Lion Capital of Ashoka

2983:, pp. 170–171 A capital with protomes of four lions from Old Termez This capital takes the form of four lion protomes, facing in different directions (the cardinal points) (Fig. 15, 15:a). In its artistic style, and especially in the treatment of the long wavy ringlets of the lions’ manes, it is comparable to some examples of Hellenistic sculpture. All the evidence indicates that it belonged to a stambha pillar and was not an ordinary capital. It would seem to be appropriate to a Greco-Buddhist figurative complex. ... As far as its function is concerned, we have one small indication in the form of a detail modeled on the backs of the lions. This is a fairly tall, square abacus, with two parallel relief lines running round the bottom. In the top of the abacus there is a square slot measuring 13-15×13-15 cm, into which another detail evidently was to be fitted. This detail may have been a beam, but is more likely to have been a symbol in the form of the wheel of the doctrine (Dharmachakra).53 This latter theory is supported by the fact that the backs of the lions’ necks are higher than the level of the abacuses, which would have complicated the fitting of beams. By contrast, a separate symbol – in this case a wheel – could have been quite easily fixed in the slot with the help of some projecting element; another way of it fastening it would have been with a metal bolt. 1269: 2136:, p. 35 Quote: "Although Marshall says explicitly little about his intention to give his Indian colleagues an active role in unearthing and presenting their own history, his actions clearly showed that he did. First among those whose work he promoted was Daya Ram Sahni, a Sanskritist by training who had worked on the excavations at Kushinagar in 1905, then Rajgir and Rampurva in 1906 and 1907. In an effort to keep material excavated at Sarnath close to the site, Marshall laid plans in 1904 to establish the Archaeological Museum Sarnath, the first site museum under the ASI; the building was completed in 1910. Although Sahni did not have a role in the Sarnath excavations, he was the one who supervised the work of arranging and labeling the museum’s holdings, and just four years later he published the lengthy and meticulously detailed Catalogue of the Museum of Archaeology at Sarnath. Almost immediately after he began to work on the museum’s collections, he presented the site itself in his 571: 1374: 356:. Temples had been the inevitable arenas for the struggle for kingly power. The Turkish invaders followed the settled patterns. Among Hindus and Jains, many temples have survived until the present day. Whereas royal temples were raided and brought down, the ones attended by ordinary people were often left undisturbed. "The same could have occurred with Buddhist institutions focused on the laity, had they existed." according to Fogelin, "However, by the thirteenth century CE, Buddhist monasteries in the Gangetic Plain and northeastern India were prominently supported by local and regional kings, and their relations with the non-elite laity consisted of little more than serving as landlords." According to Eaton, "Detached from a Buddhist laity, these establishments had by this time become dependent on the patronage of local royal authorities, with whom they were identified." Echoing the same theme, art historian Frederick Asher says, " 815:

argued in the negative. He alone tried to prove that Indian artists had arrived independently at their form of bell. The logic of his argument, however, was weak." According to Irwin, Coomaraswamy had picked some "untypical" details of reliefs of a century later in which the lotus had been stylized to argue that "the petals, stamen and pericarp of the lotus flower as stylized ... must have inspired the rope-moulding and abacus respectively of the Asokan pillar-capital. This argument is too weak to convince anybody but the already converted." According to Irwin, "V. S. Agrawala followed Coomaraswamy in refusing to accept the 'Asokan bell' as anything but Indian, but he presented his case as an article of faith, making no attempt to prove it. He saw the bell as an inverted lotus flower 'overflowing' the form of a symbolic vase-of-plenty (

470: 1359: 1063: 1182: 1194: 1023:, whose distinctive belly hair (unlike the African lion) was carefully depicted by Mesopotamian artists, whence by Greek and then Persian, should lack this feature here; indeed the Sarnath lions and their kin owe all to the arts of others rather than native observation." Sounding a similar theme as Asher, he concludes that it was "all a matter of assimilation and sometimes reinterpretation, rather than a crude choice between indigenous or foreign. But the visual experience of many Ashokan and later city dwellers in India was considerably conditioned by foreign arts, translated to an Indian environment, just as the archaic Greek had been by the Syrian, the Roman by the Greek, and the Persian by the arts of their whole empire." 1047: 1221: 1249: 1209: 1323: 987:

appeared in South Asia, at least in the form associated with Ashokan columns. But this should not be seen in colonialist terms as an export from an Achaemenian or Hellenistic centre to the South Asian periphery but as the result of Ashoka's entrepreneurial engagement with the larger world. The culture in India was more receptive to innovation and there was a sense of a common culture, caused partly by the expansion of Buddhism to the borders with Iran, and the appearance of markers proclaiming a message. When the Ashokan empire fell, the breakdown was drastic. New styles of art emerged, but their artistic inspirations and appeal were more local.

1398: 768:, a flower that rises clean and pure from muddy pond water, as he rose above an impure world to achieve awakening. According to art historian Gail Maxwell, The lions are fashioned so as to affect the viewer by the use of shape, colour, and texture, not necessarily to represent reality, suggestive of the addorsed capitals of the Achaemenid Empire. But all other aspects are Indian. "The four lions," according to her, "very likely signify "the sovereignty of both Ashoka, since the pillar was erected near the capital of his kingdom and of the truths taught by the Buddha, whose clan, the Shakyas, used the lion as their emblem." 1339: 394: 486: 1436:"The decline of the Indus valley culture (c.2600–1900 BC) also meant the end of the Indian subcontinent’s ‘first urbanisation’. After a gap of more than a thousand years, archaeological excavations and textual evidence points to the re-emergence of cities, as well as widespread road and river-based trade networks connecting cities and other sites, in South Asia during the mid-first millennium BC. This phenomenon is referred to as the ‘second urbanisation’ and the period, c. 3rd century BC – 4th century AD, is known as the Early Historic." 1285: 1308: 718: 382: 642:

and eventually became wild. This is suggested to have resulted from the contact of the South Asian dynasties with the Achaemenid and Seleucid empires when hunting lions became a sign of royal prowess. The Achaemenids had inherited the pastime from western Asia. There is evidence from Syria of lion hunts and lion menageries with caged lions in the early fourth-millennium BCE. When emperor Ashoka converted to Buddhism in the wake of large-scale killing and destruction by his army in

262: 587:, can be polished with a fine abrasive or even patiently with wood. According to art historian Gail Maxwell, the sandstone received its shine through the application of heat which gives a lasting glass-like finish to the stone. The pillar which bore the capital aloft "remains broken in several pieces at the site and is now protected by a glass enclosure that separates the pillar from visitors." Before it fell, it is thought the capital was secured to the intact pillar by a metal 318:, had recorded a short description of Sarnath. Faxian had also mentioned some towers, one at the site where the Buddha met the five disciples and another "60 paces north" where he gave the first sermon, the account being more about relating the traditional stories than giving particulars of geography. Neither account was written on-site, but from memory upon returning to China. Giving more literal credence to the accounts of Faxian and Xuanzang, the museum curator 4093: 1159:

the Asokan lion capitals. ... The connections between the symbols of the lion capital and the postwar peaceful rhetoric are striking. Asoka’s acceptance of Buddhism was the result of witnessing the devastation after the successful Battle of Kalinga (261 B.C.E.). Affected by the bloodshed, he was filled with remorse and resolved to pursue a non-violent and peaceful approach to life. The latter symbolism is a fitting one in this context as

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the native Hindu population. For British colonial historians, this depiction of Islamic despots served to illustrate the beneficence of British rule. Some postcolonial nationalist historians have used the presumed historical oppression of Hindus by Muslims to argue for a more Hindu, rather than secular, India. Buddhism has only a small place within these larger narratives of despotism, destruction, and desecration."

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but chariot wheels of the period which typically had 24 spokes. According to the anthropologist Lars Fogelin, as the only capital to exhibit wheel motifs, the lion capital at Sarnath is thought to symbolize the wheel of the moral law in "a specifically Buddhist sense of the term." Overall, the symbolism of the Sarnath column and capital is thought to be more Buddhist than secular.

742:), pointedly links the wheel and lion with its refrain, " roars his lion’s roar in the assemblies, and sets rolling the Wheel of Dharma ." In other interpretations, the four small animals shown on the side of the abacus have been thought to represent the cardinal directions: the lion (north), elephant (west), bull (south), and horse (east), and the smaller wheels for the 563:

each lion is carved a wheel of 24 spokes in high relief. Between the wheels, also shown in high relief are four animals following each other from right to left. They are a lion, an elephant, a bull, and a horse; the first three are shown at walking pace but the horse is at full gallop. The capital which was carved from a single block of marble is broken across the

978:, while categorically stating a Mauryan debt to "the stonework inherited from Achaemenid Iran," of the appearance during the Mauryan period of artwork that contrasted remarkably with local styles, and stating the likelihood of traditions of producing "naturalistic forms" being preserved in Iranian stonemasons for the critical decades between the fall of 633:, the lions did not have eyeballs; instead, precious stones were initially placed in the eye sockets. The stones were held in place by iron pins passing through fine holes in the upper and lower lids. Although the stones were lost, one pin had remained embedded in the upper left lid of one of the lions at the time of the discovery. 1062: 171:, and interspersing them, four animals, a lion, an elephant, a bull, and a galloping horse follow each other from right to left. A bell-shaped lotus forms the lowest member of the capital, and the whole 2.1 metres (7 ft) tall, carved out of a single block of sandstone and highly polished, was secured to its 801:

on the pillar during Oertel’s excavations, on the Indian national flag." Guha adds, "The historian and superintendent of the Museums Branch of the Archaeological Survey of India (1946–51), V. S. Agrawala, who was in charge of making the plaster cast in 1946, followed him in extending its meaning as the

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Resolved that the National Flag of India shall be a horizontal tricolour of deep saffron (kesari), white and dark green in equal proportion. In the centre of the white band, there shall be a Wheel in navy blue to represent the Charkha. The design of the Wheel shall be that of the Wheel (Chakra) which

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chiefly stood in Coomaraswamy's words for "the Revolution of the year, as Father Time, the flowing tide of all begotten things, dependent on the Sun.” According to Guha, "Coomaraswamy’s interpretations aided the placing of the 'Sarnath wheel,' found broken and not physically connected with the lions

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According to historian Richard Eaton, instead of arbitrary attacks on Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain temples, the common practice of planning a conquest involved the swift and strictly defined desecration of those temples that were supported and frequented by royalty. The strategy was not new to India but

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religious establishments increasingly attracting the support of both the ordinary, non-clerical, public and royalty. "In the historiography of India," according to archaeologist Lars Fogelin, "the thirteenth through fifteenth centuries are often depicted as a period when Islam was forcibly imposed on

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in the ASI winter season of 1904–1905. The column, which had broken before it became buried, remains in its original location in Sarnath, protected but on view for visitors. The Lion Capital was in much better condition, though not undamaged. It was cracked across the neck just above the lotus,

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Various reconstructions of the Sarnath pillar and its capital have been proposed. The topmost wheel can rest on the backs of the four lions, or it can be positioned higher (the exact length of the shaft supporting the wheel being unknown). The full pillar is generally reconstructed straightforwardly

