600:
505:
332:
523:
773:
3239:
49:
514:
403:(1674–1725) as heir apparent. The heir apparent was removed twice because of his extravagance and abhorrent behavior, which included an attempt to assassinate the emperor. After Yinreng was demoted for good in 1712, the emperor refused to name an heir. Because Qing policy forced imperial princes to reside in the capital Beijing, many princes became involved in politics, and the Kangxi succession became particularly contested. After the Kangxi Emperor's death in 1722, his fourth son Yinzhen (1678–1735) emerged as victor and reigned as the
2607:
2486:
2344:
846:
identified retrospectively as Taizu ("grand progenitor"), the usual name given to a dynasty's first emperor. This is why
Nurhaci is considered as the first Qing ruler even if he was never emperor in his lifetime. Taizong was the usual name for the second emperor of a dynasty, and so Hong Taiji was canonized as Qing Taizong. The last emperor of a dynasty usually did not receive a temple name because his descendants were no longer in power when he died, and thus could not perpetuate the ancestral cult.
1247:
1106:
1639:
2223:
1760:
967:
1906:
1379:
1509:
740:. When the Yongzheng Emperor, whose generation was the first in which all imperial sons shared a generational character as in Chinese clans, acceded the throne, he made all his brothers change the first character of their name from "Yin" (胤) to "Yun" (允) to respect the taboo. Citing fraternal solidarity, his successor, the Qianlong Emperor, simply removed one stroke from his own name and let his brothers keep their own.
582:, but her political role increased so much that within a few years she was taking charge of most government matters. She became sole regent in 1881 after the death of Empress Dowager Ci'an. With the assistance of eunuchs and Manchu princes, she remained regent until March 1889, when she finally let the Guangxu Emperor rule personally (he was then 17 years old). After she intervened to end the
67:
2067:
641:" (r. 1875–1908). Strictly speaking, referring to the Qianlong Emperor simply as "Qianlong" is wrong, because "Qianlong" was not that emperor's own name but that of his reign era. For convenience sake, however, many historians still choose to call him Qianlong (though not "Emperor Qianlong"). The only Qing emperors who are not commonly known by their reign name are the first two:
909:
Since posthumous titles and temple names were often shared by emperors of different dynasties, to avoid confusion they are usually preceded by the dynastic name. The
Qianlong emperor, for instance, should be referred to as Qing Gaozong rather than just Gaozong. Because each emperor's posthumous name
804:
that were displayed there, the temple name was followed by the honorific name, as in "Shizu Zhang huangdi" for the
Shunzhi Emperor and "Taizong Wen huangdi" for Hong Taiji. As dynastic founder, Nurhaci ("Taizu") became the focal ancestor in the main hall of the temple. The earlier paternal ancestors
679:
An era name was used to record dates, usually in the format "Reign-name Xth year, Yth month, Zth day" (sometimes abridged as X/Y/Z by modern scholars). A Qing emperor's era name was also used on the coins that were cast during his reign. Unlike in the Ming dynasty, the characters used in Qing reign
410:
To avoid such struggles in the future, the
Yongzheng Emperor designed a system by which the living emperor would choose his successor in advance and on merit, but would keep his choice secret until his deathbed. The name of the future emperor was sealed in a casket that was hidden behind a panel in
845:
had the Aisin Gioro ancestral tablets installed in what had been the Ming ancestral temple. In 1648 the Qing government bestowed the title of "emperor" to these ancestors and gave them the honorific posthumous names and temple names by which they were known for the rest of the dynasty. Nurhaci was
840:
Hong Taiji created the Qing ancestral cult in 1636 when he assumed the title of emperor. Taking the
Chinese imperial cult as a model, he named his main paternal ancestors "kings" and built an Imperial Ancestral Temple in his capital Mukden to offer sacrifices to them. When the Qing took control of
375:
of the
Jurchens, he refused to answer, telling his sons that they should determine after his death who among them was the most qualified leader. His answer reflected the fact that in Jurchen society, succession as tribal chieftain was usually determined by merit, not descent. When Nurhaci died in
442:
was the one who selected the next emperor. But instead of making the deceased emperor adopt an heir from the generation below himself (in this case this would have been a nephew of the
Tongzhi Emperor) as the rules of imperial succession dictated, she picked one from the same generation. The new
568:
For almost 200 years, the Qing Empire was governed by adult emperors. In the last fifty years of the dynasty—from the death of the
Xianfeng Emperor in 1861 to the final abdication of the child emperor Puyi in 1912—the imperial position again became vulnerable to the power of regents,
3252:, p. xxi , Ch'ien-lung ) of emperors are routinely treated as if they were the names of the emperors themselves. There are several good reasons for this practice, even though it is historiographically erroneous. We adopt it here as a convention that needs no apology."].
901:
following the death of the previous emperor, which is when the new emperor's era name came into use. The number of years indicated in the same column is the number of years in which that era name was used. Because of discrepancies between the western and the
629:
after that emperor's accession, which fell between 21 January and 20 February (inclusively) of the
Gregorian calendar. Even if an emperor died in the middle of the year, his era name was used for the rest of that year before the next era officially began.
384:(1592–1643) as his successor. Hong Taiji's death in 1643 caused another succession crisis, because many of Nurhaci's other sons appeared to be qualified leaders. As a compromise, the Manchu princes chose Hong Taiji's four-year-old son Fulin (the
755:(r. 1820–1850) removed the character for "continuous" (綿) from his name and decreed that his descendants should henceforth all omit one stroke from their name. In accordance with Manchu practice, Qing emperors rarely used their clan name
471:
for example. Threats to imperial power usually came from within the imperial clan. When the young Fulin was chosen to succeed his father Hong Taiji in
September 1643, two "prince regents" were selected for him: Hong Taiji's half-brother
455:(r. 1850–1861). She assured her opponents that as soon as the new emperor had a son, he would be adopted into the Tongzhi Emperor's line. However, as the Guangxu Emperor died heirless too, Empress Dowager Cixi also chose his successor,
910:
was extremely long—that of the Shunzhi Emperor, for instance, was "Titian longyun dingtong jianji yingrui qinwen xianwu dade honggong zhiren chunxiao Zhang huangdi" 體天隆運定統建極英睿欽文顯武大德弘功至仁純孝章皇帝—the table only shows the short form.
577:
who had been named by her husband, the Xianfeng Emperor. She controlled the government during the reigns of the Tongzhi (r. 1861–1875) and Guangxu (r. 1875–1908) emperors. From 1861 onwards, she was officially co-regent with
295:—Qing emperors used only one era name ("Shunzhi", "Qianlong", "Guangxu", etc.) for their entire reign, and are most commonly known by that name. Starting with Nurhaci, there were twelve Qing rulers. Following the capture of
480:(1599–1655). Soon after the Manchus had seized Beijing under Dorgon's leadership in May 1644, Dorgon came to control all important government matters. Official documents referred to him as "Imperial Uncle Prince Regent" (
892:
The emperors were usually enthroned on an auspicious day soon after the death of the previous monarch. With two exceptions (Jiaqing and Guangxu), they reigned under their predecessor's era name until the following
4660:
2701:
248:" in 1635 and changed the name of Nurhaci's state from "Great Jin" to "Great Qing" in 1636. Hong Taiji was the real founder of Qing imperial institutions. He was the first to adopt the title of "
496:
was placed in the Imperial Ancestral Temple next to those of Nurhaci and Hong Taiji. In early March 1651 after Dorgon's supporters had been purged from the court, these titles were abrogated.
4724:
668:) meant the achievement of this transformation. The practice of translating reign names is not new: Jesuits who resided at the Qing court in Beijing in the 18th century translated "
5280:
549:
The reign of the Shunzhi Emperor ended when he died of smallpox in 1661 at the age of 22. His last will—which was tampered and perhaps even forged by its beneficiaries—appointed
4558:
625:
or reign name was chosen at the beginning of his reign to reflect the political concerns of the court at the time. A new era name became effective on the first day of the
5319:
2013:
The first day of the Jiaqing era was also the first day of this emperor's reign, because his father retired on the last day of the previous year. Jiaqing did not hold
2775:
3007:
4653:
148:
2820:
264:
in 1636. After the Qing captured Beijing in 1644 and appropriated the Ming Ancestral Temple, from 1648 on, Nurhaci was worshiped there as "Taizu" (太祖), a
5324:
5160:
656:
Reign names are usually left untranslated, but some scholars occasionally gloss them when they think these names have a special significance. Historian
1182:"Hong Taiji" means "Prince Hong" and was probably a title, not a name. In some Western historical studies, 'Hong Taiji' is erroneously called Abahai.
4999:
4739:
3059:
5144:
5115:
4734:
4190:
3424:
4816:
633:
Like the emperors of the Ming dynasty, Qing monarchs used only one reign name and are usually known by that name, as when we speak of the "
4355:
467:
Qing succession and inheritance policies made it difficult for empresses and their relatives to build power at court, as they had in the
363:
whenever possible and forbade other sons from participating in politics, the Qing monarchs did not choose their successors according to
3815:
3775:
3436:
4697:
887:
4804:
4789:
53:
4491:
565:
regency", named after the most powerful of the four regents, lasted until 1669, when the Kangxi Emperor started his personal rule.
2768:
2765:
2764:
315:(r. 1796–1820) in order not to reign longer than his grandfather. Qing emperors succeeded each other from father to son until the
3810:
3770:
586:
in September 1898, she had the emperor put under house arrest and held the reins of the Qing government until her death in 1908.
399:(r. 1661–1722), who for the first time in Qing history followed the Chinese habit of primogeniture and appointed his eldest son
5527:
4866:
2767:
2763:
2762:
2766:
347:. Hongli was the first Qing monarch to be chosen through the secret system that his father instated to prevent struggles over
5594:
5558:
4799:
4111:
3701:
484:皇叔父攝政王), a title that left him one step short of claiming the throne for himself. A few days after his death, he received a
5028:
4779:
4416:
2770:
3105:
Historians widely agree that the Shunzhi Emperor's will was either deeply modified or forged altogether. See for instance
4601:
4431:
3625:
Chiang, Howard (2012), "How China Became a 'Castrated Civilization' and Eunuchs a 'Third Sex'", in Chiang, Howard (ed.),
2769:
1873:, the Qianlong Emperor retired on 8 February 1796, the last day of that year in the Chinese calendar and took the title
5599:
5589:
5244:
4613:
4486:
4310:
3634:
1617:
550:
2843:
303:(r. 1643/4–1661) became the first of the ten Qing sovereigns to rule over China proper. At 61 years, the reign of the
5533:
5374:
5249:
4606:
4183:
4158:
4140:
4092:
4070:
4032:
4009:
3986:
3965:
3946:
3922:
3850:
3829:
3789:
3748:
3724:
3679:
3660:
2714:
747:(r. 1796–1820), whose personal name was Yongyan (永琰), replaced the very common first character of his personal name (
557:. All four were Manchu dignitaries who had supported the Shunzhi Emperor after the death of Dorgon, but their Manchu
219:
870:), that is, "the emperor from whom all others descend." Hong Taiji's posthumous name, the "Emperor of Letters" (M.:
5604:
5344:
3800:
599:
5461:
4704:
4391:
4277:
5045:
4911:
4679:
4426:
4365:
4335:
4325:
850:, the last Qing monarch, reigned as the Xuantong Emperor from 1908 to 1912, but did not receive a temple name.
