31:
3122:
692:
3134:
1200:
recalled "the famous article 125 of the
Constitution which enumerated all basic civil and political rights" in the Soviet Union. But when he and other prisoners attempted to use this as a legal basis for their abuse complaints, their prosecutor's argument was that "the Constitution was written not
1054:
During the trial, the judges had the additional responsibility of educating the people, for example revealing and removing the causes and conditions that led to the crime. Judges kept legal technicalities to a minimum; the court's stated purpose was to find the truth, rather than to protect legal
1005:
was only available during the trial. After 1958, counsel was available at the last stage of the preliminary examination after the accused was indicted. The examiner was prohibited from using force though the accused could be confined for long durations: up to 10 days before being charged, up to 9
927:
The 1960s reforms tried to improve the judicial system and the activities of the courts, the restoration and development of several democratic principles dismantling special conferences attached to the USSR Ministry of
Internal Affairs and certain categories of state crimes.
1045:
sense. The court decided by majority vote. The accused or the procurator could appeal decisions to a higher court consisting of three professional judges that reviewed the facts and the law. If the procurator appealed, the higher court could set aside the judgment and
1067:
Soviet civil court process did not entail a high degree of physical interference. There was no sudden arrest or detention during a preliminary investigation phase. The trial was conducted entirely by a counsel and, if need be, a stay was obtained.
1390:
For Pipes, the Soviet legal system regarded law as an arm of politics and courts as agencies of the government. Crime was determined not as the infraction of law, but as any action which could threaten the Soviet state. Extensive
1037:. The judges first questioned accused and witnesses, then the procurator and defense counsel to corroborate the evidence in the indictment. The accused and the victim could question each other or the witnesses. The accused was
1050:
the case. Although the decision of the appeals court was "final", higher courts could review them as "supervision". Here, the accused or his/her counsel could submit briefs, but they could not appear in person.
235:
1944:
1018:, "'general supervision' of legality", and reporting illegal administrative actions. The indictment that included the preliminary examination was considered the "official record" at trial.
969:
Soviet criminal and civil cases involve trials that were "primarilyofficial investigation of the truth of the claims and defenses presented". Soviet law was very similar in this respect to
2041:
3228:
1193:
1188:(1948), saying it was "overly juridical" and potentially infringed on national sovereignty. The Soviet Union later signed legally-binding human rights documents, such as the
2445:
2428:
514:
126:
111:
2475:
1228:
explained: "Do not look in the file of incriminating evidence to see whether or not the accused rose up against the
Soviets with arms or words. Ask him instead to which
386:
3523:
3273:
1001:(or "investigator") "interrogate the accused and the witnesses and examine evidence". The accused was informed of his/her rights before the examination. Before 1958,
913:
was carried out within the terms of Soviet Civil Code. Some Soviet legal scholars even asserted that "criminal repression" may be applied in the absence of guilt.".
3490:
3360:
1216:
was carried out within the terms of the Soviet Civil Code. Some Soviet legal scholars even said that "criminal repression" may be applied in the absence of guilt.
2418:
3495:
3320:
2938:
2438:
917:
729:
142:
3500:
2464:
2433:
1189:
223:
137:
3390:
3350:
2423:
2375:
411:
106:
1196:), but they were neither widely known or accessible to people living under Communist rule, nor were they taken seriously by the Communist authorities.
116:
3548:
3480:
3405:
2672:
644:
3518:
3340:
3218:
3345:
183:
1800:
1667:
Lambelet, Doriane. "The
Contradiction Between Soviet and American Human Rights Doctrine: Reconciliation Through Perestroika and Pragmatism." 7
2370:
1983:
2036:
354:
1756:
2555:
2525:
1396:
1142:
2812:
2772:
2682:
2493:
2009:
722:
639:
529:
60:
2800:
2695:
2567:
2353:
1204:
Crime was determined not as the infraction of law, but as any action which could threaten the Soviet state and society. For example,
72:
1399:.The purpose of public trials was "not to demonstrate the existence or absence of a crime—that was predetermined by the appropriate
2705:
2622:
2515:
649:
614:
344:
82:
3170:
2645:
2452:
2319:
664:
654:
324:
173:
2343:
2188:
1007:
849:
domination and a reflection of bourgeois values." Since law was a tool "to maintain class domination", in a classless society,
398:
240:
702:
2830:
2331:
2297:
2285:
2280:
2171:
1886:
1643:
1185:
1083:
715:
2757:
2867:
2635:
907:
was created, protecting personal properties and civil liberties, and developing the basis of an international rule of law.
