-11-17
1272:Atkins Inc
1254:2020-11-16
1105:2019-11-14
982:2009-07-07
957:2007-01-15
882:2017-04-05
854:References
665:neurotoxin
593:methionine
567:mild steel
488:bumblebees
460:Coleoptera
240:neurotoxin
185:Chamberlin
86:Arthropoda
1614:0141-8130
1538:0340-5443
1433:0161-8202
1378:0161-8202
1322:0003-3472
1194:2045-2322
1144:0161-8202
685:antivenom
681:proteases
452:arthropod
411:Prey cues
384:pedipalps
325:pedipalps
217:hourglass
154:Species:
106:Arachnida
72:Kingdom:
66:Eukaryota
1939:2.850091
1913:10024269
1830:BugGuide
1774:Wikidata
1691:29763163
1622:10342753
1546:19297007
1468:Ethology
1449:85773953
1441:23070792
1394:55786642
1386:23048793
1330:53182880
1212:32488193
1019:53167419
952:56279494
677:peptides
673:proteins
589:cysteine
317:hesperus
289:Manitoba
132:Family:
82:Phylum:
76:Animalia
62:Domain:
1975:2027313
1887:2157942
1861:1187515
1780:Q113414
1203:7265538
1152:3704955
1100:3704955
932:Bibcode
924:Science
691:Gallery
585:glycine
581:alanine
472:weevils
391:Hunting
244:mammals
142:Genus:
116:Araneae
112:Order:
102:Class:
43:female
1972:uBio:
1965:551516
1952:256737
1926:859132
1874:LATRHE
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486:, and
474:, and
303:Mating
281:Canada
203:, the
191:, 1935
187:&
1908:IRMNG
1900:47382
1848:3SLWF
1835:26346
1542:S2CID
1445:S2CID
1437:JSTOR
1390:S2CID
1382:JSTOR
1326:S2CID
1148:JSTOR
1096:JSTOR
1084:(PDF)
1015:S2CID
948:S2CID
651:Venom
535:Silks
484:wasps
272:Range
246:(see
1947:NCBI
1921:ITIS
1882:GBIF
1869:EPPO
1822:9351
1817:BOLD
1687:PMID
1653:ISBN
1618:PMID
1610:ISSN
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1190:ISSN
1140:ISSN
1044:2016
591:nor
583:and
547:The
480:ants
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442:Diet
189:Ivie
1983:WSC
1856:EoL
1843:CoL
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
