1174:
category 3 and 4. In terms of good research practice, an equidistant presentation by the researcher is important; otherwise a bias in the analysis may result. For example, a four-point Likert item with categories "Poor", "Average", "Good", and "Very Good" is unlikely to have all equidistant categories since there is only one category that can receive a below-average rating. This would arguably bias any result in favor of a positive outcome. On the other hand, even if a researcher presents what he or she believes are equidistant categories, it may not be interpreted as such by the respondent.
36:
1079:, measuring either positive or negative response to a statement. Sometimes an even-point scale is used, where the middle option of "neither agree nor disagree" is not available. This is sometimes called a "forced choice" method, since the neutral option is removed. The neutral option can be seen as an easy option to take when a respondent is unsure, and so whether it is a true neutral option is questionable. A 1987 study found negligible differences between the use of "undecided" and "neutral" as the middle option in a five-point Likert scale.
1029:
832:
976:
1052:"balance". Symmetry means that they contain equal numbers of positive and negative positions whose respective distances apart are bilaterally symmetric about the "neutral"/zero value (whether or not that value is presented as a candidate). Balance means that the distance between each candidate value is the same, allowing for quantitative comparisons such as averaging to be valid across items containing more than two candidate values.
1097:). This effect may appear early in a test due to an expectation that questions which the subject has stronger views on may follow, such that on earlier questions one "leaves room" for stronger responses later in the test. This expectation creates bias that is especially pernicious in that its effects are not uniform throughout the test and cannot be corrected for through simple across-the-board normalization;
1186:, if well presented it may nevertheless approximate an interval-level measurement. This can be beneficial since, if it was treated just as an ordinal scale, then some valuable information could be lost if the 'distance' between Likert items were not available for consideration. The important idea here is that the appropriate type of analysis is dependent on how the Likert scale has been presented.
1170:
range from 2 to 10 – with 3, 5, or, 7 being the most common. Further, this progressive structure of the scale is such that each successive Likert item is treated as indicating a 'better' response than the preceding value. (This may differ in cases where reverse ordering of the Likert scale is needed).
1268:
An important part of data analysis and presentation is the visualization (or plotting) of data. The subject of plotting Likert (and other) rating data is discussed at length in two papers by
Robbins and Heiberger. In the first they recommend the use of what they call diverging stacked bar charts and
941:
Likert distinguished between a scale proper, which emerges from collective responses to a set of items (usually eight or more), and the format in which responses are scored along a range. Technically speaking, a Likert scale refers only to the former. The difference between these two concepts has to
1328:
Research by
Labovitz and Traylor provide evidence that, even with rather large distortions of perceived distances between scale points, Likert-type items perform closely to scales that are perceived as equal intervals. So these items and other equal-appearing scales in questionnaires are robust to
949:
A scale can be created as the simple sum or average of questionnaire responses over the set of individual items (questions). In so doing, Likert scaling assumes distances between each choice (answer option) are equal. Many researchers employ a set of such items that are highly correlated (that show
1140:
Designing a scale with balanced keying (an equal number of positive and negative statements and, especially, an equal number of positive and negative statements regarding each position or issue in question) can obviate the problem of acquiescence bias, since acquiescence on positively keyed items
1169:
can be determined). The value assigned to each Likert item is simply determined by the researcher designing the survey, who makes the decision based on a desired level of detail. However, by convention Likert items tend to be assigned progressive positive integer values. Likert scales typically
1153:
Whether individual Likert items can be considered as interval-level data, or whether they should be treated as ordered-categorical data is the subject of considerable disagreement in the literature, with strong convictions on what are the most applicable methods. This disagreement can be traced
1173:
The second, and possibly more important point, is whether the "distance" between each successive item category is equivalent, which is inferred traditionally. For example, in the above five-point Likert item, the inference is that the 'distance' between category 1 and 2 is the same as between
1189:
Notions of central tendency are often applicable at the item level – that is responses often show a quasi-normal distribution. The validity of such measures depends on the underlying interval nature of the scale. If interval nature is assumed for a comparison of two groups, the paired samples
1051:
A Likert item is simply a statement that the respondent is asked to evaluate by giving it a quantitative value on any kind of subjective or objective dimension, with level of agreement/disagreement being the dimension most commonly used. Well-designed Likert items exhibit both "symmetry" and
1181:
of categories about a midpoint with clearly defined linguistic qualifiers. In such symmetric scaling, equidistant attributes will typically be more clearly observed or, at least, inferred. It is when a Likert scale is symmetric and equidistant that it will behave more like an interval-level
954:) but also that together will capture the full domain under study (which requires less-than perfect correlations). Others hold to a standard by which "All items are assumed to be replications of each other or in other words items are considered to be parallel instruments". By contrast,
1048:(e.g., a horizontal line, on which the subject indicates a response by circling or checking tick-marks), an individual item is itself sometimes erroneously referred to as being or having a scale, with this error creating pervasive confusion in the literature and parlance of the field.
