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the water stays liquid. As the temperature of the pan rises above 100 °C (212 °F), the water droplets hiss when touching the pan, and these droplets evaporate quickly. When the temperature exceeds the
Leidenfrost point, the Leidenfrost effect appears. On contact with the pan, the water droplets bunch up into small balls of water and skitter around, lasting much longer than when the temperature of the pan was lower. This effect works until a much higher temperature causes any further drops of water to evaporate too quickly to cause this effect.
20:
31:
30:
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35:
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29:
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film boiling temperature of a fluid. Berenson obtained a relation for the minimum film boiling temperature from minimum heat flux arguments. While the equation for the minimum film boiling temperature, which can be found in the reference above, is quite complex, the features of it can be understood from a physical perspective. One critical parameter to consider is the
113:
2118:
properties of the solid being used. While the
Leidenfrost temperature is not directly related to the surface tension of the fluid, it is indirectly dependent on it through the film boiling temperature. For fluids with similar thermophysical properties, the one with higher surface tension usually has a higher Leidenfrost temperature.
247:
vapour. In 1756, Leidenfrost observed that water droplets supported by the vapor film slowly evaporate as they move about on the hot surface. As the surface temperature is increased, radiation through the vapor film becomes more significant and the heat flux increases with increasing excess temperature.
2782:
Teixeira, Andrew R.; Krumm, Christoph; Vinter, Katherine P.; Paulsen, Alex D.; Zhu, Cheng; Maduskar, Saurabh; Joseph, Kristeen E.; Greco, Katharine; Stelatto, Michael; Davis, Eric; Vincent, Brendon; Hermann, Richard; Suszynski, Wieslaw; Schmidt, Lanny D.; Fan, Wei; Rothstein, Jonathan P.; Dauenhauer,
1523:
At excess temperatures above that at the minimum heat flux, the contribution of radiation becomes appreciable, and it becomes dominant at high excess temperatures. The total heat transfer coefficient is thus a combination of the two. Bromley has suggested the following equations for film boiling from
150:
The effect happens because, at temperatures at or above the
Leidenfrost point, the bottom part of the water droplet vaporizes immediately on contact with the hot pan. The resulting gas suspends the rest of the water droplet just above it, preventing any further direct contact between the liquid water
2105:
The
Leidenfrost temperature is the property of a given set of solid–liquid pair. The temperature of the solid surface beyond which the liquid undergoes the Leidenfrost phenomenon is termed the Leidenfrost temperature. Calculation of the Leidenfrost temperature involves the calculation of the minimum
146:
The effect can be seen as drops of water are sprinkled onto a pan at various times as it heats up. Initially, as the temperature of the pan is just below 100 °C (212 °F), the water flattens out and slowly evaporates, or if the temperature of the pan is well below 100 °C (212 °F),
2151:
which melt and wet smooth surfaces with increasing heat transfer associated with increasing surface temperature. Above 675 °C (1,247 °F), cellulose was observed to exhibit transition boiling with violent bubbling and associated reduction in heat transfer. Liftoff of the cellulose droplet
246:
The
Leidenfrost point signifies the onset of stable film boiling. It represents the point on the boiling curve where the heat flux is at the minimum and the surface is completely covered by a vapor blanket. Heat transfer from the surface to the liquid occurs by conduction and radiation through the
207:
The
Leidenfrost effect has been used for the development of high sensitivity ambient mass spectrometry. Under the influence of the Leidenfrost condition, the levitating droplet does not release molecules, and the molecules are enriched inside the droplet. At the last moment of droplet evaporation,
2117:
Henry developed a model for
Leidenfrost phenomenon which includes transient wetting and microlayer evaporation. Since the Leidenfrost phenomenon is a special case of film boiling, the Leidenfrost temperature is related to the minimum film boiling temperature via a relation which factors in the
167:
The temperature at which the
Leidenfrost effect appears is difficult to predict. Even if the volume of the drop of liquid stays the same, the Leidenfrost point may be quite different, with a complicated dependence on the properties of the surface, as well as any impurities in the liquid. Some
1694:
2142:
Non-volatile materials were discovered in 2015 to also exhibit a 'reactive
Leidenfrost effect', whereby solid particles were observed to float above hot surfaces and skitter around erratically. Detailed characterization of the reactive Leidenfrost effect was completed for small particles of
133:
132:
129:
134:
32:
2029:
2121:
For example, for a saturated water–copper interface, the
Leidenfrost temperature is 257 °C (495 °F). The Leidenfrost temperatures for glycerol and common alcohols are significantly smaller because of their lower surface tension values (density and
118:
117:
114:
2190:
The Leidenfrost effect has also been used as a means to promote chemical change of various organic liquids through their conversion by thermal decomposition into various products. Examples include decomposition of ethanol, diethyl carbonate, and glycerol.
131:
119:
96:
474:
175:, in reference to its effect on massively reducing heat transfer from a hot iron surface to water, such as within a boiler. In a pair of lectures on boiler design, he cited the work of Pierre Hippolyte Boutigny (1798–1884) and Professor Bowman of
2159:) was also shown to suppress the reactive Leidenfrost effect and enhance overall heat transfer rates to the particle from the surface. The new phenomenon of a 'reactive Leidenfrost (RL) effect' was characterized by a dimensionless quantity, (φ
91:
is at or above the Leidenfrost point, which is approximately 193 °C (379 °F) for water, the water skitters across the pan and takes longer to evaporate than it would take if the water droplets had been sprinkled onto a cooler pan.
1529:
2469:
Subhrakanti Saha; Lee Chuin Chen; Mridul Kanti Mandal; Kenzo Hiraoka (March 2013). "Leidenfrost Phenomenon-assisted Thermal Desorption (LPTD) and Its Application to Open Ion Sources at Atmospheric Pressure Mass Spectrometry".