629:
1125:. According to Soviet legal theory, "it is the government who is the beneficiary of human rights which are to be asserted
2747:
2413:
2360:
2348:
319:
95:
50:
2795:
2790:
2510:
2458:
1912:
1692:
1308:
943:
857:
509:
349:
278:
193:
65:
3047:
2998:
2931:
2742:
2470:
2072:
1976:
1784:
1742:
1719:
1571:
1532:
1505:
1447:
1424:
1313:
381:
77:
3585:
3077:
3065:
2889:
2879:
2835:
2650:
2326:
2275:
2158:
1325:
1170:
1077:
1022:
937:
634:
570:
393:
267:
3082:
3070:
2926:
2911:
2825:
2727:
2309:
2129:
819:
504:
213:
3298:
3023:
3003:
2700:
2314:
2139:
2067:
1881:
1468:
1122:
763:
659:
609:
314:
304:
1251:
was "not to demonstrate the existence or absence of a crime – that was predetermined by the appropriate
1240:. These are the questions that will determine the fate of the accused. That is the meaning and essence of the
3094:
2921:
2785:
2737:
2498:
2292:
2166:
2149:
1330:
1010:). The testimony to be used in the trial was presented to the accused. The sledovatel was subordinate to the
767:
575:
544:
55:
2690:
2365:
2260:
2061:
1969:
590:
22:
1682:
3163:
2971:
2953:
2719:
2577:
2538:
2505:
2195:
2183:
2099:
2001:
850:
559:
519:
494:
334:
846:
2966:
2943:
2916:
580:
30:
1055:
rights. Although most hearings were open to the public, hearings could also be held privately, if the
3564:
3435:
3248:
3008:
2981:
2884:
539:
2976:
3089:
1392:
1138:
1047:
1038:
970:
958:
953:
948:
293:
288:
283:
1201:
for you, but for
American Negroes, so that they know how happy the lives of Soviet citizens are".
3445:
1904:
1099:
1029:(lay judges) from the population with a 2.5-year term. The proceedings were informal compared to
896:
838:
827:
208:
3538:
3355:
3156:
3018:
2610:
2548:
1815:
3137:
2109:
1949:
1209:
900:
811:
1161:, which were considered as examples of "bourgeois morality" by Soviet law theorists such as
3590:
2899:
2762:
2582:
2380:
2094:
427:
2986:
1585:
1562:
Christopher Osakwe (1977) "Due
Process of Law and Civil Right Cases in the Soviet Union",
1133:
was considered as the source of human rights. Therefore, the Soviet legal system regarded
8:
3462:
3126:
2855:
2660:
2589:
2397:
2246:
2124:
2046:
2019:
1091:
1011:
856:
Like all other government institutions, the judiciary was officially subordinated to the
696:
524:
203:
3420:
2993:
2904:
2221:
2134:
2024:
2014:
1835:
1794:
1605:
1601:
1373:
1030:
751:
585:
3330:
3310:
3213:
3101:
3041:
2820:
2606:
2302:
2104:
2089:
2031:
1908:
1780:
1738:
1715:
1688:
1639:
1567:
1528:
1501:
1464:
1443:
1420:
1404:
1256:
1095:
534:
1839:
1609:
1525:
The State Within a State: The KGB and Its Hold on Russia – Past, Present, and Future
3528:
3325:
1931:
1827:
1597:
1365:
1353:
1162:
1154:
888:
823:
799:
453:
422:
1564:
Soviet Law After Stalin..: The
Citizen and the State in contemporary Soviet law. 1
1102:; and social, cultural and economic rights, including the right to participate in
3533:
3450:
3400:
3375:
3233:
3013:
2226:
2178:
2084:
1777:
A World Made New: Eleanor
Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
1520:
1158:
1150:
892:
884:
755:
1854:
3440:
3430:
3380:
3293:
3288:
3278:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3238:
3223:
3208:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3033:
2961:
2241:
2231:
1631:
1281:
1221:
1213:
1197:
1166:
1026:
910:
795:
775:
3579:
3543:
3485:
3425:
3415:
3395:
3385:
3370:
3365:
3315:
3283:
3268:
3243:
3179:
2894:
1831:
1730:
1707:
1494:
1435:
1412:
1260:
1217:
1111:
1107:
876:
872:
803:
674:
549:
445:
1935:
1922:
Sharlet, Robert (1974). "Samizdat as a source for the study of Soviet law".
3455:
3410:
3335:
3305:
2777:
2598:
1992:
1296:
1229:
1130:
1087:
921:
759:
747:
1816:"Human Rights Ideas, the Demise of Communism, and the End of the Cold War"
1137:
as an arm of politics and courts as agencies of the government. Extensive
834:
was still not bound by the law, and the "police had unlimited authority."