812:
5479:
5254:
5110:
4794:
4784:
4769:
4764:
4596:
4546:
4526:
4466:
4300:
837:), which were compiled at the end of each reign, retrospectively referred to emperors by their temple names.
820:
395:
in 1661, chose his third son Xuanye as successor because he had survived smallpox. That child reigned as the
336:
2772:
2771:
5238:
5016:
4883:
4749:
4643:
4253:
4243:
4176:
388:, r. 1643–1661) as his successor, marking the adoption of father-son succession in the Qing imperial line.
138:
906:, this number does not perfectly correspond to the number of years in which an emperor was on the throne.
664:
in Manchu) referred to a "capacity to transform" supported by Heaven, and that his second one Chongde 崇德 (
5155:
5138:
4648:
4623:
4586:
4496:
4456:
4208:
1077:
Tianming was not used as an era name during Nurhaci's lifetime. His posthumous name was originally Wudi (
237:
5538:
4984:
3823:
3783:
862:
that reflected their ruling style. Nurhaci's posthumous name was originally the "Martial Emperor" (武皇帝
724:
5548:
5267:
5196:
4989:
4521:
4446:
4315:
4233:
2790:
797:
781:
412:
257:
233:
700:玄 ("mysterious", "profound") in the Kangxi Emperor's personal name Xuanye (玄燁), for example, forced
5469:
5289:
5023:
4994:
4744:
3734:
696:
As in previous dynasties, the emperor's personal name became taboo after his accession. The use of
579:
277:
3799:
2773:
319:(r. 1861–1875), the 11th Qing ruler, died childless in 1875. The last two emperors were chosen by
5065:
4531:
4516:
4350:
4248:
4042:
Stary, Giovanni (1984), "The Manchu Emperor 'Abahai': Analysis of an Historiographical Mistake",
2725:, until the "Amendment of Preferential Treatment Conditions" rescinded the title in 1924. He was
583:
101:
5446:
5334:
5215:
5040:
4258:
2706:
878:), was chosen to reflect the way in which he metamorphosed Qing institutions during his reign.
311:(r. 1735–1796), would have reigned even longer if he had not purposely ceded the throne to the
283:
Like their Ming (1368–1644) predecessors—but unlike the emperors of earlier dynasties like the
268:
usually accorded to dynastic founders. Qing emperors since Hong Taiji were also referred to as
4062:
The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-Century China
4020:
2761:
2760:
653:
meaning "prince Hong". Hong Taiji was the only Qing emperor to use two era names (see table).
5520:
5379:
5339:
5006:
4968:
4856:
4836:
4754:
4553:
4536:
4401:
4370:
4305:
3712:
3512:
3997:
5451:
5418:
5384:
5329:
5209:
5191:
4901:
4831:
4638:
4421:
3805:
3765:
3760:
3644:
614:
540:
439:
320:
207:
3445:, pp. 270 (Taizong as name of the second emperor) and 806 (Hong Taiji's temple name).
8:
5504:
5354:
5294:
5226:
4906:
4759:
4714:
4461:
4340:
4320:
4228:
558:
522:
448:
348:
866:)—to reflect his military exploits—but in 1662 it was changed to "Highest Emperor" (高皇帝
504:
48:
5389:
5100:
5095:
4921:
4861:
4851:
4846:
4841:
4665:
4511:
4330:
3839:
3649:
2815:
2726:
898:
701:
685:
573:, imperial uncles, and eunuchs. Empress Dowager Cixi (1835–1908) came to power through
183:
5399:
5394:
5369:
5314:
5309:
5232:
5180:
5085:
4916:
4821:
4719:
4618:
4581:
4506:
4436:
4406:
4360:
4154:
4136:
4107:
4088:
4066:
4028:
4005:
3982:
3961:
3942:
3918:
3883:
3846:
3744:
3720:
3697:
3689:
3675:
3656:
3630:
3433:, pp. 270 ("Taizu" as name of dynastic founder) and 806 (Nurhaci's temple name).
1645:
807:
805:
of the Qing imperial line were worshiped in a back hall. Historical records like the
729:
669:
609:
404:
340:
2017:
power until Qianlong's death in 1799. His personal name before his enthronement was
743:
Later emperors found other ways to diminish the inconvenience of naming taboos. The
331:
5553:
5436:
5359:
5299:
5105:
4826:
4687:
4633:
4476:
4441:
4345:
4270:
4238:
4056:
3873:
2456:
2229:
2195:
2179:
2073:
1766:
903:
894:
752:
751:永, which means "forever") with an obscure one (顒) with the same pronunciation. The
705:
634:
626:
622:
452:
428:
420:
419:. As successor, the Yongzheng Emperor chose his fourth son Hongli (1711–1799), the
344:
308:
249:
211:
5568:
5514:
5364:
5349:
5173:
4628:
4591:
4541:
4501:
4451:
4396:
4265:
4060:
3976:
3936:
3738:
2492:
2350:
1912:
1385:
1082:
859:
793:
744:
657:
638:
604:
570:
489:
444:
435:
424:
385:
316:
312:
300:
215:
191:
125:
4149:
Zelin, Madeleine (2002), "The Yung-cheng Reign", in Peterson, Willard J. (ed.),
1364:
in May 1636 when he declared himself Emperor of the newly renamed Qing dynasty.
186:
and the last imperial dynasty of China. It was officially proclaimed in 1636 in
5431:
5304:
5070:
5033:
4481:
4471:
4411:
2702:
Articles of Favourable Treatment of the Great Qing Emperor after His Abdication
1874:
1870:
1515:
554:
416:
396:
304:
273:
229:
162:
3878:
3861:
897:. The date that appears under "Dates of reign" indicates the first day of the
5583:
5543:
5509:
5474:
5090:
5080:
4896:
4287:
4123:
The Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism: The T'ung-Chih Restoration, 1862–1874
3887:
3862:"A New Study of the Title of the Reigning Dynasty during the Pre-Qing Period"
2825:
2606:
801:
777:
645:(r. 1616–1626), who is known by his personal name, and his son and successor
493:
377:
364:
360:
245:
158:
3740:
The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China
2485:
2343:
1869:
In an act of filial piety to ensure that he would not reign longer than his
1494:, the Prince Regent. The Shunzhi Emperor started his personal rule in 1651.
607:
from 1862 until his death in 1875. The era name Tongzhi, an allusion to the
371:(1559–1626) was asked which one of his sons he had chosen to succeed him as
5563:
5260:
5202:
4891:
4873:
4729:
4199:
3932:
3897:
Defending Christianity in China: The Jesuit Defense of Christianity in the
3016:, pp. 1217–18 (role of empresses and their clans in the Han dynasty);
2802:
2039:
681:
650:
553:
for his son and successor the six-year-old Xuanye, who was to reign as the
372:
356:
292:
288:
240:(1115–1234) that had once ruled over northern China. His son and successor
203:
199:
175:
2190:
when he acceded the throne because a naming taboo on the common character
688:
contained in it could no longer be used in writing throughout the empire.
531:
The three most powerful regents of the Qing dynasty: (from left to right)
5499:
5220:
4941:
4936:
3759:
2710:
789:
756:
574:
485:
468:
284:
265:
3694:
A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD)
1246:
1105:
427:(r. 1796–1820). The latter chose his successor Minning (1782–1850), the
5167:
5011:
4961:
4931:
4774:
3956:
Peterson, Willard J. (2002), "Preface", in Peterson, Willard J. (ed.),
3651:
Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World
2852:, pp. 54 (analysis of the painting) and 102 ("secret succession").
1253:
1112:
646:
381:
269:
241:
111:
4168:
4025:
Cambridge History of China, Vol. 9, Part 1: The Ch'ing Dynasty to 1800
4002:
Cambridge History of China, Vol. 9, Part 1: The Ch'ing Dynasty to 1800
3717:
Cambridge History of China, Vol. 9, Part 1: The Ch'ing Dynasty to 1800
1638:
617:(1835–1908) ousted Zaichun's eight regents in a coup in November 1861.
4956:
4946:
4151:
Cambridge History of China, Vol. 9, Part 1:The Ch'ing Dynasty to 1800
4065:, Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press,
3981:, Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press,
3960:, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, pp. xxi–xxii,
3958:
Cambridge History of China, Vol. 9, Part 1:The Ch'ing Dynasty to 1800
3938:
Ruling from Horseback: Manchu Politics in the Oboi Regency, 1661–1669
2222:
2026:
1759:
966:
718:
613:, was chosen to reflect the new political situation after his mother
477:
206:
in 1644. The Qing dynasty collapsed when the imperial clan (surnamed
4153:, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, pp. 183–229,
3672:
A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology
1905:
1378:
5441:
5186:
5133:
5075:
4951:
4926:
4027:, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, pp. 120–82,
3719:, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, pp. 73–119,
1508:
407:, but his legitimacy was questioned for years after his accession.
392:
187:
5426:
4004:, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, pp. 9–72,
3978:
The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions
2718:
973:
642:
400:
368:
296:
225:
195:
166:
3917:, Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press,
3674:, Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press,
3227:
3907:(Ph.D. thesis). Department of History, Kansas State University.
1491:
842:
828:
709:
532:
473:
261:
179:
2759:
5150:
4709:
3543:
3541:
2920:
451:, a half-brother of Empress Dowager Cixi's late husband, the
431:, in 1799, but only read his testament shortly before dying.
4135:, Cambridge, MA; London, England: Harvard University Press,
3629:, Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 23–66,
5320:
Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet
4809:
4133:
Passage to Power: Kang-hsi and His Heir Apparent, 1661–1722
3494:
3492:
3490:
3325:
3323:
3215:
2830:
2613:
2066:
1621:
847:
562:
536:
456:
121:
74:
66:
3538:
3477:
3475:
3262:
3260:
3258:
1891:
power remained under his control until his death in 1799.