1471:
116:
1886:
2110:. The proportional relationship between the minimum film boiling temperature and surface tension is to be expected, since fluids with higher surface tension need higher quantities of heat flux for the onset of
1241:
827:
155:
than the metal pan, further heat transfer between the pan and the droplet is slowed down dramatically. This also results in the drop being able to skid around the pan on the layer of gas just under it.
1840:
2340:
Vakarelski, Ivan U.; Patankar, Neelesh A.; Marston, Jeremy O.; Chan, Derek Y. C.; Thoroddsen, Sigurdur T. (2012). "Stabilization of Leidenfrost vapour layer by textured superhydrophobic surfaces".
179:, in studying this. A drop of water that was vaporized almost immediately at 168 °C (334 °F) persisted for 152 seconds at 202 °C (396 °F). Lower temperatures in a boiler
130:
255:
201:
surfaces. In this case, once the vapor layer is established, cooling never collapses the layer, and no nucleate boiling occurs; the layer instead slowly relaxes until the surface is cooled.
1759:
115:
2391:
Pacheco-Vázquez, F.; Ledesma-Alonso, R.; Palacio-Rangel, J. L.; Moreau, F. (12 November 2021). "Triple Leidenfrost Effect: Preventing Coalescence of Drops on a Hot Plate".
1518:
2051:
1879:
2175:< 10. The reactive Leidenfrost effect with cellulose will occur in numerous high temperature applications with carbohydrate polymers, including biomass conversion to
2171:), which relates the time constant of solid particle heat transfer to the time constant of particle reaction, with the reactive Leidenfrost effect occurring for 10< φ
860:
1250:
2071:
72:
rapidly. Because of this repulsive force, a droplet hovers over the surface, rather than making physical contact with it. The effect is named after the German doctor
2882:
Thomas Avedisian, C.; Kuo, Wei-Chih; Tsang, Wing; Lowery, Adam (1 June 2018). "High Temperature Thermal Decomposition of Diethyl Carbonate by Pool Film Boiling".
2296:
496:
2086:
2676:
Liquid-Vapor Phase-Change Phenomena: An Introduction to the Thermophysics of Vaporization and Condensation Processes in Heat Transfer Equipment, Third Edition
187:. An alternative approach was to increase the temperature beyond the Leidenfrost point. Fairbairn considered this, too, and may have been contemplating the
2114:. Since film boiling occurs after nucleate boiling, the minimum temperature for film boiling should have a proportional dependence on the surface tension.
204:
Droplets of different liquids with different boiling temperatures will also exhibit a Leidenfrost effect with respect to each other and repel each other.
874:
1689:{\displaystyle {{h}^{{}^{4}\!\!\diagup \!\!{}_{3}\;}}={{h}_{conv}}^{{}^{4}\!\!\diagup \!\!{}_{3}\;}+{{h}_{rad}}{{h}^{{}^{1}\!\!\diagup \!\!{}_{3}\;}}}
2448:
2081:
The equation for the pressure field in the vapor region between the droplet and the solid surface can be solved for using the standard momentum and
511:
2152:(depicted at the right) was observed to occur above about 750 °C (1,380 °F), associated with a dramatic reduction in heat transfer.
1766:
2089:. In this model for the sake of simplicity in solving, a linear temperature profile and a parabolic velocity profile are assumed within the
3013:
3096:
163:
Behavior of water on a hot plate. Graph shows heat transfer (flux) vs temperature. Leidenfrost effect occurs after transition boiling.
95:
2147:(~0.5 mm) on high temperature polished surfaces by high speed photography. Cellulose was shown to decompose to short-chain
866:
is 0.62 for horizontal cylinders and vertical plates, and 0.67 for spheres. Vapor properties are evaluated at film temperature.
2024:{\displaystyle {{h}_{rad}}={\frac {\varepsilon \sigma \left(T_{s}^{4}-T_{sat}^{4}\right)}{\left({{T}_{s}}-{{T}_{sat}}\right)}}}
2691:
2655:
2855:
Avedisian, C. Thomas; Kuo, Wei-Chih; Tsang, Wing; Lowery, Adam (20 June 2018). "A Film Boiling Study of Ethanol Pyrolysis".
2324:
2290:
3007:
2259:
Bernardin, John D.; Mudawar, Issam (2002). "A Cavity Activation and Bubble Growth Model of the Leidenfrost Point".
3363:
2219:
1701:
159:
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2835:
3433:
3358:
3089:
3545:
3373:
197:
It has been demonstrated that it is possible to stabilize the Leidenfrost vapor layer of water by exploiting
194:
The Leidenfrost point may also be taken to be the temperature for which the hovering droplet lasts longest.
3555:
3428:
3173:
60:
in which a liquid, close to a solid surface of another body that is significantly hotter than the liquid's
3601:
469:{\displaystyle {{\frac {q}{A}}_{min}}=C{{h}_{fg}}{{\rho }_{v}}{{\left}^{{}^{1}\!\!\diagup \!\!{}_{4}\;}}}
2155:
High speed photography of the reactive Leidenfrost effect of cellulose on porous surfaces (macroporous
73:
3082:
215:
based on the Leidenfrost effect has been prototyped; it has the advantage of extremely low friction.
176:
2097:. With these approximations, the Navier–Stokes equations can be solved to get the pressure field.
869:
For stable film boiling on a horizontal surface, Berenson has modified Bromley's equation to yield,
3580:
3479:
3109:
1478:
2036:
3474:
3049:
2292:
Two Lectures: The Construction of Boilers, and on Boiler Explosions, with the means of prevention
1847:
168:
research has been conducted into a theoretical model of the system, but it is quite complicated.