2640:
2602:
2594:
2216:
2200:
2114:
2056:
1291:
1205:
1181:
1174:
1146:
1034:
1015:
904:
880:
864:
815:
771:
619:
459:
1214:
The liquidation and deportation of millions of peasants in 1928–31
2630:
1377:
1286:
1248:
1241:
1237:
1042:
990:
842:
754:
of 1917. Modified versions of the Soviet legal system operated in many
669:
1961:
1006:
months during the preliminary investigation (with the approval of the
2850:
2845:
2667:
2560:
2390:
2051:
1407:
for the instruction of the citizenry. Defense lawyers, who had to be
1233:
1115:
868:
440:
1369:
2840:
2385:
2119:
2079:
466:
435:
2732:
2236:
1103:
1094:
to which all humans are entitled", including the right to and ,
1002:
989:
Criminal cases consisted of a preliminary examination before the
978:
903:
punishable by death. Soviet authors claimed that a new socialist
783:
147:
3148:
1764:. Biblioteka Zrzeszenia Prawników Demokratów. pp. 153, 162.
974:
822:
in 1864, five decades before the revolution. Despite this, the
1411:, were required to take their client's guilt for granted ..."
1194:
International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
1121:
The Soviet conception of human rights was very different from
863:
In 1917, the Soviet authorities formally repealed all
Tsarist
2655:
2533:
1882:"Law, theory, and politics: the dilemma of Soviet psychiatry"
1267:, were required to take their client's guilt for granted..."
1225:
1145:. The Soviet government in practice significantly curbed the
1025:
consisted of a professional judge with a 5-year term and two
994:
807:
624:
1177:... but to substantiate it and legitimize it in principle".
2767:
2543:
1408:
1400:
1264:
1252:
1056:
831:
779:
2752:
2572:
1134:
1898:
1684:
Economic and Social Justice: A Human Rights Perspective
837:
Marxism-Leninism viewed law as a superstructure in the
1500:, Vintage books, Random House Inc., New York, 1995,
1190:
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
3577:
2841:Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences
1852:
1774:
1921:
1807:
3164:
1977:
1879:
1748:
1638:. New York: The Free Press. pp. 207–15.
1630:Berman, Harold J. (1983). "Soviet Union". In
1625:
1623:
1621:
1619:
1263:for example). Defense lawyers, who had to be
1255:– but to provide yet another forum for
723:
1348:
1346:
1758:Teoria dowodów sądowych w prawie radzieckim
1669:Boston University International Law Journal
1586:"The Comparison of Soviet and American Law"
794:Soviet law was rooted in pre-revolutionary
3171:
3157:
1984:
1970:
1799:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1616:
1543:
1541:
1259:for the instruction of the citizenry (see
911:The deportation of the 'Kulaks' in 1928–31
818:. Western law was mostly absent until the
730:
716:
1754:
1724:
1701:
1577:
1343:
1461:The State Law of the Socialist Countries
1232:he belongs, what is his background, his
802:. Pre-revolutionary influences included
789:
1991:
1550:Criminal Code of the Russian Federation
1538:
1516:
1514:
1490:
1488:
1486:
1484:
1482:
1480:
1478:
1476:
1356:(1948). "The Challenge of Soviet Law".
1014:(prokuratura) that was tasked with the
3578:
2010:Index of Soviet Union–related articles
1813:
1680:
1674:
1629:
1583:
1548:Butler, William E. (19 October 1999).
1547:
1403:—but to provide yet another forum for
1352:
997:. In the preliminary examination, the
3152:
1965:
1945:"Penalties and Rewards in Soviet Law"
1942:
1887:The Yale Journal of International Law
1186:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
1084:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
1033:in democratic countries based on the
931:
920:. The new Criminal Code replaced the
871:legal system. According to a critic,
1511:
1473:
1180:The USSR and other countries of the
916:The year 1960 saw a new edition the
746:was the law as it developed in the
13:
1602:10.1111/j.1744-1714.1963.tb01183.x
1405:political agitation and propaganda
1257:political agitation and propaganda
964:
858:Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union
830:were not well-known concepts, the
14:
3602:
3178:
1924:The Soviet and Post-Soviet Review
1907:: Butterworths Legal Publishers.
1899:Butler, William Elliott (1988) .
1735:Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime
1636:Encyclopedia of Crime and Justice
1498:Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime
1440:Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime
1314:Supreme Court of the Soviet Union
1184:had abstained from affirming the
984:
3133:
3132:
3120:
1326:List of Russian legal historians
1078:Human rights in the Soviet Union
944:1918 Soviet Russian Constitution
938:Constitution of the Soviet Union
690:
29:
1943:Guins, George C. (1950-05-01).
1873:
1853:Oleg Pshenichnyi (2015-08-22).
1846:
1768:
1661:
1658:Houghton Mifflin Company (2006)
1652:
1309:Ministry of Justice of the USSR
1071:
820:judicial reform of Alexander II
1556:
1523:and Catherine A. Fitzpatrick.