772:
561:
reversed many of the Shunzhi Emperor's own policies. The "
3841:
K'ang-hsi and the Consolidation of Ch'ing Rule, 1661–1684
3087:
3072:, pp. 47–48 (imperial funeral, "Righteous Emperor").
307:(r. 1661–1722) was the longest, though his grandson, the
3528:
3526:
3487:
3460:
3448:
3397:
3395:
3393:
3378:
3354:
3344:
3342:
3340:
3338:
3320:
3308:
3296:
3284:
3272:
3203:
3191:
3145:
3143:
3023:
2980:
2978:
2976:
3589:
3565:
3472:
3414:
3412:
3410:
3255:
3179:
2997:
2995:
2993:
2961:
2951:
2949:
2947:
1616:
From 1662 to 1669, political power lay in the hands of
660:
explains that Hong Taiji's first era name Tiancong 天聰 (
513:
3047:
2932:
2884:
2872:
2862:
2860:
2858:
2451:
Court officials initially chose to use the reign name
931:
3553:
3523:
3390:
3366:
3335:
3155:
3140:
3035:
2973:
2025:), but the first character was altered to the nearly
299:
and re-enthronement as Emperor of China in 1644, the
3601:
3407:
3167:
2990:
2944:
2896:
2208:'cotton') would have been too inconvenient.
5325:
Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory
3941:, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press,
3845:, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press,
3520:), chapter 5, p. 163 of the Zhonghua shuju edition.
3128:
3075:
2855:
2467:before the beginning of the following New Year, so
3838:
3648:
3577:
4106:, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center,
4087:, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center,
3905:in Relation to the Yongzheng Proscription of 1724
2052:; 'forever' was considered inconvenient.
1211:
1204:
1201:
924:
712:books to replace this very common character with
423:, who himself selected his 15th son Yongyan, the
355:Unlike the Ming emperors, who named their eldest
210:) abdicated in February 1912, a few months after
5581:
462:
339:, represents the passing of the throne from the
2908:
2463:), but they changed their minds and settled on
492:(Yi Huangdi 義皇帝, "Righteous Emperor"), and his
4725:Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations
1356:Hong Taiji declared a change of era name from
788:After their deaths, the emperors were given a
5145:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China
5116:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties
4184:
3655:, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,
2681:
2664:
2647:
2618:
2577:
2560:
2543:
2526:
2497:
2435:
2418:
2401:
2384:
2355:
2314:
2297:
2280:
2263:
2234:
2158:
2141:
2124:
2107:
2078:
1997:
1980:
1963:
1946:
1917:
1853:
1834:
1817:
1800:
1771:
1730:
1713:
1696:
1679:
1650:
1600:
1583:
1566:
1549:
1520:
1470:
1453:
1436:
1419:
1390:
1340:
1323:
1304:
1287:
1258:
1163:
1146:
1117:
1058:
1041:
1024:
1007:
978:
672:"—or its Manchu version "Hūwaliyasun tob"—as
343:(left) to his son Hongli (right), the future
30:
3688:
3013:
1086:
853:
3743:, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press,
2203:
796:under which they would be worshiped at the
4191:
4177:
3710:
3118:
3093:
3068:, p. 217 (Chengzong and Yi huangdi);
1100:
1091:), but this was changed to Gaodi in 1662.
961:
934:
323:from other branches of the imperial clan.
4805:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty
4125:, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press
4101:
4079:
3894:
3877:
3547:
3498:
3466:
3454:
3442:
3430:
3384:
3329:
3314:
3302:
3290:
3278:
3233:
3221:
3209:
3197:
2729:as ruling emperor for part of July 1917.
776:Qing emperors worshiped their ancestors'
4654:Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi
3955:
3915:Peking: Temples and City Life, 1400–1900
3816:United States Government Printing Office
3776:United States Government Printing Office
3669:
3643:
3571:
3481:
3266:
3249:
3020:, p. 346 (rest of the information).
2713:, and the provisional government of the
771:
598:
589:
330:
236:in 1616 in reference to the Jurchen-led
5261:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries
4198:
4055:
3995:
3859:
3836:
3733:
3559:
3245:
3114:
3110:
3053:
3041:
2878:
276:" by their Turkic Muslim subjects when
5582:
4120:
4018:
3974:
3912:
3624:
3607:
3595:
3532:
3418:
3401:
3372:
3360:
3348:
3161:
3149:
3122:
3029:
3017:
2984:
2955:
2938:
2902:
2890:
2866:
2849:
5559:Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions
4800:Principles of the Constitution (1908)
4172:
4148:
4041:
3931:
3860:Lu, Zhengheng; Huang, Yinong (2023).
3797:
3757:
3583:
3185:
3173:
3134:
3106:
3081:
3069:
3065:
3001:
2967:
1217:
1214:
1198:
1175:
937:
921:
918:
4780:Ministry of Posts and Communications
3811:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period
3771:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period
2721:allowed Puyi to retain his title of
762:
5528:History of Qing (People's Republic)
3801:"Hsiao-ch'in Hsien Huang-hou"
881:
858:After death emperors were given an
13:
5245:Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor
4614:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)
4607:1909 Provincial Assembly elections
4487:Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)
4311:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)
4130:
2926:
2914:
1232:
952:
438:died heirless in 1875, his mother
218:that led to the foundation of the
79:2 December 1908 – 12 February 1912
14:
5616:
5534:Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty
5375:Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)
5250:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty
4402:Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)
4023:, in Peterson, Willard J. (ed.),
4000:, in Peterson, Willard J. (ed.),
3895:Marinescu, Jocelyn M. N. (2008).
3715:, in Peterson, Willard J. (ed.),
3510:This posthumous title appears in
1620:, the most powerful of which was
476:(1612–1650) and Nurhaci's nephew
391:The Shunzhi Emperor, who died of
5345:Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking
4661:Articles of Favourable Treatment
4417:Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)
2605:
2597:33 years and 264 days
2484:
2342:
2334:11 years and 167 days
2221:
2213:29 years and 147 days
2065:
2057:24 years and 207 days
1904:
1896:60 years and 115 days
1758:
1750:12 years and 286 days
1637:
1629:61 years and 319 days
1507:
1499:17 years and 121 days
1377:
1245:
1104:
1096:10 years and 226 days
965:
691:
575:a coup that ousted eight regents
521:
512:
503:
335:"Spring's Peaceful Message", by
272:by the Mongol subjects, and as "
244:(1592–1643) renamed his people "
65:
47:
4392:Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813
4278:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
3899:Lettres édifiantes et curieuses
3504:
3099:
2476:13 years and 63 days
1369:7 years and 227 days
1187:9 years and 111 days
841:Beijing in 1644, Prince Regent
716:元 in all their books. Even the
649:(r. 1626–1643), whose name was
603:The young Zaichun ruled as the
5046:Guest House of Imperial Envoys
4336:Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas
3670:Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1999),
3617:
2748:3 years and 73 days
2048:
2034:
1883:
833:
824:
816:
767:
278:Qing rule extended to Xinjiang
1:
5480:Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank
5255:Islam during the Qing dynasty
5111:Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)
4795:Provincial military commander
4785:Nine Gates Infantry Commander
4770:Imperial Household Department
4597:Preparative Constitutionalism
4301:Sino-Russian border conflicts
4104:Chinese History: A New Manual
3866:Journal of Chinese Humanities
3837:Kessler, Lawrence D. (1976),
3828:: CS1 maint: date and year (
3788:: CS1 maint: date and year (
2836:
463:Regents and empresses dowager
326:
5595:Emperors of the Qing dynasty
5239:Researches on Manchu Origins
4644:Mongolian Revolution of 1911
4254:Transition from Ming to Qing
4244:Later Jin invasion of Joseon
4102:Wilkinson, Endymion (2012),
4080:Wilkinson, Endymion (2000),
4019:Spence, Jonathan D. (2002),
3998:"State Building Before 1644"
2929:, pp. 118–20 and 154–5.
722:, a Daoist classic, and the
543:(r. 1861–1889 and 1898–1908)
54:Standard of the Qing Emperor
7:
5139:Changzhou School of Thought
4649:1911 Revolution in Xinjiang
4624:Railway Protection Movement
4602:1909 Parliamentary election
4587:British expedition to Tibet
4497:Qing reconquest of Xinjiang
4457:Self-Strengthening Movement
4432:Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)
3996:Roth Li, Gertraude (2002),
2809:
2754:
732:, had to be reprinted with
594:
10:
5621:
5539:Legacy of the Qing dynasty
4427:Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)
4366:Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)
4356:Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa
4326:Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)
3975:Rawski, Evelyn S. (1998),
3711:Dennerline, Jerry (2002),
1490:political power was under
885:
860:honorific posthumous title
725:Thousand Character Classic
490:honorific posthumous title
5600:Lists of leaders of China
5590:Lists of Chinese monarchs
5549:Names of the Qing dynasty
5492:
5460:
5417:
5410:
5279:
5197:Manchu Han Imperial Feast
5124:
5056:
4977:
4882:
4678:
4569:
4527:Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)
4522:Gongche Shangshu movement
4467:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)
4379:
4316:Chinese Rites controversy
4286:
4216:
4207:
4082:Chinese History: A Manual
3879:10.1163/23521341-12340146
2747:
2698:
2695:
2687:
2682:
2676:
2665:
2659:
2648:
2642:
2619:
2611:
2604:
2601:
2596:
2592:
2589:
2578:
2572:
2561:
2555:
2544:
2538:
2527:
2521:
2498:
2490:
2483:
2480:
2475:
2460:
2450:
2447:
2436:
2430:
2419:
2413:
2402:
2396:
2385:
2379:
2356:
2348:
2341:
2338:
2333:
2329:
2326:
2315:
2309:
2298:
2292:
2281:
2275:
2264:
2258:
2235:
2227:
2220:
2217:
2212:
2199:
2183:
2173:
2170:
2159:
2153:
2142:
2136:
2125:
2119:
2108:
2102:
2079:
2071:
2064:
2061:
2056:
2043:
2029:
2022:
2012:
2009:
1998:
1992:
1981:
1975:
1964:
1958:
1947:
1941:
1918:
1910:
1903:
1900:
1895:
1878:
1868:
1865:
1854:
1848:
1835:
1829:
1818:
1812:
1801:
1795:
1772:
1764:
1757:
1754:
1749:
1745:
1742:
1731:
1725:
1714:
1708:
1697:
1691:
1680:
1674:
1651:
1643:
1636:
1633:
1628:
1615:
1612:
1601:
1595:
1584:
1578:
1567:
1561:
1550:
1544:
1521:
1513:
1506:
1503:
1498:
1485:
1482:
1471:
1465:
1454:
1448:
1437:
1431:
1420:
1414:
1391:
1383:
1376:
1373:
1368:
1355:
1352:
1341:
1335:
1324:
1318:
1305:
1299:
1288:
1282:
1259:
1251:
1244:
1241:
1220:
1186:
1181:
1178:
1164:
1158:
1147:
1141:
1118:
1110:
1103:
1095:
1078:
1076:
1070:
1059:
1053:
1042:
1036:
1025:
1019:
1008:
1002:
979:
971:
964:
940:
888:Qing emperors family tree
854:Honorific posthumous name
798:Imperial Ancestral Temple
782:Imperial Ancestral Temple
637:" (r. 1735–1795) or the "
482:Huang shufu shezheng wang
447:; 1871–1908), the son of
443:emperor was Zaitian (the
258:Imperial Ancestral Temple
228:(1559–1626), khan of the
154:
144:
134:
117:
107:
102:His Imperial Majesty (陛下)
97:
92:
88:
84:
64:
60:
46:
39:
31:
28:
20:
5470:Great Qing Treasure Note
5290:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)
5000:Administrative divisions
4817:Administrative divisions
4745:Flag of the Qing dynasty
4121:Wright, Mary C. (1957),
3798:Fang, Chao-ying (1943).