208:
all the enriched molecules release in a short time period and thereby increase the sensitivity.
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3035:
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Adda-Bedia, M.; Kumar, S.; Lechenault, F.; Moulinet, S.; Schillaci, M.; Vella, D. (2016).
2521:
Wells, Gary G.; Ledesma-Aguilar, Rodrigio; McHale, Glen; Sefiane, Khellil (3 March 2015).
8:
3393:
3285:
3275:
3188:
3143:
2715:
Berenson, P. J. (1 August 1961). "Film-Boiling Heat Transfer From a Horizontal Surface".
2240:
2222:", the team demonstrated that a person can wet their hand and briefly dip it into molten
250:
The minimum heat flux for a large horizontal plate can be derived from Zuber's equation,
2971:
2963:
2800:
2538:
2483:
2414:
2353:
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2909:
Sharma, Pushan; Avedisian, C. Thomas; Brunson, Jordan D.; Tsang, Wing (1 August 2019).
2817:
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3183:
3071:, Duisburg on Rhine, 1756. (Carolyn S. E. Wares aka Carolyn Embach, translator, 1964)
2936:
2822:
2759:
2751:
2701:
2687:
2651:
2617:
2560:
2495:
2438:
2426:
2365:
2320:
2286:
2209:, the protagonist is saved from being blinded with a hot blade by evaporating tears.
2094:
172:
2836:"Scientists levitate wood on structured surfaces captured by high speed photography"
2629:
2507:
3525:
3148:
2967:
2922:
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2724:
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2609:
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2487:
2422:
2418:
2377:
2357:
2268:
2205:
2111:
198:
3019:
2742:
Henry, R.E. (1972). "Correlation for the minimum wall superheat in film boiling".
2646:
Welty, James R.; Wicks, Charles E.; Wilson, Robert E.; Rorrer, Gregory L. (2008).
218:
The effect also applies when the surface is at room temperature but the liquid is
3515:
3368:
3105:
2613:
2390:
2107:
1466:{\displaystyle h{{\left}^{{}^{1}\!\!\diagup \!\!{}_{3}\;}}=0.0020{{\left}^{0.6}}}
223:
3067:
Carolyn Embach, ResearchGate: English translation of Johan Gottlob Leidenfrost,
478:
where the properties are evaluated at saturation temperature. Zuber's constant,
3313:
3308:
3265:
3198:
3193:
2138:
Reactive Leidenfrost effect of cellulose on silica, 750 °C (1,380 °F)
3041:
2755:
2491:
1245:
For vertical tubes, Hsu and Westwater have correlated the following equation,
3595:
3550:
3530:
3453:
3413:
3348:
3280:
3203:
3023:
2868:
184:
61:
506:
The heat transfer coefficient may be approximated using Bromley's equation,
230:
lets drops of relatively warm liquid levitate on a bath of liquid nitrogen.
3575:
3448:
3443:
3438:
3403:
3353:
3270:
2826:
2621:
2564:
2499:
2430:
2369:
188:
139:
3074:
2683:
3484:
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2989:
2578:
2214:
2200:
2090:
212:
88:
3038:– University of Bath undergraduate students Carmen Cheng and Matthew Guy
2361:
3423:
3398:
3325:
3295:
3229:
3208:
2546:
57:
2895:
2808:
2763:
2728:
2449:"Watch droplets bounce off each other as they levitate on a hot plate"
2272:
2226:
without injury, using the Leidenfrost effect as the scientific basis.
2100:
171:
The effect was also described by the Victorian steam boiler designer,
19:
2671:
2148:
2144:
2123:
219:
3158:
3014:
Site with high-speed video, pictures and explanation of film-boiling
2093:. The heat transfer within the vapor phase is assumed to be through
242:
A water droplet experiencing Leidenfrost effect on a hot stove plate
191:, but considered the technical aspects insurmountable for the time.
3560:
3388:
3050:"Engine running on frozen carbon dioxide may power mission to Mars"
2405:
2176:
99:
Cooling performances of traditional structured surface and STA at
3520:
3408:
3343:
3260:
3255:
2598:"Inverse Leidenfrost Effect: Levitating Drops on Liquid Nitrogen"
2595:
2520:
2184:
2180:
2156:
1236:{\displaystyle h=0.425{{\left}^{{}^{1}\!\!\diagup \!\!{}_{4}\;}}}
87:, when drops of water are sprinkled onto a hot pan. If the pan's
84:
69:
3129:
498:, is approximately 0.09 for most fluids at moderate pressures.
3022:
by BBC News about using the Leidenfrost effect for cooling of
2994:. Season 7. Episode 136. December 28, 2009. Discovery Channel.
2881:
862:
is the outside diameter of the tube. The correlation constant
226:
droplets to harmlessly roll off exposed skin. Conversely, the
3138:
3124:
2777:
2775:
2773:
2339:
822:{\displaystyle h=C{{\left}^{{}^{1}\!\!\diagup \!\!{}_{4}\;}}}
65:
2314:
3044:– Science Friday with Univ. of Bath professor Kei Takashina
2908:
2223:
2781:
2770:
2076:
3134:
3008:
Essay about the effect and demonstrations by Jearl Walker
2911:"Decomposition by film boiling heat transfer of glycerol"
1835:{\displaystyle h={{h}_{conv}}+{\frac {3}{4}}{{h}_{rad}}}
183:
might evaporate water more quickly as a result; compare
2950:
Quéré, David (3 January 2013). "Leidenfrost Dynamics".
