Lorentz ether theory

2096:

a motion of translation of which he has no suspicion, no apparent velocity could surpass that of light, and this would be a contradiction, unless one recalls the fact that this observer does not use the same sort of timepiece as that used by a stationary observer, but rather a watch giving the “local time. Perhaps, too, we shall have to construct an entirely new mechanics that we only succeed in catching a glimpse of, where, inertia increasing with the velocity, the velocity of light would become an impassable limit. The ordinary mechanics, more simple, would remain a first approximation, since it would be true for velocities not too great, so that the old dynamics would still be found under the new. We should not have to regret having believed in the principles, and even, since velocities too great for the old formulas would always be only exceptional, the surest way in practise would be still to act as if we continued to believe in them. They are so useful, it would be necessary to keep a place for them. To determine to exclude them altogether would be to deprive oneself of a precious weapon. I hasten to say in conclusion that we are not yet there, and as yet nothing proves that the principles will not come forth from out the fray victorious and intact.”

4883:, one is preferred by the fact, that the coordinate axes as well as the clocks are resting in the aether. If one connects with this the idea (which I would abandon only reluctantly) that space and time are completely different things, and that there is a "true time" (simultaneity thus would be independent of the location, in agreement with the circumstance that we can have the idea of infinitely great velocities), then it can be easily seen that this true time should be indicated by clocks at rest in the aether. However, if the relativity principle had general validity in nature, one wouldn't be in the position to determine, whether the reference system just used is the preferred one. Then one comes to the same results, as if one (following Einstein and Minkowski) deny the existence of the aether and of true time, and to see all reference systems as equally valid. Which of these two ways of thinking one is following, can surely be left to the individual. 2091:

possible to reconcile a different speed of light with the same observations if we assumed some different (probably more complicated) laws of motion. According to Poincaré, this illustrates that we adopt for the speed of light a value that makes the laws of mechanics as simple as possible. (This is an example of Poincaré's conventionalist philosophy.) Poincaré also noted that the propagation speed of light can be (and in practice often is) used to define simultaneity between spatially separate events. However, in that paper he did not go on to discuss the consequences of applying these "conventions" to multiple relatively moving systems of reference. This next step was done by Poincaré in 1900, when he recognized that synchronization by light signals in earth's reference frame leads to Lorentz's local time. (See the section on "local time" above). And in 1904 Poincaré wrote:

2529:

Lorentz, consists in this, that the state of the former is at every place determined by connections with the matter and the state of the aether in neighbouring places, which are amenable to law in the form of differential equations; whereas the state of the Lorentzian aether in the absence of electromagnetic fields is conditioned by nothing outside itself, and is everywhere the same. The aether of the general theory of relativity is transmuted conceptually into the aether of Lorentz if we substitute constants for the functions of space which describe the former, disregarding the causes which condition its state. Thus we may also say, I think, that the aether of the general theory of relativity is the outcome of the Lorentzian aether, through relativization.

2177:"1. There is no absolute space, and we only conceive of relative motion; and yet in most cases mechanical facts are enunciated as if there is an absolute space to which they can be referred. 2. There is no absolute time. When we say that two periods are equal, the statement has no meaning, and can only acquire a meaning by a convention. 3. Not only have we no direct intuition of the equality of two periods, but we have not even direct intuition of the simultaneity of two events occurring in two different places. I have explained this in an article entitled "Mesure du Temps" . 4. Finally, is not our Euclidean geometry in itself only a kind of convention of language?" 2551:

necessary to invoke the principle of relativity itself in order to make the theory match all the available empirical data. By this point, most vestiges of a substantial aether had been eliminated from Lorentz's "aether" theory, and it became both empirically and deductively equivalent to special relativity. The main difference was the metaphysical postulate of a unique absolute rest frame, which was empirically undetectable and played no role in the physical predictions of the theory, as Lorentz wrote in 1909, 1910 (published 1913), 1913 (published 1914), or in 1912 (published 1922).

2284:...it is impossible to base a theory of the transformation laws of space and time on the principle of relativity alone. As we know, this is connected with the relativity of the concepts of "simultaneity" and "shape of moving bodies." To fill this gap, I introduced the principle of the constancy of the velocity of light, which I borrowed from H. A. Lorentz’s theory of the stationary luminiferous aether, and which, like the principle of relativity, contains a physical assumption that seemed to be justified only by the relevant experiments (experiments by Fizeau, Rowland, etc.) 2244:. In this paper, by examining the fundamental meanings of the space and time coordinates used in physical theories, Einstein showed that the "effective" coordinates given by the Lorentz transformation were in fact the inertial coordinates of relatively moving frames of reference. From this followed all of the physically observable consequences of LET, along with others, all without the need to postulate an unobservable entity (the aether). Einstein identified two fundamental principles, each founded on experience, from which all of Lorentz's electrodynamics follows: 2204:"Shall we be obliged to modify our conclusions? Certainly not; we had adopted a convention because it seemed convenient and we had said that nothing could constrain us to abandon it. Today some physicists want to adopt a new convention. It is not that they are constrained to do so; they consider this new convention more convenient; that is all. And those who are not of this opinion can legitimately retain the old one in order not to disturb their old habits, I believe, just between us, that this is what they shall do for a long time to come." 2167:"Whether the aether exists or not matters little – let us leave that to the metaphysicians; what is essential for us is, that everything happens as if it existed, and that this hypothesis is found to be suitable for the explanation of phenomena. After all, have we any other reason for believing in the existence of material objects? That, too, is only a convenient hypothesis; only, it will never cease to be so, while some day, no doubt, the aether will be thrown aside as useless." 2218: 2299:

of relativity brought about, consisted in taking away from the aether its last mechanical quality, namely, its immobility. More careful reflection teaches us, however, that the special theory of relativity does not compel us to deny aether. We may assume the existence of an aether; only we must give up ascribing a definite state of motion to it, i.e. we must by abstraction take from it the last mechanical characteristic which Lorentz had still left it.

4779:

règles, non parce qu’elles sont vraies, mais parce qu’elles sont les plus commodes, et nous pourrions les résumer en disant: « La simultanéité de deux événements, ou l’ordre de leur succession, l’égalité de deux durées, doivent être définies de telle sorte que l’énoncé des lois naturelles soit aussi simple que possible. En d’autres termes, toutes ces règles, toutes ces définitions ne sont que le fruit d’un opportunisme inconscient. »

2106:

alternately used the expressions "principle of relative motion" and "relativity of space". He criticized Lorentz by saying, that it would be better to create a more fundamental theory, which explains the absence of any aether drift, than to create one hypothesis after the other. In 1902 he used for the first time the expression "principle of relativity". In 1904 he appreciated the work of the mathematicians, who saved what he now called the "

2294:" character of Lorentz's contraction hypothesis in his theory of electrons, because according to him it was an artificial assumption to make the Michelson–Morley experiment conform to Lorentz's stationary aether and the relativity principle. Einstein argued that Lorentz's "local time" can simply be called "time", and he stated that the immobile aether as the theoretical foundation of electrodynamics was unsatisfactory. He wrote in 1920: 4857:

possession of the "true" times or the "true" lengths. This is a point which Einstein has laid particular stress on, in a theory in which he starts from what he calls the principle of relativity, i. e. the principle that the equations by means of which physical phenomena may be described are not altered in form when we change the axes of coordinates for others having a uniform motion of translation relatively to the original system.

4913:

lecturer himself, he finds a certain satisfaction in the older views, that the aether has at least some substantiality, that space and time can be strictly separated, that one can speak about simultaneity without further specification. Regarding the latter, one can probably refer to the ability that arbitrary great velocities can at least imagined by us. By that, one comes very near to the concept of absolute simultaneity.

4820:

electrodynamics, although one particular feature of Maxwell's equations, the invariance of a characteristic speed, has remained. The electron's mass is now regarded as a pointlike particle, and Poincaré already showed in 1905 that it is not possible for all the mass of the electron to be electromagnetic in origin. This is how relativity invalidated the 19th century hopes for basing all of physics on electromagnetism.

4860:

postulates what we have deduced, with some difficulty and not altogether satisfactorily, from the fundamental equations of the electromagnetic field. By doing so, he may certainly take credit for making us see in the negative result of experiments like those of Michelson, Rayleigh and Brace, not a fortuitous compensation of opposing effects, but the manifestation of a general and fundamental principle.

587:, who are moving in the aether, synchronize their clocks by optical signals. Since they treat themselves as being at rest, they must consider only the transmission time of the signals and then crossing their observations to examine whether their clocks are synchronous. However, from the point of view of an observer at rest in the aether the clocks are not synchronous and indicate the local time 2150:(1904) seems to threaten it), he believed it was interesting to consider the consequences if we were to assume the postulate of relativity was valid without restriction. This would imply that all forces of nature (not just electromagnetism) must be invariant under the Lorentz transformation. In 1921 Lorentz credited Poincaré for establishing the principle and postulate of relativity and wrote: 575:

they are true, but because they are the most convenient, and we could summarize them while saying: „The simultaneity of two events, or the order of their succession, the equality of two durations, are to be so defined that the enunciation of the natural laws may be as simple as possible. In other words, all these rules, all these definitions are only the fruit of an unconscious opportunism.“

4830:

customary three-dimensional system of coordinates and to operate in four dimensions". See also Pais's Subtle is the Lord, in which it says of Minkowski's interpretation "Thus began the enormous simplification of special relativity". See also Miller's "Albert Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity" in which it says "Minkowski's results led to a deeper understanding of relativity theory".

2118:"Surely, the course of inventing special hypotheses for each new experimental result is somewhat artificial. It would be more satisfactory, if it were possible to show, by means of certain fundamental assumptions, and without neglecting terms of one order of magnitude or another, that many electromagnetic actions are entirely independent of the motion of the system." 1880:), that non-electrical binding forces were necessary within Lorentz's electrons model. But Abraham also noted that different results occurred, dependent on whether the em-mass is calculated from the energy or from the momentum. To solve those problems, Poincaré in 1905 and 1906 introduced some sort of pressure of non-electrical nature, which contributes the amount 2304:

much more comprehensible in the framework of the new spacetime geometry. However, Lorentz disagreed that it was "ad-hoc" and he argued in 1913 that there is little difference between his theory and the negation of a preferred reference frame, as in the theory of Einstein and Minkowski, so that it is a matter of taste which theory one prefers.

2264:, and hence that they obviated all the other assumptions underlying Lorentz's initial derivations (many of which later turned out to be incorrect). Therefore, special relativity very quickly gained wide acceptance among physicists, and the 19th century concept of a luminiferous aether was no longer considered useful. 141: 955:(1904) quickly noted a defect of that theory: Within a purely electromagnetic theory the contracted electron-configuration is unstable and one has to introduce non-electromagnetic force to stabilize the electrons – Abraham himself questioned the possibility of including such forces within the theory of Lorentz. 1165: 2112:"The principle of relativity, according to which the laws of physical phenomena must be the same for a stationary observer as for one carried along in a uniform motion of translation, so that we have no means, and can have none, of determining whether or not we are being carried along in such a motion." 4863:

from all ordinary matter. In this line of thought, it seems natural not to assume at starting that it can never make any difference whether a body moves through the aether or not, and to measure distances and lengths of time by means of rods and clocks having a fixed position relatively to the aether.