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animal, and elephants and bulls to be the more characteristic beasts of India. "There is, then, the evidence here," he concludes, "for detailing influenced by Greek art, often through Persian models, in the architecture of the third to second centuries BCE. Sir John Marshall, after drawing attention

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considers it unlikely that Ashoka's capital was carved "without the experience imported by Persian immigrants," but suggests that regardless of Ashoka's purpose of using Buddhism as a unifying force, his success depended on the prevailing worship of the pole (stambha) as the axis mundi in the native

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Irwin's first hypothesis has been challenged by Frederick Asher who says, "That the pillars attributed to Aśoka are really from his time is a virtual certainty despite arguments that they date earlier (Irwin 973). The author of the pillars’ inscriptions, Piyadasi, is known to be Aśoka from the Maski

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who added that until the advent of the Mauryas Indian art had not strayed beyond the confines of folk art, and on that basis speculated that two or three generations after the downfall of the Achaemenid empire Hellenistic craftsmen working in Persepolis had been hired by emperor Ashoka. Wheeler did

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motif of ancient Indian art and religion, overflowing with luxuriant lotus petals." Writing in 1975, the Indologist John Irwin asked, "Did the carvers of 'Aśokan' pillars derive the idea of their bell from Persepolis, or not?" Irwin added, "So far, only one scholar, the late A. K. Coomaraswamy, has

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The first of the existing visual portrayals of lions in South Asia are the Maurya columns such as the Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath. Some scholars believe that lions were introduced into India from western Asia as a quarry for royal hunts, implying that they became a feral population thereafter

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the Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India, 1931–1935, the stone shaft was not found but, "its thickness can be estimated from the mortice hole, 20 centimetres (8 in) in diameter, drilled into the stone between the lions' heads." Further, according to Sahni, "Of the wheel

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Two lions were undamaged. The heads of the other two had come off before being buried and upon excavation required affixing. Of these damaged, one lion was missing the lower jaw at the time of the initial excavation and the other the upper, both not found since. On the side of the abacus and below

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attempted to dig down into the Dhamekh from its top to uncover relics. He soon abandoned the effort, but not before noting that votive models of the stupa were scattered in the vicinity, lending credence to the view that the Dhamekh marked the spot at which the Buddha had preached his first sermon.

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There is a striking similarity between the Stambh and symbols of Jainism. There are 24 trirthankars = 24 spokes of the chakra. Then we have the lion representing Mahavir Bhagwan (24th tirthankar) , bull representing Rishabhanatha (1st Tirthankar), the elephant representing Ajitanath( 2nd Tirthankar)

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Frederick Asher, summarizing, credits the world system that had briefly emerged during Ashoka's rule. In his view, South Asia had a hitherto unprecedented level of engagement with the Mediterranean world during the Mauryan period. It is no coincidence that it is during that period stone sculpture

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of a contemporary 3rd century BCE myth. A water spout arose from the heart of this lake. After surfacing and splitting into four streams it emanated from the mouths of the same four animals sitting on the lake's shore and flowed onto the four corners of the earth, like the message of the Buddha or

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landscape, according to historian Karen Shelby, "the Indian Forces Memorial is the most striking. Through what would be unusual imagery for western eyes, the sculpture asserts an Indian presence. Eschewing traditional western figurative forms of commemoration, the statue is a replication of one of

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The imaginative treatment of the lion changed in other ways after emperor Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism and the raising of the lion capital. Not just a symbol of imperial strength or the Buddha's power, the lion became also a symbol of peace. Ashoka's lion capital has been used in memorials on

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has mentioned Irwin and V. S. Agrawala among those who have held that the early stone carving was the work of Indians alone. He has suggested that the inspiration for them and the technique of polishing them came from Persia, noting further the absence of any archaeological evidence for Agrawala's

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In 1973, John Irwin challenged the assertions of foreign influence by advancing three hypotheses: (a) Not all pillars were made for Ashoka; some had been adapted for his use; (b) whereas the four lions did seem to have Persian influence, the spiritedness of bull and the elephant betray an intimate

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represented the body of the Buddha and the lions the throne. In his view, the Sarnath capital is equally Vedic and Buddhist in the significance of its various parts. According to the Indologist John Irwin, the wheels on the rim of the abacus do not represent the Buddhist wheels of the sacred law

410:, an engineer in the Public Works Department, who had surveyed Hindu and Buddhist sites in Burma and Central India in the 1890s was appointed superintending engineer at Varanasi, he constructed a storehouse at Sarnath for the artefacts found earlier and paved the road to Sarnath. He then convinced 3963:

For Pictures of the famous original "Lion Capital of Ashoka" preserved at the Sarnath Museum which has been adopted as the "National Emblem of India" and the Ashoka Chakra (Wheel) from which has been placed in the center of the "National Flag of India" - See "lioncapital" from Columbia University

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or 'the wheel flag.' Without invoking any new evidence Agrawala laboured to explain that 'there is no cult allegiance here in the symbolism of the Mahachakra and its accessories like the four lions . . . here one is face to face with an acclamation to the single unmanifested and undifferentiated

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Author and editor Richard Stoneman arguing more generally about sculpture in early historic South Asia suggests that in figural and decorative sculpture, style and content need to be considered separately. "Techniques of carving," he states, "are not the same as the choice of subject matter, and

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empires, but the floral motifs on the Mauryan abaci show the influence of western Asian traditions older than any in the Hellenistic world. He also echoed Irwin's idea that as there are no examples elsewhere of "single, free-standing" pillars, they must be the product of a South Asian tradition,

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and a pillar nearby erected by Ashoka that was, "glistening and smooth as ice." He mentioned a monastery in "Mrigdeva", or Deer Park 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) away. Here there was another pillar erected by Ashoka about 21 metres (70 ft) high and shining "as bright as jade." In the view of

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To Alexander Cunningham in Sanchi in 1851, the addorsed lions in the gateways and especially their claws bore the signs of Greek influence. "Many of the details," continues Stonemen, "such as the manes, do remind one strongly of Greek styles of carving." Citing art historian Sheila Huntington,

1524:"the Asokan period in Indian history was essentially an international period. ... It was not a narrowly national period . . . when India’s ambassadors went abroad to far countries and went abroad not in the way of an empire and imperialism but as ambassadors of peace and culture and goodwill." 226:

in 330 BCE, have led some to conjecture an eastward migration of Iranian stonemasons among whom the tradition of naturalistic carving had been preserved during the intervening decades. Others have countered that a tradition of erecting columns in wood and copper had a history in India and the

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Although several members in the assembly had proposed other meanings for India's national symbols, Nehru's meaning came to prevail. On 11 December 1947, the Constituent Assembly adopted the resolution. Nehru was well-acquainted with the history of Ashoka, having written about it in his books

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were posited by Boardman, who stated, "The Sarnath lions take the same forms a little farther, but again the realistic carving of the flews, the crinkled folds beside the mouth, is not a feature of Persian or eastern work at all, but a reflection of the realistic rendering of this feature by

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and the appearance of Mauryan columns, emphasises the entrepreneurial spirit of Ashoka who, "did not shrink from doing what only the most illustrious rulers outside India had done before him: he had pillars produced of unbelievable dimensions, cut in one piece and transported to predefined

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concluded that all the pillars that were considered Ashokan had been erected by the orders of emperor Ashoka during the twenty-five-year period from 257 BCE to 232 BCE. Setting the stage for future debate he suggested that their execution was "essentially foreign." Following up in 1922,

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The significance and meaning of the lotus bell, the lowest member of the capital, has also been discussed in the literature. Agrawala explained in 1964: "The first decorative element of the Lion Capital can by no means be interpreted as Indo-Persepolitan Bell. It is in every respect the

1046: 846:, Marshall wrote, "While the Sārnāth capital is thus an exotic, alien to Indian ideas in expression and in execution, the statue of Pārkham falls naturally into line with other products of indigenous art and affords a valuable starting point for the study of its evolution." The 3398:. Preface by B. D. Chattopadhyaya; Contributors: Sudeshna Guha, Michael S. Dodson, Tapati Guha-Thakurta, Christopher Pinney, Robert Harding. The Alkazi Collection of Photography in association with Mapin Publishing, and support of Archaeological Survey of India. p. 39. 771:

Scholars have debated the meanings of the wheels, the large one that had once surmounted the capital and the four appearing in relief along the rim of the abacus. Some have likened the wheels, especially the lost larger one, to the Buddhist wheel of the moral law, the

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Sarnath did not have unbroken history. Very few Buddhists remained in India after the 12th century. Buddhists from Tibet, Burma, and Southeast Asia did make pilgrimages to South Asia from the 13th to the 17th centuries, but their most common destination was

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to such foreign motifs at Sanchi as the ‘Assyrian tree of life, the West Asiatic winged beasts, and grapes, went on to remark that ‘nothing in these carvings is really mimetic, nothing certainly which degrades their art to the rank of a servile school’."

1138:, also advised Nehru in the choice. The state emblem of the Dominion of India was accepted by the cabinet on 29 December 1947, with the resolution of a national motto set aside for a future date. Nehru also explicitly displaced the spinning wheel, the 368:, the site of the Buddha's enlightenment, not Sarnath the site of his first sermon and the birthplace of the Buddhist order. Sarnath was pillaged again in 1894 when a large number of bricks were carried away for use as ballast in a nearby railway line. 2757: 1373: 334:

had suffered setbacks in northwestern and southwestern India in the first millennium CE, they remained prominent in the religious life of central and northeastern regions well into the early centuries of the second millennium. This occurred despite

1248: 1497:"The elephant was ... an important signifier in Buddhism. According to the story of the Buddha’s birth, his mother dreamed of a white elephant entering her womb through her side. The elephant eventually became a symbol for the Buddha himself. 314:

historian Frederick Asher, Xuanzang's account sometimes employed monuments as symbolic devices to fix miracles in a place. More than two centuries before Xuanzang's visit, at the very beginning of the fifth century another Chinese visitor,

534:, on the abacus are four lions. In this context, it means that only the frontal figures are visible joined at the shoulders, each with its back to another so as to form a pair and two pairs are perpendicular. The lions are each 1.1 metres ( 250:

and the horse representing Sambhavanath (3rd Tirthankar) . The symbols of animals are not an assumption , each Tirthankar has a symbol/ tree / color associated with him which is carried in scriptures long before even Buddha existed.

559:, who analysed the pose of the Sarnath lions in a 2014 study, concluded they were seated on account of their backs sloping more steeply upwards than those of standing lions. They have been described as seated in some other studies. 612:

itself, four small fragments were found. The ends of thirteen spokes remain on these pieces. Their total number was presumably thirty-two." The original diameter of the surmounting wheel was conjectured to have been 0.84 metres (

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suggests that they could imply the existence of a greater number of Ashokan pillars during early historic South Asia and its immediate aftermath than had remained at the time of the 18th- and 19th-century British investigations.