1113:
Disagree with sentences as presented out of a defensive desire to avoid making erroneous statements and/or avoid negative consequences that respondents may fear will result from their answers being used against them, especially if misinterpreted and/or taken out of
1345:
that the statements reflect increasing levels of an attitude or trait, as intended. For example, application of the model often indicates that the neutral category does not represent a level of attitude or trait between the disagree and agree categories.
1260:(CBA) can be used to create an objective standard for Likert scales in domains where no generally accepted or objective standard exists. Consensus-based assessment (CBA) can be used to refine or even validate generally accepted standards.
945:
When responding to a Likert item, respondents specify their level of agreement or disagreement on a symmetric agree-disagree scale for a series of statements. Thus, the range captures the intensity of their feelings for a given item.
1255:
model, preserving the ordering of responses without the assumption of an interval scale. The use of an ordered probit model can prevent errors that arise when treating ordered ratings as interval-level measurements.
1149:
After the questionnaire is completed, each item may be analyzed separately or in some cases item responses may be summed to create a score for a group of items. Hence, Likert scales are often called summative scales.
1281:. But this can only be the case if the intervals between the scale points correspond to empirical observations in a metric sense. Reips and Funke (2008) show that this criterion is much better met by a
1201:
Responses to several Likert questions may be summed providing that all questions use the same Likert scale and that the scale is a defensible approximation to an interval scale, in which case the
1722:
Carifio, James; Perla, Rocco (2007). "Ten Common
Misunderstandings, Misconceptions, Persistent Myths and Urban Legends about Likert Scales and Likert Response Formats and their Antidotes".
1161:
There are two primary considerations in this discussion. First, Likert scales are arbitrary. The value assigned to a Likert item has no objective numerical basis, either in terms of
1132:
Try to portray themselves or their organization in a light that they believe the examiner or society to consider less favorable/more unfavorable than their true beliefs (
1194:-test is not inappropriate. If non-parametric tests are to be performed the Pratt (1959) modification to the Wilcoxon signed-rank test is recommended over the standard
942:
do with the distinction Likert made between the underlying phenomenon being investigated and the means of capturing variation that points to the underlying phenomenon.
1106:), with this effect especially strong among children, people with developmental disabilities, elderly people, and individuals who are subjected to a culture of
1269:
compare them to other plotting styles. The second paper describes the use of the Likert function in the HH package for R, and gives many examples of its use.
1479:
1123:
Try to portray themselves or their organization in a light that they believe the examiner or society to consider more favorable than their true beliefs (
1213:
can be applied. Typical cutoffs for thinking that this approximation will be acceptable is a minimum of four and preferably eight items in the sum.
1141:
will balance acquiescence on negatively keyed items, but defensive, central tendency, and social desirability biases are somewhat more problematic.
1819:"Breaking free from the limitations of classical test theory: Developing and measuring information systems scales using item response theory"
1409:. Some have claimed that Likert's name "is among the most mispronounced in field", because many people pronounce the name of the scale as
1349:
Not every set of Likert scaled items can be used for Rasch measurement. The data has to be thoroughly checked to fulfill the strict formal
415:
1285:. In fact, there may also appear phenomena which even question the ordinal scale level in Likert scales. For example, in a set of items
2442:
1329:
violations of the equal distance assumption many researchers believe are required for parametric statistical procedures and tests.
440:
1337:
Likert scale data can, in principle, be used as a basis for obtaining interval level estimates on a continuum by applying the
1209:
data measuring a latent variable. If the summed responses fulfill these assumptions, parametric statistical tests such as the
1120:
Provide answers that they believe will be evaluated as indicating weakness or presence of impairment/pathology ("faking bad");
2401:
2368:
2335:
1868:
1766:
1782:
van Alphen, A.; Halfens, R.; Hasman, A.; Imbos, T. (1994). "Likert or Rasch? Nothing is more applicable than good theory".
1117:
Provide answers that they believe will be evaluated as indicating strength or lack of weakness/dysfunction ("faking good");
1885:
2482:
862:
459:
959:
928:. It is the most widely used approach to scaling responses in survey research, such that the term (or more fully the
1607:
1438:
1401:
1015:
908:
801:
791:
495:
455:
1322:
1361:, so, if you are prepared to accept the raw scores as valid, then you can also accept the Rasch measures as valid.
250:
550:
335:
86:
1341:, when data can be obtained that fit this model. In addition, the polytomous Rasch model permits testing of the
1461:
997:
993:
816:
470:
135:
101:
2487:
1531:
779:
105:
55:
1513:
1257:
796:
294:
2087:
1241:
1195:
786:
355:
225:
91:
622:
1125:
1094:
345:
180:
2213:"Interval level measurement with visual analogue scales in Internet-based research: VAS Generator"
2155:
1245:
1093:), especially out of a desire to avoid being perceived as having extremist views (an instance of
1076:
986:
855:
595:
585:
555:
435:
420:
385:
305:
300:
200:
1860:
1853:
1758:
1751:
1516: – Design of a questionnaire to gather statistically useful information about a given topic
2477:
1338:
1232:
are common statistical procedures used after this transformation. Non-parametric tests such as
580:
510:
500:
480:
465:
395:
365:
285:
190:
2393:
2360:
1546: – measurement scale designed to measure a person's subjective perception of, and affect
1543:
1354:
1282:
1237:
1217:
1202:
1045:
811:
636:
565:
540:
445:
370:
330:
290:
275:
240:
213:
140:
2385:
2352:
1488: – Single, ordinal psychometric scale, allowing original observations to be reproduced.
