104:
characteristics ripples or undulations seen on the ventral surface of conchoidally produced flakes. Wedging initiation is the result of a strong hammer blow. At impact, concentric radii emanate from the point of percussion, but unlike conchoidal fracture, the force travels along what would be the center of the
Hertzian cone. The bipolar reduction technique is typified by its use of wedge initiation. Like bending initiation, no bulb of applied force results from wedging initiation, although in the bipolar technique, flakes may appear to have two points of percussion, on opposite ends, because the core has been fractured by a hammer and anvil technique. The core is placed on a hard surface or "anvil" and is struck above by a hammer, thus the fracture may propagate from both ends simultaneously.
224:). Feathered terminations are often very sharp, as the flake gradually reduces to a very fine thickness before the force exits the core and removes the flake. Hinged terminations are the result of the force rolling away from the core, resulting in a rounded distal end. Step terminations result when a flake prematurely breaks or snaps during removal, leaving a distal end that is often squared off. Plunging flakes are the result of the force rolling back towards the core and often taking off its "bottom". Hinge, step, and plunging terminations, although sometimes deliberately formed, are usually errors called "abrupt terminations". Abrupt terminations are often indicative of internal flaws in a core or previously formed Hertzian cones on the surface.
171:
20:
251:, which are created by a burin blow on the tip of a blade which produces a chisel-like edge which may have been used for graving and carving wood or bone. Because they require less labor to create, expedient flakes can be used strategically as a useful tool for a situation that does not necessarily require a sharpened tool necessary for cutting.
107:
The end which received the blow or pressure is referred to as the proximal end of the flake; the terminal end is referred to as the distal end. The side displaying the bulb of force but without flake scars (barring an errailure flake scar or additional working of the flake) is called the ventral (or
231:
Secondary and tertiary flakes display dorsal flake scars, which are simply the markings left behind by flakes detached prior to the detachment of the subject flake. These flake scars are one of the lines of evidence used to infer the method of lithic reduction, or the process by which raw material
246:
Flakes can be modified into formal tools, which result from additional working of the piece to shape a flake into a desired form, or they can be used without further modification, and are then referred to as expedient tools. For example, scrapers, which may be made by additional removals, known as
94:
Flakes may be produced by a variety of means. Force may be introduced by direct percussion (striking the core with a percussor such as a rock or antler), indirect percussion (striking the core with an object, sometimes referred to as a "punch", which itself is struck by a percussor, similar to the
103:
on the flake and a corresponding flake scar on the core. A bending initiation results when a flake initiates not at the point where the force was applied, but rather further away from the edge of the core, resulting in a flake with no
Hertzian cone or bulb of applied force and few if any of the
199:
are long, narrow specialized blades with parallel margins which may be removed from polyhedral blade cores, another common lithic feature of Paleo-Indian lithic culture. Prismatic blades are often triangular in cross section with several facets or flake scars on the dorsal surface.
99:, bending, or wedging fashion. When a flake is detached from its core in a Hertzian fashion, the flake propagates in a conchoidal manner from the point of impact or pressure, usually producing a partial Hertzian cone. The cone of force often leaves a distinctive
70:
of force which causes the rock to fracture in a controllable fashion. Since cores are often struck on an edge with a suitable angle (<90°) for flake propagation, the result is that only a portion of the
Hertzian cone is created. The process continues as the
187:
is defined as a flake with parallel or subparallel margins that is usually at least twice as long as it is wide. There are numerous specialized types of blade flakes. Channel flakes are characteristic flakes caused by the fluting of certain
228:, also referred to as "bulbar scars", are tiny flake scars that appear on some bulbs of applied force. The reason they form is not entirely understood. Of those flakes that do exhibit eraillures, very few have more than one.
115:
covers the unweathered inner material. Flakes are often differentiated by the amount of cortex present on their dorsal surfaces, because the amount of cortex indicates when in the sequence of reduction the flake came from.