2854:
2645:
2252:
2785:"Reactive Liftoff of Crystalline Cellulose Particles"
2472:
Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry
2059:
2039:
1889:
1850:
1769:
1704:
1532:
1481:
1253:
877:
837:
514:
484:
258:
2101:
Leidenfrost temperature and surface tension effects
3069:De aquae communes nonnullis qualitatibus tractatus
2833:
2650:(5th ed.). John Wiley and Sons. p. 327.
2447:
2065:
2045:
2023:
1873:
1834:
1753:
1688:
1512:
1465:
1235:
854:
821:
490:
468:
2579:"Who What Why: How dangerous is liquid nitrogen?"
2285:
1672:
1671:
1667:
1666:
1613:
1612:
1608:
1607:
1556:
1555:
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1218:
1214:
1213:
805:
804:
800:
799:
452:
451:
447:
446:
123:A video clip demonstrating the Leidenfrost effect
3593:
3016:by Heiner Linke at the University of Oregon, USA
2648:Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat and Mass transfer
2258:
142:in a drop of water during the Leidenfrost effect
2915:International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer
2857:Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research
2129:
3090:
2641:
2639:
2333:
501:
2744:Transactions of the American Nuclear Society
2310:
2308:
2306:
2126:differences are also contributing factors.)
78:A Tract About Some Qualities of Common Water
48:Leidenfrost effect of a single drop of water
3104:
2315:Incropera; DeWitt; Bergman; Lavine (2006).
1754:{\displaystyle {{h}_{rad}}<{{h}_{conv}}}
3097:
3083:
2636:
2445:
1682:
1623:
1566:
1389:
1229:
815:
462:
151:and the hot pan. As steam has much poorer
2926:
2816:
2554:
2404:
2303:
2928:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.05.005
2714:
2279:
2133:
237:
158:
126:
111:
94:
43:
26:
18:
3047:
2077:Pressure field in a Leidenfrost droplet
1524:the outer surface of horizontal tubes:
40:Demonstration of the Leidenfrost effect
3594:
2317:Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer
3078:
2949:
2741:
2670:
2194:
1844:The effective radiation coefficient,
2834:Paul J. Dauenhauer (June 10, 2015).
233:
2972:10.1146/annurev-fluid-011212-140709
2053:is the emissivity of the solid and
13:
3020:"Scientists make water run uphill"
2319:(6th ed.). pp. 325–330.
2073:is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant.
14:
3618:
3048:Jeffrey, Colin (March 10, 2015).
3001:
1475:where m is the mass flow rate in
68:layer that keeps the liquid from
3157:
2952:Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics
2299:from the original on 2017-11-23.
83:This is most commonly seen when
2978:
2943:
2902:
2875:
2848:
2735:
2708:
2664:
2446:Leah Crane (24 November 2021).
2212:In the 2009 season 7 finale of
2589:
2571:
2514:
2462:
2423:10.1103/PhysRevLett.127.204501
2384:
1520:at the upper end of the tube.
1:
3546:Macroscopic quantum phenomena
2246:
1513:{\displaystyle l{{b}_{m}}/hr}
3556:Order and disorder (physics)
2614:10.1021/acs.langmuir.6b00574
2046:{\displaystyle \varepsilon }
7:
2523:"A sublimation heat engine"
2229:
2130:Reactive Leidenfrost effect
1874:{\displaystyle {{h}_{rad}}}
10:
3623:
2783:Paul J. (September 2015).
502:Heat transfer correlations
228:inverse Leidenfrost effect
107:
74:Johann Gottlob Leidenfrost
3508:
3462:
3334:
3248:
3222:
3166:
3155:
3117:
3042:"When Water Flows Uphill"
2492:10.1007/s13361-012-0564-y
855:{\displaystyle {{D}_{o}}}
64:, produces an insulating
3581:Thermo-dielectric effect
3480:Enthalpy of vaporization
3174:Bose–Einstein condensate
2884:Journal of Heat Transfer
2869:10.1021/acs.iecr.8b00770
2717:Journal of Heat Transfer
2261:Journal of Heat Transfer
3475:Enthalpy of sublimation
2393:Physical Review Letters
2066:{\displaystyle \sigma }
3490:Latent internal energy
3240:Color-glass condensate
2139:
2067:
2047:
2025:
1875:
1836:
1755:
1690:
1514:
1467:
1237:
856:
823:
492:
470:
243:
177:King's College, London
164:
143:
124:
104:
76:, who described it in
49:
41:
24:
3300:Magnetically ordered
2684:10.1201/9780429082221
2527:Nature Communications
2137:
2068:
2048:
2026:
1881:can be expressed as,
1876:
1837:
1756:
1691:
1515:
1468:
1238:
857:
824:
493:
471:
241:
162:
137:
122:
98:
47:
39:
22:
3179:Fermionic condensate
3032:– ABC Catalyst story
2087:Boundary layer model
2083:continuity equations
2057:
2037:
1887:
1848:
1767:
1702:
1530:
1479:
1251:
875:
835:
512:
482:
256:
153:thermal conductivity
3394:Chemical ionization
3286:Programmable matter
3276:Quantum spin liquid
3144:Supercritical fluid
2964:2013AnRFM..45..197Q
2801:2015NatSR...511238T
2539:2015NatCo...6.6390W
2484:2013JASMS..24..341S
2415:2021PhRvL.127t4501P
2362:10.1038/nature11418
2354:2012Natur.489..274V
2241:Region-beta paradox
1965:
1941:
1354:
1280:
914:
548:
23:Leidenfrost droplet
16:Physical phenomenon
3602:Physical phenomena
3541:Leidenfrost effect
3470:Enthalpy of fusion
3235:Quark–gluon plasma
3036:"Leidenfrost Maze"
2986:"Mini-Myth Mayhem"
2789:Scientific Reports
2547:10.1038/ncomms7390
2236:Critical heat flux
2195:In popular culture
2179:, preparation and
2140:
2063:
2043:
2021:
1945:
1927:
1871:
1832:
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1686:
1510:
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1233:
897:
852:
819:
534:
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244:
189:flash steam boiler
165:
144:
125:
105:
54:Leidenfrost effect
50:
42:
25:
3589:
3588:
3571:Superheated vapor
3566:Superconductivity
3536:Equation of state
3384:Flash evaporation
3336:Phase transitions
3321:String-net liquid
3214:Photonic molecule
3184:Degenerate matter
2896:10.1115/1.4038572
2863:(24): 8334–8340.