1044:
s. Because many Likert scales pair each constituent Likert item with its own instance of a
1991:
Norman, Geoff (2010). "Likert scales, levels of measurement and the "laws" of statistics".
1467:
1278:
1210:
1206:
1183:
1155:
1107:
955:
951:
806:
608:
575:
545:
380:
350:
340:
270:
255:
50:
45:
660:
8:
1700:
Derrick, B; White, P (2017). "Comparing Two
Samples from an Individual Likert Question".
1225:
680:
425:
325:
163:
150:
1795:
2289:
2193:
2034:
2016:
1970:
1920:
1537:
1501:
848:
490:
485:
405:
360:
310:
280:
260:
120:
97:
2422:
2059:
Pratt, J. (1959). "Remarks on zeros and ties in the
Wilcoxon signed rank procedures".
756:
2397:
2386:
2364:
2353:
2331:
2234:
2008:
1962:
1958:
1924:
1864:
1799:
1762:
1464: – Scale measuring a person's willingness to engage with various types of people
1154:
back, in many respects, to the extent to which Likert items are interpreted as being
1102:
708:
652:
632:
590:
570:
400:
390:
320:
170:
115:
2197:
2117:(2018). "Analyzing ordinal data with metric models: What could possibly go wrong?".
1974:
1636:
672:
2281:
2261:. The Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Atlanta, GA.
2224:
2185:
2134:
2126:
2114:
2072:
2068:
2020:
2000:
1954:
1912:
1833:
1791:
1731:
1581:
1412:
1375:
1233:
1221:
1088:
882:
760:
720:
664:
520:
475:
430:
375:
315:
230:
195:
145:
35:
2253:
2178:"Design of Diverging Stacked Bar Charts for Likert Scales and Other Applications"
1552:
1166:
1082:
Likert scales may be subject to distortion from several causes. Respondents may:
768:
764:
748:
728:
656:
644:
533:
505:
450:
410:
175:
125:
1818:
2130:
1252:
1162:
1032:
An example questionnaire about a website design, with answers as a Likert scale
836:
752:
744:
740:
736:
688:
648:
235:
81:
2004:
1916:
1735:
2471:
1939:
1837:
1658:
1558:
1507:
1485:
1369:
925:
921:
917:
724:
712:
696:
692:
618:
130:
76:
2461:
1903:
Armstrong, Robert (1987). "The midpoint on a Five-Point Likert-Type Scale".
1482: – Standardized psychometric measure of psychopathology and personality
2238:
2012:
1966:
1525:
1519:
1496:
1229:
934:
716:
668:
2189:
1803:
1129:, the intersubjective version of objective "faking good" discussed above);
2229:
2212:
1817:
Rusch, Thomas; Lowry, Paul B.; Mair, Patrick; Treiblmaier, Horst (2017).
1528: – Websites allowing users to rate people, content, or other things.
1358:
1277:
The five response categories are often believed to represent an interval
1136:, the intersubjective version of objective "faking bad" discussed above).
732:
704:
676:
560:
515:
245:
220:
2272:
Labovitz, S. (1967). "Some observations on measurement and statistics".
1216:
To model binary Likert responses directly, they may be represented in a
2293:
1455:
1342:
1055:
The format of a typical five-level Likert item, for example, could be:
1028:
1000: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
265:
185:
110:
2139:
684:
640:
27:
2285:
975:
2177:
1540: – Cognitive heuristic of searching for an acceptable decision
1491:
831:
2255:
Paired
Comparison Intransitivity: Useful Information or Nuisance?
2184:. Vol. 57. American Statistical Association. pp. 1–32.
71:
1473:
2443:"Correlation scatter-plot matrix for ordered-categorical data"
2307:
Traylor, Mark (October 1983). "Ordinal and interval scaling".
1596:
1427:
1390:
1251:
Alternatively, Likert scale responses can be analyzed with an
897:
1350:
1220:
form by summing agree and disagree responses separately. The
920:
scale named after its inventor, American social psychologist
2351:
Meyers, Lawrence S.; Guarino, Anthony; Gamst, Glenn (2005).
1781:
1637:"What is a Likert Scale? and How Do You Pronounce 'Likert?'"
1561: – Method by which voters make a choice between options
2252:
Johanson, George A.; Gips, Crystal J. (April 12–16, 1993).
1859:(Second ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education. pp.
1757:(Second ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education. pp.