75:
detaches the desired number of flakes from the core, which is marked with the negative scars of these removals. The surface area of the core which received the blows necessary for detaching the flakes is referred to as the
143:) was used to detach the flake; flakes displaying this characteristic are referred to as conchoidal flakes. Hard hammer flakes are indicative of primary reduction strategies (e.g., core reduction, roughing of
62:) is used to direct a sharp blow, or apply sufficient force, respectively, to the surface of the stone, often on the edge of the piece. The energy of this blow propagates through the material, often (
220:
is a characteristic indicating the manner in which the distal end of a flake detached from a core. Flake terminations may be feathered, hinged, stepped, or plunging (also known as overshot or
204:
begin to appear in high frequencies during the transition between the Middle and Upper
Paleolithic.This lithic technology basically replaces the Levallois reduction technology.
128:(interior) flakes lack cortex, having derived entirely from the interior of the core. Primary flakes and secondary flakes are usually associated with the initial stages of
108:
interior) surface, while the opposite side, displaying the flake scars of previous removals, or the cortical or original rock surface, is the dorsal (or exterior) surface.
167:
thinning and trimming. The relative abundance of each type of flake can indicate what sort of lithic work was going on at a particular spot at a particular point in time.
1717:
356:
2114:
1855:
1451:
216:
is the point on the proximal portion of the flake on which the detachment blow fell or pressure was placed. This may be natural or prepared.
2070:
1579:
1902:
1353:
177:
and its core that made with prismatic reduction technology. The blade flake that marks with A can fit to where A' marks on this core.
2211:
285:
Macgregor, O.J. (2005) "Abrupt
Terminations and stone artefact reduction potential". In Clarkson, C. and L. Lamb (Eds) (2005)
349:
1480:
386:
1687:
1574:
2099:
1490:
528:
342:
1712:
1242:
502:
570:
1707:
1247:
720:
396:
673:
151:, and the like). More moderate and diffuse bulbs may indicate the use of a soft hammer percussor—such as
95:
use of a hammer and chisel to shape stone), or by pressure. Additionally, flakes may be initiated in a
1975:
1776:
1781:
1596:
39:
removed from an objective piece by percussion or pressure," and may also be referred to as simply a
1970:
1062:
607:
1134:
1129:
2087:
1997:
1169:
936:
755:
688:
420:
96:
2175:
2049:
1655:
1546:
1534:
1230:
971:
810:
447:
381:
365:
303:
McCall, Grant (January 1, 2012). "Ethnoarchaeology and the
Organization of Lithic Technology".
1914:
1850:
1724:
1417:
1343:
1117:
1112:
1050:
989:
926:
874:
867:
413:
195:; such fluting produced grooves in the projectile points which may have facilitated hafting.
100:
1299:
2180:
2131:
2126:
2109:
2104:
2082:
1872:
1586:
1439:
1331:
1235:
1028:
713:
512:
455:
248:
241:
148:
683:
8:
2170:
1835:
1640:
1473:
1006:
879:
760:
735:
183:
144:
47:. The objective piece, or the rock being reduced by the removal of flakes, is known as a
2221:
2121:
2024:
1926:
1739:
921:
651:
617:
320:
287:
Lithics 'Down Under': Australian