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Expanding on the theme further Vincent Smith wrote in 1930 that the shine of the Mauryan pillars, the lotus bell bases of their capitals and the stylized lions, suggested Iranian carvers had migrated to the Mauryan empire after

776:, which the Buddha began to turn in Sarnath and whose motion through time and space has spread his message universally. Others have thought them to have been nonsectarian symbols, promoting an ethical notion of rulership, or 1268: 1479:, "also have domesticated animals associated with them: the cow, the bull, and the buffalo, respectively. Thus the lion, when paired with any of these three animals, represents 'the feral god with the bovine servant'." 582:

The capital has a polished finish. Although most sandstone is difficult to polish without dislodging the grains on the surface, according to a 2020 study by Frederick Asher, very fine-grained sandstone found, e.g. in

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royalty. As the monarch of a vast realm, but also a Buddhist, he sought new symbols to project his power. Thus whereas the Ashokan lions seemed remarkably similar to the conventionalized Persian, the idea of using a

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in eastern India, he gave a new direction to the imaginative treatment of the lion: from being a symbolic object of royal domination, the lion became an emblem of royal prowess. According to architectural historian

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choices of decorative detail lie somewhere between. Copying is not the only model: interaction and creative re-use may be more rewarding concepts." He describes the differing interpretations by art historians

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appears on the abacus of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Asoka. The diameter of the Wheel shall approximate to the width of the white band. The ratio of the width to the length of the flag shall ordinarily be 2:3.

1003:. Whereas Boardman sees "similarities, and probably influence, in technique and style," Root discounts influence "on the basis of pictorial content and ideological infrastructure; and both seem to be right." 1322: 908:, but argued that Greek examples were in essence classical load-bearing pillars with an animal on top, whereas the Indian pillars of Ashoka were more slender, and closer to monumental stone-versions of 655:, "In early Buddhist architecture, the lion, along with the horse, the elephant, and the zebu, were considered auspicious. All these animals appeared as a standard quartet on many Mauryan pillars." 927:

inscription in present-day Karnataka. Moreover, the symbolism of the pillars and their capitals, appropriate for these royal edicts, suggests that the pillars were made to carry the inscriptions."

1445:"The famous four lion capital at Sarnath was surmounted by a wheel and stood above a carved abacus depicting the four noble, or cardinal, beasts – the lion, the elephant, the horse and the bull." 309:(then known as Hiuan-tsang) in India from 629 CE to 645 CE had appeared in 1857–1858. In his account, Xuanzang mentioned a tall stupa to the northeast of Varanasi off the right bank of the 1193: 433:. He proceeded to the Main Shrine, north of the stupa. It was to the west of this shrine that he found the buried stump and fragments of the Ashokan pillar at Sarnath, and soon its lion capital. 1397: 1181: 796:

argued in 1935 that Buddhist symbolism was not the only one established in the Vedic period which had preceded Buddhism and during which worship did not have a visual representation. The

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transition to stone was but a small step in an empire and period in which ideas and technologies were in a state of flux. The lion capital is rich in symbolism, both Buddhist and secular.

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of the lions, the straining tendons of their paws, and the "flesh around the jaws" have led others to ask about the provenance of some of the art commonly ascribed to the Maurya period.

360:, who did conquer Benares in 1193–94 ... might have plundered Sarnath, more likely for whatever wealth was imagined to be stored there ... than for the sake of iconoclastic destruction." 1488:"Along with the bull, the elephant and lion are ubiquitous sacred symbols ... in the Buddha's birth narrative his mother Queen Maya, dreamed of a white elephant that entered her womb." 780:(literally wheel turner) which Ashoka might have been aspiring to present himself, to align himself with the prestige and universality of the Buddha. According to cultural historian 1096:. They were modelled on the lions and the dharmachakra of the capital, and their adoption constituted an attempt to give India a symbolism of ethical sovereignty. On 22 July 1947, 1358: 666:, the lion of the Shakya clan. The three other animals on the rim of the abacus have been associated with events in the life of Prince Siddhartha: the elephant with his mother 890:

familiarity with animals whose habitat did not extend to Iran; and (c) Ashoka had channelled a preexisting industry and culture devoted to treating a pillar as a symbol for

3763:. 67–68. Chicago and Cambridge MA: University of Chicago Press, published in association with the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University: 225–234. 1338: 422:, to be allowed to excavate Sarnath in the winter of 1904–05. John Marshall resolved to put in place plans for a museum to keep the excavated artefacts close to the site. 3100:. With contributions by George Erdosy, R. A. E. Coningham, D. K. Chakrabarti and Bridget Allchin. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 222–273. 305:

For his investigations, Cunningham preferred to glean information from foreign sources. A French translation by Stanislas Julien of the travels of the Chinese pilgrim

886:, but rather than the archaeology or history, they concentrated on the symbolism which they thought was given concrete form by features of pre-Buddhist metaphysics. 448:, Assistant Superintendent of the ASI, and later its Director-General, supervised the organisation and labelling of the museum's collection and in 1914 completed the 54:

wheel of the moral law appears in relief below each lion. Between the chakras appear four animals in profile—horse, bull, elephant, and lion. The architectural

3716: 894:, the axis around which the earth revolves. Irwin acknowledged the existence of numerous precedents of pillars with animal effigies in the ancient world, from the 564: 508:

The capital is 2.1 metres (7 ft) tall in total. Its lowest portion is an inverted lotus petal bell which is 61 centimetres (2 ft) high, carved in the

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In the days leading to India's independence, the Sarnath capital played an important role in the creation of both the state emblem and the national flag of the

600:, the Buddhist wheel of the "social order and the sacred law," which is lost except for fragments. It was held in place by a shaft. According to the detailed 1220: 914:, portable wooden standards known in India from undetermined antiquity. To J. C. Harle, the Sarnath lions did show a conventionalized style associated with 570: 551:

Oertel describes the lions to be "standing back-to-back" in his original report of 1908. Other authors have used the same expression in describing the lions'

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of its new national flag on 15 August 1947. In its centre is a wheel of 24 spokes based on those appearing on the side of the abacus in Ashoka's capital.

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Guha, Sudeshna (2021) . "Material Truths and Religious Identities: The Archaeological and Photographic Making of Banaras". In Dodson, Michael S. (ed.).

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F. O. Oertel's plan of excavation. The Lion Capital was found in 1905 to the west of the main shrine, which is to the north of the "Jagat Singh" stupa.

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This may not seem strange if we realize that Ashokas grandfather was a practicing jain for a large part of his life and his mother was also Jain.

2770:, Even more pointedly referring to the Buddha's sermon, is the large stone wheel whose rim was supported on the backs of the four addorsed lions. 3228:

Bopearachchi, Osmund (2021) . "Achaemenids and Mauryans: Emergence of Coins and Plastic Arts in India". In Patel, Alka; Daryaee, Touraj (eds.).

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Over the centuries, the lion capital of Ashoka served as an important artistic model, and inspired many creations throughout India and beyond:

4107: 3962: 2140:, probably the most frequently reprinted volume published by the ASI. Sahni became the first Indian director-general of the Survey in 1931." 2743: 956:

in the second half of the first millennium BCE. By Ashoka's time, the Asiatic lion had a long history of being employed as a symbol of the

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on the abacus and the one badly damaged appearing in relief on its rim—have been associated with the Buddha, one of whose names was

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the meaning of peace and internationalism which in his view had prevailed in Ashoka's empire at the time of the erection of the pillars.

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style, and decorated with 16 petals. The bell has been interpreted to be a stylized lotus, a common motif. Above the bell is a circular

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was the first scholar to suggest that the Sarnath capital was the work of foreign artisans working in India. Comparing the capital to

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Hellenistic Greek artists, who could effectively reduce the force of the compact eastern forms by such treatment. It remains odd that

1307: 3995: 3077:

Wheel Flag of India Chakra-dhvaja: being a history and exposition of the meaning of the Dharma-chakra and the Sarnath Lion Capital

415: 1284: 1506:"Nehru had moved for the chakra to replace M. K. Gandhi’s charkha (spinning wheel), which had been featured on previous flags." 693:

of Ashoka himself. The pillar, thus, has been likened both to the water spout rising to meet the lake-like abacus and also the

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facing the four quarters, interspersed by four noble beasts, who in early Buddhist texts represent the four quarters." In the

3919: 3879: 3860: 3793: 3741: 3691: 3672: 3653: 3567: 3433: 3403: 3365: 3283: 3256: 2950: 2872: 2737: 1589: 1124: 469: 1580:

Fennet, Annick (2021). "The original 'failure'? A century of French archaeology in Afghan Bactria". In Mairs, Rachel (ed.).

3921:

Understanding The 5th century Buddhas of Sarnath: A newly identified Mudra and a new comprehension of the Dharmachakramudra

282: 2898: 863: 1877:, p. 69 Quote: "The upper part of the capital is supported by an elegantly shaped Persepolitan bell-shaped member." 1454:"The pillar was originally crowned by a large chakra, or wheel of truth, some of whose spokes are in the Sarnath Museum. 4423: 4388: 4383: 1388: 3968: 3841: 3820: 3621: 3594: 3548: 3422: 3384: 3346: 3237: 3193: 3174: 3155: 3124: 1980: 444:, the first site museum of the ASI, was completed in 1910. The lion capital has been displayed in the museum since. 555:, including in a 2014 study and a 2017 review, or have quoted Oertel using it, in a 2020 study. The archaeologist 203:

and two of its lions had sustained damage to their heads. It is displayed not far from the excavation site in the

2709: 711:

Queen Maya dreams of the White Elephant entering her womb, Gandhara. The elephant is a sacred symbol in Buddhism.

4122: 3908: 3105: 419: 3008: 1076:. Standing 1.8 metres (5.9 ft) tall, the memorial introduces many visitors to the 130,000 lives lost by 497:, as they appeared in 2016, protected behind a glass enclosure. It is located 584 ft (178 m) SSW of 4137: 3232:. Ancient Iran Series. Boston and Leiden: BRILL, originally, Irvine: UCI, Jordan Center for Persian Studies. 1105: 992: 839: 411: 235: 195: 3934: 3710:. With an introduction by J. Ph. Vogel. Calcutta: Superintendent Government Printing, India. pp. 28–31. 1880: 4403: 4393: 3988: 3004: 1172:

from its archaeological remains, with the tall column supporting the capital, and the larger wheel on top.

3632: 2913: 2823: 1971:

Greary, David; Mukherjee, Sraman (2017). "Buddhism in Contemporary India". In Jerryson, Michael K. (ed.).

723:

Prince Siddhartha becomes an ascetic hermit by shaving his head, his horse Kanthaka by his side, Borobodur

3831: 2799: 1515:"The organization that led India to independence, the Indian National Congress, was established in 1885." 1101: 643: 188: 4413: 1077: 968: 952:) as a symbol of projecting political power had significantly increased in India after the rise of the 3941: 3663:

Pal, Pratapaditya (2016). "Introduction: Piety, Puja, and Visual Images". In Pal, Pratapaditya (ed.).

3337:(2006). "Tidal waves of Indian history, new interpretations and beyond.". In Olivelle, Patrick (ed.). 3064: 4398: 4145: 4115: 3912: 3394:

Guha, Sudeshna (2010). "Introduction: Archaeology, Photography, Histories". In Guha, Sudeshna (ed.).