4862:

Yet, I think, something may also be claimed in favour of the form in which I have presented the theory. I cannot but regard the aether, which can be the seat of an electromagnetic field with its energy and its vibrations, as endowed with a certain degree of substantiality, however different it may be

4778:

Nous n’avons pas l’intuition directe de la simultanéité, pas plus que celle de l’égalité de deux durées. Si nous croyons avoir cette intuition, c’est une illusion. Nous y suppléons à l’aide de certaines règles que nous appliquons presque toujours sans nous en rendre compte. Nous choisissons donc ces

2572:

advocated teaching special relativity first from the viewpoint of a single Lorentz inertial frame, then showing that Poincare invariance of the laws of physics such as Maxwell's equations is equivalent to the frame-changing arguments often used in teaching special relativity. Because a single Lorentz

2528:

The aether of the general theory of relativity is a medium which is itself devoid of all mechanical and kinematical qualities, but which helps to determine mechanical (and electromagnetic) events. What is fundamentally new in the aether of the general theory of relativity, as opposed to the aether of

2523:

In 1920, Einstein compared Lorentz's aether with the "gravitational aether" of general relativity. He said that immobility is the only mechanical property of which the aether has not been deprived by Lorentz, but, contrary to the luminiferous and Lorentz's aether, the aether of general relativity has

2201:

And although he admitted the relative and conventional character of space and time, he believed that the classical convention is more "convenient" and continued to distinguish between "true" time in the aether and "apparent" time in moving systems. Addressing the question if a new convention of space

2019:

What would happen if we could communicate by signals other than those of light, the velocity of propagation of which differed from that of light? If, after having regulated our watches by the optimal method, we wished to verify the result by means of these new signals, we should observe discrepancies

2006:

In 1908 Poincaré examined the gravitational theory of Lorentz and classified it as compatible with the relativity principle, but (like Lorentz) he criticized the inaccurate indication of the perihelion advance of Mercury. Contrary to Poincaré, Lorentz in 1914 considered his own theory as incompatible

228:

in 1887. According to the theories of Fresnel and Lorentz, a relative motion to an immobile aether had to be determined by this experiment; however, the result was negative. Michelson himself thought that the result confirmed the aether drag hypothesis, in which the aether is fully dragged by matter.

4928:

The modern physicists, as Einstein and Minkowski, speak no longer about the aether at all. This, however, is a question of taste and of words. For, whether there is an aether or not, electromagnetic fields certainly exist, and so also does the energy of the electrical oscillations. If we do not like

4925:

Of course, the description of natural phenomena and the testing of what the theory of relativity has to say about them can be carried out independently of what one thinks of the aether and the time. From a physical point of view these questions can be left on one side, and especially the question of

4922:

Lorentz 1922, p. 125: We thus have the choice between two different plans: we can adhere to the concept of an aether or else we can assume a true simultaneity. If one keeps strictly to the relativistic view that all systems are equivalent, one must give up the substantiality of the aether as well as

4791:

Il semble que cette impossibilité de démontrer le mouvement absolu soit une loi générale de la nature Lorentz a cherché à compléter et à modifier son hypothèse de façon à la mettre en concordance avec le postulate de l'impossibilité complète de la détermination du mouvement absolu. C'est ce qu'il a

2298:

As to the mechanical nature of the Lorentzian aether, it may be said of it, in a somewhat playful spirit, that immobility is the only mechanical property of which it has not been deprived by H. A. Lorentz. It may be added that the whole change in the conception of the aether which the special theory

2095:

From all these results, if they were to be confirmed, would issue a wholly new mechanics which would be characterized above all by this fact, that there could be no velocity greater than that of light, any more than a temperature below that of absolute zero. For an observer, participating himself in

2024:

However, in 1905 and 1906 Poincaré pointed out the possibility of a gravitational theory, in which changes propagate with the speed of light and which is Lorentz covariant. He pointed out that in such a theory the gravitational force not only depends on the masses and their mutual distance, but also

574:

We do not have a direct intuition for simultaneity, just as little as for the equality of two periods. If we believe to have this intuition, it is an illusion. We helped ourselves with certain rules, which we usually use without giving us account over it We choose these rules therefore, not because

4903:

Einstein said in a nutshell, that all of those mentioned questions have no meaning. Then he arrives at the "abandonment" of the aether. Incidentally, the latter is to a certain extent a quarrel about words: it makes no great difference whether one speaks about the vacuum or the aether. In any case,

2429:

Similar to Poincaré, Einstein concluded in 1906 that the inertia of (electromagnetic) energy is a necessary condition for the center of mass theorem to hold in systems, in which electromagnetic fields and matter are acting on each other. Based on the mass–energy equivalence, he showed that emission

1219:

A substantially extended work (the so-called "Palermo paper") was submitted by Poincaré on 23 July 1905, but was published in January 1906 because the journal appeared only twice a year. He spoke literally of "the postulate of relativity", he showed that the transformations are a consequence of the

958:

So it was Poincaré, on 5 June 1905, who introduced the so-called "Poincaré stresses" to solve that problem. Those stresses were interpreted by him as an external, non-electromagnetic pressure, which stabilize the electrons and also served as an explanation for length contraction. Although he argued

166:

That we cannot speak about an absolute rest of the aether, is self-evident; this expression would not even make sense. When I say for the sake of brevity, that the aether would be at rest, then this only means that one part of this medium does not move against the other one and that all perceptible

4892:

Lorentz 1914, p. 23: If the observers want to see the concept of time as something primary, something entirely separated from the concept of space, then they would certainly recognize that there is an absolute simultaneity; though they would leave it undecided, whether simultaneity is indicated by

4829:

See Whittaker's History of the Aether, in which he writes, "The great advances made by Minkowski were connected with his formulation of physics in terms of a four-dimensional manifold... in order to represent natural phenomena without introducing contingent elements, it is necessary to abandon the

2554:

As a result, the term "Lorentz aether theory" is sometimes used today to refer to a neo-Lorentzian interpretation of special relativity. The prefix "neo" is used in recognition of the fact that the interpretation must now be applied to physical entities and processes (such as the standard model of

2303:

Minkowski argued that Lorentz's introduction of the contraction hypothesis "sounds rather fantastical", since it is not the product of resistance in the aether but a "gift from above". He said that this hypothesis is "completely equivalent with the new concept of space and time", though it becomes

1968:

and argued that there possibly exists a universal radiation field, consisting of very penetrating em-radiation, and exerting a uniform pressure on every body. Lorentz showed that an attractive force between charged particles would indeed arise, if it is assumed that the incident energy is entirely

666:

has the same value, the clocks are synchronous, but only in the system in which the clocks are at rest in the aether. So, according to Darrigol, Poincaré understood local time as a physical effect just like length contraction – in contrast to Lorentz, who did not use the same interpretation before

565:

in moving and also resting liquids. While for Lorentz length contraction was a real physical effect, he considered the time transformation only as a heuristic working hypothesis and a mathematical stipulation to simplify the calculation from the resting to a "fictitious" moving system. Contrary to

4859:

I cannot speak here of the many highly interesting applications which Einstein has made of this principle. His results concerning electromagnetic and optical phenomena (...) agree in the main with those which we have obtained in the preceding pages, the chief difference being that Einstein simply

4819:

The three best known examples are (1) the assumption of Maxwell's equations, and (2) the assumptions about finite structure of the electron, and (3) the assumption that all mass was of electromagnetic origin. Maxwell's equations were subsequently found to be invalid and were replaced with quantum

1935:

to the energy of the bodies, and therefore explains the 4/3-factor in the expression for the electromagnetic mass-energy relation. However, while Poincaré's expression for the energy of the electrons was correct, he erroneously stated that only the em-energy contributes to the mass of the bodies.

2562:(who, along with G. R. Stilwell, performed the first experimental confirmation of time dilation) have been motivated by the belief that special relativity is logically inconsistent, and so some other conceptual framework is needed to reconcile the relativistic phenomena. For example, Ives wrote " 2347:, but in contrast to Poincaré's 1900-paper, Einstein recognized that matter itself loses or gains mass during the emission or absorption. So the mass of any form of matter is equal to a certain amount of energy, which can be converted into and re-converted from other forms of energy. This is the 4912:

to which we can left the judgment, trusting that it can consider the discussed questions with the necessary thoroughness. But it is sure that for a large part it depends on the way of thinking to which one is accustomed, whether one feels attracted to the one view or the other. Regarding to the

4856:

and A would be alike in all respects. It would be impossible to decide which of them moves or stands still with respect to the aether, and there would be no reason for preferring the times and lengths measured by the one to those determined by the other, nor for saying that either of them is in

1797: 126:

experiment could in principle distinguish between LET and SR, but it is now widely held that it is impossible to perform such a test. In the absence of any way to experimentally distinguish between LET and SR, SR is widely preferred over LET, due to the superfluous assumption of an undetectable

2259:

Taken together (along with a few other tacit assumptions such as isotropy and homogeneity of space), these two postulates lead uniquely to the mathematics of special relativity. Lorentz and Poincaré had also adopted these same principles, as necessary to achieve their final results, but didn't

2105:

In 1895 Poincaré argued that experiments like that of Michelson–Morley show that it seems to be impossible to detect the absolute motion of matter or the relative motion of matter in relation to the aether. And although most physicists had other views, Poincaré in 1900 stood to his opinion and

2090:

it would not be possible to infer the speed of light from astronomical observations, as Rømer did based on observations of the moons of Jupiter. Poincaré went on to note that Rømer also had to assume that Jupiter's moons obey Newton's laws, including the law of gravitation, whereas it would be

2126:

in May 1905. According to him, this extension of the electron theories of Lorentz and Larmor led to "the physical impossibility to demonstrate the translational motion of the earth". However, Poincaré noticed in 1905 that Lorentz's theory of 1904 was not perfectly "Lorentz invariant" in a few

2550:

Viewed as a theory of elementary particles, Lorentz's electron/ether theory was superseded during the first few decades of the 20th century, first by quantum mechanics and then by quantum field theory. As a general theory of dynamics, Lorentz and Poincare had already (by about 1905) found it

2208:

Also Lorentz argued during his lifetime that in all frames of reference this one has to be preferred, in which the aether is at rest. Clocks in this frame are showing the "real“ time and simultaneity is not relative. However, if the correctness of the relativity principle is accepted, it is

950:

to unity) in the same manner as electrostatic forces. In other words, Lorentz attempted to create a theory in which the relative motion of earth and aether is (nearly or fully) undetectable. Therefore, he generalized the contraction hypothesis and argued that not only the forces between the

934:. Voigt in 1887 had already derived a similar set of equations (although with a different scale factor). Afterwards, Larmor in 1897 and Lorentz in 1899 derived equations in a form algebraically equivalent to those which are used up to this day, although Lorentz used an undetermined factor 2275:" in which absolute intervals are seen to be given by an extension of the Pythagorean theorem. The utility and naturalness of the spacetime representation contributed to the rapid acceptance of special relativity, and to the corresponding loss of interest in Lorentz's aether theory. 187:

H, where these fields represent the "states" of the aether (with no further specification), related to the charges of the electrons. Thus an abstract electromagnetic aether replaces the older mechanistic aether models. Contrary to Clausius, who accepted that the electrons operate by

2127:

equations such as Lorentz's expression for current density (Lorentz admitted in 1921 that these were defects). As this required just minor modifications of Lorentz's work, also Poincaré asserted that Lorentz had succeeded in harmonizing his theory with the principle of relativity:

2592:

of bodies moving in the aether have their exact relativistic values, the complete Lorentz transformation can be derived and the aether is hidden from any observation, which makes it kinematically indistinguishable from the predictions of special relativity. Using this model, the

356:

than the dimension perpendicularly to the line of motion. However, an observer co-moving with the earth would not notice this contraction because all other instruments contract at the same ratio. In 1895 Lorentz proposed three possible explanations for this relative contraction:

2152:"I have not established the principle of relativity as rigorously and universally true. Poincaré, on the other hand, has obtained a perfect invariance of the electro-magnetic equations, and he has formulated 'the postulate of relativity', terms which he was the first to employ." 79:. In addition, he assumed that non-electromagnetic forces (if they exist) transform like electric forces. However, Lorentz's expression for charge density and current were incorrect, so his theory did not fully exclude the possibility of detecting the aether. Eventually, it was 2183:"Does our aether actually exist ? We know the origin of our belief in the aether. If light takes several years to reach us from a distant star, it is no longer on the star, nor is it on the earth. It must be somewhere, and supported, so to speak, by some material agency." 4808:

je n'ai pas établi le principe de relativité comme rigoureusement et universellement vrai. Poincaré, au contraire, a obtenu une invariance parfaite des équations de l’électrodynamique, et il a formule le « postulat de relativité », termes qu’il a été le premier a

1341:. However, Poincaré later said the translation of physics into the language of four-dimensional geometry would entail too much effort for limited profit, and therefore he refused to work out the consequences of this notion. This was later done, however, by Minkowski; see " 304:

in 1889 (qualitatively) and, independently of him, Lorentz in 1892 (already quantitatively), suggested that not only the electrostatic fields, but also the molecular forces, are affected in such a way that the dimension of a body in the line of motion is less by the value

2070: 1875:

Many scientists now believed that the entire mass and all forms of forces were electromagnetic in nature. This idea had to be given up, however, in the course of the development of relativistic mechanics. Abraham (1904) argued (as described in the preceding section

1988:

that a finite speed of gravity leads to some sort of aberration and therefore makes the orbits unstable. However, Lorentz showed that the theory is not concerned by Laplace's critique, because due to the structure of the Maxwell equations only effects in the order

4841:

Trotzdem die einfachen formalen Betrachtungen, die zum Nachweis dieser Behauptung durchgeführt werden müssen, in der Hauptsache bereits in einer Arbeit von H. Poincaré enthalten sind , werde ich mich doch der Übersichtlichkeit halber nicht auf jene Arbeit

2110:" with the help of hypotheses like local time, but he confessed that this venture was possible only by an accumulation of hypotheses. And he defined the principle in this way (according to Miller based on Lorentz's theorem of corresponding states): 462:

is the length at rest in the aether) was given by Larmor in 1897 and by Lorentz in 1904. In the same year, Lorentz also argued that electrons themselves are also affected by this contraction. For further development of this concept, see the section

2141:

In his Palermo paper (1906), Poincaré called this "the postulate of relativity“, and although he stated that it was possible this principle might be disproved at some point (and in fact he mentioned at the paper's end that the discovery of

1021: 4931:

One cannot deny to the bearer of these properties a certain substantiality, and if so, then one may, in all modesty, call true time the time measured by clocks which are fixed in this medium, and consider simultaneity as a primary

4865:

It would be unjust not to add that, besides the fascinating boldness of its starting point, Einstein's theory has another marked advantage over mine. Whereas I have not been able to obtain for the equations referred to moving axes

1969:

absorbed. This was the same fundamental problem which had afflicted the other Le Sage models, because the radiation must vanish somehow and any absorption must lead to an enormous heating. Therefore, Lorentz abandoned this model.

2020:

due to the common translatory motion of the two stations. And are such signals inconceivable, if we take the view of Laplace, that universal gravitation is transmitted with a velocity a million times as great as that of light?

383:. It is also important that this contraction would only affect the space between the electrons but not the electrons themselves; therefore the name "intermolecular hypothesis" was sometimes used for this effect. The so-called 4929:

the name of "aether," we must use another word as a peg to hang all these things upon. It is not certain whether "space" can be so extended as to take care not only of the geometrical properties but also of the electric ones.

3137: 2040:

The non-existence of a generalization of the Lorentz ether to gravity was a major reason for the preference for the spacetime interpretation. A viable generalization to gravity has been proposed only 2012 by Schmelzer. The

1643: 2566:". However, the logical consistency of special relativity (as well as its empirical success) is well established, so the views of such individuals are considered unfounded within the mainstream scientific community. 2129:"It appears that this impossibility of demonstrating the absolute motion of the earth is a general law of nature. Lorentz tried to complete and modify his hypothesis in order to harmonize it with the postulate of 2193:

He also said the aether is necessary to harmonize Lorentz's theory with Newton's third law. Even in 1912 in a paper called "The Quantum Theory", Poincaré ten times used the word "aether", and described light as

2001:

The special form of these terms may perhaps be modified. Yet, what has been said is sufficient to show that gravitation may be attributed to actions which are propagated with no greater velocity than that of

216:. This theorem states that a moving observer with respect to the aether can use the same electrodynamic equations as an observer in the stationary aether system, thus they are making the same observations. 208:

found a similar theory simultaneously, but his concept was based on a mechanical aether. A fundamental concept of Lorentz's theory in 1895 was the "theorem of corresponding states" for terms of order

1870: 42:

Lorentz's initial theory was created between 1892 and 1895 and was based on removing assumptions about aether motion. It explained the failure of the negative aether drift experiments to first order in

2434:

Although the simple formal views, which must be accomplished for the proof of this statement, are already mainly contained in a work by H. Poincaré , for the sake of clarity I won't rely on that work.

1214: 963:. So by pointing out the group characteristics of the transformation, Poincaré demonstrated the Lorentz covariance of the Maxwell–Lorentz equations and corrected Lorentz's transformation formulae for 1980:

that the attraction of opposite charged particles is stronger than the repulsion of equal charged particles. The resulting net force is exactly what is known as universal gravitation, in which the

975:) which might be compatible with the transformations. It was Poincaré who, for the first time, used the term "Lorentz transformation", and he gave them a form which is used up to this day. (Where 1480:

As noted by Thomson and others, this mass increases also with velocity. Thus in 1899, Lorentz calculated that the ratio of the electron's mass in the moving frame and that of the aether frame is

456: 3304: 791: 2025:

on their velocities and their position due to the finite propagation time of interaction. On that occasion Poincaré introduced four-vectors. Following Poincaré, also Minkowski (1908) and

1302: 4870:

the same form as for those which apply to a stationary system, Einstein has accomplished this by means of a system of new variables slightly different from those which I have introduced.

379:

Although the possible connection between electrostatic and intermolecular forces was used by Lorentz as a plausibility argument, the contraction hypothesis was soon considered as purely

1589: 2391:

problem, because according to Darrigol, Poincaré's radiation paradox can simply be solved by applying Einstein's equivalence. If the light source loses mass during the emission by

1304:

is invariant. While elaborating his gravitational theory, he noticed that the Lorentz transformation is merely a rotation in four-dimensional space about the origin by introducing

878: 298: 716: 640: 531: 1508: 3108: 1635: 1422: 354: 1933: 1531: 817: 122:

doesn't provide any experimentally verifiable distinctions between LET and SR. The absolute simultaneity in the Mansouri–Sexl test theory formulation of LET implies that a

3269: 1609: 1471: 1013: 898: 1335: 642:. But because the moving observers don't know anything about their movement, they don't recognize this. In 1904, he illustrated the same procedure in the following way: 1160:{\displaystyle x^{\prime }=k\ell \left(x+\varepsilon t\right),\qquad y^{\prime }=\ell y,\qquad z^{\prime }=\ell z,\qquad t^{\prime }=k\ell \left(t+\varepsilon x\right)} 2472: 2385: 2015:

Poincaré argued in 1904 that a propagation speed of gravity which is greater than c is contradicting the concept of local time and the relativity principle. He wrote:

2424: 2345: 2430:

and absorption of em-radiation, and therefore the transport of inertia, solves all problems. On that occasion, Einstein referred to Poincaré's 1900-paper and wrote:

993: 175:

later said, it was natural (though not logically necessary) for scientists of that time to identify the rest frame of the Lorentz aether with the absolute space of

2564:

The 'principle' of the constancy of the velocity of light is not merely 'ununderstandable', it is not supported by 'objective matters of fact'; it is untenable...

3342:

Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon; Lorentz, H. A.; Miller, D. C.; Kennedy, R. J.; Hedrick, E. R.; Epstein, P. S. (1928), "Conference on the Michelson–Morley Experiment",

959:

that Lorentz succeeded in creating a theory which complies to the postulate of relativity, he showed that Lorentz's equations of electrodynamics were not fully

1424:, which was called electromagnetic or "apparent mass". Another derivation of some sort of electromagnetic mass was conducted by Poincaré (1900). By using the 3560: 3537: 2558:

Subsequent to the advent of special relativity, only a small number of individuals have advocated the Lorentzian approach to physics. Many of these, such as

51:

by introducing an auxiliary variable called "local time" for connecting systems at rest and in motion in the aether. In addition, the negative result of the

2581: 2520:(the laws of special relativity apply locally for all inertial observers), and that spacetime curvature is created by stress-energy within the spacetime. 4752: 1792:{\displaystyle m_{L}={\frac {m_{0}}{\left({\sqrt {1-{\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}\right)^{3}}},\quad m_{T}={\frac {m_{0}}{\sqrt {1-{\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}},} 2086:, in determining the speed of light, simply assume that light has a constant speed, and that this speed is the same in all directions. Without this 2116:

Referring to the critique of Poincaré from 1900, Lorentz wrote in his famous paper in 1904, where he extended his theorem of corresponding states:

192:, the electromagnetic field of the aether appears as a mediator between the electrons, and changes in this field can propagate not faster than the 4904:

according to Einstein it has no meaning to speak about motion relative to the aether. He also denies the existence of absolute simultaneity.

4016:(English translation supplement; translated by Anna Beck, with Don Howard, consultant ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 3128: 579:

In 1900 Poincaré interpreted local time as the result of a synchronization procedure based on light signals. He assumed that two observers,

566:

Lorentz, Poincaré saw more than a mathematical trick in the definition of local time, which he called Lorentz's "most ingenious idea". In

2049:. The gravitational field is defined by density, velocity and stress tensor of the Lorentz ether, so that the harmonic conditions become 2029:(1910) tried to establish a Lorentz-invariant gravitational law. However, these attempts were superseded because of Einstein's theory of 2438:

Also Poincaré's rejection of the reaction principle due to the violation of the mass conservation law can be avoided through Einstein's

162:. Lorentz's 1895 paper rejected the aether drift theories, and refused to express assumptions about the nature of the aether. It said: 3333:

Lecture on theoretical physics, Vol.3 (Lectures held between 1910–1912, first published in Dutch in 1922, English translation in 1931)

2255:

In empty space light propagates at an absolute speed c in any system of inertial coordinates (the principle of the constancy of light)

150:

The Lorentz ether theory, which was developed mainly between 1892 and 1906 by Lorentz and Poincaré, was based on the aether theory of

102:

Today LET is often treated as some sort of "Lorentzian" or "neo-Lorentzian" interpretation of special relativity. The introduction of

4923:

the concept of a true time. The choice of the standpoint depends thus on very fundamental considerations, especially about the time.

2312:

It was derived by Einstein (1905) as a consequence of the relativity principle, that inertia of energy is actually represented by

4485:

A Comparison between Lorentz's Ether Theory and Special Relativity in the Light of the Experiments of Trouton and Noble, (thesis)

1808: 3281: 2054: 300:. Based on that result, and to bring the hypothesis of an immobile aether into accordance with the Michelson–Morley experiment, 1171: 2584:

introduces a preferred aether frame and includes parameters indicating different combinations of length and times changes. If

2058: 4659: 4614: 4590: 4471: 4451: 4404: 4328: 4021: 3299: 2061:

is violated, but is recovered in a limit, which gives the Einstein equations of general relativity in harmonic coordinates.

3967: 2577: 115: 4906:

It is certainly remarkable that these relativity concepts, also with respect to time, have been incorporated so quickly.

4711: 4674: 3909: 3843: 3798: 3759: 3715: 2731: 1965: 909: 3947: 390: 3150: 2631: 2538:

Some claim that Poincaré and Lorentz are the true founders of special relativity, not Einstein. For more details see

721: 83:

who in 1905 corrected the errors in Lorentz's paper and actually incorporated non-electromagnetic forces (including

3127: 2598: 2050: 3092:

Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1892a), "La Théorie electromagnétique de Maxwell et son application aux corps mouvants",

1977: 1231: 87:) within the theory, which he called "The New Mechanics". Many aspects of Lorentz's theory were incorporated into 4852:

Lorentz 1909, p. 229: It will be clear by what has been said that the impressions received by the two observers A

2655:

Mansouri R.; Sexl R.U. (1977). "A test theory of special relativity. I: Simultaneity and clock synchronization".