Approaches to Lithic Reduction, Use and Classification
111:
On most natural cobbles or nodules of source material, a weathered outer rind called a
2163:
2153:
2143:
2092:
1749:
1667:
961:
946:
931:
911:
802:
781:
592:
435:
324:
213:
77:
59:
2216:
2158:
2065:
1808:
1591:
1391:
1311:
1267:
1067:
889:
740:
700:
312:
217:
192:
129:
89:
63:
1650:
1606:
2039:
2009:
1771:
1699:
1677:
1635:
1530:
1500:
1365:
1360:
1011:
894:
465:
201:
196:
174:
2148:
2075:
1897:
1862:
1793:
1682:
1554:
1262:
847:
837:
658:
639:
36:
316:
2205:
2034:
2019:
1965:
1943:
1840:
1828:
1744:
1613:
1495:
1456:
1444:
1432:
1144:
1055:
984:
725:
668:
646:
555:
487:
482:
460:
132:, while tertiary flakes are more likely to be associated with retouching and
67:
575:
1953:
1909:
1890:
1845:
1645:
1569:
1326:
1321:
1277:
786:
750:
730:
582:
560:
472:
189:
72:
2002:
139:
Prominent bulbs of force generally indicate that a hard hammer percussor (
1992:
1982:
1938:
1933:
1885:
1823:
1786:
1759:
1660:
1630:
1505:
1427:
1348:
1336:
1097:
1082:
1072:
1043:
1001:
916:
884:
832:
765:
602:
477:
334:
140:
120:
flakes are those whose dorsal surfaces are entirely covered with cortex;
48:
28:
16:
Portion of rock removed from an objective piece by percussion or pressure
170:
2136:
2029:
1987:
1803:
1766:
1729:
1625:
1212:
1124:
951:
852:
825:
745:
543:
497:
408:
376:
52:
2044:
1813:
1798:
1396:
1381:
1306:
1289:
1207:
1092:
1033:
1023:
1018:
941:
820:
708:
634:
401:
391:
225:
1818:
1754:
1601:
1559:
1294:
1202:
1077:
899:
862:
842:
291:
44:
124:
flakes have at least a trace of cortex on the dorsal surface; and
23:
Fundamental elements for the technic description of a lithic flake
1880:
1672:
1618:
1564:
1386:
1192:
1102:
956:
857:
815:
678:
597:
550:
538:
1948:
1485:
1463:
1316:
1252:
1197:
587:
565:
533:
507:
164:
160:
133:
56:
19:
2014:
1734:
1468:
1422:
1284:
1139:
1087:
663:
629:
55:
has been selected, a percussor or pressure flaker (e.g., an
1960:
1921:
1401:
1257:
1187:
1107:
979:
492:
156:
152:
1272:
1038:
996:
163:—which produces the bending flakes often associated with
2203:
276:. 2d Ed. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
207:
350:
274:Lithics: Macroscopic Approaches to Analysis
268:
266:
264:
364:
357:
343:
261:
247:retouchings, to the edge of a piece, or
169:
18:
2204:
302:
1528:
1167:
433:
338:
1529:
13:
305:Journal of Archaeological Research
14:
2233:
1481:Megalithic architectural elements
1168:
2100:Evolutionary origin of religion
232:is turned into useful objects.
296:
279:
1:
2212:Archaeological artefact types
1713:Art of the Middle Paleolithic
1243:British megalith architecture
254:
83:
1708:Art of the Upper Paleolithic
1248:Nordic megalith architecture
7:
208:Other flake characteristics
10:
2238:
1856:British Isles and Brittany
1777:Gwion Gwion rock paintings
239:
87:
2058:
1871:
1698:
1545:
1541:
1524:
1410:
1374:
1223:
1180:
1176:
1163:
970:
801:
774:
699:
625:
616:
521:
446:
442:
434:
429:
372:
317:10.1007/s10814-011-9056-z
235:
2088:Evolutionary musicology
1491:Oldest extant buildings
1418:Archaeological features
937:Prepared-core technique
2050:Unchambered long cairn
1898:Mound Builders culture
1231:Neolithic architecture
366:Prehistoric technology
293:. Oxford: Archaeopress
178:
136:reduction activities.