3758:Fang, Chao-ying (1943).
2821:Qing dynasty family tree
2186:), but he changed it to
2042:on the common character
184:imperial Chinese dynasty
5605:Lists of Chinese people
5066:Chengde Mountain Resort
4867:Three Eastern Provinces
4517:First Sino-Japanese War
4492:Northern Chinese Famine
4351:Lin Shuangwen rebellion
4249:Qing invasion of Joseon
4044:Central Asiatic Journal
3236:, pp. 182 and 512.
3109:, pp. 62–63 and 205–7;
1284:Aisin-Gioro Huang Taiji
1143:Aisin-Gioro Huang Taiji
1087:
5447:Great Qing Copper Coin
5335:Convention of Tientsin
5268:Annotated Bibliography
5216:Qing official headwear
4259:Battle of Shanhai Pass
4084:(Revised and Enlarged)
3913:Naquin, Susan (2000),
2707:Empress Dowager Longyu
2705:signed by Puyi's aunt
785:
618:
488:(Chengzong 成宗) and an
352:
5521:Draft History of Qing
5380:Treaty of Shimonoseki
5161:performance criticism
4765:Imperial Commissioner
4755:Great Qing Legal Code
4554:Eight-Nation Alliance
4537:Third plague pandemic
4447:Punti–Hakka Clan Wars
4371:White Lotus Rebellion
4021:"The K'ang-hsi Reign"
3806:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr.
3766:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr.
3713:"The Shun-chih Reign"
3645:Crossley, Pamela Kyle
3513:Draft History of Qing
1194:Emperors of the Qing
775:
602:
590:Multiple appellations
580:Empress Dowager Ci'an
376:1626, a committee of
334:
280:in the 18th century.
5452:Great Qing Gold Coin
5385:Treaty of Tarbagatai
5330:Convention of Peking
5210:Pentaglot Dictionary
5192:Literary inquisition
4902:Ever Victorious Army
4735:Deliberative Council
4639:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil
4592:1905 Batang uprising
4532:Hundred Days' Reform
4422:Small Swords Society
2727:temporarily restored
2104:Aisin-Gioro Mianning
615:Empress Dowager Cixi
584:Hundred Days' Reform
541:Empress Dowager Cixi
539:(r. 1661–1669), and
440:Empress Dowager Cixi
337:Giuseppe Castiglione
321:Empress Dowager Cixi
260:in the Qing capital
194:, but only captured
5505:Anti-Qing sentiment
5355:Treaty of the Bogue
5295:Treaty of Nerchinsk
5227:Complete Tang Poems
4907:Green Standard Army
4790:Provincial governor
4760:Imperial Clan Court
4740:Diplomatic missions
4715:Consultative Bureau
4462:Tongzhi Restoration
4341:Afaqi Khoja revolts
4321:Ten Great Campaigns
4229:Jurchen unification
3818:. pp. 295–300.
3778:. pp. 215–219.
3560:Lu & Huang 2023
3121:, p. 119; and
2523:Aisin-Gioro Zaitian
2381:Aisin-Gioro Zaichun
1943:Aisin-Gioro Yongyan
1676:Aisin-Gioro Yinzhen
1486:From 1643 to 1650,
1195:
1004:Aisin-Gioro Nurhaci
915:
813:traditional Chinese
411:the rafters of the
212:a military uprising
5390:Treaty of Tientsin
5101:Western Qing tombs
5096:Eastern Qing tombs
4922:Peking Field Force
4666:Manchu Restoration
4559:Declaration of war
4512:Jindandao incident
4331:Lhasa riot of 1750
4131:Wu, Silas (1979),
3690:de Crespigny, Rafe
3363:, pp. 110–11.
3224:, pp. 513–14.
3188:, pp. 298–99.
3032:, pp. 96–103.
2970:, pp. 185–86.
2816:Dynasties of China
2696:Nephew of Guangxu
2590:Cousin of Tongzhi
2174:His name had been
1797:Aisin-Gioro Hongli
1546:Aisin-Gioro Xuanye
1483:Son of Hong Taiji
1353:(Founder of Qing)
1193:
913:
821:simplified Chinese
786:
666:wesihun erdemungge
619:
353:
198:and succeeded the
178:(1644–1912) was a
108:First monarch
5577:
5576:
5488:
5487:
5400:Treaty of Whampoa
5395:Treaty of Wanghia
5370:Treaty of Nanking
5340:Li–Lobanov Treaty
5315:Chefoo Convention
5310:Burlingame Treaty
5181:Kangxi Dictionary
5086:Old Summer Palace
4917:Firearm Battalion
4720:Cup of Solid Gold
4674:
4673:
4619:Manchurian plague
4582:Late Qing reforms
4573:(1901–1912)
4507:Sikkim expedition
4437:Panthay Rebellion
4407:Taiping Rebellion
4383:(1801–1900)
4361:Sino-Nepalese War
4306:Dzungar–Qing Wars
4292:(1683–1799)
4220:(1616–1683)
4113:978-0-674-06715-8
4076:. In two volumes.
4057:Wakeman, Frederic
3824:cite encyclopedia
3784:cite encyclopedia
3703:978-90-04-15605-0
3696:, Leiden: Brill,
3627:Transgender China
3598:, pp. 17–18.
3550:, pp. 806–7.
3014:de Crespigny 2007
2893:, pp. 98–99.
2752:
2751:
2715:Republic of China
2260:Aisin-Gioro Yizhu
2206:
1971:Saicungga fengšen
1866:Son of Yongzheng
1646:Yongzheng Emperor
1416:Aisin-Gioro Fulin
1191:
1190:
914:Khans of the Jin
808:Veritable Records
763:Posthumous titles
610:Book of Documents
559:nativist measures
405:Yongzheng Emperor
380:princes selected
341:Yongzheng Emperor
256:) and founded an
234:Later Jin dynasty
220:Republic of China
216:Xinhai Revolution
172:
171:
118:Last monarch
5612:
5554:New Qing History
5437:Qianlong Tongbao
5415:
5414:
5360:Treaty of Canton
5300:Unequal treaties
5106:Fuling Mausoleum
4705:Advisory Council
4634:Wuchang Uprising
4574:
4477:Tianjin Massacre
4442:Second Opium War
4384:
4346:Sino-Burmese War
4293:
4271:Battle of Penghu
4239:Seven Grievances
4221:
4214:
4213:
4193:
4186:
4179:
4170:
4169:
4163:
4145:
4126:
4116:
4097:
4075:
4051:
4037:
4014:
3991:
3970:
3951:
3933:Oxnam, Robert B.
3927:
3908:
3891:
3881:
3855:
3844:
3833:
3827:
3819:
3803:
3793:
3787:
3779:
3763:
3753:
3735:Elliott, Mark C.
3729:
3706:
3684:
3665:
3654:
3639:
3611:
3605:
3599:
3593:
3587:
3581:
3575:
3569:
3563:
3557:
3551:
3545:
3536:
3530:
3521:
3508:
3502:
3496:
3485:
3479:
3470:
3464:
3458:
3452:
3446:
3440:
3434:
3428:
3422:
3416:
3405:
3399:
3388:
3382:
3376:
3370:
3364:
3358:
3352:
3346:
3333:
3327:
3318:
3312:
3306:
3300:
3294:
3288:
3282:
3276:
3270:
3264:
3253:
3248:, p. xii ;
3243:
3237:
3231:
3225:
3219:
3213:
3207:
3201:
3195:
3189:
3183:
3177:
3171:
3165:
3159:
3153:
3147:
3138:
3132:
3126:
3117:, p. 1015;
3103:
3097:
3091:
3085:
3079:
3073:
3063:
3057:
3051:
3045:
3039:
3033:
3027:
3021:
3011:
3005:
2999:
2988:
2982:
2971:
2965:
2959:
2953:
2942:
2941:, p. 101–2.
2936:
2930:
2924:
2918:
2912:
2906:
2900:
2894:
2888:
2882:
2881:, pp. 51–2.
2876:
2870:
2864:
2853:
2847:
2800:
2799:
2788:
2787:
2742:
2736:
2685:
2684:
2673:
2668:
2667:
2656:
2651:
2650:
2644:Aisin-Gioro Puyi
2638:
2631:
2626:
2622:
2621:
2614:Xuantong Emperor
2609:
2586:
2581:
2580:
2569:
2564:
2563:
2552:
2547:
2546:
2535:
2530:
2529:
2517:
2510:
2505:
2501:
2500:
2488:
2471:was never used.