2809:10.1038/srep11238
2729:10.1115/1.3682280
2693:978-1-4987-1663-5
2657:978-0-470-12868-8
2608:(17): 4179–4188.
2585:. 8 October 2012.
2287:William Fairbairn
2273:10.1115/1.1470487
2019:
1810:
1449:
1356:
1196:
1193:
782:
491:{\displaystyle C}
429:
269:
234:Leidenfrost point
173:William Fairbairn
135:
120:
37:
3614:
3526:Compressed fluid
3161:
3106:States of matter
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2712:
2706:
2705:
2668:
2662:
2661:
2643:
2634:
2633:
2593:
2587:
2586:
2575:
2569:
2568:
2558:
2518:
2512:
2511:
2466:
2460:
2457:
2451:
2442:
2408:
2388:
2382:
2381:
2337:
2331:
2330:
2312:
2301:
2300:
2283:
2277:
2276:
2256:
2220:Mini Myth Mayhem
2206:Michael Strogoff
2112:nucleate boiling
2072:
2070:
2069:
2064:
2052:
2050:
2049:
2044:
2030:
2028:
2027:
2022:
2020:
2018:
2014:
2013:
2012:
2011:
2000:
1990:
1989:
1988:
1983:
1971:
1970:
1966:
1964:
1959:
1940:
1935:
1914:
1909:
1908:
1907:
1896:
1880:
1878:
1877:
1872:
1870:
1869:
1868:
1857:
1841:
1839:
1838:
1833:
1831:
1830:
1829:
1818:
1811:
1803:
1798:
1797:
1796:
1782:
1760:
1758:
1757:
1752:
1750:
1749:
1748:
1734:
1724:
1723:
1722:
1711:
1695:
1693:
1692:
1687:
1685:
1684:
1683:
1681:
1680:
1675:
1665:
1664:
1659:
1655:
1648:
1647:
1646:
1635:
1625:
1624:
1622:
1621:
1616:
1606:
1605:
1600:
1596:
1595:
1594:
1580:
1569:
1568:
1567:
1565:
1564:
1559:
1549:
1548:
1543:
1539:
1519:
1517:
1516:
1511:
1503:
1498:
1497:
1496:
1491:
1472:
1470:
1469:
1464:
1462:
1461:
1460:
1455:
1454:
1450:
1448:
1447:
1446:
1445:
1440:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1426:
1415:
1407:
1392:
1391:
1390:
1388:
1387:
1382:
1372:
1371:
1366:
1362:
1361:
1357:
1355:
1353:
1348:
1339:
1335:
1334:
1333:
1332:
1327:
1317:
1316:
1315:
1310:
1298:
1297:
1296:
1291:
1279:
1274:
1265:
1242:
1240:
1239:
1234:
1232:
1231:
1230:
1228:
1227:
1222:
1212:
1211:
1206:
1202:
1201:
1197:
1195:
1194:
1192:
1188:
1187:
1186:
1185:
1180:
1170:
1169:
1168:
1163:
1148:
1140:
1138:
1134:
1133:
1132:
1131:
1120:
1110:
1109:
1108:
1103:
1091:
1090:
1089:
1081:
1073:
1072:
1068:
1067:
1063:
1062:
1061:
1060:
1049:
1039:
1038:
1037:
1032:
1020:
1019:
1018:
1010:
997:
996:
995:
987:
975:
971:
970:
969:
968:
963:
953:
952:
951:
946:
931:
930:
929:
921:
913:
908:
895:
861:
859:
858:
853:
851:
850:
849:
844:
828:
826:
825:
820:
818:
817:
816:
814:
813:
808:
798:
797:
792:
788:
787:
783:
781:
780:
776:
775:
774:
773:
762:
752:
751:
750:
745:
733:
732:
731:
726:
719:
718:
717:
712:
704:
703:
699:
698:
694:
693:
692:
691:
680:
670:
669:
668:
663:
651:
650:
649:
641:
628:
627:
626:
618:
606:
602:
601:
600:
599:
594:
584:
583:
582:
577:
562:
561:
560:
555:
547:
542:
532:
497:
495:
494:
489:
475:
473:
472:
467:
465:
464:
463:
461:
460:
455:
445:
444:
439:
435:
434:
430:
428:
427:
422:
421:
417:
416:
415:
414:
409:
399:
398:
397:
392:
378:
377:
373:
372:
371:
370:
365:
355:
354:
353:
348:
329:
320:
319:
318:
313:
306:
305:
304:
296:
283:
282:
281:
270:
262:
199:superhydrophobic
136:
121:
38:
3622:
3621:
3617:
3616:
3615:
3613:
3612:
3611:
3592:
3591:
3590:
3585:
3516:Baryonic matter
3504:
3458:
3429:Saturated fluid
3369:Crystallization
3330:
3304:Antiferromagnet
3244:
3218:
3162:
3153:
3113:
3103:
3058:
3056:
3004:
2999:
2984:
2983:
2979:
2948:
2944:
2907:
2903:
2880:
2876:
2853:
2849:
2780:
2771:
2740:
2736:
2713:
2709:
2694:
2669:
2665:
2658:
2644:
2637:
2594:
2590:
2577:
2576:
2572:
2519:
2515:
2467:
2463:
2389:
2385:
2348:(7415): 274–7.