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suggest that free-standing pillars had not appeared in Europe before the advent of the Roman empire.

294: 215: 3075: 2818: 289:

of the Raja of Benares. These had taken place 150 metres (490 ft) to the west of the Dhamekh.

4354: 4312: 3150:. Wiley-Blackwell Companions to Art History. Southern Gate, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 421–444. 3060: 2795: 1199: 1143: 1139: 1135: 883: 781: 3705: 4199: 3981: 3334: 975: 2727: 760: 658:

The lion capital and its Ashokan pillar have complex meanings. The lions—the four sitting

3896: 1130: 137: 3143: 1890: 210:

The lion capital is among the first group of significant stone sculptures to have appeared in

4167: 3536: 2940: 2923: 2862: 2833: 2767: 1109: 667: 513: 243: 164: 47: 516:, or a drum-shaped slab, of diameter 86 centimetres (34 in) and height 34 centimetres ( 4408: 4317: 4277: 1313: 834: 331: 298: 1258:

with similar four addorsed lions, but with a flatter abacus showing alternating geese and

8: 4378: 4096: 3251:. Cambridge World Archaeology Series. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 465. 3165:

Asher, Frederick M. (2006). "Early Indian Art Reconsidered". In Olivelle, Patrick (ed.).

2936: 2858: 930: 855: 793: 731: 219: 2729:

Comparative Politics: Interests, Identities, and Institutions in a Changing Global Order

678:

in the dead of night, and the bull with his first meditation under the rose apple tree (

285:, the Commissioner of Benares noted diggings for bricks carried out by Jagat Singh, the 4253: 3772: 3523: 3498: 3465: 3322: 3289: 3249:

Archaeology of South Asia: From Indus to Asoka, c. 6500 BCE–200 CE

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claim that the technique went back to the Vedic Age and was inherited by the Mauryans.

923:

perhaps in non-durable materials such as wood for the pillar and copper for the crown.

901: 675: 983:

places—pillars crowned with lions and bulls of an unprecedented naturalistic beauty."

3904: 3875: 3856: 3837: 3816: 3799: 3789: 3776: 3747: 3737: 3687: 3668: 3649: 3617: 3600: 3590: 3573: 3563: 3544: 3490: 3418: 3399: 3380: 3361: 3342: 3293: 3279: 3252: 3233: 3189: 3170: 3151: 3130: 3120: 3101: 3081: 2946: 2868: 2733: 1986: 1976: 1595: 1585: 1584:. The Routledge World Series. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 142–170, 144. 1329: 1275: 1093: 1053: 957: 734:

as if roaring the Buddha's message to the remotest parts. A later Buddhist text, the

485: 349: 273:

Sarnath had a history of visits and some exploration in the 18th and 19th centuries.

239: 223: 172: 163:. Its crowning features are four life-sized lions set back to back on a drum-shaped 22: 198:(ASI) in the very early years of the 20th century. The excavation was undertaken by 4418: 4261: 4245: 4175: 4064: 3764: 3759:

Sohoni, Pushkar (2017). "Old fights, new meanings: Lions and elephants in combat".

3667:. Santa Barbara Museum of Art, and University of California Press. pp. 19–54. 3314: 3271: 3044: 2888: 1525: 1097: 919: 867: 765: 452:". Oertel's detailed report, "Excavations at Särnäth", had appeared in 1908 in the 393: 357: 269:

in Sarnath, a watercolour by Abdullah, Shaikh, January 1814 (sketch); 1819 (colour)

231: 1104:, and later the prime minister of the Republic of India proposed formally in the 833:

Writing in 1911—following two decades of investigations—the historian

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Archaeological remains of the topmost wheel of the Lion Capital of Ashoka, in the

194:

The capital eventually fell to the ground and was buried. It was excavated by the

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According to cultural historian and museologist Sudeshna Guha, the art historian

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The archaeology of early historic South Asia: the emergence of cities and states

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Others who made noteworthy contributions were the linguist and Buddhism scholar

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Lion Capital with mounting abacus atop, Old Termez, Uzbekistan, 1st century CE.

1259: 1011: 875: 847: 843: 828: 652: 608: 575: 552: 445: 437: 353: 319: 274: 204: 184: 112: 16:

Capital of a column of Mauryan emperor Ashoka in Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India

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Maxwell, Gail (2004). "India, Buddhist Art". In Buswell, Robert E. Jr. (ed.).

3562:. The Routledge World Series. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 38–55. 3275: 3085: 2892: 1006:

A transmission of Hellentistic architectural and decorative features from the

717: 4372: 4191: 4159: 3494: 3069:. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. 1464: 1364: 953: 937: 381: 238:

that the wheel on the abacus be the model for the wheel in the centre of the

3717:"Identities Lost and Found in the Commemorative Landscapes of the Great War" 3646:

Architecture History, Theory and Preservation: Prehistory to the Middle Ages

261: 4338: 4229: 4033: 3928: 3318: 3270:. Springer Nature Switzerland and Springer Praxis Books. pp. 107–128. 1412: 1384: 1146:, the main instrument of Indian nationalism. He also attempted to give the 949: 941: 777: 773: 596: 509: 498: 430: 407: 310: 278: 266: 199: 101: 43: 3665:

Puja and Piety: Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist Art from the Indian Subcontinent

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Sanchi gateway relief showing a possible depiction of the Sarnath pillar,

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new national flag, and the capital itself without the lotus the model for

4018: 3874:. with a foreword by Frederick W. Motes. London and New York: Routledge. 663: 605: 218:

1,600 years earlier. Their sudden appearance, as well as similarities to

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Symbols in art and religion: the Indian and the comparative perspectives

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of addorsed lions to project both spiritual and temporal power was new.

4285: 4023: 3855:. Cambridge MA and London: Harvard University Press. pp. 188–189. 3639:. Calcutta: Superintendent Government Printing, India. pp. 59–104. 1719: 1717: 1715: 1713: 1711: 1015: 1000: 979: 915: 891: 859: 694: 689: 211: 3527: 3511: 3502: 3478: 3469: 3453: 3266:

Dolan, Marion (2021). "Art, Architecture, and Astronomy of Buddhism".

626: ft). The wheel fragments are on display in the Sarnath Museum. 4043: 4028: 3815:. Architecture in Context series II. London and New York: Routledge. 3616:. Oxford History of Art Series. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 1964: 1187:

John Irwin's reconstruction of the Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath.

67: 1975:. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 36–60, 46. 1708: 4038: 3768: 3512:"'Aśokan' Pillars: A Re-Assessment of the Evidence - III: Capitals" 743: 671: 659: 594:

The lions supported a larger wheel, also polished, symbolizing the

531: 365: 327: 306: 180: 51: 4212: 3803: 3751: 3604: 3577: 3134: 1990: 1599: 37: 3973: 2531: 2262: 1073: 747: 493: 293:

visited in 1815 and found some sculpture which he donated to the

153: 145: 3786:

The Greek Experience of India: From Alexander to the Indo-Greeks

3479:"'Aśokan' Pillars: A Reassessment of the Evidence-II: Structure" 3169:. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 51–66. 3119:. Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute. pp. 2–3, 432–433. 3045:"The Buddhist culture of ancient Termez in old and recent finds" 2667: 2665: 1134:. The major contemporary philosopher of the religions of India, 348:

had been prevalent there considerably before the arrival of the

4346: 2708:, Press Information Bureau, Government of India, archived from 1468: 1404: 1290: 1255: 910: 647: 584: 315: 168: 149: 141: 3558:

Jansari, Sushma (2021). "South Asia". In Mairs, Rachel (ed.).

2726:

Kopstein, Jeffrey; Lichbach, Mark; Hanson, Stephen E. (2014),

4140: 3853:

Righteous Republic: The Political Foundations of Modern India

3637:

Archaeological Survey of India: Annual Report 1904–1905

3417:(2nd ed.). New Haven and London: Yale University Press. 3117:

Sarnath: A critical history of the place where Buddhism began

2974: 2662: 2652: 2650: 2648: 2646: 2644: 2642: 2640: 2638: 2103: 1476: 1472: 1160: 1155: 1069: 588: 336: 286: 176: 116: 2184: 2182: 2180: 2178: 2176: 2174: 2172: 705: 2390: 2388: 2386: 1202:'s reconstruction of the Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath. 1163:("leper" in Flemish) is also known as a 'city of peace'." 896: 340: 3684:

The Return of the Buddha: Ancient Symbols for a New Nation

2969:

Worship of the Ashokan pillar, as shown at Stupa 3, Sanchi

2635: 2495: 2434: 2432: 2091: 1684: 3205:"Reflections on the Origins of Indian Stone Architecture" 2169: 2030: 2028: 2026: 2024: 1913: 1911: 1858: 1856: 1854: 1852: 1850: 688:). The abacus and its animals have been related to Lake 2698: 2625: 2623: 2621: 2456: 2383: 2371: 2330: 2067: 2009: 1923: 1638: 1636: 548: ft) tall and have been described as "life-sized." 3589:. New York: Macmillan Reference USA. pp. 360–366. 3339:

Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE

3167:

Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE

2778: 2776: 2606: 2558: 2429: 2407: 2405: 2403: 2320: 2318: 2316: 2301: 2279: 2277: 2252: 2250: 2248: 2246: 1942: 1940: 1938: 1660: 277:, the painter visited in 1780 and made a record of the 234:, the interim prime minister of India, proposed in the 3188:. Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press. 2725: 2594: 2582: 2570: 2548: 2546: 2473: 2471: 2359: 2209: 2207: 2205: 2203: 2201: 2199: 2197: 2148: 2146: 2115: 2079: 2057: 2055: 2021: 1908: 1847: 1798: 1796: 1794: 1792: 1753: 1672: 1563: 1561: 1559: 1557: 1027:

Stoneman describes the Asiatic lion primarily to be a

281:, the most conspicuous monument at the site. In 1794, 3736:. Cambridge MA and London: Harvard University Press. 2682: 2680: 2618: 2519: 2349: 2347: 2345: 2231: 1837: 1835: 1633: 1611: 1609: 3788:. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. 2839: 2773: 2719: 2507: 2444: 2400: 2313: 2289: 2274: 2243: 2158: 2040: 1935: 1896: 1777: 1729: 1696: 1648: 1226:

A modern replica in Wat Umong, Chiang Mai, Thailand.

1214:

General proportions of the pillar, after John Irwin.