2594: 1984:

is that of light. This leads to a conflict with the law of gravitation by Isaac Newton, in which it was shown by

225: 52: 2271:(1905) showed that special relativity had a very natural interpretation in terms of a unified four-dimensional " 2248:

The laws by which physical processes occur are the same with respect to any system of inertial coordinates (the

680:

individual electrons describe corresponding parts of their orbits in times shorter for the system in the ratio

1997:

arise. But Lorentz calculated that the value for the perihelion advance of Mercury was much too low. He wrote:

189: 1366:(1881) and others noticed that electromagnetic energy contributes to the mass of charged bodies by the amount 1015:, which must be set to unity to conserve the group characteristics. He also set the speed of light to unity.) 2487: 2231: 2046: 2426:, the contradiction in the momentum law vanishes without the need of any compensating effect in the aether. 930:– to modify the hypothesis to include second-order effects. The mathematical tool for that is the so-called 3445: 2602: 2133:

impossibility of determining absolute motion. It is what he has succeeded in doing in his article entitled

1536: 939: 927: 671:, Darrigol says that Poincaré had the opinion that clocks resting in the aether are showing the true time. 114:, which plays the role of Lorentz's immobile aether, leads to the complete Lorentz transformation (see the 5000: 2698:

I. Schmelzer (2012). "A Generalization of the Lorentz Ether to Gravity with General-Relativistic Limit".

2539: 2348: 1973: 1948: 1358: 946:

forces between the molecules are affected by the Lorentz transformation (in which Lorentz set the factor

831: 683: 667:

1906. However, contrary to Einstein, who later used a similar synchronization procedure which was called

251: 3077:

Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1886), "De l'influence du mouvement de la terre sur les phénomènes lumineux",

2082:

Already in his philosophical writing on time measurements (1898), Poincaré wrote that astronomers like

1483: 476: 1964:

In 1900 Lorentz tried to explain gravity on the basis of the Maxwell equations. He first considered a

4629: 4605:

Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905–1911)

3191: 1221: 301: 245: 4512: 2573:

inertial frame is one of a preferred class of frames, he called this approach Lorentzian in spirit.

1943:, because the entire mass (not only the electromagnetic part) is proportional to energy, and can be 1637:, arriving at the expressions for the masses in different directions (longitudinal and transverse): 1614: 1369: 308: 4995: 4990: 2517: 1883: 1513: 799: 668: 590: 481: 127:

aether in LET, and the validity of the relativity principle in LET seeming ad hoc or coincidental.

3946: 1594: 1431: 1224:; he demonstrated in more detail the group characteristics of the transformation, which he called 998: 883: 3212:"Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light" 3149: 2505: 2475: 2249: 2172: 2107: 64: 1307: 4507: 3657:

Sechs Vorträge über ausgewählte Gegenstände aus der reinen Mathematik und mathematischen Physik

3381: 931: 567: 558: 241: 201: 155: 123: 76: 2441: 2354: 3532: 2501: 2394: 2315: 151: 4483: 3651: 951:

electrons, but also the electrons themselves are contracted in the line of motion. However,

375:

The body contracts in the line of motion and expands at the same time perpendicularly to it.

4723: 4686: 4552: 4431: 4362: 3982: 3924: 3895: 3858: 3813: 3774: 3730: 3572: 3424: 3351: 2664: 1985: 1354: 978: 8: 4794:

Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light

3498: 3298: 3240: 3107:

Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1892b), "De relatieve beweging van de aarde en den aether" [

2147: 2135:

Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light

940:

Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light

550: 22: 4727: 4690: 4556: 4528:

Janssen, Michel & Mecklenburg, Matthew (2007), V. F. Hendricks; et al. (eds.),

4435: 4366: 4035: 3986: 3928: 3899: 3862: 3817: 3778: 3734: 3699: 3576: 3482: 3355: 2668: 2493: 4603: 4568: 4393: 4378: 4352: 4317: 4014:

The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 4: The Swiss Years: Writings, 1912–1914

3998: 3829: 3668: 3598: 3232:

The theory of electrons and its applications to the phenomena of light and radiant heat

2680: 2589: 2509: 2497: 2241: 2030: 972: 960: 674:

However, at the beginning it was unknown that local time includes what is now known as

549:

and an incompressible medium.) With the help of this concept Lorentz could explain the

384: 119: 111: 103: 88: 56: 4975: 4971: 4967: 3130:

Versuch einer Theorie der electrischen und optischen Erscheinungen in bewegten Körpern

828:

is the aether frame, S the mathematical-fictitious frame of the moving observer, k is

545:

had previously used the same expression for local time in 1887 in connection with the

4655: 4610: 4586: 4467: 4447: 4400: 4341:"The origins of length contraction: I. The FitzGerald-Lorentz deformation hypothesis" 4324: 4017: 4002: 3833: 3799:"Das Prinzip von der Erhaltung der Schwerpunktsbewegung und die Trägheit der Energie" 3602: 2715: 2637: 2627: 2569: 2268: 2186: 2026: 554: 230: 96: 4712:"Breaking in the 4-vectors: the four-dimensional movement in gravitation, 1905–1910" 4572: 4529: 4340: 3593: 3515: 3254: 2684: 2181:

However, Poincaré himself never abandoned the aether hypothesis and stated in 1900:

80: 60: 4560: 4517: 4439: 4382: 4370: 3990: 3932: 3866: 3821: 3782: 3749: 3738: 3705: 3630: 3588: 3580: 3523:, vol. 1, Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, pp. 604–622 3504: 3488: 3460: 3359: 3316: 2707: 2672: 2492:

The attempts of Lorentz and Poincaré (and other attempts like those of Abraham and

2388: 1981: 1939:

The concept of electromagnetic mass is not considered anymore as the cause of mass

562: 237: 35:'s "theory of electrons", which marked the end of the development of the classical 4530:"From classical to relativistic mechanics: Electromagnetic models of the electron" 475:

An important part of the theorem of corresponding states in 1892 and 1895 was the

59:

in 1892. However, other experiments also produced negative results and (guided by

4747: 4543:

Katzir, Shaul (2005), "Poincaré's Relativistic Physics: Its Origins and Nature",

3256:

Das Relativitätsprinzip. Drei Vorlesungen gehalten in Teylers Stiftung zu Haarlem

2559: 2237: 2162: 2042: 968: 926:, it was necessary – due to other unsuccessful aether drift experiments like the 387:

without expansion perpendicularly to the line of motion and by the precise value

159: 144: 92: 36: 32: 4051: 3948:"The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation" 3880: 2387:. So Einstein didn't have to introduce "fictitious" masses and also avoided the 4625: 3151:"Simplified Theory of Electrical and Optical Phenomena in Moving Systems" 2496:) to formulate a theory of gravitation were superseded by Einstein's theory of 1474: 1428:

of electromagnetic fields, he concluded that these fields contribute a mass of

964: 546: 542: 193: 184: 180: 167:

motions are relative motions of the celestial bodies in relation to the aether.

4879:

Lorentz 1913, p. 75: Provided that there is an aether, then under all systems

4564: 2711: 794:". And in 1899 also Lorentz noted for the frequency of oscillating electrons " 4984: 4963: 4959: 4955: 4941:

Herbert E. Ives, "Revisions of the Lorentz Transformations", October 27, 1950

4731: 4694: 3994: 3936: 3870: 3825: 3787: 3743: 3444: 2719: 2585: 2123: 1363: 1225: 675: 205: 197: 107: 4521: 4443: 3503:, London and Newcastle-on-Cyne: The Walter Scott publishing Co. – via 2737: 2641: 4909: 3968:"Relativität und Gravitation. Erwiderung auf eine Bemerkung von M. Abraham" 3425:"Les relations entre la physique expérimentale et la physique mathématique" 3341: 3241:

Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon; Einstein, Albert & Minkowski, Hermann (1913),

3171: 176: 3881:"Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogenen Folgerungen" 2083: 2143: 1338: 952: 368:

The dimension of the body remains the same in the line of motion, but it

84: 4416: 3138:

Attempt of a Theory of Electrical and Optical Phenomena in Moving Bodies

365:

in the line of motion and preserves its dimension perpendicularly to it.

4673:

Walter, Scott (1999), H. Goenner; J. Renn; J. Ritter; T. Sauer (eds.),

4495: 3584: 3321: 3211: 2676: 2217: 67:) Lorentz tried in 1899 and 1904 to expand his theory to all orders in 4675:"Minkowski, mathematicians, and the mathematical theory of relativity" 4374: 4357: 3531: 918:

could explain the negative aether drift experiments to first order to

140: 2272: 2087: 942:(1904) Lorentz attempted to create such a theory, according to which 4034: 3556: 3300:"Deux Mémoires de Henri Poincaré sur la Physique Mathématique" 4527: 3760:"Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig?" 3521:

Congress of arts and science, universal exposition, St. Louis, 1904

3364: 2513: 1425: 172: 3910:"Über die elektromagnetischen Grundgleichungen für bewegte Körper" 3844:"Über die vom Relativitätsprinzip geforderte Trägheit der Energie" 678:. This effect was first noticed by Larmor (1897), who wrote that " 537:

is the time coordinate for an observer resting in the aether, and

3408: 3217:

Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences

3177:

Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences

3156:

Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences

2730:

For a more complete list with sources of many other authors, see

2621: 1947:

into different forms of energy, which is explained by Einstein's

1337:

as a fourth, imaginary, coordinate, and he used an early form of

39:

at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th century.

3514: 541:' is the time coordinate for an observer moving in the aether. ( 3613: 3390:

Poincaré, Henri (1895), "A propos de la Théorie de M. Larmor",

2291: 380: 3667: 3650: 3469:

Poincaré, Henri (1901a), "Sur les principes de la mécanique",

2474:, because mass conservation appears as a special case of the 4926:

the true time can be handed over to the theory of knowledge.

4067: 4050: 3907: 3400:. Reprinted in Poincaré, Oeuvres, tome IX, pp. 395–413 3253: 3192:"Weiterbildung der Maxwellschen Theorie. Elektronentheorie" 2605:

put sharp constraints on violations of Lorentz invariance.

2069: 1865:{\displaystyle m_{0}={\frac {4}{3}}{\frac {E_{em}}{c^{2}}}} 4493: 3629: 2555:

quantum field theory) that were unknown in Lorentz's day.