2338:
2334:
2327:
2313:
2304:
2284:
2280:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2232:
2197:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2132:
2108:surface tension
2103:
2079:
2058:
2055:
2054:
2038:
2035:
2034:
2001:
1996:
1995:
1994:
1984:
1979:
1978:
1977:
1976:
1972:
1960:
1949:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1922:
1915:
1913:
1897:
1892:
1891:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1884:
1858:
1853:
1852:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1845:
1819:
1814:
1813:
1812:
1802:
1783:
1778:
1777:
1776:
1768:
1765:
1764:
1735:
1730:
1729:
1728:
1712:
1707:
1706:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1699:
1676:
1674:
1673:
1660:
1658:
1657:
1656:
1651:
1650:
1649:
1636:
1631:
1630:
1629:
1617:
1615:
1614:
1601:
1599:
1598:
1597:
1581:
1576:
1575:
1574:
1573:
1560:
1558:
1557:
1544:
1542:
1541:
1540:
1535:
1534:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1527:
1499:
1492:
1487:
1486:
1485:
1480:
1477:
1476:
1456:
1441:
1436:
1435:
1434:
1427:
1422:
1421:
1420:
1416:
1408:
1406:
1402:
1401:
1400:
1399:
1383:
1381:
1380:
1367:
1365:
1364:
1363:
1349:
1344:
1328:
1323:
1322:
1321:
1311:
1306:
1305:
1304:
1303:
1299:
1292:
1287:
1286:
1285:
1281:
1275:
1270:
1264:
1260:
1259:
1258:
1257:
1252:
1249:
1248:
1223:
1221:
1220:
1207:
1205:
1204:
1203:
1181:
1176:
1175:
1174:
1164:
1159:
1158:
1157:
1156:
1152:
1144:
1139:
1121:
1116:
1115:
1114:
1104:
1099:
1098:
1097:
1096:
1092:
1082:
1077:
1076:
1075:
1074:
1050:
1045:
1044:
1043:
1033:
1028:
1027:
1026:
1025:
1021:
1011:
1006:
1005:
1004:
988:
983:
982:
981:
980:
976:
964:
959:
958:
957:
947:
942:
941:
940:
939:
935:
922:
917:
916:
915:
909:
901:
896:
894:
890:
889:
888:
887:
876:
873:
872:
845:
840:
839:
838:
836:
833:
832:
809:
807:
806:
793:
791:
790:
789:
763:
758:
757:
756:
746:
741:
740:
739:
738:
734:
727:
722:
721:
720:
713:
708:
707:
706:
705:
681:
676:
675:
674:
664:
659:
658:
657:
656:
652:
642:
637:
636:
635:
619:
614:
613:
612:
611:
607:
595:
590:
589:
588:
578:
573:
572:
571:
570:
566:
556:
551:
550:
549:
543:
538:
533:
531:
527:
526:
525:
524:
513:
510:
509:
504:
483:
480:
479:
456:
454:
453:
440:
438:
437:
436:
423:
410:
405:
404:
403:
393:
388:
387:
386:
385:
381:
380:
379:
366:
361:
360:
359:
349:
344:
343:
342:
341:
337:
330:
328:
324:
323:
322:
321:
314:
309:
308:
307:
297:
292:
291:
290:
271:
261:
260:
259:
257:
254:
253:
236:
224:liquid nitrogen
127:
112:
110:
103:= 1000 °C
27:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3620:
3610:
3609:
3604:
3587:
3586:
3584:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3512:
3510:
3506:
3505:
3503:
3502:
3497:
3495:Trouton's rule
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3466:
3464:
3460:
3459:
3457:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3416:
3411:
3406:
3401:
3396:
3391:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3364:Critical point
3361:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3340:
3338:
3332:
3331:
3329:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3317:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3266:Liquid crystal
3263:
3258:
3252:
3250:
3246:
3245:
3243:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3226:
3224:
3220:
3219:
3217:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3199:Strange matter
3196:
3194:Rydberg matter
3191:
3186:
3181:
3176:
3170:
3168:
3164:
3163:
3156:
3154:
3152:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3132:
3127:
3121:
3119:
3115:
3114:
3102:
3101:
3094:
3087:
3079:
3073:
3072:
3065:
3045:
3039:
3033:
3030:"Uphill Water"
3027:
3024:computer chips
3017:
3011:
3003:
3002:External links
3000:
2998:
2997:
2977:
2958:(1): 197–215.
2942:
2901:
2874:
2847:
2845:
2844:
2769:
2750:(1): 420–421.
2734:
2723:(3): 351–356.
2707:
2692:
2663:
2656:
2635:
2588:
2570:
2513:
2461:
2459:
2458:
2399:(20): 204501.