2462:
2448:Son of Xianfeng
2444:
2439:
2438:
2427:
2422:
2421:
2410:
2405:
2404:
2393:
2388:
2387:
2375:
2368:
2363:
2359:
2358:
2346:
2327:Son of Daoguang
2323:
2318:
2317:
2306:
2301:
2300:
2289:
2288:Gubci elgiyengge
2284:
2283:
2272:
2267:
2266:
2254:
2247:
2242:
2238:
2237:
2230:Xianfeng Emperor
2225:
2207:
2204:
2201:
2185:
2167:
2162:
2161:
2150:
2145:
2144:
2133:
2128:
2127:
2116:
2111:
2110:
2098:
2091:
2086:
2082:
2081:
2074:Daoguang Emperor
2069:
2050:
2045:
2036:
2031:
2024:
2010:Son of Qianlong
2006:
2001:
2000:
1989:
1984:
1983:
1972:
1967:
1966:
1955:
1950:
1949:
1937:
1930:
1925:
1921:
1920:
1908:
1885:
1880:
1875:Emperor Emeritus
1862:
1857:
1856:
1845:
1838:
1837:
1826:
1821:
1820:
1809:
1804:
1803:
1791:
1784:
1779:
1775:
1774:
1767:Qianlong Emperor
1762:
1739:
1734:
1733:
1722:
1717:
1716:
1705:
1700:
1699:
1688:
1683:
1682:
1670:
1663:
1658:
1654:
1653:
1641:
1609:
1604:
1603:
1592:
1587:
1586:
1575:
1570:
1569:
1558:
1553:
1552:
1540:
1533:
1528:
1524:
1523:
1511:
1479:
1474:
1473:
1462:
1457:
1456:
1445:
1440:
1439:
1428:
1423:
1422:
1410:
1403:
1398:
1394:
1393:
1381:
1349:
1344:
1343:
1332:
1327:
1326:
1315:
1308:
1307:
1296:
1291:
1290:
1278:
1271:
1266:
1262:
1261:
1249:
1234:
1209:
1196:
1192:
1172:
1167:
1166:
1155:
1150:
1149:
1137:
1130:
1125:
1121:
1120:
1108:
1090:
1080:
1067:
1062:
1061:
1050:
1045:
1044:
1033:
1028:
1027:
1016:
1011:
1010:
998:
991:
986:
982:
981:
969:
954:
929:
916:
912:
904:Chinese calendar
882:List of emperors
835:
826:
818:
753:Daoguang Emperor
728:, a widely used
635:Qianlong Emperor
627:Chinese New Year
571:empress dowagers
535:(r. 1643–1650),
525:
516:
507:
453:Xianfeng Emperor
429:Daoguang Emperor
421:Qianlong Emperor
345:Qianlong Emperor
309:Qianlong Emperor
214:had started the
149:12 February 1912
122:Xuantong Emperor
75:Xuantong Emperor
69:
51:
35:
34:
33:
24:
18:
17:
5620:
5619:
5615:
5614:
5613:
5611:
5610:
5609:
5580:
5579:
5578:
5573:
5569:Willow Palisade
5515:Chuang Guandong
5484:
5456:
5406:
5365:Treaty of Kulja
5350:Treaty of Aigun
5283:
5275:
5174:History of Ming
5126:
5120:
5058:
5052:
4978:Special regions
4973:
4912:Imperial Guards
4878:
4670:
4629:1911 Revolution
4575:
4572:
4565:
4542:Boxer Rebellion
4502:Sino-French War
4452:Amur Annexation
4397:First Opium War
4385:
4382:
4375:
4294:
4291:
4282:
4266:Great Clearance
4222:
4219:
4203:
4197:
4167:
4161:
4143:
4114:
4095:
4073:
4035:
4012:
3989:
3968:
3949:
3925:
3853:
3821:
3820:
3781:
3780:
3751:
3727:
3704:
3682:
3663:
3637:
3620:
3615:
3614:
3606:
3602:
3594:
3590:
3582:
3578:
3570:
3566:
3558:
3554:
3546:
3539:
3531:
3524:
3509:
3505:
3497:
3488:
3480:
3473:
3465:
3461:
3453:
3449:
3441:
3437:
3429:
3425:
3417:
3408:
3400:
3391:
3383:
3379:
3371:
3367:
3359:
3355:
3347:
3336:
3328:
3321:
3313:
3309:
3301:
3297:
3289:
3285:
3277:
3273:
3265:
3256:
3244:
3240:
3232:
3228:
3220:
3216:
3208:
3204:
3196:
3192:
3184:
3180:
3172:
3168:
3160:
3156:
3148:
3141:
3133:
3129:
3119:Dennerline 2002
3104:
3100:
3094:Dennerline 2002
3092:
3088:
3080:
3076:
3064:
3060:
3052:
3048:
3040:
3036:
3028:
3024:
3012:
3008:
3000:
2991:
2983:
2974:
2966:
2962:
2954:
2945:
2937:
2933:
2925:
2921:
2913:
2909:
2901:
2897:
2889:
2885:
2877:
2873:
2865:
2856:
2848:
2844:
2839:
2812:
2797:
2796:
2785:
2784:
2776:
2774:
2757:
2740:
2734:
2680:
2671:
2669:
2663:
2654:
2652:
2646:
2639:
2636:
2632:
2629:
2624:
2623:
2617:
2584:
2582:
2576:
2567:
2565:
2559:
2551:Badarangga doro
2550:
2548:
2542:
2533:
2531:
2525:
2518:
2515:
2511:
2508:
2503:
2502:
2496:
2493:Guangxu Emperor
2442:
2440:
2434:
2425:
2423:
2417:
2409:Yooningga dasan
2408:
2406:
2400:
2391:
2389:
2383:
2376:
2373:
2369:
2366:
2361:
2360:
2354:
2351:Tongzhi Emperor
2321:
2319:
2313:
2304:
2302:
2296:
2287:
2285:
2279:
2270:
2268:
2262:
2255:
2252:
2248:
2245:
2240:
2239:
2233:
2171:Son of Jiaqing
2165:
2163:
2157:
2148:
2146:
2140:
2131:
2129:
2123:
2114:
2112:
2106:
2099:
2096:
2092:
2089:
2084:
2083:
2077:
2004:
2002:
1996:
1987:
1985:
1979:
1970:
1968:
1962:
1953:
1951:
1945:
1938:
1935:
1931:
1928:
1923:
1922:
1916:
1913:Jiaqing Emperor
1860:
1858:
1852:
1843:
1841:
1839:
1833:
1824:
1822:
1816:
1807:
1805:
1799:
1792:
1789:
1785:
1782:
1777:
1776:
1770:
1737:
1735:
1729:
1720:
1718:
1712:
1704:Hūwaliyasun tob
1703:
1701:
1695:
1686:
1684:
1678:
1671:
1668:
1664:
1661:
1656:
1655:
1649:
1607:
1605:
1599:
1590:
1588:
1582:
1573:
1571:
1565:
1556:
1554:
1548:
1541:
1538:
1534:
1531:
1526:
1525:
1519:
1477:
1475:
1469:
1460:
1458:
1452:
1443:
1441:
1435:
1426:
1424:
1418:
1411:
1408:
1404:
1401:
1396:
1395:
1389:
1386:Shunzhi Emperor
1347:
1345:
1339:
1330:
1328:
1322:
1313:
1311:
1309:
1303:
1294:
1292:
1286:
1279:
1276:
1272:
1269:
1264:
1263:
1257:
1207:
1206:
1179:Son of Nurhaci
1170:
1168:
1162:
1153:
1151:
1145:
1138:
1135:
1131:
1128:
1123:
1122:
1116:
1065:
1063:
1057:
1048:
1046:
1040:
1031:
1029:
1023:
1014:
1012:
1006:
999:
996:
992:
989:
984:
983:
977:
927:
926:
890:
884:
856:
770:
765:
745:Jiaqing Emperor
694:
684:, that is, the
674:Concordia Recta
658:Pamela Crossley
639:Guangxu Emperor
605:Tongzhi Emperor
597:
592:
551:four co-regents
547:
546:
545:
544:
528:
527:
526:
518:
517:
509:
508:
465:
445:Guangxu Emperor
436:Tongzhi Emperor
425:Jiaqing Emperor
413:Qianqing Palace
386:Shunzhi Emperor
367:. When in 1622
329:
317:Tongzhi Emperor
313:Jiaqing Emperor
301:Shunzhi Emperor
192:Northeast China
190:in what is now
161:
112:Chongde Emperor
80:
78:
73:
56:
42:
29:
22:
12:
11:
5:
5618:
5608:
5607:
5602:
5597:
5592:
5575:
5574:
5572:
5571:
5566:
5561:
5556:
5551:
5546:
5541:
5536:
5531:
5524:
5517:
5512:
5507:
5502:
5496:
5494:
5490:
5489:
5486:
5485:
5483:
5482:
5477:
5472:
5466:
5464:
5458:
5457:
5455:
5454:
5449:
5444:
5439:
5434:
5432:Kangxi Tongbao
5429:
5423:
5421:
5412:
5408:
5407:
5405:
5404:
5403:
5402:
5397:
5392:
5387:
5382:
5377:
5372:
5367:
5362:
5357:
5352:
5347:
5342:
5337:
5332:
5327:
5322:
5317:
5312:
5307:
5305:Boxer Protocol
5297:
5292:
5286:
5284:
5277:
5276:
5274:
5273:
5272:
5271:
5257:
5252:
5247:
5242:
5235:
5230:
5223:
5218:
5213:
5206:
5199:
5194:
5189:
5184:
5177:
5170:
5165:
5164:
5163:
5153:
5148:
5141:
5136:
5130:
5128:
5122:
5121:
5119:
5118:
5113:
5108:
5103:
5098:
5093:
5088:
5083:
5078:
5073:
5071:Forbidden City
5068:
5062:
5060:
5054:
5053:
5051:
5050:
5049:
5048:
5038:
5037:
5036:
5034:General of Ili
5031:
5021:
5020:
5019:
5017:List of ambans
5014:
5004:
5003:
5002:
4992:
4987:
4981:
4979:
4975:
4974:
4972:
4971:
4966:
4965:
4964:
4959:
4954:
4944:
4939:
4934:
4929:
4924:
4919:
4914:
4909:
4904:
4899:
4894:
4888:
4886:
4880:
4879:
4877:
4876:
4871:
4870:
4869:
4864:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4844:
4839:
4834:
4829:
4819:
4814:
4813:
4812:
4802:
4797:
4792:
4787:
4782:
4777:
4772:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4752:
4747:
4742:
4737:
4732:
4727:
4722:
4717:
4712:
4707:
4702:
4701:
4700:
4695:
4684:
4682:
4676:
4675:
4672:
4671:
4669:
4668:
4663:
4658:
4657:
4656:
4651:
4646:
4641:
4636:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4610:
4609:
4604:
4594:
4589:
4584:
4578:
4576:
4571:
4567:
4566:
4564:
4563:
4562:
4561:
4551:
4550:
4549:
4539:
4534:
4529:
4524:
4519:
4514:
4509:
4504:
4499:
4494:
4489:
4484:
4482:Margary Affair
4479:
4474:
4472:Mudan incident
4469:
4464:
4459:
4454:
4449:
4444:
4439:
4434:
4429:
4424:
4419:
4414:
4412:Nian Rebellion
4409:
4404:
4399:
4394:
4388:
4386:
4381:
4377:
4376:
4374:
4373:
4368:
4363:
4358:
4353:
4348:
4343:
4338:
4333:
4328:
4323:
4318:
4313:
4308:
4303:
4297:
4295:
4290:
4284:
4283:
4281:
4280:
4275:
4274:
4273:
4263:
4262:
4261:
4251:
4246:
4241:
4236:
4231:
4225:
4223:
4218:
4211:
4205:
4204:
4196:
4195:
4188:
4181:
4173:
4166:
4165:
4159:
4146:
4141:
4128:
4118:
4112:
4099:
4093:
4077:
4071:
4053:
4039:
4033:
4016:
4010:
3993:
3987:
3972:
3966:
3953:
3947:
3929:
3923:
3910:
3892:
3857:
3851:
3834:
3795:
3761:"Dorgon"
3755:
3749:
3731:
3725:
3708:
3702:
3686:
3680:
3667:
3661:
3641:
3636:978-0230340626
3635:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3613:
3612:
3600:
3588:
3576:
3574:, p. 208.