1453:
1429:
1384:
1210:counter-revolutionary activity
1062:
901:counter-revolutionary activity
851:law would inevitably disappear
1:
2673:Political abuse of psychiatry
2465:Congress of People's Deputies
1880:Bloche, Gregg (Spring 1986).
1590:American Business Law Journal
1397:Soviet secret police agencies
1331:Law of the Russian Federation
1143:Soviet secret police agencies
879:legal concepts including the
645:Political abuse of psychiatry
224:Congress of People's Deputies
23:Politics of the Soviet Union
7:
2836:Academy of Medical Sciences
1820:Journal of Cold War Studies
1755:Wyszyński, Andrzej (1949).
1714:Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
1419:Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
1270:
973:of European countries like
184:Central Executive Committee
10:
3607:
1814:Thomas, Daniel C. (2005).
1208:could be interpreted as a
1075:
935:
899:could be interpreted as a
812:Russian Orthodox Canon law
768:People's Republic of China
3557:
3509:
3471:
3186:
3114:
3058:
3032:
2952:
2875:
2866:
2811:
2718:
2681:
2621:
2524:
2486:
2406:
2268:
2259:
2209:
2157:
2148:
2000:
1775:Mary Ann Glendon (2001).
1687:. Amnesty International.
1552:(1st ed.). Springer.
1206:a desire to make a profit
540:Material balance planning
241:1989 Legislative election
16:Soviet law from 1917-1991
1832:10.1162/1520397053630600
1459:A. K. Makhnenko (1976),
1336:
959:1977 Soviet Constitution
954:1936 Soviet Constitution
949:1924 Soviet Constitution
875:, this system abolished
355:Administrator of Affairs
3586:Law of the Soviet Union
3127:Soviet Union portal
1936:10.1163/187633274x00144
1905:Stoneham, Massachusetts
1745:., pages 401–403.
1100:equality before the law
839:base and superstructure
828:equality before the law
744:Law of the Soviet Union
697:Soviet Union portal
209:Soviet of Nationalities
3229:Bosnia and Herzegovina
3019:Stalinist architecture
2773:Science and technology
2683:Ideological repression
2611:Soviet Airborne Forces
2549:Destruction battalions
1681:Shiman, David (1999).
1584:Berman, H. J. (2007).
1393:extra-judiciary powers
1192:in 1973 (and the 1966
1173:was "not to eliminate
1159:guarantees of property
893:guarantees of property
640:Ideological repression
530:Science and technology
2801:List of metro systems
2354:Collective leadership
1950:Washington Law Review
1855:"Засчитать поражение"
1508:, pages 402–403
1212:punishable by death.
1129:the individual". The
1096:freedom of expression
1059:deemed it necessary.
845:" law was a tool of "
790:Soviet concept of law
750:(USSR) following the
73:Collective leadership
2763:Net material product
2706:Censorship of images
2623:Political repression
2583:Soviet Border Troops
2516:First Deputy Premier
2100:1965 economic reform
2095:Soviet space program
1139:extrajudicial powers
1090:are the "basic and
1041:, though not in the
918:Soviet criminal code
650:Political repression
615:Censorship of images
345:First Deputy Premier
83:Presidential Council
3472:States with limited
2831:Academy of Sciences
2646:Population transfer
2590:Soviet Armed Forces
2453:Congress of Soviets
2434:Presidium/Politburo
2398:Soviet anti-Zionism
2247:West Siberian Plain
2125:Revolutions of 1989
2062:Great Patriotic War
2047:New Economic Policy
1114:, and the right to
841:model of society. "
665:Suppressed research
655:Population transfer
525:New Economic Policy
204:Soviet of the Union
174:Congress of Soviets
2476:Military Collegium
2344:Capital punishment
2222:Caucasus Mountains
2135:Post-Soviet states
2015:Russian Revolution
1671:. 1989. pp. 61–62.
1632:Kadish, Sanford H.
1395:were given to the
1358:Harvard Law Review
1276:Theory and decrees
1141:were given to the
1031:criminal procedure
1008:Procurator General
932:Constitutional law
924:analogue of 1960.
867:and established a
752:October Revolution
399:Procurator General
387:Military Collegium
3573:
3572:
3146:
3145:
3110:
3109:
3102:Hammer and sickle
3044:and their groups
3042:Soviet dissidents
2821:Communist Academy
2738:Economic planning
2714:
2713:
2607:Soviet Air Forces
2526:Security services
2446:General Secretary
2429:Central Committee
2371:Political parties
2303:Brezhnev Doctrine
2298:Foreign relations
2255:
2254:
2196:Autonomous okrugs
2110:Soviet–Afghan War
2090:Sino-Soviet split
2032:Russian Civil War
1645:978-0-02-918110-2
1450:., pages 401–403.