3451:

Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles

3094:

Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles

3079:

Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles

2738:

Works of Lorentz, Poincaré, Einstein, Minkowski (group A)

2580:

use some sort of Lorentzian framework. For instance, the

1209:{\displaystyle k={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1-\varepsilon ^{2}}}}} 4746: 3446:"La théorie de Lorentz et le principe de réaction" 3208: 3189: 3091: 3330: 3296: 3267: 3251: 3243:

Das Relativitätsprinzip. Eine Sammlung von Abhandlungen

3229: 3170: 3168: 3147: 3125: 3076: 2122:

One of the first assessments of Lorentz's paper was by

179:. The condition of this aether can be described by the 2010: 1539: 1310: 834: 393: 254: 200:

on the basis of his theory, for which he received the

4763: 4583:

Kinematics: the lost origins of Einstein's relativity

2444: 2397: 2357: 2318: 1886: 1811: 1646: 1617: 1597: 1516: 1486: 1434: 1372: 1234: 1174: 1024: 1001: 981: 971:. He went on to sketch a model of gravitation (incl. 886: 802: 724: 686: 593: 484: 311: 248:

field around a moving body is altered by a factor of

224:

A big challenge for the Lorentz ether theory was the

4908:

The evaluation of these concepts belongs largely to

4580: 3471:

Bibliothèque du Congrès International de Philosophie

3305:

Two Papers of Henri Poincaré on Mathematical Physics

2654: 4753:

A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity

4464:

Einstein's Clocks, Poincaré's Maps: Empires of Time

3210: 233:and the effect of aberration disproved that model. 4654:. Fundamental Theories of Physics. Vol. 165. 4602: 4392: 4316: 4064: 3682:Poincaré, Henri (1912), "L'hypothèse des quanta", 3437:. Reprinted in "Science and Hypothesis", Ch. 9–10. 2466: 2418: 2379: 2339: 2077: 1927: 1864: 1791: 1629: 1603: 1583: 1525: 1502: 1465: 1416: 1329: 1296: 1208: 1159: 1007: 987: 892: 872: 811: 785: 710: 634: 525: 450: 348: 292: 4600: 4534:Interactions: Mathematics, Physics and Philosophy 4414: 4390: 3878: 3757: 3713: 3704:, New York: Dover Publication (1963) – via 3659:, Leipzig und Berlin: B.G.Teubner, pp. 41–47 3475:. Reprinted in "Science and Hypothesis", Ch. 6–7. 451:{\textstyle l=l_{0}\cdot {\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}} 4982: 4338: 4048: 4011: 3965: 3944: 3841: 3796: 3554: 3529: 3512: 3480: 3468: 3442: 3422: 2884:Poincaré (1908a); Poincaré (1908b) Book 3, Ch. 3 1533:perpendicular to the direction of motion, where 236:A possible solution came in sight, when in 1889 4624: 4481: 3697: 3681: 3665: 3648: 3627: 3619:The foundations of science (Science and Method) 3610: 3496: 3429:Revue Générale des Sciences Pures et Appliquées 3405: 3389: 3373: 3109:The Relative Motion of the Earth and the Aether 2007:with the relativity principle and rejected it. 1611:is an undetermined factor. And in 1904, he set 786:{\displaystyle \left(1-(1/2)v^{2}/c^{2}\right)} 4634:Encyclopädie der Mathematischen Wissenschaften 4461: 4085: 3516:"The Principles of Mathematical Physics" 3196:Encyclopädie der Mathematischen Wissenschaften 2624:Einstein, relativity and absolute simultaneity 2500:. This theory is based on principles like the 2209:impossible to find this system by experiment. 1473:to all bodies, which is necessary to save the 4976:Another Derivation of Mass-Energy Equivalence 4709: 4672: 4542: 4500:British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 3407: 2524:no mechanical property, not even immobility: 2064: 55:led to the introduction of the hypothesis of 3908:Einstein, Albert & Laub, Jakob (1908b), 3565:Rendiconti del Circolo Matematico di Palermo 3378:, vol. 1, Paris: G. Carré & C. Naud 2697: 2622:Craig, William Lane; Smith, Quentin (2008). 2034: 1342: 1297:{\displaystyle x^{2}+y^{2}+z^{2}-c^{2}t^{2}} 4032: 3621:, New York: Science Press, pp. 486–522 3612: 3416:, New York: Science Press, pp. 222–234 2914:Poincaré (1900a); Poincaré (1902), Ch. 9–10 2910: 2908: 1877: 464: 4037:Relativity: The Special and General Theory 3888:Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik 3006: 3004: 2976: 2974: 2776: 2774: 2772: 2770: 2307: 2240:published his paper on what is now called 2212: 2100: 4649: 4511: 4417:"The Genesis of the theory of relativity" 4356: 4314: 3786: 3742: 3652:"La Mécanique nouvelle (Göttingen)" 3592: 3363: 3320: 3022: 2832: 2830: 2828: 2818: 2816: 2794: 2792: 2790: 2788: 2786: 2751: 2749: 2747: 1510:parallel to the direction of motion, and 903: 130: 4901:, or maybe neither by that or the other. 4305:J. Bell, How to Teach Special Relativity 4066: 3106: 2950:Poincaré (1901a); Poincaré (1902), Ch. 6 2941:Poincaré (1889); Poincaré (1902), Ch. 12 2905: 2862: 2860: 2858: 2810:Poincaré (1898); Poincaré (1905a), Ch. 2 2798:Poincaré (1904); Poincaré (1905a), Ch. 8 2732:History of special relativity#References 2216: 2068: 139: 4395:Electrodynamics from Ampére to Einstein 3001: 2983: 2971: 2806: 2804: 2767: 1348: 4983: 4710:Walter, Scott (2007), Renn, J. (ed.), 3533:"Sur la dynamique de l'électron" 3487:, Paris: Gauthier-Villars – via 3061: 3036: 3034: 2848: 2846: 2844: 2842: 2825: 2813: 2783: 2744: 1584:{\textstyle k={\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}} 196:. Lorentz theoretically explained the 3631:"La Mécanique nouvelle (Lille)" 3172:"Considerations on Gravitation" 2855: 2700:Advances in Applied Clifford Algebras 2481: 2278:In 1909 and 1912 Einstein explained: 2225: 2202:and time is needed he wrote in 1912: 2191:"The aether is all but in our grasp." 1959: 1228:, and he showed that the combination 654:. B also sends a signal at time 0 to 219: 3716:"Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper" 3675:, Leipzig & Berlin: B.G. Teubner 3245:, Leipzig & Berlin: B.G. Teubner 3234:, Leipzig & Berlin: B.G. Teubner 2926: 2801: 938:in his transformation. In his paper 873:{\textstyle {\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}} 796:that in S the time of vibrations be 293:{\textstyle {\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}} 229:However, other experiments like the 4494:Yuri Balashov / M. Janssen (2002), 3031: 2959:Poincaré 1912; Poincaré 1913, Ch. 6 2839: 2648: 2582:Robertson–Mansouri–Sexl test theory 2578:test theories of special relativity 2196:"luminous vibrations of the aether" 2161:Poincaré wrote in the sense of his 2011:Lorentz-invariant gravitational law 1972:In the same paper, he assumed like 711:{\displaystyle \varepsilon ^{-1/2}} 116:Robertson–Mansouri–Sexl test theory 110:for all phenomena in a "preferred" 13: 4764:Other notes and comments (group C) 4585:, Johns Hopkins University Press, 4053:Ether and the Theory of Relativity 3692:Reprinted in Poincaré 1913, Ch. 6. 3376:Théorie mathématique de la lumière 3261:, Leipzig and Berlin: B.G. Teubner 1121: 1098: 1075: 1030: 910:History of Lorentz transformations 16:Defunct theory of electromagnetism 14: 5012: 4948: 4792:réussi dans son article intitulé 4716:The Genesis of General Relativity 3331:Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1931) , 3297:Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1921) , 3209:Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1904b), 3190:Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1904a), 2545: 2290:In 1907 Einstein criticized the " 1503:{\displaystyle k^{3}\varepsilon } 4968:Poincaré Contemplates Copernicus 3557:"Sur la dynamique de l'électron" 3268:Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1914), 3252:Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1914), 3230:Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1909), 3169:Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1900), 3148:Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1899), 3126:Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1895), 2171:He also denied the existence of 135: 4935: 4916: 4886: 4873: 4846: 4833: 4823: 4813: 4800: 4783: 4770: 4319:Einstein's Theory of Relativity 4299: 4290: 4281: 4272: 4263: 4254: 4245: 4236: 4227: 4218: 4209: 4200: 4191: 4182: 4173: 4164: 4155: 4146: 4137: 4128: 3561:On the Dynamics of the Electron 3538:On the Dynamics of the Electron 3052: 3043: 3013: 2992: 2962: 2953: 2944: 2935: 2917: 2896: 2887: 2878: 2869: 2691: 2078:Constancy of the speed of light 1726: 1115: 1092: 1069: 4755:Vol. 1: The classical theories 4119: 4110: 4101: 4092: 2893:Lorentz (1914) primary sources 2758: 2615: 2260:recognize that they were also 2055:Einstein Equivalence Principle 2051:continuity and Euler equations 1954: 1904: 1890: 1630:{\displaystyle \varepsilon =1} 1417:{\displaystyle m=(4/3)E/c^{2}} 1393: 1379: 750: 736: 349:{\displaystyle v^{2}/(2c^{2})} 343: 327: 1: 4757:(2. ed.), London: Nelson 4581:Alberto A. Mart́ínez (2009), 3380:Preface partly reprinted in " 2608: 2488:History of general relativity 2232:History of special relativity 2047:harmonic coordinate condition 1978:Johann Karl Friedrich Zöllner 1928:{\displaystyle -(1/3)E/c^{2}} 1526:{\displaystyle k\varepsilon } 812:{\displaystyle k\varepsilon } 635:{\displaystyle t'=t-vx/c^{2}} 553:, the Doppler effect and the 526:{\displaystyle t'=t-vx/c^{2}} 470: 465:§ Lorentz transformation 4065:Minkowski, Hermann (1909) , 3113:Zittingsverlag Akad. V. Wet. 2599:Kennedy–Thorndike experiment 2059:Strong Equivalence Principle 1604:{\displaystyle \varepsilon } 1466:{\displaystyle E_{em}/c^{2}} 1008:{\displaystyle \varepsilon } 995:is an arbitrary function of 893:{\displaystyle \varepsilon } 646:sends a signal at time 0 to 7: 4609:, Reading: Addison–Wesley, 4496:"Presentism and Relativity" 4399:, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 4345:American Journal of Physics 4143:Janssen (1995), Chap. 3.5.4 4086:Secondary sources (group B) 4058:, London: Methuen & Co. 3879:Einstein, Albert (1908a) , 3409:"The Measure of Time" 2932:Lorentz (1921), pp. 247–261 2595:Michelson–Morley experiment 2540:the article on this dispute 2533: 1974:Ottaviano Fabrizio Mossotti 1330:{\textstyle ct{\sqrt {-1}}} 900:is an undetermined factor. 226:Michelson–Morley experiment 158:and the electron theory of 53:Michelson–Morley experiment 10: 5017: 4601:Miller, Arthur I. (1981), 4415:Darrigol, Olivier (2005), 4391:Darrigol, Olivier (2000), 4170:Janssen/Mecklenburg (2007) 4152:Janssen/Mecklenburg (2007) 3758:Einstein, Albert (1905b), 3714:Einstein, Albert (1905a), 3670:Die neue Mechanik (Berlin) 3555:Poincaré, Henri (1906b) , 3513:Poincaré, Henri (1906a) , 3414:The foundations of science 2485: 2229: 2065:Principles and conventions 1352: 907: 557:(i.e. measurements of the 4630:"Die Relativitätstheorie" 4565:10.1007/s00016-004-0234-y 4466:, New York: W.W. Norton, 4339:Brown, Harvey R. (2001), 4073:Physikalische Zeitschrift 4049:Einstein, Albert (1922), 4012:Einstein, Albert (1996). 3966:Einstein, Albert (1912), 3953:Physikalische Zeitschrift 3945:Einstein, Albert (1909), 3842:Einstein, Albert (1907), 3797:Einstein, Albert (1906), 3666:Poincaré, Henri (1911) , 3649:Poincaré, Henri (1910) , 3614:"The New Mechanics" 3611:Poincaré, Henri (1913) , 3530:Poincaré, Henri (1905b), 3481:Poincaré, Henri (1901b), 3443:Poincaré, Henri (1900b), 3423:Poincaré, Henri (1900a), 3406:Poincaré, Henri (1913) , 3344:The Astrophysical Journal 3141:], Leiden: E.J. Brill 2712:10.1007/s00006-011-0303-7 2156: 1222:principle of least action 246:magnetic vector potential 19:What is now often called 4972:Whittaker and the Aether 4964:Who Invented Relativity? 4897:, or by equal values of 4748:Whittaker, Edmund Taylor 4482:Janssen, Michel (1995), 4296:Balashov / Janssen, 2002 3995:10.1002/andp.19123431014 3937:10.1002/andp.19083310806 3871:10.1002/andp.19073280713 3826:10.1002/andp.19063250814 3788:10.1002/andp.19053231314 3744:10.1002/andp.19053221004 3698:Poincaré, Henri (1913), 3628:Poincaré, Henri (1909), 3594:2027/uiug.30112063899089 3497:Poincaré, Henri (1902), 3374:Poincaré, Henri (1889), 2603:Ives–Stilwell experiment 2518:local Lorentz covariance 2467:{\displaystyle E=mc^{2}} 2380:{\displaystyle E=mc^{2}} 928:Trouton–Noble experiment 669:Einstein synchronisation 658:, which arrives at time 650:, which arrives at time 559:Fresnel drag coefficient 4462:Galison, Peter (2003), 4444:10.1007/3-7643-7436-5_1 4098:Whittaker (1951), 386ff 3280:: 28–59, archived from 2923:Poincaré (1902), Ch. 13 2506:principle of relativity 2476:energy conservation law 2419:{\displaystyle E/c^{2}} 2349:mass–energy equivalence 2340:{\displaystyle E/c^{2}} 2308:Mass–energy equivalence 2250:principle of relativity 2213:The shift to relativity 2173:absolute space and time 2108:principle of relativity 2101:Principle of relativity 2035:The shift to relativity 1949:mass–energy equivalence 1878:#Lorentz transformation 1359:Mass–energy equivalence 1343:The shift to relativity 91:(SR) with the works of 65:principle of relativity 4323:, Dover Publications, 4278:Darrigol (2005), 18–21 4251:Janssen (1995), Kap. 4 4242:Darrigol (2005), 15–18 4233:Walter (2007), Chap. 1 4215:Katzir (2005), 275–288 4206:Miller (1981), 186–189 4179:Miller (1981), 359–360 4134:Darrigol (2005), 10–11 4068:"Space and Time" 3500:Science and hypothesis 3484:Électricité et optique 3392:L'Éclairage électrique 3382:Science and Hypothesis 2968:Poincaré (1913), Ch. 2 2531: 2468: 2436: 2420: 2381: 2341: 2301: 2286: 2222: 2098: 2074: 2022: 2004: 1929: 1866: 1793: 1631: 1605: 1585: 1527: 1504: 1467: 1418: 1331: 1298: 1210: 1161: 1009: 989: 932:Lorentz transformation 904:Lorentz transformation 894: 874: 819:times as great as in S 813: 787: 712: 636: 577: 527: 452: 372:perpendicularly to it. 350: 294: 202:Nobel Prize in Physics 169: 147: 131:Historical development 124:one-way speed of light 77:Lorentz transformation 4522:10.1093/bjps/54.2.327 4161:Walter (2007), Kap. 1 4125:Miller (1981), 70–75, 2980:Lorentz (1913), p. 75 2626:. London: Routledge. 