3564:
3552:
3548:Wilkinson 2012
3537:
3535:, p. 303.
3522:
3503:
3501:, p. 806.
3499:Wilkinson 2012
3486:
3484:, p. 138.
3471:
3469:, p. 807.
3467:Wilkinson 2012
3459:
3457:, p. 270.
3455:Wilkinson 2012
3447:
3443:Wilkinson 2012
3435:
3431:Wilkinson 2012
3423:
3406:
3404:, p. 208.
3389:
3387:, p. 146.
3385:Wilkinson 2012
3377:
3375:, p. 111.
3365:
3353:
3351:, p. 110.
3334:
3332:, p. 274.
3330:Wilkinson 2012
3319:
3317:, p. 110.
3315:Wilkinson 2000
3307:
3305:, p. 276.
3303:Wilkinson 2012
3295:
3293:, p. 514.
3291:Wilkinson 2012
3283:
3281:, p. 152.
3279:Marinescu 2008
3271:
3269:, p. 137.
3254:
3238:
3234:Wilkinson 2012
3226:
3222:Wilkinson 2012
3214:
3212:, p. 512.
3210:Wilkinson 2012
3202:
3200:, p. 515.
3198:Wilkinson 2012
3190:
3178:
3176:, p. 298.
3166:
3164:, p. 346.
3154:
3152:, p. 133.
3139:
3127:
3125:, p. 126.
3113:, p. 20;
3098:
3096:, p. 118.
3086:
3074:
3058:
3056:, p. 861.
3046:
3034:
3022:
3006:
3004:, p. 297.
2989:
2987:, p. 103.
2972:
2960:
2958:, p. 102.
2943:
2931:
2919:
2907:
2905:, p. 125.
2895:
2883:
2871:
2854:
2841:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2834:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2811:
2808:
2807:
2806:
2794:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2750:
2749:
2745:
2744:
2738:
2731:
2730:
2697:
2694:
2686:
2675:
2658:
2641:
2634:
2627:
2610:
2603:
2599:
2598:
2594:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2571:
2554:
2537:
2520:
2513:
2506:
2489:
2482:
2478:
2477:
2473:
2472:
2449:
2446:
2429:
2412:
2395:
2378:
2371:
2364:
2347:
2340:
2336:
2335:
2331:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2308:
2291:
2274:
2257:
2250:
2243:
2226:
2219:
2215:
2214:
2210:
2209:
2172:
2169:
2152:
2135:
2118:
2101:
2094:
2087:
2070:
2063:
2059:
2058:
2054:
2053:
2011:
2008:
1991:
1974:
1957:
1940:
1933:
1926:
1909:
1902:
1898:
1897:
1893:
1892:
1884:Tàishàng Huáng
1867:
1864:
1847:
1828:
1825:Abkai wehiyehe
1811:
1794:
1787:
1780:
1763:
1756:
1752:
1751:
1747:
1746:
1744:
1743:Son of Kangxi
1741:
1724:
1707:
1690:
1673:
1666:
1659:
1642:
1635:
1631:
1630:
1626:
1625:
1614:
1613:Son of Shunzi
1611:
1594:
1577:
1560:
1543:
1536:
1529:
1516:Kangxi Emperor
1512:
1505:
1501:
1500:
1496:
1495:
1484:
1481:
1464:
1447:
1430:
1413:
1406:
1399:
1382:
1375:
1371:
1370:
1366:
1365:
1354:
1351:
1334:
1317:
1298:
1281:
1274:
1267:
1250:
1243:
1239:
1238:
1235:
1230:
1227:
1223:
1222:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1210:
1203:
1200:
1189:
1188:
1184:
1183:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1157:
1140:
1133:
1126:
1109:
1102:
1098:
1097:
1093:
1092:
1075:
1069:
1052:
1035:
1032:Abkai fulingga
1018:
1001:
994:
987:
970:
963:
959:
958:
955:
950:
947:
943:
942:
939:
936:
933:
930:
923:
920:
899:lunisolar year
883:
880:
855:
852:
802:spirit tablets
794:honorific name
778:spirit tablets
769:
766:
764:
761:
693:
690:
596:
593:
591:
588:
555:Kangxi Emperor
530:
529:
520:
519:
511:
510:
502:
501:
500:
499:
498:
464:
461:
417:Forbidden City
397:Kangxi Emperor
328:
325:
305:Kangxi Emperor
274:Chinese khagan
232:, founded the
170:
169:
163:Forbidden City
156:
152:
151:
146:
142:
141:
136:
132:
131:
119:
115:
114:
109:
105:
104:
99:
95:
94:
90:
89:
86:
85:
82:
81:
70:
62:
61:
58:
57:
52:
44:
43:
40:
37:
36:
26:
25:
23:the Great Qing
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5617:
5606:
5603:
5601:
5598:
5596:
5593:
5591:
5588:
5587:
5585:
5570:
5567:
5565:
5562:
5560:
5557:
5555:
5552:
5550:
5547:
5545:
5544:Manchu people
5542:
5540:
5537:
5535:
5532:
5530:
5529:
5525:
5523:
5522:
5518:
5516:
5513:
5511:
5510:Canton System
5508:
5506:
5503:
5501:
5498:
5497:
5495:
5491:
5481:
5478:
5476:
5475:Hubu Guanpiao
5473:
5471:
5468:
5467:
5465:
5463:
5459:
5453:
5450:
5448:
5445:
5443:
5440:
5438:
5435:
5433:
5430:
5428:
5425:
5424:
5422:
5420:
5416:
5413:
5409:
5401:
5398:
5396:
5393:
5391:
5388:
5386:
5383:
5381:
5378:
5376:
5373:
5371:
5368:
5366:
5363:
5361:
5358:
5356:
5353:
5351:
5348:
5346:
5343:
5341:
5338:
5336:
5333:
5331:
5328:
5326:
5323:
5321:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5308:
5306:
5303:
5302:
5301:
5298:
5296:
5293:
5291:
5288:
5287:
5285:
5282:
5278:
5270:
5269:
5265:
5264:
5263:
5262:
5258:
5256:
5253:
5251:
5248:
5246:
5243:
5241:
5240:
5236:
5234:
5231:
5229:
5228:
5224:
5222:
5219:
5217:
5214:
5212:
5211:
5207:
5205:
5204:
5200:
5198:
5195:
5193:
5190:
5188:
5185:
5183:
5182:
5178:
5176:
5175:
5171:
5169:
5166:
5162:
5159:
5158:
5157:
5154:
5152:
5149:
5147:
5146:
5142:
5140:
5137:
5135:
5132:
5131:
5129:
5125:Society &
5123:
5117:
5114:
5112:
5109:
5107:
5104:
5102:
5099:
5097:
5094:
5092:
5091:Summer Palace
5089:
5087:
5084:
5082:
5081:Mukden Palace
5079:
5077:
5074:
5072:
5069:
5067:
5064:
5063:
5061:
5057:Palaces &
5055:
5047:
5044:
5043:
5042:
5039:
5035:
5032:
5030:
5027:
5026:
5025:
5022:
5018:
5015:
5013:
5010:
5009:
5008:
5005:
5001:
4998:
4997:
4996:
4993:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4983:
4982:
4980:
4976:
4970:
4967:
4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4949:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4940:
4938:
4935:
4933:
4930:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4913:
4910:
4908:
4905:
4903:
4900:
4898:
4897:Eight Banners
4895:
4893:
4890:
4889:
4887:
4885:
4881:
4875:
4872:
4868:
4865:
4863:
4860:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4845:
4843:
4840:
4838:
4835:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4824:
4823:
4820:
4818:
4815:
4811:
4808:
4807:
4806:
4803:
4801:
4798:
4796:
4793:
4791:
4788:
4786:
4783:
4781:
4778:
4776:
4773:
4771:
4768:
4766:
4763:
4761:
4758:
4756:
4753:
4751:
4750:Grand Council
4748:
4746:
4743:
4741:
4738:
4736:
4733:
4731:
4728:
4726:
4723:
4721:
4718:
4716:
4713:
4711:
4708:
4706:
4703:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4691:
4690:
4689:
4686:
4685:
4683:
4681:
4677:
4667:
4664:
4662:
4659:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4632:
4631:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4599:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4579:
4577:
4570:20th century
4568:
4560:
4557:
4556:
4555:
4552:
4548:
4545:
4544:
4543:
4540:
4538:
4535:
4533:
4530:
4528:
4525:
4523:
4520:
4518:
4515:
4513:
4510:
4508:
4505:
4503:
4500:
4498:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4488:
4485:
4483:
4480:
4478:
4475:
4473:
4470:
4468:
4465:
4463:
4460:
4458:
4455:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4443:
4440:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4415:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4389:
4387:
4380:19th century
4378:
4372:
4369:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4349:
4347:
4344:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4334:
4332:
4329:
4327:
4324:
4322:
4319:
4317:
4314:
4312:
4309:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4299:
4298:
4296:
4289:
4285:
4279:
4276:
4272:
4269:
4268:
4267:
4264:
4260:
4257:
4256:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4226:
4224:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4206:
4201:
4194:
4189:
4187:
4182:
4180:
4175:
4174:
4171:
4162:
4160:0-521-24334-3
4156:
4152:
4147:
4144:
4142:0-674-65625-3
4138:
4134:
4129:
4124:
4119:
4115:
4109:
4105:
4100:
4096:
4094:0-674-00249-0
4090:
4086:
4083:
4078:
4074:
4072:0-520-04804-0
4068:
4064:
4063:
4058:
4054:
4050:(3–4): 296–99
4049:
4045:
4040:
4036:
4034:0-521-24334-3
4030:
4026:
4022:
4017:
4013:
4011:0-521-24334-3
4007:
4003:
3999:
3994:
3990:
3988:0-520-22837-5
3984:
3980:
3979:
3973:
3969:
3967:0-521-24334-3
3963:
3959:
3954:
3950:
3948:0-226-64244-5
3944:
3940:
3939:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3924:0-520-21991-0
3920:
3916:
3911:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3858:
3854:
3852:0-226-43203-3
3848:
3843:
3842:
3835:
3831:
3825:
3817:
3813:
3812:
3807:
3802:
3796:
3791:
3785:
3777:
3773:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3756:
3752:
3750:0-8047-4684-2
3746:
3742:
3741:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3726:0-521-24334-3
3722:
3718:
3714:
3709:
3705:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3683:
3681:0-520-21566-4
3677:
3673:
3668:
3664:
3662:0-691-05583-1
3658:
3653:
3652:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3632:
3628:
3623:
3622:
3610:, p. 52.