425:

Oertel began his excavations in the vicinity of the

3415:

The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent

3146:. In Brown, Rebecca M.; Hutton, Deborah S. (eds.). 2543: 2483: 2468: 2417: 2194: 2143: 2052: 1808: 1789: 1741: 1554: 862:in 330 BCE. He and others after him have detected 167:. The side of the abacus is adorned with wheels in 3813:The East: Buddhists, Hindus and the Sons of Heaven 3454:"'Aśokan' Pillars: A Reassessment of the Evidence" 3434:"Understanding the 5th century Buddhas of Sarnath" 2804:. Varanasi: Vishwavidyalaya Prakashan. p. 67. 2677: 2342: 1997: 1952: 1832: 1820: 1765: 1621: 1606: 1542: 3707:Catalogue of the Museum of Archaeology at Sarnath 3537:"Origins of form and structure in monumental art" 3055:. Pisa and Roma: Fabrizio Serra Editore: 157–187. 2219: 1367:lion capital, Khokhrakot, Haryana, 2nd century CE 602:Catalogue of the Museum of Archaeology at Sarnath 450:Catalogue of the Museum of Archaeology at Sarnath 58:below the abacus, is a stylized upside-down lotus 4370: 3943:Sarnath : Archaeology, Art and Architecture 3396:The Marshall Albums: Photography and Archaeology 3360:. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 730:The four lions have also been thought to be the 85:86 centimetres (34 in) (diameter of abacus) 1970: 999:of the extent of Greek influence on the art of 940:has observed that the cultural standing of the 246:. The proposal was accepted in December 1947. 3643: 3246: 3049:Parthica: Incontri di Culture Nel Mondo Antico 2671: 2268: 2109: 1573: 4123: 3989: 3872:Xuanzang: A Buddhist Pilgrim on the Silk Road 3186:The Loss of Hindustan: The Invention of India 2699:Ministry of Home Affairs (29 December 1947), 2692: 864:Persian-Hellenistic influences in Mauryan art 3946:, Archaeological Survey of India, p. 58 3358:An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism 3227: 2501: 1973:The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Buddhism 3901:Ashoka: The Search for India's Lost Emperor 3377:Banaras: Urban Forms and Cultural Histories 3303:"Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States" 2732:, Cambridge University Press, p. 344, 4130: 4116: 3996: 3982: 3917: 3833:History Of Fine Arts In India And The West 3431: 3268:Decoding Astronomy in Art and Architecture 2897:. Thames and Hudson, London. p. 175. 2073: 3560:The Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek worlds 3148:A Companion to Asian Art and Architecture 3073: 3059: 3042: 3025: 2992: 2980: 2814: 2377: 2365: 2307: 2015: 1582:The Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek worlds 882:, and cultural historian and Sanskritist 491:Pieces of the pillar, the lowest portion 371: 3869: 3783: 3543:. London: Curzon Press. pp. 46–67. 3202: 3096:(1995). "Mauryan architecture and art". 2867:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 38–39. 2794: 2612: 2600: 2588: 2576: 2564: 2164: 569: 260: 3850: 3810: 3584: 3557: 3355: 3313:(3). Oxford University Press: 283–319. 3092: 2887: 2656: 2525: 2336: 2097: 2034: 1917: 1862: 1723: 1690: 1678: 1666: 1654: 179:. Erected after Ashoka's conversion to 4371: 3829: 3758: 3714: 3630: 3611: 3247:Coningham, Robin; Young, Ruth (2015). 2942:Archaeology and Buddhism in South Asia 2864:Archaeology and Buddhism in South Asia 2845: 2629: 2438: 2237: 2188: 2138:Guide to the Buddhist Ruins of Sarnath 1946: 1874: 1826: 1579: 4111: 3977: 3731: 3700: 3534: 3509: 3476: 3451: 3412: 3300: 3265: 3164: 3141: 3114: 2919: 2829: 2782: 2763: 2552: 2513: 2489: 2477: 2462: 2450: 2423: 2411: 2394: 2324: 2295: 2283: 2256: 2213: 2152: 2133: 2121: 2085: 2061: 2046: 1929: 1902: 1886: 1841: 1814: 1802: 1783: 1759: 1747: 1735: 1702: 1642: 1627: 1615: 1548: 1293:gateway lion capital, 1st century BCE 1125:Letters from a father to his daughter 1108:, which was tasked with creating the 764:, the Buddha compared himself to the 429:, which lies to the southwest of the 207:, the oldest site museum of the ASI. 3939: 3393: 3374: 3333: 3230:India and Iran during the Long Durée 3183: 2945:. Taylor & Francis. p. 39. 2686: 2537: 2353: 2003: 1771: 1234: 3734:Political Violence in Ancient India 3681: 3662: 3074:Agrawala, Vasudeva Sharan (1964b). 2959:from the original on 21 August 2023 2935: 2901:from the original on 25 August 2022 2894:Early India and Pakistan: To Ashoka 2857: 2746:from the original on 21 August 2023 2225: 1958: 1567: 1142:, at the centre of the flag of the 399:The excavation site two years later 13: 4211: 4003: 3890: 3648:. London and New York: Routledge. 1389:Gwalior Fort Archaeological Museum 1166: 740:Great Discourse on the Lions' Roar 14: 4435: 4073:Buddha Preaching his First Sermon 3951: 1068:"India in Flanders Field, 2011." 46:stand back to back on a circular 4139: 4092: 4091: 3931:(journal), 40, p. 90, Fig.8 3761:Res: Anthropology and Aesthetics 3080:. Varanasi: Prithivi Prakashan. 3019: 2998: 2986: 2929: 1396: 1372: 1357: 1337: 1321: 1306: 1283: 1267: 1247: 1219: 1207: 1192: 1180: 1061: 1045: 716: 704: 670:about his birth; the horse with 484: 468: 438:Museum of Archaeology at Sarnath 392: 380: 36: 3870:Wriggins, Sally Hovey (2021) . 3644:Pabón-Charneco, Arleen (2021). 2881: 2851: 2808: 2788: 2127: 1868: 1518: 1509: 1500: 1491: 1482: 1457: 1448: 1439: 1316:with an abacus (1st century CE) 1102:interim prime minister of India 1010:cities of Central Asia, or the 456:, Annual Report, 1904–5. 222:of Iran before the fall of the 3836:. Hyderabad: Orient Longmans. 3209:Bulletin of the Asia Institute 3035: 1430: 1409:remains of a surmounting wheel 866:. The subject was taken up by 459: 183:, it commemorated the site of 1: 3811:Tadgell, Christopher (2008). 3686:. Routledge. pp. 78–79. 3682:Ray, Himanshu Prabha (2014). 3379:. Routledge. pp. 42–74. 1535: 1106:Constituent Assembly of India 822: 454:Archæological Survey of India 442:Archaeological Museum Sarnath 236:Constituent Assembly of India 196:Archeological Survey of India 157: 3115:Asher, Frederick M. (2020). 3005:Sanchi Archaeological Museum 754:, " The abacus depicts four 636: 104:(excavator), 1904–1905 7: 191:some two centuries before. 10: 4440: 3958:Blog with excellent photos 3784:Stoneman, Richard (2019). 3721:Journal of Belgian History 3539:. In Werner, Karel (ed.). 3307:Journal of Islamic Studies 3184:Asif, Manan Ahmed (2020). 3066:The Heritage of Indian Art 2672:Coningham & Young 2015 2110:Coningham & Young 2015 1254:Lion capital of Ashoka at 1078:Indian Expeditionary Force 969:Christopher Ernest Tadgell 844:a male figure from Parkham 826: 629:According to the museum's 256: 20: 4424:Indian Buddhist sculpture 4389:Ancient Indian sculptures 4384:National symbols of India 4331: 4305: 4222: 4209: 4152: 4146:National symbols of India 4087: 4052: 4011: 3969:National symbols of India 3918:Huntington, John (2009), 3432:Huntington, John (1990). 3276:10.1007/978-3-030-76511-8 3142:Asher, Frederick (2011). 3061:Agrawala, Vasudeva Sharan 3043:Abdullaev, Kazim (2014). 1035: 676:departure from the palace 295:Asiatic Society of Bengal 216:Indus Valley Civilisation 122: 108: 97: 89: 81: 73: 63: 35: 30: 4294:Lactobacillus bulgaricus 3851:Vajpeyi, Ananya (2012). 3633:"Excavations at Sarnath" 3587:Encyclopedia of Buddhism 2540:, p. 154–155. 1726:, p. 222–223. 1423: 1383:, early 5th century CE. 1144:Indian National Congress 1136:Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan 782:Vasudeva Sharan Agrawala 21:Not to be confused with 3732:Singh, Upinder (2017). 3612:Mitter, Partha (2001). 3516:The Burlington Magazine 3483:The Burlington Magazine 3458:The Burlington Magazine 3203:Boardman, John (1998). 3028:, p. 130 (Fig. 14) 2995:, p. 131 (Fig. 16) 1274:Sanchi gateway relief, 4216: 4060:Lion Capital of Ashoka 3964:Website, New York, USA 3830:Tömory, Edith (1982). 3715:Shelby, Karen (2021). 3631:Oertel, F. O. (1908). 3413:Harle, J. C. (1994) . 3356:Fogelin, Lars (2015). 1131:The Discovery of India 1119: 1080:in this region in the 1052:A stamp issued by the 972:pre-Buddhist shrines. 