24:
1725:List of Stone Age art
927:Microblade technology
875:Langdale axe industry
473:Ard / plough
272:Andrefsky, W. (2005)
240:Further information:
173:
101:bulb of applied force
43:, or collectively as
22:
2132:Prehistoric medicine
2127:Prehistoric counting
2110:Prehistoric religion
2105:Paleolithic religion
2083:Behavioral modernity
1440:Causewayed enclosure
1332:Abri de la Madeleine
456:Neolithic Revolution
242:Burin (lithic flake)
2171:Prehistoric warfare
917:Magdalenian culture
880:Levallois technique
811:Earliest toolmaking
2122:Origin of language
2115:Spiritual drug use
2025:Rectangular dolmen
1927:Dartmoor kistvaens
1740:Carved stone balls
1452:Circular enclosure
1411:Other architecture
1354:Alp pile dwellings
942:Solutrean industry
853:Gravettian culture
503:Secondary products
179:
51:. Once the proper
25:
2199:
2198:
2195:
2194:
2191:
2190:
2144:Prehistoric music
2093:music archaeology
1750:Cup and ring mark
1575:Clothing/textiles
1520:
1519:
1516:
1515:
1159:
1158:
1155:
1154:
962:Yubetsu technique
947:Striking platform
912:Lithic technology
797:
796:
782:Game drive system
701:Projectile points
593:Mortar and pestle
214:striking platform
193:projectile points
78:striking platform
35:is a "portion of
2229:
2159:Divje Babe flute
2066:Archaeoastronomy
1809:Petrosomatoglyph
1543:
1542:
1526:
1525:
1375:Water management
1178:
1177:
1165:
1164:
1068:Denticulate tool
890:Lithic reduction
623:
622:
444:
443:
431:
430:
359:
352:
345:
336:
335:
329:
328:
300:
294:
283:
277:
270:
218:Termination type
202:Prismatic blades
197:Prismatic blades
130:lithic reduction
90:Lithic reduction
2237:
2236:
2232:
2231:
2230:
2228:
2227:
2226:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2187:
2054:
2040:Stone box grave
2010:Megalithic tomb
1915:Cotswold-Severn
1867:
1772:Guardian stones
1700:Prehistoric art
1694:
1537:
1512:
1501:Timber trackway
1406:
1370:
1366:Wattle and daub
1219:
1198:Standing stones
1172:
1151:
966:
793:
770:
695:
612:
522:Food processing
517:
466:New World crops
438:
425:
368:
363:
333:
332:
301:
297:
284:
280:
271:
262:
257:
244:
238:
210:
175:Prismatic blade
92:
86:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2235:
2225:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2197:
2196:
2193:
2192:
2189:
2188:
2186:
2185:
2184:
2183:
2173:
2168:
2167:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2149:Alligator drum
2141:
2140:
2139:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2118:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2097:
2096:
2095:
2085:
2080:
2079:
2078:
2076:lunar calendar
2073:
2062:
2060:
2059:Other cultural
2056:
2055:
2053:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2007:
2006:
2005:
2000:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1979:
1978:
1973:
1963:
1958:
1957:
1956:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1930:
1929:
1919:
1918:
1917:
1907:
1906:
1905:
1895:
1894:
1893:
1888:
1877:
1875:
1869:
1868:
1866:
1865:
1863:Venus figurine
1860:
1859:
1858:
1853:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1832:
1831:
1826:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1794:Megalithic art
1791:
1790:
1789:
1784:
1774:
1769:
1764:
1763:
1762:
1752:
1747:
1745:Cave paintings
1742:
1737:
1732:
1727:
1722:
1721:
1720:
1710:
1704:
1702:
1696:
1695:
1693:
1692:
1691:
1690:
1685:
1675:
1670:
1665:
1664:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1628:
1623:
1622:
1621:
1611:
1610:
1609:
1604:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1583:
1582:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1551:
1549:
1547:Material goods
1539:
1538:
1522:
1521:
1518:
1517:
1514:
1513:
1511:
1510:
1509:
1508:
1498:
1493:
1488:
1483:
1478:
1477:
1476:
1466:
1461:
1460:
1459:
1449:
1448:
1447:
1437:
1436:
1435:
1425:
1420:
1414:
1412:
1408:
1407:
1405:
1404:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1378:
1376:
1372:
1371:
1369:
1368:
1363:
1358:
1357:
1356:
1346:
1341:
1340:
1339:
1334:
1329:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1304:
1303:
1302:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1281:
1280:
1270:
1265:
1263:Cliff dwelling
1260:
1255:
1250:
1245:
1240:
1239:
1238:
1227:
1225:
1221:
1220:
1218:
1217:
1216:
1215:
1210:
1205:
1195:
1190:
1184:
1182:
1174:
1173:
1161:
1160:
1157:
1156:
1153:
1152:
1150:
1149:
1148:
1147:
1137:
1132:
1127:
1122:
1121:
1120:
1110:
1105:
1100:
1095:
1090:
1085:
1080:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1060:
1059:
1058:
1048:
1047:
1046:
1041:
1031:
1026:
1021:
1016:
1015:
1014:
1004:
999:
994:
993:
992:
982:
976:
974:
968:
967:
965:
964:
959:
954:
949:
944:
939:
934:
929:
924:
919:
914:
909:
908:
907:
902:
897:
887:
882:
877:
872:
871:
870:
860:
855:
850:
848:Fire hardening
845:
840:
838:Clovis culture
835:
830:
829:
828:
823:
818:
807:
805:
799:
798:
795:
794:
792:
791:
790:
789:
778:
776:
772:
771:
769:
768:
763:
761:Manis Mastodon
758:
753:
748:
743:
738:
733:
728:
723:
718:
717:
716:
705:
703:
697:
696:
694:
693:
692:
691:
686:
681:
676:
671:
661:
656:
655:
654:
644:
643:
642:
640:throwing stick
632:
626:
620:
614:
613:
611:
610:
605:
600:
595:
590:
585:
580:
579:
578:
573:
563:
558:
553:
548:
547:
546:
536:
531:
525:
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519:
518:
516:
515:
510:
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500:
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463:
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439:
427:
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404:
399:
394:
389:
384:
373:
370:
369:
362:
361:
354:
347:
339:
331:
330:
311:(2): 157–203.
295:
278:
259:
258:
256:
253:
237:
234:
209:
206:
88:Main article:
85:
82:
66:) producing a
64:but not always
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2234:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2209:
2207:
2182:
2179:
2178:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2146:
2145:
2142:
2138:
2135:
2134:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2102:
2101:
2098:
2094:
2091:
2090:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2068:
2067:
2064:
2063:
2061:
2057:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2035:Simple dolmen
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2020:Passage grave
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1995:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1968:
1967:
1966:Gallery grave
1964:
1962:
1959:
1955:
1952:
1951:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1928:
1925:
1924:
1923:
1920:
1916:
1913:
1912:
1911:
1908:
1904:
1901:
1900:
1899:
1896:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1883:
1882:
1881:Burial mounds
1879:
1878:
1876:
1874:
1870:
1864:
1861:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1848:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1841:Statue menhir
1839:
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1829:Stone carving
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1668:Sewing needle
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1496:Timber circle
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1445:Tor enclosure
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1433:fulacht fiadh
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669:spear-thrower
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647:Bow and arrow
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556:Grinding slab
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488:Domestication
486:
484:
483:Digging stick
481:
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461:Founder crops
459:
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402:New Stone Age