1401:party authorities
1253:party authorities
1169:, the purpose of
1155:protection of law
1123:international law
1082:According to the
1057:Soviet Government
1039:presumed innocent
889:protection of law
740:
739:
682:
681:
535:Era of Stagnation
477:
476:
362:
361:
250:
249:
156:
155:
127:General Secretary
112:Central Committee
3598:
3510:Dependencies and
3446:Northern Ireland
3187:Sovereign states
3173:
3166:
3159:
3150:
3149:
3136:
3135:
3125:
3124:
3123:
2873:
2872:
2781:
2636:Collectivization
2381:Marxism–Leninism
2266:
2265:
2155:
2154:
1986:
1979:
1972:
1963:
1962:
1958:
1939:
1918:
1903:(2nd ed.).
1895:
1867:
1866:
1864:
1862:
1850:
1844:
1843:
1811:
1805:
1804:
1798:
1790:
1772:
1766:
1765:
1763:
1752:
1746:
1728:
1722:
1705:
1699:
1698:
1678:
1672:
1665:
1659:
1656:
1650:
1649:
1627:
1614:
1613:
1581:
1575:
1574:, pages 179-222.
1560:
1554:
1553:
1545:
1536:
1518:
1509:
1492:
1471:
1457:
1451:
1433:
1427:
1388:
1382:
1381:
1350:
1171:socialist courts
1163:Andrey Vyshinsky
824:supremacy of law
800:Marxism-Leninism
760:Second World War
756:Communist states
732:
725:
718:
695:
694:
693:
630:Collectivization
490:
489:
454:De-Stalinization
428:Marxism–Leninism
423:Soviet democracy
417:
416:
320:State Committees
263:
262:
169:
168:
101:
100:
33:
19:
18:
3606:
3605:
3601:
3600:
3599:
3597:
3596:
3595:
3576:
3575:
3574:
3569:
3553:
3511:
3505:
3491:Northern Cyprus
3473:
3467:
3361:North Macedonia
3182:
3177:
3147:
3142:
3121:
3119:
3106:
3054:
3028:
2948:
2862:
2807:
2779:
2753:Internet domain
2748:Five-year plans
2710:
2677:
2617:
2520:
2482:
2414:Communist Party
2402:
2361:Passport system
2251:
2227:European Russia
2205:
2144:
2085:Khrushchev Thaw
2064:(World War II)
2042:Creation treaty
1996:
1990:
1915:
1876:
1871:
1870:
1860:
1858:
1851:
1847:
1812:
1808:
1792:
1791:
1787:
1773:
1769:
1761:
1753:
1749:
1729:
1725:
1706:
1702:
1695:
1679:
1675:
1666:
1662:
1657:
1653:
1646:
1628:
1617:
1582:
1578:
1561:
1557:
1546:
1539:
1521:Yevgenia Albats
1519:
1512:
1493:
1474:
1458:
1454:
1434:
1430:
1389:
1385:
1370:10.2307/1336434
1351:
1344:
1339:
1273:
1247:The purpose of
1165:. According to
1151:civil liberties
1080:
1074:
1065:
993:and the actual
987:
967:
965:Court structure
940:
934:
895:. For example,
885:civil liberties
792:
736:
707:
703:Other countries
691:
689:
684:
683:
595:
487:
479:
478:
450:
414:
404:
403:
372:
364:
363:
298:
260:
252:
251:
166:
158:
157:
152:
98:
96:Communist Party
88:
87:
46:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3604:
3594:
3593:
3588:
3571:
3570:
3568:
3567:
3565:European Union
3561:
3559:
3558:Other entities
3555:
3554:
3552:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3515:
3513:
3512:other entities
3507:
3506:
3504:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3477:
3475:
3469:
3468:
3466:
3465:
3460:
3459:
3458:
3453:
3448:
3443:
3436:United Kingdom
3433:
3428:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3281:
3276:
3271:
3266:
3261:
3256:
3251:
3249:Czech Republic
3246:
3241:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3196:
3190:
3188:
3184:
3183:
3176:
3175:
3168:
3161:
3153:
3144:
3143:
3141:
3140:
3130:
3115:
3112:
3111:
3108:
3107:
3105:
3104:
3099:
3098:
3097:
3087:
3086:
3085:
3075:
3074:
3073:
3062:
3060:
3056:
3055:
3053:
3052:
3051:
3050:
3038:
3036:
3030:
3029:
3027:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2990:
2989:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2958:
2956:
2950:
2949:
2947:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2935:
2934:
2929:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2908:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2887:
2882:
2876:
2870:
2864:
2863:
2861:
2860:
2859:
2858:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2817:
2815:
2809:
2808:
2806:
2805:
2804:
2803:
2798:
2796:Rail transport
2793:
2791:Railway system
2783:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2724:
2722:
2716:
2715:
2712:
2711:
2709:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2687:
2685:
2679:
2678:
2676:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2664:
2663:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2627:
2625:
2619:
2618:
2616:
2615:
2614:
2613:
2587:
2586:
2585:
2580:
2570:
2565:
2564:
2563:
2553:
2552:
2551:
2541:
2536:
2530:
2528:
2522:
2521:
2519:
2518:
2513:
2511:Deputy Premier
2508:
2503:
2502:
2501:
2494:Heads of state
2490:
2488:
2484:
2483:
2481:
2480:
2479:
2478:
2468:
2462:
2459:Supreme Soviet
2456:
2450:
2449:
2448:
2443:
2442:
2441:
2436:
2426:
2421:
2410:
2408:
2404:
2403:
2401:
2400:
2395:
2394:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2376:State ideology