579: 372:Excavation and display 270: 134:Lion Capital of Ashoka 77:2.1 metres (7 ft) 31:Lion Capital of Ashoka 4215: 3935:Asher, p.139, note 34 3903:, 2012, Hachette UK, 3301:Eaton, R. M. (2000). 2801:Studies In Indian Art 1154:battlefields. In the 1114: 1110:Constitution of India 906:Sphinx of the Naxians 806:divine phenomenon.'" 573: 567:just above the bell. 264: 214:after the end of the 4278:Ganges river dolphin 3940:Mani, B. R. (2012), 3535:Irwin, John (1990). 3510:Irwin, John (1975). 3477:Irwin, John (1974). 3452:Irwin, John (1973). 3319:10.1093/jis/11.3.283 3013:19 June 2022 at the 2937:Ray, Himanshu Prabha 2859:Ray, Himanshu Prabha 1467:, the three deities 1379:A lion capital from 1314:Mathura lion capital 1021:Panthera leo persica 946:Panthera leo Persica 884:Vasudeva S. Agrawala 697:, the world's axis. 332:Buddhist monasticism 299:Alexander Cunningham 220:Persepolitan columns 4404:Memorials to Ashoka 4394:Sculptures of lions 2659:, pp. 188–189. 2397:, pp. 636–638. 2271:, pp. 255–256. 2269:Pabón-Charneco 2021 2191:, pp. 225–226. 2100:, pp. 87, 254. 1932:, pp. 109–110. 1693:, pp. 220–221. 931:Osmund Bopearachchi 856:Alexander the Great 794:Ananda Coomaraswamy 736:Maha-Sihanada Sutta 732:cardinal directions 674:, the mount of his 646:, or what is today 604:, 1914, written by 475:Capital in Sahni's 240:Dominion of India's 4217: 2939:(31 August 2017). 2861:(31 August 2017). 2796:Agrawala, Vasudeva 2465:, p. 712-715. 1403:Lion capital from 997:Margaret Cool Root 902:Pre-dynastic Egypt 668:Queen Maya's dream 580: 271: 4414:Lions in religion 4366: 4365: 4273:(Heritage animal) 4105: 4104: 3911:, 9781408703885, 3881:978-0-3672-1386-2 3862:978-0-674-04895-9 3795:978-0-691-15403-9 3743:978-0-674-97527-9 3693:978-0-415-71115-9 3674:978-0-520-28847-8 3655:978-1-138-32676-7 3569:978-1-138-09069-9 3405:978-81-89995-32-4 3367:978-0-1999-4821-5 3285:978-3-030-76510-1 3258:978-0-521-84697-4 2952:978-1-351-39432-1 2889:Wheeler, Mortimer 2874:978-1-351-39432-1 2739:978-1-139-99138-4 2502:Bopearachchi 2021 2441:, pp. 14–15. 2339:, pp. 87–88. 2124:, pp. 76–78. 2088:, pp. 74–75. 1762:, pp. 21–22. 1669:, pp. 42–44. 1645:, pp. 44–45. 1591:978-1-138-09069-9 1570:, pp. 78–79. 1332:, 1st century CE. 1330:Satavahana period 1278:, 1st century BCE 1276:Satavahana period 1235:Related sculpture 1200:Vasudeva Agrawala 1094:Dominion of India 1054:Dominion of India 878:, art historian 427:Jagat Singh stupa 412:Sir John Marshall 224:Achaemenid Empire 173:monolithic column 130: 129: 23:Pillars of Ashoka 4431: 4399:Buddhist symbols 4359: 4351: 4343: 4313:Independence Day 4298: 4290: 4282: 4281:(Aquatic animal) 4274: 4266: 4258: 4250: 4242: 4234: 4204: 4196: 4188: 4180: 4176:Satyameva Jayate 4172: 4164: 4144: 4143: 4132: 4125: 4118: 4109: 4108: 4095: 4094: 4066:Bala Bodhisattva 3998: 3991: 3984: 3975: 3974: 3947: 3932: 3926: 3885: 3866: 3847: 3826: 3807: 3780: 3755: 3728: 3711: 3697: 3678: 3659: 3640: 3627: 3608: 3581: 3554: 3531: 3522:(871): 631–643. 3506: 3489:(861): 712–727. 3473: 3464:(848): 706–720. 3448: 3438: 3428: 3409: 3390: 3371: 3352: 3330: 3297: 3262: 3243: 3224: 3199: 3180: 3161: 3138: 3111: 3089: 3070: 3056: 3029: 3023: 3017: 3002: 2996: 2990: 2984: 2978: 2972: 2971: 2966: 2964: 2933: 2927: 2917: 2911: 2910: 2908: 2906: 2885: 2879: 2878: 2855: 2849: 2843: 2837: 2827: 2821: 2812: 2806: 2805: 2792: 2786: 2780: 2771: 2761: 2755: 2754: 2753: 2751: 2723: 2717: 2716: 2715:on 8 August 2017 2714: 2707: 2702:Press Communique 2696: 2690: 2684: 2675: 2669: 2660: 2654: 2633: 2627: 2616: 2610: 2604: 2598: 2592: 2586: 2580: 2574: 2568: 2562: 2556: 2550: 2541: 2535: 2529: 2523: 2517: 2511: 2505: 2499: 2493: 2487: 2481: 2475: 2466: 2460: 2454: 2448: 2442: 2436: 2427: 2421: 2415: 2409: 2398: 2392: 2381: 2375: 2369: 2363: 2357: 2351: 2340: 2334: 2328: 2322: 2311: 2305: 2299: 2293: 2287: 2281: 2272: 2266: 2260: 2254: 2241: 2235: 2229: 2223: 2217: 2211: 2192: 2186: 2167: 2162: 2156: 2150: 2141: 2131: 2125: 2119: 2113: 2107: 2101: 2095: 2089: 2083: 2077: 2071: 2065: 2059: 2050: 2044: 2038: 2032: 2019: 2013: 2007: 2001: 1995: 1994: 1968: 1962: 1956: 1950: 1944: 1933: 1927: 1921: 1915: 1906: 1900: 1894: 1884: 1878: 1872: 1866: 1860: 1845: 1839: 1830: 1824: 1818: 1812: 1806: 1800: 1787: 1781: 1775: 1769: 1763: 1757: 1751: 1745: 1739: 1733: 1727: 1721: 1706: 1700: 1694: 1688: 1682: 1676: 1670: 1664: 1658: 1652: 1646: 1640: 1631: 1625: 1619: 1613: 1604: 1603: 1577: 1571: 1565: 1552: 1546: 1529: 1526:Jawaharlal Nehru 1522: 1516: 1513: 1507: 1504: 1498: 1495: 1489: 1486: 1480: 1461: 1455: 1452: 1446: 1443: 1437: 1434: 1411:, circa 600 CE ( 1400: 1376: 1361: 1341: 1325: 1310: 1287: 1271: 1251: 1223: 1211: 1196: 1184: 1098:Jawaharlal Nehru 1065: 1049: 880:Benjamin Rowland 868:Mortimer Wheeler 761:Aṅguttara Nikāya 720: 708: 625: 624: 620: 617: 547: 546: 542: 539: 530: in). Set 529: 528: 524: 521: 488: 472: 416:director-general 396: 384: 358:Muhammad of Ghor 244:the state emblem 232:Jawaharlal Nehru 162: 159: 140:, or head, of a 109:Present location 40: 28: 27: 4439: 4438: 4434: 4433: 4432: 4430: 4429: 4428: 4369: 4368: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4355:Indian Calendar 4349: 4341: 4327: 4301: 4296: 4288: 4280: 4272: 4270:Indian elephant 4264: 4256: 4248: 4240: 4232: 4223:Flora and fauna 4218: 4207: 4202: 4200:National Pledge 4194: 4186: 4178: 4170: 4168:Emblem of India 4162: 4148: 4138: 4136: 4106: 4101: 4083: 4079:Sarnath capital 4048: 4007: 4002: 3954: 3924: 3893: 3891:Further reading 3888: 3882: 3863: 3844: 3823: 3796: 3744: 3727:(1–2): 100–118. 3702:Sahni, Daya Ram 3694: 3675: 3656: 3624: 3597: 3570: 3551: 3436: 3425: 3406: 3387: 3368: 3349: 3286: 3259: 3240: 3196: 3177: 3158: 3144:"On Maurya Art" 3127: 3108: 3038: 3033: 3032: 3024: 3020: 3015:Wayback Machine 3007:website notice 3003: 2999: 2991: 2987: 2979: 2975: 2962: 2960: 2953: 2934: 2930: 2918: 2914: 2904: 2902: 2886: 2882: 2875: 2856: 2852: 2844: 2840: 2828: 2824: 2813: 2809: 2793: 2789: 2781: 2774: 2762: 2758: 2749: 2747: 2740: 2724: 2720: 2712: 2705: 2697: 2693: 2685: 2678: 2670: 2663: 2655: 2636: 2628: 2619: 2611: 2607: 2599: 2595: 2587: 2583: 2575: 2571: 2563: 2559: 2551: 2544: 2536: 2532: 2524: 2520: 2512: 2508: 2500: 2496: 2488: 2484: 2476: 2469: 2461: 2457: 2449: 2445: 2437: 2430: 2422: 2418: 2410: 2401: 2393: 2384: 2376: 2372: 2364: 2360: 2352: 2343: 2335: 2331: 2323: 2314: 2306: 2302: 2294: 2290: 2282: 2275: 2267: 2263: 2255: 2244: 2236: 2232: 2224: 2220: 2212: 2195: 2187: 2170: 2163: 2159: 2151: 2144: 2132: 2128: 2120: 2116: 2108: 2104: 2096: 2092: 2084: 2080: 2074:Huntington 1990 2072: 2068: 2060: 2053: 2045: 2041: 2033: 2022: 2014: 2010: 2002: 1998: 1983: 1969: 1965: 1957: 1953: 1945: 1936: 1928: 1924: 1916: 1909: 1901: 1897: 1885: 1881: 1873: 1869: 1861: 1848: 1840: 1833: 1825: 1821: 1813: 1809: 1801: 1790: 1786:, pp. 2–3. 