2383:
2332:
2325:
2302:
2278:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2244:
2243:
2238:
2231:
2228:
2196:
2193:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2131:
2128:
2102:
2099:
2078:
2075:
2062:
2042:
2017:
2010:
2007:
2004:
1999:
1993:
1987:
1982:
1975:
1969:
1963:
1958:
1955:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1930:
1925:
1921:
1918:
1912:
1906:
1903:
1900:
1895:
1867:
1864:
1861:
1856:
1828:
1825:
1822:
1817:
1809:
1806:
1801:
1795:
1792:
1789:
1786:
1781:
1775:
1772:
1747:
1744:
1741:
1738:
1733:
1727:
1721:
1718:
1715:
1710:
1679:
1670:
1663:
1654:
1645:
1642:
1639:
1634:
1628:
1620:
1611:
1604:
1593:
1590:
1587:
1584:
1579:
1572:
1563:
1554:
1547:
1538:
1509:
1506:
1502:
1495:
1490:
1484:
1459:
1453:
1444:
1439:
1430:
1425:
1419:
1414:
1411:
1405:
1398:
1395:
1386:
1377:
1370:
1360:
1352:
1347:
1343:
1338:
1331:
1326:
1320:
1314:
1309:
1302:
1295:
1290:
1284:
1278:
1273:
1269:
1263:
1256:
1226:
1217:
1210:
1200:
1191:
1184:
1179:
1173:
1167:
1162:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1137:
1130:
1127:
1124:
1119:
1113:
1107:
1102:
1095:
1088:
1085:
1080:
1071:
1066:
1059:
1056:
1053:
1048:
1042:
1036:
1031:
1024:
1017:
1014:
1009:
1003:
1000:
994:
991:
986:
979:
974:
967:
962:
956:
950:
945:
938:
934:
928:
925:
920:
912:
907:
904:
900:
893:
886:
883:
880:
848:
843:
812:
803:
796:
786:
779:
772:
769:
766:
761:
755:
749:
744:
737:
730:
725:
716:
711:
702:
697:
690:
687:
684:
679:
673:
667:
662:
655:
648:
645:
640:
634:
631:
625:
622:
617:
610:
605:
598:
593:
587:
581:
576:
569:
565:
559:
554:
546:
541:
537:
530:
523:
520:
517:
503:
500:
487:
459:
450:
443:
433:
426:
420:
413:
408:
402:
396:
391:
384:
376:
369:
364:
358:
352:
347:
340:
336:
333:
327:
317:
312:
303:
300:
295:
289:
286:
280:
277:
274:
268:
265:
235:
232:
138:Excitation of
109:
106:
56:is a physical
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3619:
3608:
3607:Heat transfer
3605:
3603:
3600:
3599:
3597:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3551:Mpemba effect
3549:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3531:Cooling curve
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3513:
3511:
3507:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3467:
3465:
3461:
3455:
3454:Vitrification
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3419:Recombination
3417:
3415:
3414:Melting point
3412:
3410:
3407:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3395:
3392:
3390:
3387:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3359:Critical line
3357:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3349:Boiling point
3347:
3345:
3342:
3341:
3339:
3337:
3333:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3301:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3281:Exotic matter
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3253:
3251:
3247:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3227:
3225:
3221:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3171:
3169:
3165:
3160:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3122:
3120:
3116:
3111:
3107:
3100:
3095:
3093:
3088:
3086:
3081:
3080:
3077:
3070:
3066:
3055:
3051:
3046:
3043:
3040:
3037:
3034:
3031:
3028:
3025:
3021:
3018:
3015:
3012:
3009:
3006:
3005:
2993:
2992:
2987:
2981:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2946:
2938:
2934:
2929:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2905:
2897:
2893:
2890:(6): 061501.
2889:
2885:
2878:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2851:
2841:
2837:
2832:
2831:
2828:
2824:
2819:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2778:
2776:
2774:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2738:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2711:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2678:. CRC Press.
2677:
2673:
2672:Carey, Van P.
2667:
2659:
2653:
2649:
2642:
2640:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2592:
2584:
2580:
2574:
2566:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
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2524:
2517:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
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2465:
2455:
2454:New Scientist
2450:
2444:
2443:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2420:
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2379:
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2347:
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2328:
2326:0-471-45728-0
2322:
2318:
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2294:
2293:
2288:
2282:
2274:
2270:
2267:(5): 864–74.
2266:
2262:
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2251:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2233:
2227:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2216:
2210:
2208:
2207:
2203:'s 1876 book
2202:
2192:
2188:
2186:
2183:of food, and
2182:
2178:
2158:
2153:
2150:
2146:
2136:
2127:
2125:
2119:
2115:
2113:
2109:
2098:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2074:
2060:
2040:
2031:
2015:
2008:
2005:
2002:
1997:
1991:
1985:
1980:
1973:
1967:
1961:
1956:
1953:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1928:
1923:
1919:
1916:
1910:
1904:
1901:
1898:
1893:
1882:
1865:
1862:
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1823:
1820:
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1807:
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1787:
1784:
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1770:
1762:
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1696:
1677:
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1661:
1652:
1643:
1640:
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1632:
1626:
1618:
1609:
1602:
1591:
1588:
1585:
1582:
1577:
1570:
1561:
1552:
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1525:
1521:
1507:
1504:
1500:
1493:
1488:
1482:
1473:
1457:
1451:
1442:
1437:
1428:
1423:
1417:
1412:
1409:
1403:
1396:
1393:
1384:
1375:
1368:
1358:
1350:
1345:
1341:
1336:
1329:
1324:
1318:
1312:
1307:
1300:
1293:
1288:
1282:
1276:
1271:
1267:
1261:
1254:
1246:
1243:
1224:
1215:
1208:
1198:
1189:
1182:
1177:
1171:
1165:
1160:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1135:
1128:
1125:
1122:
1117:
1111:
1105:
1100:
1093:
1086:
1083:
1078:
1069:
1064:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1046:
1040:
1034:
1029:
1022:
1015:
1012:
1007:
1001:
998:
992:
989:
984:
977:
972:
965:
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943:
936:
932:
926:
923:
918:
910:
905:
902:
898:
891:
884:
881:
878:
870:
867:
865:
846:
841:
829:
810:
801:
794:
784:
777:
770:
767:
764:
759:
753:
747:
742:
735:
728:
723:
714:
709:
700:
695:
688:
685:
682:
677:
671:
665:
660:
653:
646:
643:
638:
632:
629:
623:
620:
615:
608:
603:
596:
591:
585:
579:
574:
567:
563:
557:
552:
544:
539:
535:
528:
521:
518:
515:
507:
499:
485:
476:
457:
448:
441:
431:
424:
418:
411:
406:
400:
394:
389:
382:
374:
367:
362:
356:
350:
345:
338:
334:
331:
325:
315:
310:
301:
298:
293:
287:
284:
278:
275:
272:
266:
263:
251:
248:
240:
231:
229:
225:
221:
216:
214:
209:
205:
202:
200:
195:
192:
190:
186:
185:Mpemba effect
182:
178:
174:
169:
161:
157:
154:
148:
141:
102:
97:
93:
90:
86:
81:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
62:boiling point
59:
55:
46:
21:
3576:Superheating
3540:
3449:Vaporization
3444:Triple point
3439:Supercooling
3404:Lambda point
3354:Condensation
3271:Time crystal
3249:Other states
3189:Quantum Hall
3068:
3057:. Retrieved
3053:
2990:
2980:
2955:
2951:
2945:
2918:
2914:
2904:
2887:
2883:
2877:
2860:
2856:
2850:
2839:
2795:(1): 11238.