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2357:
2356:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2335:
2334:
2324:
2323:
2322:
2312:
2307:
2306:
2305:
2295:
2290:
2289:
2288:
2283:
2272:
2270:
2263:
2257:
2256:
2253:
2252:
2250:
2249:
2244:
2242:Ural Mountains
2239:
2234:
2232:North Caucasus
2229:
2224:
2219:
2213:
2211:
2207:
2206:
2204:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2192:
2191:
2181:
2176:
2175:
2174:
2163:
2161:
2152:
2146:
2145:
2143:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2077:
2076:
2075:
2070:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2028:
2027:
2022:
2012:
2006:
2004:
1998:
1997:
1989:
1988:
1981:
1974:
1966:
1960:
1959:
1940:
1930:(1): 181–196.
1919:
1914:978-0406562647
1913:
1896:
1875:
1872:
1869:
1868:
1845:
1826:(2): 110–141.
1806:
1785:
1767:
1747:
1723:
1700:
1694:978-0967533407
1693:
1673:
1660:
1651:
1644:
1615:
1576:
1555:
1537:
1510:
1472:
1452:
1428:
1383:
1364:(2): 220–265.
1341:
1340:
1338:
1335:
1334:
1333:
1328:
1322:
1321:
1317:
1316:
1311:
1305:
1304:
1300:
1299:
1294:
1289:
1284:
1282:Soviet Decrees
1278:
1277:
1272:
1269:
1222:Soviet Ukraine
1198:Sergei Kovalev
1167:Vladimir Lenin
1076:Main article:
1073:
1070:
1064:
1061:
986:
985:Criminal cases
983:
966:
963:
962:
961:
956:
951:
946:
936:Main article:
933:
930:
791:
788:
776:eastern Europe
758:following the
738:
737:
735:
734:
727:
720:
712:
709:
708:
706:
705:
699:
686:
685:
680:
679:
678:
677:
672:
667:
662:
657:
652:
647:
642:
637:
632:
627:
622:
617:
612:
604:
603:
597:
596:
594:
593:
588:
583:
578:
573:
567:
564:
563:
555:
554:
553:
552:
547:
542:
537:
532:
527:
522:
520:Kosygin reform
517:
515:Five-Year Plan
512:
510:Consumer goods
507:
499:
498:
488:
485:
484:
481:
480:
475:
474:
473:
472:
471:
470:
456:
451:
449:
448:
443:
438:
432:
430:
425:
415:
410:
409:
406:
405:
402:
401:
396:
394:People's Court
391:
390:
389:
379:
373:
370:
369:
366:
365:
360:
359:
358:
357:
352:
350:Deputy Premier
347:
339:
338:
330:
329:
328:
327:
322:
317:
309:
308:
300:
299:
297:
296:
291:
286:
281:
279:Official names
275:
272:
271:
261:
258:
257:
254:
253:
248:
247:
246:
245:
244:
243:
238:
228:
227:
219:
218:
217:
216:
211:
206:
198:
197:
194:Supreme Soviet
189:
188:
187:
186:
178:
177:
167:
164:
163:
160:
159:
154:
153:
151:
150:
145:
140:
134:
131:
130:
122:
121:
120:
119:
114:
109:
99:
94:
93:
90:
89:
86:
85:
80:
75:
70:
69:
68:
66:Vice President
63:
53:
47:
44:
43:
40:
39:
35:
34:
26:
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3603:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3583:
3581:
3566:
3563:
3562:
3560:
3556:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3524:Faroe Islands
3522:
3520:
3517:
3516:
3514:
3508:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3496:South Ossetia
3494:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3479:
3478:
3476:
3470:
3464:
3461:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3449:
3447:
3444:
3442:
3439:
3438:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3321:Liechtenstein
3319:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3280:
3277:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3191:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3180:Law in Europe
3174:
3169:
3167:
3162:
3160:
3155:
3154:
3151:
3139:
3131:
3129:
3128:
3117:
3116:
3113:
3103:
3100:
3096:
3093:
3092:
3091:
3088:
3084:
3081:
3080:
3079:
3076:
3072:
3069:
3068:
3067:
3064:
3063:
3061:
3057:
3049:
3046:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3039:
3037:
3035:
3031:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2999:Printed media
2997:
2995:
2992:
2988:
2985:
2984:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2960:
2959:
2957:
2955:
2951:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2933:
2932:Cyrillisation
2930:
2928:
2925:
2924:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2900:Working class
2898:
2896:
2895:Soviet people
2893:
2892:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2877:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2865:
2857:
2854:
2853:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2818:
2816:
2814:
2810:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2788:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2743:Energy policy
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2725:
2723:
2721:
2717:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2688:
2686:
2684:
2680:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2662:
2659:
2658:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2628:
2626:
2624:
2620:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2593:
2592:
2591:
2588:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2575:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2562:
2559:
2558:
2557:
2554:
2550:
2547:
2546:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2531:
2529:
2527:
2523:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2500:
2497:
2496:
2495:
2492:
2491:
2489:
2485:
2477:
2474:
2473:
2472:
2471:Supreme Court
2469:
2466:
2463:
2460:
2457:
2454:
2451:
2447:
2444:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2431:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2416:
2415:
2412:
2411:
2409:
2405:
2399:
2396:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2378:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2355:
2352:
2351:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2333:
2330:
2329:
2328:
2325:
2321:
2318:
2317:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2304:
2301:
2300:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2278:
2277:
2274:
2273:
2271:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2258:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2214:
2212:
2208:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2190:
2187:
2186:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2173:
2170:
2169:
2168:
2165:
2164:
2162:
2160:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2147:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2074:
2073:The Holocaust
2071:
2069:
2066:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2017:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2007:
2005:
2003:
1999:
1994:
1987:
1982:
1980:
1975:
1973:
1968:
1967:
1964:
1957:(2): 206–222.
1956:
1952:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1920:
1916:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1897:
1894:(2): 298–358.
1893:
1889:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1877:
1856:
1849:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1810:
1802:
1796:
1788:
1786:9780375760464
1782:
1778:
1771:
1760:
1759:
1751:
1744:
1743:0-679-76184-5
1740:
1736:
1732:
1731:Richard Pipes
1727:
1721:
1720:0-297-64688-5
1717:
1713:
1709:
1708:Richard Pipes
1704:
1696:
1690:
1686:
1685:
1677:
1670:
1664:
1655:
1647:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1626:
1624:
1622:
1620:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1580:
1573:
1572:9-028-60679-3
1569:
1565:
1559:
1551:
1544:
1542:
1534:
1533:0-374-52738-5
1530:
1526:
1522:
1517:
1515:
1507:
1506:0-394-50242-6
1503:
1499:
1496:
1495:Richard Pipes
1491:
1489:
1487:
1485:
1483:
1481:
1479:
1477:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1456:
1449:
1448:0-679-76184-5
1445:
1441:
1437:
1436:Richard Pipes
1432:
1426:
1425:0-297-64688-5
1422:
1418:
1414:
1413:Richard Pipes
1410:
1409:party members
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1387:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1354:Berman, H. J.
1349:
1347:
1342:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1323:
1319:
1318:
1315:
1312:
1310:
1307:
1306:
1303:Organizations
1302:
1301:
1298:
1295:
1293:
1290:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1279:
1275:
1274:
1268:
1266:
1265:party members
1262:
1261:Moscow Trials
1258:
1254:
1250:
1249:public trials
1245:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1226:secret police
1223:
1219:
1218:Martin Latsis
1215:
1211:
1207:
1202:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1178:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1119:
1117:
1113:
1112:right to work
1109:
1108:right to food
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1079:
1069:
1060:
1058:
1052:
1049:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
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2880:Antisemitism
2733:Central Bank
2651:Forced labor
2599:Spetsnaz GRU
2419:organisation
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2276:Constitution
2159:Subdivisions
2037:Russian SFSR
1993:Soviet Union
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1874:Bibliography
1859:. Retrieved
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3591:Legal codes
3539:Isle of Man
3474:recognition
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2994:Phraseology
2939:Prohibition
2927:Linguistics
2912:Drug policy
2905:1989 census
2826:Cybernetics
2728:Agriculture
2641:Great Purge
2603:Soviet Navy
2595:Soviet Army
2467:(1989–1991)
2461:(1938–1991)
2455:(1922–1936)
2439:Secretariat
2310:Gun control
2217:Caspian Sea
2201:Closed city
2130:Dissolution
2115:Perestroika
2057:Great Purge
1737:. Vintage.
1442:. Vintage.