3609:
3604:
3597:
3592:
3585:
3580:
3573:
3572:Crossley 1990
3568:
3562:, p. 97.
3561:
3556:
3549:
3544:
3542:
3534:
3529:
3527:
3519:
3515:
3514:
3507:
3500:
3495:
3493:
3491:
3483:
3482:Crossley 1999
3478:
3476:
3468:
3463:
3456:
3451:
3444:
3439:
3432:
3427:
3421:, p. 74.
3420:
3415:
3413:
3411:
3403:
3398:
3396:
3394:
3386:
3381:
3374:
3369:
3362:
3357:
3350:
3345:
3343:
3341:
3339:
3331:
3326:
3324:
3316:
3311:
3304:
3299:
3292:
3287:
3280:
3275:
3268:
3267:Crossley 1999
3263:
3261:
3259:
3251:
3250:Peterson 2002
3247:
3242:
3235:
3230:
3223:
3218:
3211:
3206:
3199:
3194:
3187:
3182:
3175:
3170:
3163:
3158:
3151:
3146:
3144:
3137:, p. 48.
3136:
3131:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3102:
3095:
3090:
3084:, p. 75.
3083:
3078:
3071:
3067:
3062:
3055:
3050:
3044:, p. 71.
3043:
3038:
3031:
3026:
3019:
3015:
3010:
3003:
2998:
2996:
2994:
2986:
2981:
2979:
2977:
2969:
2964:
2957:
2952:
2950:
2948:
2940:
2935:
2928:
2923:
2917:, p. 31.
2916:
2911:
2904:
2899:
2892:
2887:
2880:
2875:
2869:, p. 98.
2868:
2863:
2861:
2859:
2851:
2846:
2842:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2826:Son of Heaven
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2813:
2804:
2795:
2792:
2783:
2782:
2781:
2780:
2746:
2739:
2733:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2703:
2693:
2690:
2679:
2674:
2672:Gehungge yoso
2662:
2657:
2645:
2635:
2628:
2616:
2615:
2608:
2600:
2595:
2587:
2575:
2570:
2558:
2553:
2541:
2536:
2524:
2514:
2507:
2495:
2494:
2487:
2479:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2458:
2454:
2445:
2433:
2428:
2416:
2411:
2399:
2394:
2382:
2372:
2365:
2353:
2352:
2345:
2337:
2332:
2324:
2312:
2307:
2295:
2290:
2278:
2273:
2261:
2251:
2244:
2232:
2231:
2224:
2216:
2211:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2181:
2177:
2168:
2156:
2151:
2139:
2134:
2132:Doro eldengge
2122:
2117:
2105:
2095:
2088:
2076:
2075:
2068:
2060:
2055:
2051:
2041:
2037:
2028:
2020:
2016:
2007:
1995:
1990:
1978:
1973:
1961:
1956:
1944:
1934:
1927:
1915:
1914:
1907:
1899:
1894:
1890:
1887:'). However,
1886:
1876:
1872:
1863:
1851:
1846:
1832:
1827:
1815:
1810:
1798:
1788:
1781:
1769:
1768:
1761:
1753:
1748:
1740:
1728:
1723:
1711:
1706:
1694:
1689:
1677:
1667:
1660:
1648:
1647:
1640:
1632:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1610:
1598:
1593:
1581:
1576:
1564:
1559:
1547:
1537:
1530:
1518:
1517:
1510:
1502:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1480:
1468:
1463:
1451:
1446:
1444:Ijishūn dasan
1434:
1429:
1417:
1407:
1400:
1388:
1387:
1380:
1372:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1350:
1338:
1333:
1321:
1316:
1302:
1297:
1285:
1275:
1268:
1256:
1255:
1248:
1240:
1236:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1224:
1197:
1185:
1173:
1161:
1156:
1144:
1134:
1127:
1115:
1114:
1107:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1084:
1074:
1068:
1056:
1051:
1039:
1034:
1022:
1017:
1005:
995:
988:
976:
975:
968:
960:
956:
951:
948:
945:
944:
917:
911:
907:
905:
900:
896:
889:
879:
877:
873:
869:
865:
861:
851:
849:
844:
838:
836:
830:
822:
814:
810:
809:
803:
799:
795:
791:
783:
779:
774:
760:
758:
754:
750:
746:
741:
739:
735:
731:
727:
726:
721:
720:
715:
711:
707:
703:
699:
692:Personal name
689:
687:
683:
677:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
654:
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
631:
628:
624:
621:An emperor's
616:
612:
611:
606:
601:
587:
585:
581:
576:
572:
566:
564:
560:
556:
552:
542:
538:
534:
524:
515:
506:
497:
495:
494:spirit tablet
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
470:
460:
458:
454:
450:
446:
441:
437:
432:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
408:
406:
402:
398:
394:
389:
387:
383:
379:
374:
370:
366:
365:primogeniture
362:
361:heir apparent
358:
350:
346:
342:
338:
333:
324:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
281:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
168:
164:
160:
159:Mukden Palace
157:
153:
150:
147:
143:
140:
137:
133:
129:
128:
123:
120:
116:
113:
110:
106:
103:
100:
96:
91:
87:
83:
77:
76:
72:Last to reign
68:
63:
59:
55:
50:
45:
38:
27:
19:
16:
5564:Treaty ports
5526:
5519:
5493:Other topics
5266:
5259:
5237:
5225:
5208:
5203:Peiwen Yunfu
5201:
5179:
5172:
5143:
4892:Beiyang Army
4874:Zongli Yamen
4730:Da-Qing Bank
4692:
4547:Red Lanterns
4200:Qing dynasty
4150:
4132:
4122:
4103:
4085:
4081:
4061:
4047:
4043:
4024:
4001:
3977:
3957:
3937:
3914:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3872:(1): 77–99.
3869:
3865:
3840:
3809:
3769:
3739:
3716:
3693:
3671:
3650:
3626:
3603:
3591:
3586:, p. ?.
3579:
3567:
3555:
3517:
3511:
3506:
3462:
3450:
3438:
3426:
3380:
3368:
3356:
3310:
3298:
3286:
3274:
3246:Elliott 2001
3241:
3229:
3217:
3205:
3193:
3181:
3169:
3157:
3130:
3115:Wakeman 1985
3111:Kessler 1976
3101:
3089:
3077:
3061:
3054:Wakeman 1985
3049:
3042:Roth Li 2002
3037:
3025:
3009:
2963:
2934:
2922:
2910:
2898:
2886:
2879:Roth Li 2002
2874:
2845:
2778:
2777:
2722:
2700:
2691:
2688:
2677:
2670:
2660:
2653:
2643:
2612:
2583:
2573:
2566:
2556:
2549:
2539:
2532:
2522:
2491:
2468:
2464:
2452:
2441:
2431:
2424:
2414:
2407:
2397:
2390:
2380:
2349:
2320:
2310:
2303:
2293:
2286:
2276:
2269:
2259:
2228:
2191:
2187:
2175:
2164:
2154:
2147:
2137:
2130:
2120:
2113:
2103:
2072:
2047:
2040:naming taboo
2033:
2018:
2014:
2003:
1993:
1986:
1976:
1969:
1959:
1952:
1942:
1911:
1888:
1882:
1859:
1849:
1840:
1830:
1823:
1813:
1806:
1796:
1765:
1736:
1726:
1719:
1709:
1702:
1692:
1685:
1675:
1644:
1618:four regents
1606:
1596:
1589:
1579:
1572:
1562:
1555:
1545:
1514:
1487:
1476:
1466:
1459:
1449:
1442:
1432:
1425:
1415:
1384:
1361:
1357:
1346:
1336:
1331:Genggiyen su
1329:
1319:
1310:
1300:
1293:
1283:
1277:21 September
1252:
1169:
1159:
1152:
1142:
1111:
1072:
1071:(Founder of
1064:
1054:
1047:
1037:
1030:
1020:
1013:
1003:
997:30 September
972:
908:
891:
875:
871:
867:
863:
857:
839:
832:
806:
787:
748:
742:
737:
733:
723:
717:
713:
697:
695:
678:
673:
665:
661:
655:
632:
620:
608:
567:
548:
481:
466:
433:
409:
390:
354:
282:
253:
224:
204:China proper
200:Ming dynasty
176:Qing dynasty
173:
126:
71:
15:
5500:Aisin Gioro
5462:Paper money
5221:Qing poetry
4942:Wuwei Corps
4937:Shuishiying
4698:Family tree
3618:Works cited
3608:Chiang 2012
3596:Wright 1957
3533:Rawski 1998
3518:Qingshi Gao
3419:Rawski 1998
3402:Rawski 1998
3373:Rawski 1998
3361:Rawski 1998
3349:Rawski 1998
3162:Naquin 2000
3150:Spence 2002
3123:Spence 2002
3030:Rawski 1998
3018:Naquin 2000
2985:Rawski 1998
2956:Rawski 1998
2939:Rawski 1998
2903:Spence 2002
2891:Rawski 1998
2867:Rawski 1998
2850:Rawski 1998
2711:Yuan Shikai
2637:12 February
2625:(1906–1967)
2516:14 November
2509:25 February
2504:(1871–1908)
2367:11 November
2362:(1856–1875)
2241:(1831–1861)
2166:Siowandzung
2097:26 February
2085:(1782–1850)
2027:homophonous
1936:2 September
1924:(1760–1820)
1871:grandfather
1778:(1711–1799)
1721:Temgetulehe
1662:27 December
1657:(1678–1735)
1574:Elhe taifin
1539:20 December
1527:(1654–1722)
1402:30 October
1397:(1638–1661)
1265:(1592–1643)
1218:Succession
1124:(1592–1643)
1073:Later Jin)
990:17 February
985:(1559–1626)
938:Succession
876:wén huángdì
874:; Ch.: 文皇帝
872:šu hūwangdi
868:gāo huángdì
790:temple name
768:Temple name
757:Aisin Gioro
736:instead of
680:names were
486:temple name
469:Han dynasty
459:, in 1908.