2526: 2502:equivalence principle 2469: 2432: 2421: 2382: 2342: 2296: 2282: 2220: 2185:And referring to the 2093: 2072: 2017: 1999: 1930: 1867: 1794: 1632: 1606: 1586: 1528: 1505: 1468: 1419: 1332: 1299: 1211: 1162: 1010: 990: 988:{\displaystyle \ell } 908:Further information: 895: 875: 814: 788: 713: 637: 572: 528: 453: 351: 295: 190:actions at a distance 164: 152:Augustin-Jean Fresnel 143: 4956:Corresponding States 4652:Theory of Relativity 4033:Einstein A. (1916), 2442: 2395: 2355: 2316: 2267:Poincare (1905) and 2165:philosophy in 1889: 1986:Pierre Simon Laplace 1884: 1809: 1644: 1615: 1595: 1537: 1514: 1484: 1432: 1370: 1355:Electromagnetic mass 1349:Electromagnetic mass 1308: 1232: 1172: 1022: 999: 979: 884: 832: 800: 722: 684: 591: 482: 391: 309: 252: 4960:The End of My Latin 4728:2007ggr..conf..193W 4722:, Berlin: 193–252, 4691:1999ewgr.book...45W 4650:Pauli, W. (1981) . 4557:2005PhP.....7..268K 4536:, Dordrecht: 65–134 4436:2006eins.book....1D 4367:2001AmJPh..69.1044B 4008:English Translation 3987:1912AnP...343.1059E 3929:1908AnP...331..532E 3900:1908JRE.....4..411E 3863:1907AnP...328..371E 3818:1906AnP...325..627E 3779:1905AnP...323..639E 3750:English translation 3735:1905AnP...322..891E 3577:1906RCMP...21..129P 3461:English translation 3356:1928ApJ....68..341M 3335:, London: MacMillan 2669:1977GReGr...8..497M 2508:, the principle of 2175:by saying in 1901: 2148:Paul Ulrich Villard 973:gravitational waves 662:. If in both cases 568:The Measure of Time 551:aberration of light 242:Maxwell's equations 156:Maxwell's equations 118:as an example), so 75:by introducing the 31:) has its roots in 5001:Special relativity 4424:Séminaire Poincaré 4315:Born, Max (1964), 4107:Born (1964), 172ff 3975:Annalen der Physik 3917:Annalen der Physik 3851:Annalen der Physik 3806:Annalen der Physik 3767:Annalen der Physik 3723:Annalen der Physik 3684:Revue Scientifique 3636:Revue Scientifique 3585:10.1007/BF03013466 3322:10.1007/BF02392073 2677:10.1007/BF00762634 2590:length contraction 2510:general covariance 2498:general relativity 2482:General relativity 2464: 2416: 2377: 2337: 2242:special relativity 2226:Special relativity 2223: 2075: 2045:is defined by the 2031:general relativity 1966:Le Sage type model 1960:Lorentz's theories 1925: 1862: 1789: 1627: 1601: 1581: 1523: 1500: 1463: 1414: 1327: 1294: 1206: 1157: 1005: 985: 890: 870: 809: 783: 708: 632: 570:he wrote in 1898: 523: 448: 385:Length contraction 346: 290: 220:Length contraction 148: 120:Lorentz covariance 112:frame of reference 104:length contraction 89:special relativity 57:length contraction 4839:German original: 4806:French original: 4789:French original: 4776:French original: 4661:978-0-486-64152-2 4616:978-0-201-04679-3 4592:978-0-8018-9135-9 4473:978-0-393-32604-8 4453:978-3-7643-7435-8 4406:978-0-19-850594-5 4375:10.1119/1.1379733 4351:(10): 1044–1054, 4330:978-0-486-60769-6 4224:Miller (1981), 79 4023:978-0-691-02610-7 3981:(10): 1059–1064, 2570:John Stewart Bell 2351:, represented by 2269:Hermann Minkowski 2189:, he even wrote: 2187:Fizeau experiment 2027:Arnold Sommerfeld 1860: 1833: 1784: 1783: 1781: 1721: 1709: 1707: 1579: 1325: 1204: 1203: 961:Lorentz covariant 868: 555:Fizeau experiment 446: 302:George FitzGerald 288: 231:Fizeau experiment 97:Hermann Minkowski 5008: 4942: 4939: 4933: 4920: 4914: 4893:equal values of 4890: 4884: 4877: 4871: 4850: 4844: 4837: 4831: 4827: 4821: 4817: 4811: 4804: 4798: 4787: 4781: 4774: 4758: 4741: 4740: 4739: 4730:, archived from 4704: 4703: 4702: 4693:, archived from 4679:Einstein Studies 4665: 4641: 4619: 4608: 4595: 4575: 4537: 4524: 4515: 4488: 4476: 4456: 4421: 4409: 4398: 4385: 4360: 4333: 4322: 4306: 4303: 4297: 4294: 4288: 4285: 4279: 4276: 4270: 4267: 4261: 4258: 4252: 4249: 4243: 4240: 4234: 4231: 4225: 4222: 4216: 4213: 4207: 4204: 4198: 4195: 4189: 4186: 4180: 4177: 4171: 4168: 4162: 4159: 4153: 4150: 4144: 4141: 4135: 4132: 4126: 4123: 4117: 4114: 4108: 4105: 4099: 4096: 4080: 4070: 4059: 4057: 4043: 4041: 4027: 4005: 3972: 3960: 3950: 3939: 3914: 3902: 3885: 3873: 3848: 3836: 3803: 3791: 3790: 3764: 3747: 3746: 3720: 3708: 3706:Internet Archive 3691: 3676: 3674: 3660: 3654: 3643: 3633: 3622: 3616: 3605: 3596: 3549: 3535: 3524: 3518: 3507: 3505:Internet Archive 3491: 3489:Internet Archive 3474: 3458: 3448: 3436: 3417: 3411: 3399: 3379: 3368: 3367: 3336: 3325: 3324: 3309:Acta Mathematica 3302: 3291: 3290: 3289: 3270:"La Gravitation" 3262: 3260: 3246: 3235: 3224: 3214: 3203: 3184: 3174: 3163: 3153: 3142: 3134: 3120: 3101: 3086: 3068: 3065: 3059: 3058:Einstein (1905b) 3056: 3050: 3049:Minkowski (1908) 3047: 3041: 3038: 3029: 3026: 3020: 3019:Einstein (1908a) 3017: 3011: 3008: 2999: 2996: 2990: 2989:Einstein (1905a) 2987: 2981: 2978: 2969: 2966: 2960: 2957: 2951: 2948: 2942: 2939: 2933: 2930: 2924: 2921: 2915: 2912: 2903: 2900: 2894: 2891: 2885: 2882: 2876: 2873: 2867: 2864: 2853: 2852:Poincaré (1905b) 2850: 2837: 2834: 2823: 2822:Poincaré (1900b) 2820: 2811: 2808: 2799: 2796: 2781: 2778: 2765: 2762: 2756: 2753: 2724: 2723: 2695: 2689: 2688: 2657:Gen. Rel. Gravit 2652: 2646: 2645: 2619: 2494:Gunnar Nordström 2473: 2471: 2470: 2465: 2463: 2462: 2425: 2423: 2422: 2417: 2415: 2414: 2405: 2389:perpetual motion 2386: 2384: 2383: 2378: 2376: 2375: 2346: 2344: 2343: 2338: 2336: 2335: 2326: 2057:is derived. The 1982:speed of gravity 1934: 1932: 1931: 1926: 1924: 1923: 1914: 1900: 1871: 1869: 1868: 1863: 1861: 1859: 1858: 1849: 1848: 1836: 1834: 1826: 1821: 1820: 1798: 1796: 1795: 1790: 1785: 1782: 1780: 1779: 1770: 1769: 1760: 1752: 1751: 1750: 1741: 1736: 1735: 1722: 1720: 1719: 1714: 1710: 1708: 1706: 1705: 1696: 1695: 1686: 1678: 1671: 1670: 1661: 1656: 1655: 1636: 1634: 1633: 1628: 1610: 1608: 1607: 1602: 1590: 1588: 1587: 1582: 1580: 1578: 1577: 1568: 1563: 1562: 1547: 1532: 1530: 1529: 1524: 1509: 1507: 1506: 1501: 1496: 1495: 1472: 1470: 1469: 1464: 1462: 1461: 1452: 1447: 1446: 1423: 1421: 1420: 1415: 1413: 1412: 1403: 1389: 1336: 1334: 1333: 1328: 1326: 1318: 1303: 1301: 1300: 1295: 1293: 1292: 1283: 1282: 1270: 1269: 1257: 1256: 1244: 1243: 1215: 1213: 1212: 1207: 1205: 1202: 1201: 1186: 1182: 1166: 1164: 1163: 1158: 1156: 1152: 1125: 1124: 1102: 1101: 1079: 1078: 1065: 1061: 1034: 1033: 1014: 1012: 1011: 1006: 994: 992: 991: 986: 899: 897: 896: 891: 879: 877: 876: 871: 869: 867: 866: 857: 852: 851: 836: 818: 816: 815: 810: 792: 790: 789: 784: 782: 778: 777: 776: 767: 762: 761: 746: 717: 715: 714: 709: 707: 706: 702: 641: 639: 638: 633: 631: 630: 621: 601: 563:Hippolyte Fizeau 532: 530: 529: 524: 522: 521: 512: 492: 457: 455: 454: 449: 447: 445: 444: 435: 430: 429: 414: 409: 408: 355: 353: 352: 347: 342: 341: 326: 321: 320: 299: 297: 296: 291: 289: 287: 286: 277: 272: 271: 256: 238:Oliver Heaviside 5016: 5015: 5011: 5010: 5009: 5007: 5006: 5005: 4996:Hendrik Lorentz 4991:Aether theories 4981: 4980: 4951: 4946: 4945: 4940: 4936: 4930: 4927: 4924: 4921: 4917: 4907: 4905: 4902: 4891: 4887: 4878: 4874: 4864: 4861: 4858: 4855: 4851: 4847: 4838: 4834: 4828: 4824: 4818: 4814: 4805: 4801: 4788: 4784: 4775: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4737: 4735: 4700: 4698: 4662: 4626:Pauli, Wolfgang 4617: 4593: 4545:Phys. Perspect. 4513:10.1.1.114.5886 4474: 4454: 4419: 4407: 4331: 4310: 4309: 4304: 4300: 4295: 4291: 4286: 4282: 4277: 4273: 4269:Martinez (2009) 4268: 4264: 4259: 4255: 4250: 4246: 4241: 4237: 4232: 4228: 4223: 4219: 4214: 4210: 4205: 4201: 4196: 4192: 4187: 4183: 4178: 4174: 4169: 4165: 4160: 4156: 4151: 4147: 4142: 4138: 4133: 4129: 4124: 4120: 4115: 4111: 4106: 4102: 4097: 4093: 4088: 4083: 4024: 3970: 3912: 3883: 3846: 3801: 3773:(13): 639–643, 3762: 3729:(10): 891–921, 3718: 3459:. See also the 3287: 3285: 3072: 3071: 3067:Einstein (1906) 3066: 3062: 3057: 3053: 3048: 3044: 3040:Einstein (1922) 3039: 3032: 3028:Einstein (1907) 3027: 3023: 3018: 3014: 3010:Einstein (1912) 3009: 3002: 2998:Einstein (1909) 2997: 2993: 2988: 2984: 2979: 2972: 2967: 2963: 2958: 2954: 2949: 2945: 2940: 2936: 2931: 2927: 2922: 2918: 2913: 2906: 2902:Poincaré (1895) 2901: 2897: 2892: 2888: 2883: 2879: 2874: 2870: 2866:Poincaré (1906) 2865: 2856: 2851: 2840: 2835: 2826: 2821: 2814: 2809: 2802: 2797: 2784: 2780:Lorentz (1904b) 2779: 2768: 2763: 2759: 2754: 2745: 2740: 2728: 2727: 2696: 2692: 2653: 2649: 2634: 2620: 2616: 2611: 2560:Herbert E. Ives 2548: 2536: 2490: 2484: 2458: 2454: 2443: 2440: 2439: 2410: 2406: 2401: 2396: 2393: 2392: 2371: 2367: 2356: 2353: 2352: 2331: 2327: 2322: 2317: 2314: 2313: 2310: 2238:Albert Einstein 2234: 2228: 2221:Albert Einstein 2215: 2163:conventionalist 2159: 2103: 2080: 2067: 2043:preferred frame 2013: 1962: 1957: 1919: 1915: 1910: 1896: 1885: 1882: 1881: 1854: 1850: 1841: 1837: 1835: 1825: 1816: 1812: 1810: 1807: 1806: 1775: 1771: 1765: 1761: 1759: 1746: 1742: 1740: 1731: 1727: 1715: 1701: 1697: 1691: 1687: 1685: 1677: 1673: 1672: 1666: 1662: 1660: 1651: 1647: 1645: 1642: 1641: 1616: 1613: 1612: 1596: 1593: 1592: 1573: 1569: 1564: 1558: 1554: 1546: 1538: 1535: 1534: 1515: 1512: 1511: 1491: 1487: 1485: 1482: 1481: 1457: 1453: 1448: 1439: 1435: 1433: 1430: 1429: 1408: 1404: 1399: 1385: 1371: 1368: 1367: 1361: 1353:Main articles: 1351: 1317: 1309: 1306: 1305: 1288: 1284: 1278: 1274: 1265: 1261: 1252: 1248: 1239: 1235: 1233: 1230: 1229: 1197: 1193: 1181: 1173: 1170: 1169: 1139: 1135: 1120: 1116: 1097: 1093: 1074: 1070: 1048: 1044: 1029: 1025: 1023: 1020: 1019: 1000: 997: 996: 980: 977: 976: 969:current density 912: 906: 885: 882: 881: 862: 858: 853: 847: 843: 835: 833: 830: 829: 827: 822: 801: 798: 797: 772: 768: 763: 757: 753: 742: 729: 725: 723: 720: 719: 698: 691: 687: 685: 682: 681: 626: 622: 617: 594: 592: 589: 588: 517: 513: 508: 485: 483: 480: 479: 473: 461: 440: 436: 431: 425: 421: 413: 404: 400: 392: 389: 388: 337: 333: 322: 316: 312: 310: 307: 306: 282: 278: 273: 267: 263: 255: 253: 250: 249: 222: 160:Rudolf Clausius 145:Hendrik Lorentz 138: 133: 93:Albert Einstein 37:aether theories 33:Hendrik Lorentz 17: 12: 11: 5: 5014: 5004: 5003: 4998: 4993: 4979: 4978: 4950: 4949:External links 4947: 4944: 4943: 4934: 4915: 4885: 4872: 4853: 4845: 4832: 4822: 4812: 4799: 4782: 4768: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4759: 4743: 4742: 4706: 4705: 4669: 4668: 4667: 4666: 4660: 4643: 4642: 4621: 4620: 4615: 4597: 4596: 4591: 4577: 4576: 4551:(3): 268–292, 4539: 4538: 4525: 4506:(2): 327–346, 4490: 4489: 4478: 4477: 4472: 4458: 4457: 4452: 4411: 4410: 4405: 4387: 4386: 4335: 4334: 4329: 4311: 4308: 4307: 4298: 4289: 4280: 4271: 4262: 4253: 4244: 4235: 4226: 4217: 4208: 4199: 4197:Galison (2002) 4190: 4181: 4172: 4163: 4154: 4145: 4136: 4127: 4118: 4109: 4100: 4090: 4089: 4087: 4084: 4082: 4081: 4061: 4060: 4045: 4044: 4029: 4028: 4022: 3962: 3961: 3941: 3940: 3923:(8): 532–540, 3904: 3903: 3875: 3874: 3857:(7): 371–384, 3838: 3837: 3812:(8): 627–633, 3793: 3792: 3754: 3753: 3710: 3709: 3694: 3693: 3678: 3677: 3662: 3661: 3645: 3644: 3624: 3623: 3607: 3606: 3551: 3550: 3542:Comptes Rendus 3526: 3525: 3509: 3508: 3493: 3492: 3477: 3476: 3465: 3464: 3439: 3438: 3419: 3418: 3402: 3401: 3386: 3385: 3370: 3369: 3365:10.1086/143148 3338: 3337: 3327: 3326: 3315:(1): 293–308, 3293: 3292: 3264: 3263: 3248: 3247: 3237: 3236: 3226: 3225: 3205: 3204: 3186: 3185: 3165: 3164: 3144: 3143: 3122: 3121: 3103: 3102: 3088: 3087: 3073: 3070: 3069: 3060: 3051: 3042: 3030: 3021: 3012: 3000: 2991: 2982: 2970: 2961: 2952: 2943: 2934: 2925: 2916: 2904: 2895: 2886: 2877: 2875:Lorentz (1900) 2868: 2854: 2838: 2836:Lorentz (1899) 2824: 2812: 2800: 2782: 2766: 2764:Lorentz (1892) 2757: 2755:Lorentz (1895) 2742: 2741: 2739: 2736: 2726: 2725: 2690: 2663:(7): 497–513. 