1590:
1421:
1263:
1816:
1384:
891:
2388:
Work
Motivation: History, Theory, Research, And Practice
2355:
2035:"Likert Scale Explanation - With an Interactive Example"
1661:(1932). "A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes".
2165:. American Statistical Association. pp. 1058–1066.
1248:. are often used in the analysis of Likert scale data.
962:) as information to be incorporated in scaling items.
1608:
1593:
1555: – First formal technique to measure an attitude
1510: – Series of questions for gathering information
1439:
1424:
1402:
1387:
1110:
that encourages and incentivizes eagerness to please;
909:
894:
2392:. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications. p.
1599:
1587:
1548:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
1430:
1418:
1393:
1381:
900:
888:
2163:
JSM Proceedings, Section on Survey
Research Methods
1702:
International
Journal of Mathematics and Statistics
1584:
1415:
1378:
938:, although there are other types of rating scales.
885:
2350:
1852:
1750:
1372:, the developer of the scale, pronounced his name
1297:rated with a Likert scale circular relations like
1504: – Psychometric scale used in questionnaires
2469:
2175:
2153:
1182:measurement. So while a Likert scale is indeed
2330:. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. p. 174.
2112:
2061:Journal of the American Statistical Association
1522: – Type of informational measurement scale
1476: – Scale and method in clinical psychology
1357:for the Rasch measures, a deliberate choice by
1986:
1984:
1353:of the model. However, the raw scores are the
1177:A good Likert scale, as above, will present a
2211:Reips, Ulf-Dietrich; Funke, Frederik (2008).
1695:
1693:
1691:
856:
2427:Research Methods Knowledge Base, 2nd Edition
2251:
2092:Learning Technology Dissemination Initiative
1775:
1721:
1699:
2421:Trochim, William M. K. (October 20, 2006).
1981:
1884:Allen, Elaine; Seaman, Christopher (2007).
1883:
2210:
1850:
1748:
1688:
863:
849:
34:
2228:
2176:Heiberger, R. M.; Robbins, N. B. (2014).
2156:"Plotting Likert and Other Rating Scales"
2154:Robbins, N. B.; Heiberger, R. M. (2011).
2138:
2119:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
1902:
1717:
1715:
1086:Avoid using extreme response categories (
1016:Learn how and when to remove this message
2271:
1937:
1027:
958:treats the difficulty of each item (the
2462:Likert scales: Dispelling the confusion
2420:
2306:
2106:
1679:
1634:
1470: – Plot used in psychodrama groups
1272:
1264:Visual presentation of Likert-type data
1144:
2470:
2440:
2383:
2325:
2309:Journal of the Market Research Society
1990:
1712:
1657:
2085:
2079:
2058:
2052:
1993:Advances in Health Sciences Education
932:) is often used interchangeably with
924:, which is commonly used in research
2088:"So You Want to Use a Likert Scale?"
1940:"Likert Scales: How to (Ab)use Them"
1851:Burns, Alvin; Burns, Ronald (2008).
1749:Burns, Alvin; Burns, Ronald (2008).
1635:Wuensch, Karl L. (October 4, 2005).
1100:Agree with statements as presented (
998:adding citations to reliable sources
969:
1796:10.1046/j.1365-2648.1994.20010196.x
1458: – Scale of perceived exertion
1040:is the sum of responses on several
13:
1682:Summated Rating Scale Construction
14:
2499:
2414:
1886:"Likert Scales and Data Analyses"
1534: – Self-report questionnaire
1959:10.1111/j.1365-2929.2004.02012.x
1580:
1411:
1374:
1364:
1205:allows treatment of the data as
974:
881:
830:
2377:
2344:
2319:
2300:
2265:
2245:
2204:
2182:Journal of Statistical Software
2169:
2147:
2027:
1931:
1896:
1877:
1844:
985:needs additional citations for
416:Peace, war, and social conflict
2086:Mogey, Nora (March 25, 1999).
2073:10.1080/01621459.1959.10501526
1810:
1742:
1673:
1651:
1628:
1572:
1462:Bogardus social distance scale
1332:
1321:can appear. This violates the
965:
16:Psychometric measurement scale
1:
2359:. Sage Publications. p.
2328:The Basics of Social Research
1621:
1826:Information & Management
1075:Likert scaling is a bipolar
7:
1905:Perceptual and Motor Skills
1784:Journal of Advanced Nursing
1532:Rosenberg self-esteem scale
1449:
10:
2504:
2483:Questionnaire construction
2441:Galili, Tal (2010-04-07).
2131:10.1016/j.jesp.2018.08.009
1724:Journal of Social Sciences
1639:. East Carolina University
1578:Commonly mispronounced as
1514:Questionnaire construction
1258:Consensus-based assessment
1065:Neither agree nor disagree
87:Human environmental impact
2217:Behavior Research Methods
2005:10.1007/s10459-010-9222-y
1917:10.2466/pms.1987.64.2.359
1736:10.3844/jssp.2007.106.116
1242:Wilcoxon signed-rank test
1196:Wilcoxon signed-rank test
2384:Latham, Gary P. (2006).