1292:NKVD troika
1220:, chief of
1182:Soviet bloc
1147:rule of law
1063:Civil court
1035:rule of law
1023:trial court
1016:prosecution
905:rule of law
881:rule of law
865:legislation
816:Western law
772:Warsaw Pact
762:—including
620:Great Purge
586:Phraseology
505:Agriculture
460:Perestroika
335:Premiership
165:Legislature
143:Secretariat
3580:Categories
3391:San Marino
3351:Montenegro
3331:Luxembourg
3311:Kazakhstan
3214:Azerbaijan
3034:Opposition
3024:Television
3004:Propaganda
2977:Literature
2851:Naukograds
2846:Sharashkas
2780:(currency)
2758:Inventions
2701:Censorship
2631:Red Terror
2315:Government
2189:Autonomous
2172:Autonomous
2105:Stagnation
2068:Evacuation
1901:Soviet law
1861:August 23,
1857:. Grani.ru
1469:0714707821
1287:Show trial
1242:Red Terror
1238:profession
1043:common law
1012:procurator
999:sledovatel
991:indictment
843:Capitalist
808:Mongol law
670:Red Terror
660:Propaganda
610:Censorship
601:Repression
315:Ministries
305:Government
259:Governance
45:Leadership
3529:Gibraltar
3326:Lithuania
3095:Republics
3083:Republics
3071:Republics
2922:Languages
2786:Transport
2668:Holodomor
2561:Militsiya
2499:President
2391:Stalinism
2293:Elections
2167:Republics
2150:Geography
2140:Nostalgia
2052:Stalinism
1795:cite book
1712:Communism
1596:: 68–76.
1566:. Brill.
1417:Communism
1234:education
1116:education
1027:assessors
971:civil law
869:socialist
847:bourgeois
576:Education
545:Transport
441:Stalinism
371:Judiciary
214:Presidium
138:Politburo
56:President
3549:Svalbard
3534:Guernsey
3481:Abkhazia
3451:Scotland
3406:Slovenia
3401:Slovakia
3376:Portugal
3234:Bulgaria
3138:Category
2691:Religion
2578:Chairmen
2424:Congress
2386:Leninism
2366:Propiska
2261:Politics
2120:Glasnost
2080:Cold War
2020:February
1840:57570614
1610:53476815
1527:, 1994.
1271:See also
1092:freedoms
798:law and
764:Mongolia
591:Religion
467:Glasnost
436:Leninism
412:Ideology
325:Cabinets
107:Congress
3441:England
3431:Ukraine
3381:Romania
3341:Moldova
3299:Ireland
3294:Iceland
3289:Hungary
3279:Germany
3274:Georgia
3264:Finland
3259:Estonia
3254:Denmark
3239:Croatia
3224:Belgium
3219:Belarus
3209:Austria
3204:Armenia
3199:Andorra
3194:Albania
3059:Symbols
2972:Fashion
2954:Culture
2868:Society
2813:Science
2778:Rouble
2720:Economy
2696:Science
2506:Premier
2487:Offices
2349:Leaders
2269:General
2237:Siberia
2210:Regions
2184:Oblasts
2025:October
2002:History
1733:(1994)
1710:(2001)
1634:(ed.).
1438:(1994)
1415:(2001)
1378:1336434
1127:against
1104:culture
1003:counsel
979:Germany
877:Western
796:Russian
784:Vietnam
560:Culture
495:Economy
486:Society
236:Speaker
148:Orgburo
117:History
51:Leaders
3544:Jersey
3486:Kosovo
3426:Turkey
3416:Sweden
3396:Serbia
3386:Russia
3371:Poland
3366:Norway
3346:Monaco
3316:Latvia
3284:Greece
3269:France
3244:Cyprus
3078:Emblem
3066:Anthem
3014:Sports
2967:Cinema
2962:Ballet
2944:Racism
2917:Family
2407:Bodies
1995:topics
1911:
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1236:, his
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1110:, the
1106:, the
1098:, and
1048:remand
975:France
922:Soviet
887:, the
814:, and
770:, the
766:, the
581:Family
38:
3519:Åland
3456:Wales
3411:Spain
3336:Malta
3306:Italy
3009:Radio
2987:Opera
2982:Music
2885:Crime
2656:Gulag
2534:Cheka
2179:Krais
1836:S2CID
1762:(PDF)
1606:S2CID
1374:JSTOR
1337:Notes
1320:Other
1230:class
995:trial
3090:Flag
3048:List
2856:List
2768:OGAS
2661:List
2544:NKVD
2332:LGBT
2320:List
2286:1977
2281:1936
1909:ISBN
1863:2015
1801:link
1781:ISBN
1739:ISBN
1716:ISBN
1689:ISBN
1640:ISBN
1568:ISBN
1529:ISBN
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1021:The
977:and
891:and
832:tsar
826:and
782:and
780:Cuba
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294:1977
289:1936
284:1924
61:list
2573:KGB
2568:MGB
2556:MVD
2539:GPU
2339:Law
1932:doi
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