449:Prince Chun
415:inside the
266:temple name
238:Jin dynasty
208:Aisin Gioro
21:Emperor of
5584:Categories
5168:Four Wangs
5059:mausoleums
5012:Golden Urn
4985:Inner Asia
4962:Xiang Army
4932:Hushenying
4857:Liangguang
4837:Liangjiang
4775:Lifan Yuan
4680:Government
3584:Stary 1984
3186:Fang 1943b
3174:Fang 1943b
3135:Oxnam 1975
3107:Oxnam 1975
3082:Oxnam 1975
3070:Oxnam 1975
3066:Fang 1943a
3002:Fang 1943b
2968:Zelin 2002
2837:References
2630:2 December
2568:Ambalinggū
2534:Dzai tiyan
2374:12 January
1929:9 February
1842:Yongkiyaha
1790:9 February
1783:18 October
1557:Hiowan yei
1532:5 February
1409:5 February
1314:erdemungge
1295:Hong taiji
1254:Hong Taiji
1208:(Lifespan)
1171:Abkai sure
1154:Hong taiji
1129:20 October
1113:Hong Taiji
928:(Lifespan)
886:See also:
864:wǔ huángdì
686:characters
662:abkai sure
647:Hong Taiji
382:Hong Taiji
357:legitimate
349:succession
327:Succession
270:Bogda Khan
242:Hong Taiji
4990:Manchuria
4957:Huai Army
4947:Yong Ying
4832:Shaan-Gan
4288:High Qing
4234:Later Jin
3903:Ruijianlu
3888:2352-1333
2253:22 August
2090:3 October
1988:Sunggiyen
1861:G'aodzung
1693:Yongzheng
1669:8 October
1461:Eldembuhe
1226:Personal
1202:Portrait
1009:愛新覺羅·努爾哈齊
946:Personal
922:Portrait
800:. On the
719:Daodejing
670:Yongzheng
478:Jirgalang
434:When the
155:Residence
145:Abolition
135:Formation
5442:Hongqian
5411:Currency
5281:Treaties
5187:Kaozheng
5134:Booi Aha
5076:Hetu Ala
5029:Timeline
5024:Xinjiang
4995:Mongolia
4952:Chu Army
4927:New Army
4884:Military
4822:Viceroys
4059:(1985),
3935:(1975),
3737:(2001),
3692:(2007),
3647:(1990),
2810:See also
2805:monarchs
2801:denotes
2793:monarchs
2789:denotes
2755:Timeline
2689:Gongzong
2661:Xuantong
2426:Filingga
2392:Dzai šun
2322:Wendzung
2277:Xianfeng
2176:Mianning
2155:Xuanzong
2121:Daoguang
2115:Min ning
2015:de facto
2005:Žindzung
1954:Yong yan
1889:de facto
1844:hūwangdi
1814:Qianlong
1488:de facto
1358:Tiancong
1348:Taidzung
1289:愛新覺羅·皇太极
1160:Tiancong
1148:愛新覺羅·皇太極
1088:Horonggo
1021:Tianming
895:New Year
706:Buddhist
702:printers
623:era name
595:Era name
393:smallpox
230:Jurchens
188:Shenyang
41:Imperial
5427:Zhiqian
5419:Coinage
5156:Economy
5127:culture
4862:Yun-Gui
4852:Min-Zhe
4847:Sichuan
4842:Huguang
4688:Emperor
4209:History
3808:(ed.).
3768:(ed.).
2927:Wu 1979
2915:Wu 1979
2779:Legend:
2741:12 July
2723:emperor
2719:Nanking
2649:愛新覺羅·溥儀
2585:Dedzung
2540:Guangxu
2528:愛新覺羅·載湉
2469:Qixiang
2465:Tongzhi
2457:Chinese
2453:Qixiang
2443:Mudzung
2398:Tongzhi
2386:愛新覺羅·載淳
2311:Wenzong
2265:愛新覺羅·奕詝
2246:9 March
2196:Chinese
2188:Minning
2180:Chinese
2149:Šanggan
2138:Chengdi
2109:愛新覺羅·旻寧
2038:, as a
2019:Yongyan
1994:Renzong
1960:Jiaqing
1948:愛新覺羅·顒琰
1850:Gaozong
1808:Hung li
1802:愛新覺羅·弘曆
1738:Šidzung
1727:Shizong
1681:愛新覺羅·胤禛
1608:Šengdzu
1597:Shengzu
1551:愛新覺羅·玄燁
1450:Zhangdi
1433:Shunzhi
1421:愛新覺羅·福臨
1362:Chongde
1337:Taizong
1312:Wesihun
1301:Chongde
1237:Temple
1205:Emperor
1015:Nurgaci
974:Nurhaci
957:Temple
925:Emperor
792:and an
780:in the
651:a title
643:Nurhaci
401:Yinreng
369:Nurhaci
297:Beijing
254:huangdi
250:emperor
226:Nurhaci
196:Beijing
167:Beijing
127:De jure
93:Details
5041:Taiwan
4217:Early
4202:topics
4157:
4139:
4110:
4091:
4069:
4031:
4008:
3985:
3964:
3945:
3921:
3901:&
3886:
3849:
3747:
3723:
3700:
3678:
3659:
3633:
2786:Orange
2735:1 July
2574:Dezong
2557:Jingdi
2459::
2432:Muzong
2294:Xiandi
2198::
2182::
1831:Chundi
1710:Xiandi
1687:In jen
1563:Kangxi
1492:Dorgon
1270:15 May
1221:Notes
1215:Names
1212:Reign
1136:15 May
1083:Manchu
1066:Taidzu
941:Notes
935:Names
932:Reign
843:Dorgon
831::
829:pinyin
823::
815::
730:primer
710:Daoist
533:Dorgon
474:Dorgon
378:Manchu
291:, and
262:Mukden
246:Manchu
180:Manchu
5233:Queue
5151:Dibao
5007:Tibet
4827:Zhili
4710:Amban
3804:. In
3764:. In
2743:1917
2737:1917
2678:Mindi
2640:1912
2633:1908
2519:1908
2512:1875
2377:1875
2370:1861
2305:Iletu
2256:1861
2249:1850
2100:1850
2093:1820
1977:Ruidi
1939:1820
1932:1796
1793:1796
1786:1735
1672:1735
1665:1722
1591:Gosin
1580:Rendi
1542:1722
1535:1661
1478:Šidzu
1467:Shizu
1427:Fulin
1412:1661
1405:1644
1320:Wendi
1280:1643
1273:1636
1233:Post.
1139:1636
1132:1626
1055:Taizu
1049:Dergi
1038:Gaodi
1000:1626
993:1616
953:Post.
834:Shílù
682:taboo
182:-led
98:Style
4969:Navy
4810:Ejen
4693:List
4155:ISBN
4137:ISBN
4108:ISBN
4089:ISBN
4067:ISBN
4029:ISBN
4006:ISBN
3983:ISBN
3962:ISBN
3943:ISBN
3919:ISBN
3884:ISSN
3847:ISBN
3830:link
3790:link
3745:ISBN
3721:ISBN
3698:ISBN
3676:ISBN
3657:ISBN
3631:ISBN
2831:Ejen
2803:Qing
2798:Pink
2699:The
2655:Pu I
2415:Yidi
2271:I ju
2205:lit.
2192:Mian
2049:yǒng
2035:yóng
1622:Oboi
1229:Era
980:努爾哈赤
949:Era
848:Puyi
749:yong
738:xuan
734:yuan
714:yuan
708:and
698:xuan
563:Oboi
537:Oboi
457:Puyi
373:khan
359:son
293:Song
289:Tang
174:The
139:1636
32:大清皇帝
3874:doi
2791:Jin
2717:in
2692:恭宗
2620:宣統帝
2602:11
2499:光緒帝
2481:10
2357:同治帝
2236:咸豐帝
2080:道光帝
1919:嘉慶帝
1879:太上皇
1773:乾隆帝
1652:雍正帝
1522:康熙帝
1392:順治帝
1360:to
1260:皇太极
1119:皇太極
704:of
285:Han
252:" (
202:in
5586::
4048:28
4046:,
3882:.
3868:.
3864:.
3826:}}
3822:{{
3814:.
3786:}}
3782:{{
3774:.
3540:^
3525:^
3489:^
3474:^
3409:^
3392:^
3337:^
3322:^
3257:^
3142:^
2992:^
2975:^
2946:^
2857:^
2709:,
2683:愍帝
2666:宣統
2579:德宗
2562:景帝
2545:光緒
2461:祺祥
2437:穆宗
2420:毅帝
2403:同治
2339:9
2316:文宗
2299:顯帝
2282:咸豐
2218:8
2202:;
2184:綿寧
2160:宣宗
2143:成帝
2126:道光
2062:7
2046:;
2032:;
2023:永琰
1999:仁宗
1982:睿帝
1965:嘉慶
1901:6
1881:;
1855:高宗
1836:純帝
1819:乾隆
1755:5
1732:世宗
1715:憲帝
1698:雍正
1634:4
1624:.
1602:聖祖
1585:仁帝
1568:康熙
1504:3
1472:世祖
1455:章帝
1438:順治
1374:2
1342:太宗
1325:文帝
1306:崇德
1242:1
1199:#
1176:-
1165:天聰
1101:2
1085::
1081:,
1079:武帝
1060:太祖
1043:高帝
1026:天命
962:1
919:#
827:;
825:实录
819:;
817:實錄
759:.
676:.
287:,
222:.
165:,
4192:e
4185:t
4178:v
4164:.
4127:.
4117:.
4098:.
4052:.
4038:.
4015:.
3992:.
3971:.
3952:.
3928:.
3909:.
3890:.
3876::
3870:9
3856:.
3832:)
3794:.
3792:)
3754:.
3730:.
3707:.
3685:.
3666:.
3640:.
3516:(
2455:(
2200:綿
2194:(
2178:(
2044:永
2030:顒
2021:(
1877:(
811:(
784:.
351:.
130:)
124:(
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