2326:Babbie, Earl R. (2005).
2094:. Heriot-Watt University
1938:Jamieson, Susan (2004).
1855:Basic Marketing Research
1838:10.1016/j.im.2016.06.005
1753:Basic Marketing Research
1680:Spector, Paul E (1992).
1565:
1502:Phrase completion scales
1126:social desirability bias
1095:social desirability bias
181:Structural functionalism
1325:for the ordinal scale.
1165:or scale (from which a
201:Symbolic interactionism
96:Industrial revolutions
1663:Archives of Psychology
1339:polytomous Rasch model
1033:
191:Social constructionism
2190:10.18637/jss.v057.i05
1544:Semantic differential
1355:sufficient statistics
1323:axiom of transitivity
1283:visual analogue scale
1203:central limit theorem
1046:visual analogue scale
1031:
566:Conversation analysis
141:Social stratification
2230:10.3758/BRM.40.3.699
1468:Diamond of opposites
1279:level of measurement
1273:Level of measurement
1211:analysis of variance
1145:Scoring and analysis
1108:institutionalization
994:improve this article
952:internal consistency
1246:Kruskal–Wallis test
151:Social cycle theory
22:Part of a series on
2488:Survey methodology
2460:Uebersax, John S.
1034:
956:modern test theory
837:Society portal
460:History of science
441:Race and ethnicity
121:Social environment
2447:R-statistics blog
2403:978-0-7619-2018-2
2370:978-1-4129-0412-4
2337:978-0-534-63036-2
1953:(12): 1217–1218.
1947:Medical Education
1892:. pp. 64–65.
1870:978-0-13-205958-9
1768:978-0-13-205958-9
1238:Mann–Whitney test
1103:acquiescence bias
1059:Strongly disagree
1026:
1025:
1018:
930:Likert-type scale
873:
872:
591:Social experiment
471:Social psychology
116:Social complexity
2495:
2457:
2455:
2453:
2437:
2435:
2433:
2423:"Likert Scaling"
2408:
2407:
2391:
2381:
2375:
2374:
2358:
2348:
2342:
2341:
2323:
2317:
2316:
2304:
2298:
2297:
2269:
2263:
2262:
2260:
2249:
2243:
2242:
2232:
2208:
2202:
2201:
2173:
2167:
2166:
2160:
2151:
2145:
2144:
2142:
2110:
2104:
2103:
2101:
2099:
2083:
2077:
2076:
2067:(287): 655–667.
2056:
2050:
2049:
2047:
2045:
2031:
2025:
2024:
1988:
1979:
1978:
1944:
1935:
1929:
1928:
1900:
1894:
1893:
1890:Quality Progress
1881:
1875:
1874:
1858:
1848:
1842:
1841:
1823:
1814:
1808:
1807:
1779:
1773:
1772:
1756:
1746:
1740:
1739:
1719:
1710:
1709:
1697:
1686:
1685:
1677:
1671:
1670:
1655:
1649:
1648:
1646:
1644:
1632:
1615:
1611:
1606:
1605:
1602:
1601:
1598:
1595:
1592:
1589:
1586:
1576:
1549:
1442:
1437:
1436:
1433:
1432:
1429:
1426:
1423:
1420:
1417:
1405:
1400:
1399:
1396:
1395:
1392:
1389:
1386:
1383:
1380:
1317: >
1309: >
1301: >
1234:chi-squared test
1226:Cochran's Q test
1089:central tendency
1021:
1014:
1010:
1007:
1001:
978:
970:
912:
907:
906:
903:
902:
899:
896:
893:
890:
887:
865:
858:
851:
835:
834:
586:Network analysis
476:Sociocybernetics
466:Social movements
196:Social darwinism
146:Social structure
38:
19:
18:
2503:
2502:
2498:
2497:
2496:
2494:
2493:
2492:
2468:
2467:
2451:
2449:
2431:
2429:
2417:
2412:
2411:
2404:
2382:
2378:
2371:
2349:
2345:
2338:
2324:
2320:
2305:
2301:
2286:10.2307/2574595
2270:
2266:
2258:
2250:
2246:
2209:
2205:
2174:
2170:
2158:
2152:
2148:
2111:
2107:
2097:
2095:
2084:
2080:
2057:
2053:
2043:
2041:
2033:
2032:
2028:
1989:
1982:
1942:
1936:
1932:
1901:
1897:
1882:
1878:
1871:
1849:
1845:
1821:
1815:
1811:
1780:
1776:
1769:
1747:
1743:
1720:
1713:
1698:
1689:
1678:
1674:
1656:
1652:
1642:
1640:
1633:
1629:
1624:
1619:
1618:
1609:
1583:
1579:
1577:
1573:
1568:
1553:Thurstone scale
1547:
1452:
1440:
1414:
1410:
1403:
1377:
1373:
1367:
1335:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1275:
1266:
1193:
1167:distance metric
1147:
1022:
1011:
1005:
1002:
991:
979:
968:
910:
884:
880:
869:
829:
822:
821:
782:
772:
771:
699:
625:
611:
609:Major theorists
601:
600:
536:
526:
525:
216:
206:
205:
176:Critical theory
171:Conflict theory
166:
156:
155:
126:Social equality
67:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2501:
2491:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2466:
2465:
2458:
2438:
2416:
2415:External links
2413:
2410:
2409:
2402:
2376:
2369:
2343:
2336:
2318:
2299:
2280:(2): 151–160.