400:
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69:
68:Hertzian cone
65:
61:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
21:
1976:wedge-shaped
1961:Funeral pyre
1954:Great dolmen
1910:Chamber tomb
1891:Round barrow
1846:Stone circle
1718:Blombos Cave
1646:Grooved ware
1570:Chalcolithic
1474:Thornborough
1392:Flush toilet
1327:Blombos Cave
1322:Rock shelter
1278:Quiggly hole
1170:Architecture
1145:illustration
904:
787:Buffalo jump
608:Storage pits
571:Aşıklı Höyük
561:Ground stone
397:Subdivisions
308:
304:
298:
290:
286:
281:
273:
245:
230:
221:
211:
190:Paleo-Indian
182:
180:
138:
125:
121:
117:
112:
110:
106:
93:
73:flintknapper
40:
33:lithic flake
32:
26:
1998:unchambered
1993:Long barrow
1983:Grave goods
1939:Court cairn
1934:Clava cairn
1886:Bowl barrow
1824:Rock cupule
1767:Golden hats
1760:Hill figure
1661:Unstan ware
1641:Cord-marked
1506:Sweet Track
1428:Burnt mound
1349:Stilt house
1337:Sibudu Cave
1130:Tally stick
1098:Quern-stone
1083:Hammerstone
1073:Fire plough
1044:Pesse canoe
1002:Bannerstone
972:Other tools
885:Lithic core
833:Aurignacian
721:Bare Island
603:Quern-stone
141:hammerstone
29:archaeology
2206:Categories
2137:trepanning
2030:Ring cairn
1988:Jar burial
1971:transepted
1903:U.S. sites
1804:Petroglyph
1730:Bird stone
1688:wine press
1361:Stone roof
1344:Roundhouse
1236:long house
1213:Stonehenge
1181:Ceremonial
1125:Stone tool
952:Tool stone
922:Metallurgy
826:Mousterian
803:Toolmaking
741:Cumberland
714:Transverse
684:Schöningen
576:Qesem cave
544:Earth oven
498:Irrigation
409:Technology
377:Prehistory
255:References
226:Eraillures
222:outrepassé
84:Production
53:tool stone
2222:Stone Age
2181:symbolism
2045:Tor cairn
2003:Grønsalen
1944:Cremation
1836:Sculpture
1814:Pictogram
1799:Petroform
1619:amber use
1587:Cosmetics
1397:Reservoir
1382:Check dam
1312:Pueblitos
1307:Pit-house
1290:Longhouse
1224:Dwellings
1093:Microlith
1024:Bow drill
1019:Bone tool
1012:prismatic
821:Acheulean
736:Cresswell
709:Arrowhead
635:Boomerang
551:Granaries
513:Terracing
392:Stone Age
325:143220063
122:secondary
1819:Rock art
1782:painting
1755:Geoglyph
1580:timeline
1560:Beadwork
1300:Mehrgarh
1295:Mudbrick
1203:megalith
1078:Fire-saw
900:debitage
895:analysis
863:Hand axe
843:Cupstone
421:Glossary
382:Timeline
165:bifacial
149:preforms
134:bifacial
126:tertiary
97:Hertzian
45:debitage
2217:Lithics
2176:Symbols
1787:pigment
1673:Weaving
1636:Cardium
1631:Pottery
1626:Mirrors
1614:Jewelry
1555:Baskets
1535:culture
1387:Cistern
1193:Pyramid
1135:Weapons
1113:Scraper
1103:Racloir
1063:Cleaver
1051:Chopper
957:Uniface
868:Grooves
858:Hafting
816:Oldowan
775:Systems
726:Cascade
689:woomera
679:harpoon
652:history
618:Hunting
598:Pottery
539:Cooking
448:Farming
414:history
387:Outline
118:Primary
2154:flutes
1949:Dolmen
1873:Burial
1683:winery
1656:Linear
1486:Midden
1464:Cursus
1457:Goseck
1317:Pueblo
1268:Dugout
1253:Burdei
932:Mining
756:Lamoka
751:Folsom
731:Clovis
588:Metate
566:Hearth
534:Basket
508:Sickle
323:
249:burins
161:antler
145:blanks
113:cortex
57:antler
2071:sites
2015:Mummy
1735:Cairn
1651:JĹŤmon
1602:shoes
1597:Hides
1469:Henge
1423:Broch
1285:Jacal
1140:Wheel
1088:Knife
1034:Canoe
1029:Burin
1007:Blade
905:flake
766:Plano
674:baton
664:Spear
630:Arrow
583:Manos
436:Tools
321:S2CID
236:Tools
184:blade
159:, or
41:flake
2164:gudi
1922:Cist
1851:list
1678:Wine
1607:Ă–tzi
1592:Glue
1565:Beds
1533:and
1531:Arts
1402:Well
1258:Cave
1188:Kiva
1118:side
1108:Rope
1056:tool
990:bone
980:Adze
746:Eden
659:Nets
529:Fire
493:Goad
478:Celt
212:The
157:wood
153:bone
147:and
60:tine
49:core
37:rock
31:, a
1273:Hut
1208:row
1039:Oar
997:Axe
985:Awl
313:doi
27:In
2208::
319:.
309:20
307:.
289:.
263:^
181:A
155:,
80:.
358:e
351:t
344:v
327:.
315::
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