1782: 1778: 1770: 1766: 1758: 1754: 1746: 1742: 1734: 1730: 1722: 1709: 1701: 1697: 1689: 1685: 1677: 1673: 1665: 1661: 1653: 1649: 1641: 1634: 1626: 1622: 1614: 1607: 1592: 1578: 1574: 1566: 1555: 1547: 1543: 1538: 1533: 1532: 1523: 1519: 1514: 1510: 1505: 1501: 1496: 1492: 1487: 1483: 1462: 1458: 1453: 1449: 1444: 1440: 1435: 1431: 1426: 1421: 1420: 1419: 1416: 1401: 1392: 1381:Udayagiri Caves 1377: 1368: 1362: 1350: 1349: 1348: 1345: 1342: 1333: 1326: 1317: 1311: 1299: 1298: 1297: 1294: 1288: 1279: 1272: 1263: 1260:flame palmettes 1252: 1237: 1232: 1231: 1230: 1227: 1224: 1215: 1212: 1203: 1197: 1188: 1185: 1169: 1167:Reconstructions 1090: 1089: 1088: 1085: 1082:First World War 1066: 1057: 1050: 1038: 831: 825: 752:Raymond Allchin 750:. According to 728: 727: 726: 725: 724: 721: 713: 712: 709: 685:syzygium aqueum 639: 622: 618: 615: 613: 557:Kazim Abdullaev 544: 540: 537: 535: 526: 522: 519: 517: 506: 505: 504: 503: 502: 489: 481: 480: 473: 462: 404: 403: 402: 401: 400: 397: 389: 388: 385: 374: 291:Colin Mackenzie 283:Jonathan Duncan 259: 160: 144:erected by the 93:3rd century BCE 59: 26: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4437: 4427: 4426: 4421: 4416: 4411: 4406: 4401: 4396: 4391: 4386: 4381: 4364: 4363: 4361: 4360: 4352: 4344: 4335: 4333: 4329: 4328: 4326: 4325: 4323:Gandhi Jayanti 4320: 4315: 4309: 4307: 4303: 4302: 4300: 4299: 4291: 4283: 4275: 4267: 4259: 4251: 4243: 4238:Indian peafowl 4235: 4226: 4224: 4220: 4219: 4210: 4208: 4206: 4205: 4197: 4189: 4184:Jana Gana Mana 4181: 4173: 4165: 4156: 4154: 4153:Constitutional 4150: 4149: 4135: 4134: 4127: 4120: 4112: 4103: 4102: 4100: 4099: 4088: 4085: 4084: 4082: 4081: 4076: 4069: 4062: 4056: 4054: 4050: 4049: 4047: 4046: 4041: 4036: 4031: 4026: 4021: 4015: 4013: 4009: 4008: 4005:Sarnath Museum 4001: 4000: 3993: 3986: 3978: 3972: 3971: 3966: 3960: 3953: 3952:External links 3950: 3949: 3948: 3937: 3915: 3897:Allen, Charles 3892: 3889: 3887: 3886: 3880: 3867: 3861: 3848: 3842: 3827: 3821: 3808: 3794: 3781: 3769:10.1086/691602 3756: 3742: 3729: 3712: 3698: 3692: 3679: 3673: 3660: 3654: 3641: 3628: 3622: 3609: 3595: 3582: 3568: 3555: 3549: 3532: 3507: 3474: 3449: 3429: 3423: 3410: 3404: 3391: 3385: 3372: 3366: 3353: 3347: 3331: 3298: 3284: 3263: 3257: 3244: 3238: 3225: 3200: 3194: 3181: 3175: 3162: 3156: 3139: 3125: 3112: 3106: 3094:Allchin, F. R. 3090: 3071: 3057: 3039: 3037: 3034: 3031: 3030: 3026:Agrawala 1964b 3018: 2997: 2993:Agrawala 1964b 2985: 2981:Abdullaev 2014 2973: 2951: 2928: 2912: 2880: 2873: 2850: 2838: 2822: 2819:123 (Fig. 6-7) 2815:Agrawala 1964b 2807: 2787: 2785:, p. 743. 2772: 2756: 2738: 2718: 2691: 2676: 2674:, p. 465. 2661: 2634: 2632:, p. 110. 2617: 2615:, p. 444. 2605: 2593: 2581: 2569: 2567:, p. 432. 2557: 2542: 2530: 2518: 2516:, p. 391. 2506: 2494: 2482: 2467: 2455: 2453:, p. 714. 2443: 2428: 2416: 2414:, p. 713. 2399: 2382: 2380:, p. iii. 2378:Agrawala 1964b 2370: 2366:Agrawala 1964b 2358: 2341: 2329: 2327:, p. 643. 2312: 2308:Agrawala 1964a 2300: 2298:, p. 110. 2288: 2286:, p. 111. 2273: 2261: 2259:, p. 432. 2242: 2240:, p. 227. 2230: 2218: 2193: 2168: 2157: 2142: 2126: 2114: 2112:, p. 444. 2102: 2090: 2078: 2066: 2051: 2049:, p. 390. 2039: 2037:, p. 254. 2020: 2018:, p. 172. 2016:Abdullaev 2014 2008: 1996: 1981: 1963: 1961:, p. 130. 1951: 1934: 1922: 1920:, p. 186. 1907: 1905:, p. 425. 1895: 1879: 1867: 1865:, p. 362. 1846: 1831: 1819: 1807: 1788: 1776: 1764: 1752: 1740: 1738:, p. 297. 1728: 1707: 1705:, p. 296. 1695: 1683: 1681:, p. 220. 1671: 1659: 1647: 1632: 1620: 1605: 1590: 1572: 1553: 1540: 1539: 1537: 1534: 1531: 1530: 1517: 1508: 1499: 1490: 1481: 1456: 1447: 1438: 1428: 1427: 1425: 1422: 1418: 1417: 1402: 1395: 1393: 1378: 1371: 1369: 1363: 1356: 1353: 1352: 1351: 1347: 1346: 1343: 1336: 1334: 1327: 1320: 1318: 1312: 1305: 1302: 1301: 1300: 1296: 1295: 1289: 1282: 1280: 1273: 1266: 1264: 1253: 1246: 1243: 1242: 1241: 1236: 1233: 1229: 1228: 1225: 1218: 1216: 1213: 1206: 1204: 1198: 1191: 1189: 1186: 1179: 1176: 1175: 1174: 1168: 1165: 1087: 1086: 1067: 1060: 1058: 1051: 1044: 1041: 1040: 1039: 1037: 1034: 1012:Greco-Bactrian 876:Jean Przyluski 858:'s sacking of 829:Mauryan polish 824: 821: 722: 715: 714: 710: 703: 702: 701: 700: 699: 653:Pushkar Sohoni 638: 635: 609:Daya Ram Sahni 576:Sarnath Museum 490: 483: 482: 474: 467: 466: 465: 464: 463: 461: 458: 446:Daya Ram Sahni 398: 391: 390: 386: 379: 378: 377: 376: 375: 373: 370: 320:Sushma Jansari 275:William Hodges 258: 255: 230:In July 1947, 205:Sarnath Museum 185:Gautama Buddha 161: 250 BCE 128: 127: 124: 120: 119: 113:Sarnath Museum 110: 106: 105: 99: 95: 94: 91: 87: 86: 83: 79: 78: 75: 71: 70: 65: 61: 60: 41: 33: 32: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4436: 4425: 4422: 4420: 4417: 4415: 4412: 4410: 4407: 4405: 4402: 4400: 4397: 4395: 4392: 4390: 4387: 4385: 4382: 4380: 4377: 4376: 4374: 4356: 4353: 4348: 4345: 4340: 4337: 4336: 4334: 4330: 4324: 4321: 4319: 4316: 4314: 4311: 4310: 4308: 4304: 4295: 4292: 4287: 4284: 4279: 4276: 4271: 4268: 4263: 4260: 4255: 4252: 4247: 4244: 4239: 4236: 4231: 4228: 4227: 4225: 4221: 4214: 4201: 4198: 4193: 4192:Vande Mataram 4190: 4185: 4182: 4177: 4174: 4169: 4166: 4161: 4160:Flag of India 4158: 4157: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4142: 4133: 4128: 4126: 4121: 4119: 4114: 4113: 4110: 4098: 4090: 4089: 4086: 4080: 4077: 4075: 4074: 4070: 4068: 4067: 4063: 4061: 4058: 4057: 4055: 4051: 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3424:0-300-06217-6 3420: 3416: 3411: 3407: 3401: 3397: 3392: 3388: 3386:9781003157793 3382: 3378: 3373: 3369: 3363: 3359: 3354: 3350: 3348:9780195305326 3344: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3264: 3260: 3254: 3250: 3245: 3241: 3239:9789004460638 3235: 3231: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3201: 3197: 3195:9780674249868 3191: 3187: 3182: 3178: 3176:9780195305326 3172: 3168: 3163: 3159: 3157:9781444396355 3153: 3149: 3145: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3126:9781606066164 3122: 3118: 3113: 3109: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3078: 3072: 3068: 3067: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3041: 3040: 3027: 3022: 3016: 3012: 3009: 3006: 3001: 2994: 2989: 2982: 2977: 2970: 2958: 2954: 2948: 2944: 2943: 2938: 2932: 2925: 2921: 2916: 2900: 2896: 2895: 2890: 2884: 2876: 2870: 2866: 2865: 2860: 2854: 2848:, p. 21. 2847: 2842: 2835: 2831: 2826: 2820: 2816: 2811: 2803: 2802: 2797: 2791: 2784: 2779: 2777: 2769: 2765: 2760: 2745: 2741: 2735: 2731: 2730: 2722: 2711: 2704: 2703: 2695: 2689:, p. 31. 2688: 2683: 2681: 2673: 2668: 2666: 2658: 2653: 2651: 2649: 2647: 2645: 2643: 2641: 2639: 2631: 2626: 2624: 2622: 2614: 2613:Stoneman 2019 2609: 2603:, p. 21. 2602: 2601:Boardman 1998 2597: 2591:, p. 18. 2590: 2589:Boardman 1998 2585: 2579:, p. 15. 2578: 2577:Boardman 1998 2573: 2566: 2565:Stoneman 2019 2561: 2555:, p. 64. 2554: 2549: 2547: 2539: 2534: 2528:, p. 22. 2527: 2522: 2515: 2510: 2504:, p. 25. 2503: 2498: 2492:, p. 58. 2491: 2486: 2480:, p. 24. 2479: 2474: 2472: 2464: 2459: 2452: 2447: 2440: 2435: 2433: 2426:, p. 55. 2425: 2420: 2413: 2408: 2406: 2404: 2396: 2391: 2389: 2387: 2379: 2374: 2367: 2362: 2356:, p. 62. 2355: 2350: 2348: 2346: 2338: 2333: 2326: 2321: 2319: 2317: 2310:, p. 13. 2309: 2304: 2297: 2292: 2285: 2280: 2278: 2270: 2265: 2258: 2253: 2251: 2249: 2247: 2239: 2234: 2228:, p. 23. 2227: 2222: 2216:, p. 75. 2215: 2210: 2208: 2206: 2204: 2202: 2200: 2198: 2190: 2185: 2183: 2181: 2179: 2177: 2175: 2173: 2166: 2165:Wriggins 2021 2161: 2155:, p. 29. 2154: 2149: 2147: 2139: 2135: 2130: 2123: 2118: 2111: 2106: 2099: 2094: 2087: 2082: 2076:, p. 90. 2075: 2070: 2064:, p. 28. 2063: 2058: 2056: 2048: 2043: 2036: 2031: 2029: 2027: 2025: 2017: 2012: 2006:, p. 41. 2005: 2000: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1982:9780199362387 1978: 1974: 1967: 1960: 1955: 1949:, p. 69. 1948: 1943: 1941: 1939: 1931: 1926: 1919: 1914: 1912: 1904: 1899: 1892: 1888: 1883: 1876: 1871: 1864: 1859: 1857: 1855: 1853: 1851: 1843: 1838: 1836: 1828: 1823: 1817:, p. 30. 1816: 1811: 1805:, p. 35. 1804: 1799: 1797: 1795: 1793: 1785: 1780: 1774:, p. 39. 1773: 1768: 1761: 1756: 1750:, p. 31. 1749: 1744: 1737: 1732: 1725: 1720: 1718: 1716: 1714: 1712: 1704: 1699: 1692: 1687: 1680: 1675: 1668: 1663: 1657:, p. 43. 1656: 1651: 1644: 1639: 1637: 1630:, p. 44. 1629: 1624: 1618:, p. 21. 1617: 1612: 1610: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1587: 1583: 1576: 1569: 1564: 1562: 1560: 1558: 1551:, p. 22. 