2264:
2244:
2223:(3): 699–704.
2203:
2168:
2146:
2105:
2078:
2051:
2026:
1999:(5): 625–632.
1980:
1930:
1911:(2): 359–362.
1895:
1876:
1869:
1843:
1832:(2): 189–203.
1809:
1790:(1): 196–201.
1774:
1767:
1741:
1730:(3): 106–116.
1711:
1687:
1672:
1659:Likert, Rensis
1650:
1626:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1617:
1616:
1570:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1563:
1562:
1556:
1550:
1541:
1535:
1529:
1523:
1517:
1511:
1505:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1483:
1477:
1471:
1465:
1459:
1451:
1448:
1366:
1363:
1334:
1331:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1274:
1271:
1265:
1262:
1253:ordered probit
1191:
1163:measure theory
1146:
1143:
1138:
1137:
1130:
1121:
1118:
1115:
1111:
1098:
1077:scaling method
1073:
1072:
1071:Strongly agree
1069:
1066:
1063:
1060:
1024:
1023:
982:
980:
973:
967:
964:
926:questionnaires
871:
870:
868:
867:
860:
853:
845:
842:
841:
840:
839:
824:
823:
820:
819:
814:
809:
804:
799:
794:
789:
783:
778:
777:
774:
773:
627:
626:
612:
607:
606:
603:
602:
599:
598:
593:
588:
583:
578:
573:
568:
563:
558:
553:
548:
543:
537:
532:
531:
528:
527:
524:
523:
518:
513:
508:
503:
498:
493:
488:
483:
478:
473:
468:
463:
453:
448:
443:
438:
433:
428:
423:
418:
413:
408:
403:
398:
393:
388:
383:
378:
373:
368:
363:
358:
353:
348:
343:
338:
333:
328:
323:
318:
313:
308:
303:
298:
288:
283:
278:
273:
268:
263:
258:
253:
248:
243:
238:
236:Astrosociology
233:
228:
223:
217:
212:
211:
208:
207:
204:
203:
198:
193:
188:
183:
178:
173:
167:
162:
161:
158:
157:
154:
153:
148:
143:
138:
133:
128:
123:
118:
113:
108:
94:
89:
84:
82:Human behavior
79:
74:
68:
65:
64:
61:
60:
59:
58:
53:
48:
40:
39:
31:
30:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2500:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2478:Psychometrics
2476:
2475:
2473:
2463:
2459:
2448:
2444:
2439:
2428:
2424:
2419:
2418:
2405:
2399:
2395:
2390:
2389:
2380:
2372:
2366:
2362:
2357:
2356:
2347:
2339:
2333:
2329:
2322:
2315:(4): 297–303.
2314:
2310:
2303:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2274:Social Forces
2268:
2257:
2256:
2248:
2240:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2207:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2172:
2164:
2157:
2150:
2141:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2113:Liddell, T.;
2109:
2093:
2089:
2082:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2055:
2040:
2036:
2030:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1987:
1985:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1941:
1934:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1899:
1891:
1887:
1880:
1872:
1866:
1862:
1857:
1856:
1847:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1820:
1813:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1778:
1770:
1764:
1760:
1755:
1754:
1745:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1718:
1716:
1707:
1703:
1696:
1694:
1692:
1683:
1676:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1654:
1638:
1631:
1627:
1614:
1613:
1604:
1575:
1571:
1560:
1559:Voting system
1557:
1554:
1551:
1545:
1542:
1539:
1536:
1533:
1530:
1527:
1524:
1521:
1518:
1515:
1512:
1509:
1508:Questionnaire
1506:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1487:
1486:Guttman scale
1484:
1481:
1478:
1475:
1472:
1469:
1466:
1463:
1460:
1457:
1454:
1453:
1447:
1445:
1444:
1435:
1408:
1407:
1398:
1371:
1370:Rensis Likert
1365:Pronunciation
1362:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1347:
1344:
1340:
1330:
1326:
1324:
1284:
1280:
1270:
1261:
1259:
1254:
1249:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1214:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1199:
1197:
1187:
1185:
1180:
1175:
1171:
1168:
1164:
1159:
1157:
1151:
1142:
1135:
1134:norm defiance
1131:
1128:
1127:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1112:
1109:
1105:
1104:
1099:
1096:
1092:
1090:
1085:
1084:
1083:
1080:
1078:
1070:
1067:
1064:
1061:
1058:
1057:
1056:
1053:
1049:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1030:
1020:
1017:
1009:
999:
995:
989:
988:
983:This section
981:
977:
972:
971:
963:
961:
957:
953:
947:
943:
939:
937:
936:
931:
927:
923:
922:Rensis Likert
919:
915:
914:
905:
878:
866:
861:
859:
854:
852:
847:
846:
844:
843:
838:
833:
828:
827:
826:
825:
818:
815:
813:
810:
808:
805:
803:
802:Organizations
800:
798:
795:
793:
790:
788:
785:
784:
781:
776:
775:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
751: ·
750:
747: ·
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
707: ·
706:
703:
700:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
639: ·
638:
634:
631:
624:
620:
617:
614:
613:
610:
605:
604:
597:
594:
592:
589:
587:
584:
582:
579:
577:
574:
572:
569:
567:
564:
562:
559:
557:
556:Computational
554:
552:
549:
547:
544:
542:
539:
538:
535:
530:
529:
522:
519:
517:
514:
512:
509:
507:
504:
502:
499:
497:
494:
492:
489:
487:
484:
482:
479:
477:
474:
472:
469:
467:
464:
461:
457:
454:
452:
449:
447:
444:
442:
439:
437:
434:
432:
429:
427:
424:
422:
419:
417:
414:
412:
409:
407:
404:
402:
399:
397:
394:
392:
389:
387:
384:
382:
379:
377:
374:
372:
369:
367:
364:
362:
359:
357:
354:
352:
349:
347:
344:
342:
339:
337:
334:
332:
329:
327:
324:
322:
319:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
304:
302:
301:Environmental
299:
296:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
262:
259:
257:
254:
252:
251:Consciousness
249:
247:
244:
242:
239:
237:
234:
232:
229:
227:
224:
222:
219:
218:
215:
210:
209:
202:
199:
197:
194:
192:
189:
187:
184:
182:
179:
177:
174:
172:
169:
168:
165:
160:
159:
152:
149:
147:
144:
142:
139:
137:
134:
132:
131:Social equity
129:
127:
124:
122:
119:
117:
114:
112:
109:
107:
103:
99:
95:
93:
90:
88:
85:
83:
80:
78:
77:Globalization
75:
73:
70:
69:
63:
62:
57:
54:
52:
49:
47:
44:
43:
42:
41:
37:
33:
32:
29:
26:
25:
21:
20:
2450:. Retrieved
2446:
2430:. Retrieved
2426:
2387:
2379:
2354:
2346:
2327:
2321:
2312:
2308:
2302:
2277:
2273:
2267:
2254:
2247:
2220:
2216:
2206:
2181:
2171:
2162:
2149:
2122:
2118:
2115:Kruschke, J.
2108:
2096:. Retrieved
2091:
2081:
2064:
2060:
2054:
2042:. Retrieved
2038:
2029:
1996:
1992:
1950:
1946:
1933:
1908:
1904:
1898:
1889:
1879:
1854:
1846:
1829:
1825:
1812:
1787:
1783:
1777:
1752:
1744:
1727:
1723:
1705:
1701:
1681:
1675:
1666:
1662:
1653:
1643:December 16,
1641:. Retrieved
1630:
1574:
1526:Rating sites
1520:Rating scale
1497:Mokken scale
1474:Discan scale
1368:
1348:
1336:
1327:
1276:
1267:
1250:
1230:McNemar test
1215:
1200:
1188:
1178:
1176:
1172:
1160:
1152:
1148:
1139:
1133:
1124:
1101:
1087:
1081:
1074:
1054:
1050:
1041:
1038:Likert scale
1037:
1035:
1012:
1003:
992:Please help
987:verification
984:
948:
944:
940:
935:rating scale
933:
929:
918:psychometric
877:Likert scale
876:
874:
787:Bibliography
701:
629:
628:
615:
581:Mathematical
561:Ethnographic
541:Quantitative
226:Architecture
164:Perspectives
136:Social power
2452:November 7,
2125:: 328–348.
1538:Satisficing
1359:Georg Rasch
1333:Rasch model
1222:chi-squared
1042:Likert item
966:Composition
792:Terminology
761:Baudrillard
637:Tocqueville
551:Comparative
546:Qualitative
516:Victimology
346:Immigration
331:Generations
246:Criminology
2472:Categories
2140:2022/21970
2039:SurveyKing
1708:(3): 1–13.
1622:References
1456:Borg scale
1343:hypothesis
817:By country
571:Historical
496:Technology
436:Punishment
421:Philosophy
396:Mathematic
386:Literature
351:Industrial
341:Historical
266:Demography
186:Positivism
111:Popularity
66:Key themes
2432:April 30,
2098:April 30,
2044:13 August
1925:145705789
1006:June 2023
633:Martineau
576:Interview
501:Terrorism
481:Sociology
426:Political
366:Knowledge
286:Education
28:Sociology
2239:18697664
2198:61139330
2013:20146096
1975:42509064
1967:15566531
1492:Ipsative
1480:K-factor
1450:See also
1293:,
1289:,
1218:binomial
1207:interval
1179:symmetry
1114:context;
1062:Disagree
916:,) is a
812:Timeline
797:Journals
765:Bourdieu
757:Habermas
753:Luhmann
749:Foucault
693:Mannheim
673:Durkheim
446:Religion
406:Military
371:Language
356:Internet
311:Feminist
295:Jealousy
281:Economic
276:Disaster
271:Deviance
214:Branches
92:Identity
2464:. 2006.