2792:
2788:
2747:
2743:
2737:
2720:
2716:
2710:
2675:
2666:
2647:
2605:
2601:
2591:
2582:
2573:
2530:
2526:
2516:
2478:(3): 341–7.
2475:
2471:
2464:
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2396:
2392:
2386:
2345:
2341:
2335:
2316:
2291:
2281:
2264:
2260:
2254:
2213:
2211:
2204:
2198:
2189:
2154:
2141:
2120:
2116:
2104:
2080:
2032:
1883:
1843:
1763:
1697:
1526:
1522:
1474:
1247:
1244:
871:
868:
863:
830:
508:
505:
477:
252:
249:
245:
227:
217:
210:
206:
203:
196:
193:
170:
166:
149:
145:
140:normal modes
100:
82:
77:
53:
51:
3485:Latent heat
3434:Sublimation
3379:Evaporation
3314:Ferromagnet
3309:Ferrimagnet
3291:Dark matter
3223:High energy
2991:MythBusters
2921:: 873–880.
2215:MythBusters
2201:Jules Verne
2091:vapor phase
222:, allowing
213:heat engine
89:temperature
3596:Categories
3500:Volatility
3463:Quantities
3424:Regelation
3399:Ionization
3374:Deposition
3326:Superglass
3296:Antimatter
3230:QCD matter
3209:Supersolid
3204:Superfluid
3167:Low energy
2756:4434452303
2406:2107.00438
2247:References
2095:conduction
58:phenomenon
2937:191155524
2702:243345698
2439:235694660
2149:oligomers
2145:cellulose
2124:viscosity
2061:σ
2041:ε
1992:−
1943:−
1920:σ
1917:ε
1669:╱
1610:╱
1553:╱
1438:μ
1418:π
1376:╱
1325:ρ
1319:−
1308:ρ
1289:ρ
1268:μ
1216:╱
1178:ρ
1172:−
1161:ρ
1142:σ
1112:−
1079:μ
1041:−
961:ρ
955:−
944:ρ
919:ρ
802:╱
754:−
724:μ
672:−
592:ρ
586:−
575:ρ
553:ρ
449:╱
407:ρ
390:ρ
363:ρ
357:−
346:ρ
332:σ
311:ρ
220:cryogenic
3561:Spinodal
3509:Concepts
3389:Freezing
3059:10 March
2840:Phys.org
2827:26057818
2674:(2020).
2630:21732968
2622:27054550
2602:Langmuir
2583:BBC News
2565:25731669
2533:: 6390.
2508:39368022
2500:23423791
2431:34860033
2370:22972299
2297:Archived
2289:(1851).
2230:See also
2177:biofuels
2085:using a
3521:Binodal
3409:Melting
3344:Boiling
3261:Crystal
3256:Colloid
2960:Bibcode
2818:4460903
2797:Bibcode
2764:4694181
2556:4366496
2535:Bibcode
2480:Bibcode
2411:Bibcode
2378:4411432
2350:Bibcode
2185:tobacco
2181:cooking
2157:alumina
181:firebox
108:Details
85:cooking
70:boiling
3149:Plasma
3130:Liquid
3054:Gizmag
2935:
2825:
2815:
2762:
2754:
2700:
2690:
2654:
2628:
2620:
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2437:
2429:
2376:
2368:
2342:Nature
2323:
2033:where
1397:0.0020
831:where
3139:Vapor
3125:Solid
3118:State
3010:(PDF)
2933:S2CID
2698:S2CID
2626:S2CID
2504:S2CID
2435:S2CID
2401:arXiv
2374:S2CID
2187:use.
885:0.425
66:vapor
3110:list
3061:2015
2823:PMID
2760:OSTI
2752:OCLC
2688:ISBN
2652:ISBN
2618:PMID
2561:PMID
2496:PMID
2427:PMID
2366:PMID
2321:ISBN
2224:lead
2165:conv
1726:<
52:The
3135:Gas
2968:doi
2923:doi
2919:139
2892:doi
2888:140
2865:doi
2813:PMC
2805:doi
2725:doi
2680:doi
2610:doi
2551:PMC
2543:doi
2488:doi
2419:doi
2397:127
2358:doi
2346:489
2269:doi
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1998:T
1986:s
1981:T
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1962:4
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