1550: 1545: 1541: 1527: 1521: 1512: 1503: 1494: 1485: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1465:Wendy Doniger 1463:According to 1460: 1451: 1442: 1433: 1429: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1399: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1375: 1370: 1366: 1365:Kushan Empire 1360: 1355: 1354: 1340: 1335: 1331: 1324: 1319: 1315: 1309: 1304: 1303: 1292: 1286: 1281: 1277: 1270: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1250: 1245: 1244: 1240: 1222: 1217: 1210: 1205: 1201: 1195: 1190: 1183: 1178: 1177: 1173: 1164: 1162: 1157: 1151: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1132: 1127: 1126: 1118: 1113: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1064: 1059: 1055: 1048: 1043: 1042: 1033: 1030: 1024: 1022: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1004: 1002: 998: 994: 993:John Boardman 988: 984: 981: 977: 973: 970: 966: 964: 959: 955: 954:Mahajanapadas 951: 947: 943: 939: 938:Upinder Singh 935: 932: 928: 924: 921: 917: 913: 912: 907: 903: 899: 898: 893: 887: 885: 881: 877: 872: 869: 865: 861: 857: 851: 849: 845: 841: 840:John Marshall 836: 835:Vincent Smith 830: 820: 818: 813: 807: 804: 803:chakra dhvaja 799: 795: 790: 787: 783: 779: 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3683: 3664: 3645: 3636: 3613: 3586: 3559: 3540: 3519: 3515: 3486: 3482: 3461: 3457: 3447:: 90, Fig.8. 3444: 3441:Orientations 3440: 3414: 3395: 3376: 3357: 3338: 3310: 3306: 3267: 3248: 3229: 3212: 3208: 3185: 3166: 3147: 3116: 3097: 3076: 3065: 3052: 3048: 3021: 3000: 2988: 2976: 2968: 2961:. Retrieved 2941: 2931: 2915: 2903:. Retrieved 2893: 2883: 2863: 2853: 2841: 2825: 2810: 2800: 2790: 2759: 2748:, retrieved 2728: 2721: 2710:the original 2701: 2694: 2657:Vajpeyi 2012 2608: 2596: 2584: 2572: 2560: 2533: 2526:Tadgell 2008 2521: 2509: 2497: 2485: 2458: 2446: 2419: 2373: 2368:, p. 6. 2361: 2337:Fogelin 2015 2332: 2303: 2291: 2264: 2233: 2221: 2160: 2137: 2129: 2117: 2105: 2098:Allchin 1995 2093: 2081: 2069: 2042: 2035:Allchin 1995 2011: 1999: 1972: 1966: 1954: 1925: 1918:Vajpeyi 2012 1898: 1882: 1870: 1863:Maxwell 2004 1844:, p. 3. 1822: 1810: 1779: 1767: 1755: 1743: 1731: 1724:Fogelin 2015 1698: 1691:Fogelin 2015 1686: 1679:Fogelin 2015 1674: 1667:Jansari 2021 1662: 1655:Jansari 2021 1650: 1623: 1581: 1575: 1544: 1520: 1511: 1502: 1493: 1484: 1459: 1450: 1441: 1432: 1413:Later Guptas 1385:Gupta period 1262:, ca 250 BCE 1238: 1170: 1152: 1148:dharmachakra 1147: 1129: 1123: 1120: 1115: 1091: 1029:West Asiatic 1028: 1025: 1020: 1005: 989: 985: 974: 967: 962: 950:Persian lion 945: 942:Asiatic lion 936: 929: 925: 909: 900:-pillars of 895: 888: 873: 852: 832: 816: 811: 808: 802: 798:dharmachakra 797: 791: 786:dharmachakra 785: 778:chakravartin 774:dharmachakra 770: 766:Indian lotus 759: 756:Dharmacakras 755: 739: 735: 729: 683: 679: 657: 640: 630: 628: 601: 597:dharmachakra 595: 593: 581: 561: 550: 510:Persepolitan 507: 499:Dhamek Stupa 492: 476: 453: 449: 441: 435: 426: 424: 408:F. O. Oertel 405: 362: 346: 325: 311:Varuna river 304: 279:Dhamek Stupa 272: 267:Dhamek Stupa 252: 248: 229: 209: 200:F. O. Oertel 193: 189:first sermon 175:by a metal 133: 131: 123:Registration 102:F. O. Oertel 55: 18: 4409:Mauryan art 4019:Mauryan art 3341:. Oup USA. 3335:Falk, Harry 3036:Cited works 2846:Tömory 1982 2630:Shelby 2021 2439:Mitter 2001 2238:Sohoni 2017 2189:Sohoni 2017 1947:Oertel 1908 1875:Oertel 1908 1827:Oertel 1908 958:Achaemenian 817:purna-ghata 812:Purna-ghata 664:Shakyasimha 606:Rai Bahadur 460:Description 297:. In 1861 4379:Indian art 4373:Categories 4358:(Calendar) 4342:(Currency) 4297:(Microber) 4286:King cobra 4024:Kushan art 3909:1408703882 3804:2018958249 3752:2017008399 3614:Indian Art 3605:2003009965 3578:2020022295 3135:2019019885 3107:0521375479 3086:1129478258 2922:, p. 2920:Asher 2020 2832:, p. 2830:Asher 2020 2817:, p. 2783:Irwin 1975 2766:, p. 2764:Asher 2020 2553:Asher 2006 2514:Singh 2017 2490:Asher 2006 2478:Harle 1994 2463:Irwin 1974 2451:Irwin 1973 2424:Asher 2006 2412:Irwin 1973 2395:Irwin 1975 2325:Irwin 1975 2296:Dolan 2021 2284:Dolan 2021 2257:Asher 2011 2214:Asher 2020 2153:Sahni 1914 2134:Asher 2020 2122:Irwin 1990 2086:Asher 2020 2062:Sahni 1914 2047:Singh 2017 1991:2016021264 1930:Dolan 2021 1903:Asher 2011 1889:, p. 1887:Asher 2011 1842:Asher 2020 1815:Asher 2020 1803:Asher 2020 1784:Asher 2020 1760:Asher 2020 1748:Asher 2020 1736:Eaton 2000 1703:Eaton 2000 1643:Asher 2020 1628:Asher 2020 1616:Asher 2020 1600:2020022295 1549:Harle 1994 1536:References 1528:quoted in 1016:Ai-Khanoum 1001:Persepolis 980:Persepolis 976:Harry Falk 916:Achaemenid 892:axis mundi 860:Persepolis 827:See also: 823:Influences 695:axis mundi 690:Anavatapta 350:Ghaznavids 212:South Asia 98:Discovered 4289:(Reptile) 4044:Hindu art 4029:Gupta art 3777:165605193 3495:0007-6287 3294:240504248 3215:: 13–22. 3063:(1964a). 2963:10 August 2905:25 August 2687:Asif 2020 2538:Falk 2006 2354:Guha 2021 2004:Asif 2020 1772:Guha 2010 904:, to the 748:equinoxes 744:solstices 637:Symbolism 631:Catalogue 477:Catalogue 326:Although 156:, India, 68:Sandstone 4249:(Flower) 4233:(Animal) 4203:(Pledge) 4187:(Anthem) 4171:(Emblem) 4097:Category 4039:Jain art 3704:(1914). 3327:26198197 3221:24049089 3011:Archived 2957:Archived 2899:Archived 2891:(1959). 2798:(1965). 2744:archived 2226:Pal 2016 1959:Ray 2014 1568:Ray 2014 1415:period). 1014:city of 1008:Seleucid 920:Sargonid 746:and the 672:Kanthaka 660:addorsed 553:attitude 532:addorsed 366:Bodhgaya 352:and the 328:Buddhism 307:Xuanzang 181:Buddhism 148:emperor 64:Material 52:Buddhist 4419:Sarnath 4350:(River) 4265:(Fruit) 4179:(Motto) 2750:21 July 1407:, with 1140:charkha 1074:Belgium 948:, also 911:dhvajas 848:realism 784:, the 644:Kalinga 621:⁄ 565:necking 543:⁄ 525:⁄ 494:in situ 418:of the 354:Ghurids 257:History 154:Sarnath 146:Mauryan 138:capital 136:is the 90:Created 4347:Ganges 4332:Others 4257:(Tree) 4254:Banyan 4241:(Bird) 4195:(Song) 4163:(Flag) 3907: 3878: 3859: 3840: 3819: 3802: 3792: 3775: 3750: 3740: 3690: 3671: 3652: 3620: 3603: 3593: 3576: 3566: 3547: 3528:878154 3526: 3503:877843 3501: 3493: 3470:877526 3468: 3421: 3402: 3383: 3364: 3345: 3325: 3292: 3282: 3255: 3236: 3219: 3192: 3173: 3154: 3133: 3123: 3104: 3084: 2949: 2871: 2736: 1989: 1979: 1598: 1588: 1475:, and 1469:Vishnu 1405:Sanchi 1291:Sanchi 1256:Sanchi 1100:, the 1036:Legacy 648:Odisha 585:Chunar 514:abacus 479:, 1914 440:, now 431:Dhamek 414:, the 316:Faxian 169:relief 165:abacus 150:Ashoka 142:column 74:Height 50:. The 48:abacus 4262:Mango 4246:Lotus 3925:(PDF) 3773:S2CID 3524:JSTOR 3499:JSTOR 3466:JSTOR 3437:(PDF) 3323:JSTOR 3290:S2CID 3217:JSTOR 2713:(PDF) 2706:(PDF) 1477:Durga 1473:Shiva 1424:Notes 1161:Ypres 1156:Ypres 1070:Ypres 680:jambu 589:dowel 406:When 337:Hindu 287:Dewan 177:dowel 117:India 82:Width 42:Four 4306:Days 3933:see 3905:ISBN 3876:ISBN 3857:ISBN 3838:ISBN 3817:ISBN 3800:LCCN 3790:ISBN 3748:LCCN 3738:ISBN 3688:ISBN 3669:ISBN 3650:ISBN 3618:ISBN 3601:LCCN 3591:ISBN 3574:LCCN 3564:ISBN 3545:ISBN 3491:ISSN 3419:ISBN 3400:ISBN 3381:ISBN 3362:ISBN 3343:ISBN 3280:ISBN 3253:ISBN 3234:ISBN 3190:ISBN 3171:ISBN 3152:ISBN 3131:LCCN 3121:ISBN 3102:ISBN 3082:OCLC 2965:2022 2947:ISBN 2907:2022 2869:ISBN 2752:2022 2734:ISBN 1987:LCCN 1977:ISBN 1596:LCCN 1586:ISBN 1128:and 995:and 963:pair 897:djed 819:)." 436:The 341:Jain 339:and 330:and 265:The 132:The 56:bell 4012:Art 3765:doi 3520:117 3487:116 3462:115 3315:doi 3272:doi 1891:433 1112:: 918:or 420:ASI 187:'s 152:in 126:A 1 4375:: 3927:, 3899:, 3798:. 3771:. 3746:. 3725:LI 3723:. 3719:. 3635:. 3599:. 3572:. 3518:. 3514:. 3497:. 3485:. 3481:. 3460:. 3456:. 3445:40 3443:. 3439:. 3321:. 3311:11 3309:. 3305:. 3288:. 3278:. 3213:12 3211:. 3207:. 3129:. 3053:15 3051:. 3047:. 2967:. 2955:. 2924:73 2834:76 2775:^ 2768:75 2742:, 2679:^ 2664:^ 2637:^ 2620:^ 2545:^ 2470:^ 2431:^ 2402:^ 2385:^ 2344:^ 2315:^ 2276:^ 2245:^ 2196:^ 2171:^ 2145:^ 2054:^ 2023:^ 1985:. 1937:^ 1910:^ 1849:^ 1834:^ 1791:^ 1710:^ 1635:^ 1608:^ 1594:. 1556:^ 1471:, 1387:. 1072:, 682:, 591:. 518:13 158:c. 115:, 4131:e 4124:t 4117:v 3997:e 3990:t 3983:v 3884:. 3865:. 3846:. 3825:. 3806:. 3779:. 3767:: 3754:. 3696:. 3677:. 3658:. 3626:. 3607:. 3580:. 3553:. 3530:. 3505:. 3472:. 3427:. 3408:. 3389:. 3370:. 3351:. 3329:. 3317:: 3296:. 3274:: 3261:. 3242:. 3223:. 3198:. 3179:. 3160:. 3137:. 3110:. 3088:. 2926:. 2909:. 2877:. 2836:. 1993:. 1893:. 1829:. 1602:. 1391:. 1084:. 944:( 738:( 623:4 619:3 616:+ 614:2 578:. 545:4 541:3 538:+ 536:3 527:2 523:1 520:+ 501:. 25:.

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Lion Capital of Ashoka

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