2294:2574595
2021:6566608
1804:7930122
1684:. Sage.
1669:: 1–55.
1184:ordinal
1156:ordinal
769:Giddens
767:·
763:·
755:·
743:·
741:Goffman
737:Schoeck
723:·
715:·
691:·
689:Du Bois
687:·
679:·
675:·
667:·
661:Tönnies
659:·
645:Spencer
643:·
621:·
534:Methods
511:Utopian
456:Science
401:Medical
391:Marxist
381:Leisure
291:Emotion
256:Culture
72:Society
51:Outline
46:History
2400:
2367:
2334:
2292:
2237:
2196:
2019:
2011:
1973:
1965:
1923:
1867:
1802:
1765:
1351:axioms
1158:data.
807:People
745:Bauman
725:Nisbet
721:Merton
713:Gehlen
709:Adorno
702:1900s:
677:Addams
669:Simmel
665:Veblen
657:Pareto
649:Le Bon
630:1800s:
623:Sieyès
616:1700s:
596:Survey
521:Visual
431:Public
336:Health
326:Gender
316:Fiscal
306:Family
2290:JSTOR
2259:(PDF)
2194:S2CID
2159:(PDF)
2017:S2CID
1971:S2CID
1943:(PDF)
1921:S2CID
1822:(PDF)
1612:-kərt
1566:Notes
1443:-kərt
1244:, or
1228:, or
1068:Agree
950:high
780:Lists
729:Mills
705:Fromm
697:Elias
685:Weber
619:Comte
506:Urban
491:Sport
486:Space
451:Rural
411:Music
361:Jewry
261:Death
221:Aging
56:Index
2454:2017
2434:2009
2398:ISBN
2365:ISBN
2332:ISBN
2235:PMID
2100:2009
2046:2017
2009:PMID
1963:PMID
1865:ISBN
1800:PMID
1763:ISBN
1645:2023
1406:-ərt
1313:and
1091:bias
960:ICCs
913:-ərt
733:Bell
717:Aron
681:Mead
653:Ward
641:Marx
321:Food
241:Body
2282:doi
2225:doi
2186:doi
2135:hdl
2127:doi
2069:doi
2001:doi
1955:doi
1913:doi
1861:250
1834:doi
1792:doi
1759:245
1732:doi
1667:140
1404:LIK
996:by
911:LIK
376:Law
231:Art
2474::
2445:.
2425:.
2396:.
2394:15
2363:.
2361:20
2313:25
2311:.
2288:.
2278:46
2276:.
2233:.
2221:40
2219:.
2215:.
2192:.
2180:.
2161:.
2133:.
2123:79
2121:.
2090:.
2065:54
2063:.
2037:.
2015:.
2007:.
1997:15
1995:.
1983:^
1969:.
1961:.
1951:38
1949:.
1945:.
1919:.
1909:64
1907:.
1888:.
1863:.
1830:54
1828:.
1824:.
1798:.
1788:20
1786:.
1761:.
1726:.
1714:^
1706:18
1704:.
1690:^
1665:.
1610:LY
1597:ər
1591:aɪ
1446:.
1441:LY
1428:ər
1422:aɪ
1391:ər
1305:,
1240:,
1236:,
1224:,
1198:.
1036:A
898:ər
875:A
759:·
739:·
735:·
731:·
727:·
719:·
711:·
695:·
683:·
671:·
663:·
655:·
651:·
647:·
635:·
104:/
100:/
2456:.
2436:.
2406:.
2373:.
2340:.
2296:.
2284::
2241:.
2227::
2200:.
2188::
2143:.
2137::
2129::
2102:.
2075:.
2071::
2048:.
2023:.
2003::
1977:.
1957::
1927:.
1915::
1873:.
1840:.
1836::
1806:.
1794::
1771:.
1738:.
1734::
1728:3
1647:.
1603:/
1600:t
1594:k
1588:l
1585:ˈ
1582:/
1434:/
1431:t
1425:k
1419:l
1416:ˈ
1413:/
1397:/
1394:t
1388:k
1385:ɪ
1382:l
1379:ˈ
1376:/
1319:A
1315:C
1311:C
1307:B
1303:B
1299:A
1295:C
1291:B
1287:A
1192:t
1019:)
1013:(
1008:)
1004:(
990:.
904:/
901:t
895:k
892:ɪ
889:l
886:ˈ
883:/
879:(
864:e
857:t
850:v
462:)
458:(
297:)
293:(
106:5
102:4
98:3
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
.svg)