2647: 2632: 2613: 2612: 2610: 2607: 2547: 2546:Later activity 2544: 2535: 2532: 2504:, the general 2486:Main article: 2483: 2480: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2450: 2447: 2413: 2409: 2404: 2400: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2363: 2360: 2334: 2330: 2325: 2321: 2309: 2306: 2288: 2287: 2257: 2256: 2253: 2230:Main article: 2227: 2224: 2214: 2211: 2158: 2155: 2102: 2099: 2079: 2076: 2073:Henri Poincaré 2066: 2063: 2012: 2009: 1961: 1958: 1956: 1953: 1922: 1918: 1913: 1909: 1906: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1892: 1889: 1873: 1872: 1857: 1853: 1847: 1844: 1840: 1832: 1829: 1824: 1819: 1815: 1800: 1799: 1788: 1778: 1774: 1768: 1764: 1758: 1755: 1749: 1745: 1739: 1734: 1730: 1725: 1718: 1713: 1704: 1700: 1694: 1690: 1684: 1681: 1676: 1669: 1665: 1659: 1654: 1650: 1626: 1623: 1620: 1600: 1576: 1572: 1567: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1550: 1545: 1542: 1522: 1519: 1499: 1494: 1490: 1475:center of mass 1460: 1456: 1451: 1445: 1442: 1438: 1411: 1407: 1402: 1398: 1395: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1381: 1378: 1375: 1350: 1347: 1324: 1321: 1316: 1313: 1291: 1287: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1242: 1238: 1217: 1216: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1189: 1185: 1180: 1177: 1167: 1155: 1151: 1148: 1145: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1131: 1128: 1123: 1119: 1114: 1111: 1108: 1105: 1100: 1096: 1091: 1088: 1085: 1082: 1077: 1073: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1057: 1054: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1040: 1037: 1032: 1028: 1004: 984: 965:charge density 905: 902: 889: 865: 861: 856: 850: 846: 842: 839: 825: 820: 808: 805: 781: 775: 771: 766: 760: 756: 752: 749: 745: 741: 738: 735: 732: 728: 705: 701: 697: 694: 690: 629: 625: 620: 616: 613: 610: 607: 604: 600: 597: 547:Doppler effect 543:Woldemar Voigt 520: 516: 511: 507: 504: 501: 498: 495: 491: 488: 472: 469: 459: 443: 439: 434: 428: 424: 420: 417: 412: 407: 403: 399: 396: 377: 376: 373: 366: 345: 340: 336: 332: 329: 325: 319: 315: 285: 281: 276: 270: 266: 262: 259: 221: 218: 194:speed of light 185:magnetic field 181:electric field 137: 134: 132: 129: 81:Henri Poincaré 61:Henri Poincaré 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5013: 5002: 4999: 4997: 4994: 4992: 4989: 4988: 4986: 4977: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4961: 4957: 4953: 4952: 4938: 4919: 4911: 4900: 4896: 4889: 4882: 4876: 4869: 4849: 4843: 4836: 4826: 4816: 4810: 4803: 4797: 4793: 4786: 4780: 4773: 4769: 4756: 4754: 4749: 4745: 4744: 4734:on 2009-01-30 4733: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4708: 4707: 4697:on 2009-01-30 4696: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4671: 4670: 4663: 4657: 4653: 4647: 4646: 4645: 4644: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4627: 4623: 4622: 4618: 4612: 4607: 4606: 4599: 4598: 4594: 4588: 4584: 4579: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4541: 4540: 4535: 4531: 4526: 4523: 4519: 4514: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4492: 4491: 4487: 4486: 4480: 4479: 4475: 4469: 4465: 4460: 4459: 4455: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4418: 4413: 4412: 4408: 4402: 4397: 4396: 4389: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4359: 4358:gr-qc/0104032 4354: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4337: 4336: 4332: 4326: 4321: 4320: 4313: 4312: 4302: 4293: 4284: 4275: 4266: 4260:Walter (1999) 4257: 4248: 4239: 4230: 4221: 4212: 4203: 4194: 4188:Walter (2007) 4185: 4176: 4167: 4158: 4149: 4140: 4131: 4122: 4113: 4104: 4095: 4091: 4078: 4074: 4069: 4063: 4062: 4056: 4054: 4047: 4046: 4040: 4038: 4031: 4030: 4025: 4019: 4015: 4009: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3969: 3964: 3963: 3959:(22): 817–825 3958: 3954: 3949: 3943: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3911: 3906: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3882: 3877: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3845: 3840: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3800: 3795: 3794: 3789: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3761: 3756: 3755: 3751: 3745: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3717: 3712: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3702: 3696: 3695: 3689: 3685: 3680: 3679: 3673: 3671: 3664: 3663: 3658: 3653: 3647: 3646: 3641: 3637: 3632: 3626: 3625: 3620: 3615: 3609: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3595: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3553: 3552: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3534: 3528: 3527: 3522: 3517: 3511: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3501: 3495: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3485: 3479: 3478: 3472: 3467: 3466: 3462: 3456: 3452: 3447: 3441: 3440: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3421: 3420: 3415: 3410: 3404: 3403: 3397: 3393: 3388: 3387: 3383: 3377: 3372: 3371: 3366: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3340: 3339: 3334: 3329: 3328: 3323: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3301: 3295: 3294: 3284:on 2008-12-06 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3266: 3265: 3259: 3257: 3250: 3249: 3244: 3239: 3238: 3233: 3228: 3227: 3222: 3218: 3213: 3207: 3206: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3188: 3187: 3182: 3178: 3173: 3167: 3166: 3161: 3157: 3152: 3146: 3145: 3140: 3139: 3133: 3131: 3124: 3123: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3105: 3104: 3099: 3095: 3090: 3089: 3084: 3080: 3075: 3074: 3064: 3055: 3046: 3037: 3035: 3025: 3016: 3007: 3005: 2995: 2986: 2977: 2975: 2965: 2956: 2947: 2938: 2929: 2920: 2911: 2909: 2899: 2890: 2881: 2872: 2863: 2861: 2859: 2849: 2847: 2845: 2843: 2833: 2831: 2829: 2819: 2817: 2807: 2805: 2795: 2793: 2791: 2789: 2787: 2777: 2775: 2773: 2771: 2761: 2752: 2750: 2748: 2743: 2735: 2733: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2694: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2651: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2633:9780415701747 2629: 2625: 2618: 2614: 2606: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2591: 2587: 2586:time dilation 2583: 2579: 2574: 2571: 2567: 2565: 2561: 2556: 2552: 2543: 2541: 2530: 2525: 2521: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2489: 2479: 2477: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2448: 2445: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2411: 2407: 2402: 2398: 2390: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2361: 2358: 2350: 2332: 2328: 2323: 2319: 2305: 2300: 2295: 2293: 2285: 2281: 2280: 2279: 2276: 2274: 2270: 2265: 2263: 2254: 2251: 2247: 2246: 2245: 2243: 2239: 2233: 2219: 2210: 2206: 2205: 2199: 2197: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2179: 2178: 2174: 2169: 2168: 2164: 2154: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2139: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2125: 2124:Paul Langevin 2120: 2119: 2114: 2113: 2109: 2097: 2092: 2089: 2085: 2071: 2062: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2038: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2021: 2016: 2008: 2003: 1998: 1996: 1992: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1970: 1967: 1952: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1937: 1920: 1916: 1911: 1907: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1887: 1879: 1855: 1851: 1845: 1842: 1838: 1830: 1827: 1822: 1817: 1813: 1805: 1804: 1803: 1786: 1776: 1772: 1766: 1762: 1756: 1753: 1747: 1743: 1737: 1732: 1728: 1723: 1716: 1711: 1702: 1698: 1692: 1688: 1682: 1679: 1674: 1667: 1663: 1657: 1652: 1648: 1640: 1639: 1638: 1624: 1621: 1618: 1598: 1574: 1570: 1565: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1548: 1543: 1540: 1520: 1517: 1497: 1492: 1488: 1478: 1476: 1458: 1454: 1449: 1443: 1440: 1436: 1427: 1409: 1405: 1400: 1396: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1376: 1373: 1365: 1364:J. J. Thomson 1360: 1356: 1346: 1344: 1340: 1322: 1319: 1314: 1311: 1289: 1285: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1240: 1236: 1227: 1226:Lorentz group 1223: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1187: 1183: 1178: 1175: 1168: 1153: 1149: 1146: 1143: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1129: 1126: 1117: 1112: 1109: 1106: 1103: 1094: 1089: 1086: 1083: 1080: 1071: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1055: 1052: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1038: 1035: 1026: 1018: 1017: 1016: 1002: 982: 974: 970: 966: 962: 956: 954: 949: 945: 941: 937: 933: 929: 925: 921: 917: 911: 901: 887: 863: 859: 854: 848: 844: 840: 837: 823: 806: 803: 793: 779: 773: 769: 764: 758: 754: 747: 743: 739: 733: 730: 726: 703: 699: 695: 692: 688: 677: 676:time dilation 672: 670: 665: 661: 657: 653: 649: 645: 627: 623: 618: 614: 611: 608: 605: 602: 598: 595: 586: 582: 576: 571: 569: 564: 560: 556: 552: 548: 544: 540: 536: 518: 514: 509: 505: 502: 499: 496: 493: 489: 486: 478: 468: 466: 441: 437: 432: 426: 422: 418: 415: 410: 405: 401: 397: 394: 386: 382: 374: 371: 367: 364: 360: 359: 358: 338: 334: 330: 323: 317: 313: 303: 283: 279: 274: 268: 264: 260: 257: 247: 243: 240:derived from 239: 234: 232: 227: 217: 215: 211: 207: 206:Joseph Larmor 203: 199: 198:Zeeman effect 195: 191: 186: 182: 178: 174: 168: 163: 161: 157: 153: 146: 142: 136:Basic concept 128: 125: 121: 117: 113: 109: 108:time dilation 105: 100: 98: 94: 90: 86: 82: 78: 74: 70: 66: 62: 58: 54: 50: 46: 40: 38: 34: 30: 26: 24: 4937: 4918: 4910:epistemology 4898: 4894: 4888: 4880: 4875: 4867: 4848: 4840: 4835: 4825: 4815: 4807: 4802: 4795: 4790: 4785: 4777: 4772: 4751: 4736:, retrieved 4732:the original 4719: 4715: 4699:, retrieved 4695:the original 4682: 4678: 4651: 4648:In English: 4640:(2): 539–776 4637: 4633: 4604: 4582: 4548: 4544: 4533: 4503: 4499: 4484: 4463: 4427: 4423: 4394: 4348: 4344: 4318: 4301: 4292: 4283: 4274: 4265: 4256: 4247: 4238: 4229: 4220: 4211: 4202: 4193: 4184: 4175: 4166: 4157: 4148: 4139: 4130: 4121: 4116:Brown (2001) 4112: 4103: 4094: 4076: 4072: 4052: 4036: 4013: 4007: 3978: 3974: 3956: 3952: 3920: 3916: 3891: 3887: 3854: 3850: 3809: 3805: 3770: 3766: 3748:. See also: 3726: 3722: 3700: 3687: 3683: 3669: 3656: 3639: 3635: 3618: 3568: 3564: 3545: 3541: 3520: 3499: 3483: 3470: 3454: 3450: 3432: 3428: 3413: 3395: 3391: 3375: 3347: 3343: 3332: 3312: 3308: 3286:, retrieved 3282:the original 3277: 3273: 3255: 3242: 3231: 3220: 3216: 3202:(2): 145–288 3199: 3195: 3180: 3176: 3159: 3155: 3136: 3129: 3116: 3112: 3097: 3093: 3082: 3078: 3063: 3054: 3045: 3024: 3015: 2994: 2985: 2964: 2955: 2946: 2937: 2928: 2919: 2898: 2889: 2880: 2871: 2760: 2729: 2703: 2699: 2693: 2660: 2656: 2650: 2623: 2617: 2575: 2568: 2563: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2537: 2527: 2522: 2491: 2437: 2433: 2428: 2311: 2302: 2297: 2289: 2283: 2277: 2266: 2261: 2258: 2235: 2207: 2203: 2200: 2195: 2190: 2182: 2180: 2176: 2170: 2166: 2160: 2151: 2144:cathode rays 2140: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2121: 2117: 2115: 2111: 2104: 2094: 2081: 2039: 2023: 2018: 2014: 2005: 2000: 1994: 1990: 1971: 1963: 1944: 1940: 1938: 1874: 1801: 1479: 1362: 1339:four-vectors 1218: 957: 947: 943: 935: 923: 919: 915: 913: 795: 679: 673: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 643: 584: 580: 578: 573: 538: 534: 474: 378: 369: 362: 235: 223: 213: 209: 177:Isaac Newton 170: 165: 149: 101: 72: 68: 48: 44: 41: 28: 20: 18: 4954:Mathpages: 4287:Walter 2007 3894:: 411–462, 3701:Last Essays 3571:: 129–176, 3548:: 1504–1508 3435:: 1163–1175 3350:: 345–351, 2706:: 203–242. 1955:Gravitation 953:Max Abraham 85:gravitation 4985:Categories 4881:x, y, z, t 4738:2009-03-04 4701:2009-03-04 4042:, Springer 3384:", Ch. 12. 3288:2007-09-11 2609:References 2576:Also some 2262:sufficient 916:local time 824:", where S 477:local time 471:Local time 183:E and the 4809:employer. 4685:: 45–86, 4508:CiteSeerX 4003:120162895 3834:120361282 3690:: 225–232 3642:: 170–177 3603:120211823 3473:: 457–494 3457:: 252–278 3223:: 809–831 3183:: 559–574 3162:: 427–442 3100:: 363–552 3085:: 103–176 2720:0188-7009 2273:spacetime 2236:In 1905, 2088:postulate 2084:Ole Rømer 1945:converted 1888:− 1757:− 1683:− 1619:ε 1599:ε 1552:− 1521:ε 1498:ε 1477:theorem. 1320:− 1272:− 1195:ε 1191:− 1147:ε 1133:ℓ 1122:′ 1107:ℓ 1099:′ 1084:ℓ 1076:′ 1056:ε 1042:ℓ 1031:′ 1003:ε 983:ℓ 888:ε 841:− 807:ε 734:− 693:− 689:ε 609:− 500:− 419:− 411:⋅ 363:contracts 361:The body 261:− 244:that the 204:in 1902. 4932:concept. 4842:stützen. 4750:(1951), 4628:(1921), 4573:14751280 4430:: 1–22, 3274:Scientia 2685:67852594 2642:69020927 2534:Priority 2516:motion, 2514:geodesic 2142:magneto- 2131:complete 1426:momentum 599:′ 533:, where 490:′ 458:(where l 173:Max Born 21:Lorentz 4868:exactly 4724:Bibcode 4687:Bibcode 4553:Bibcode 4432:Bibcode 4383:2945585 4363:Bibcode 4079:: 75–88 3983:Bibcode 3925:Bibcode 3896:Bibcode 3859:Bibcode 3814:Bibcode 3775:Bibcode 3731:Bibcode 3573:Bibcode 3563:], 3540:], 3352:Bibcode 3307:], 3119:: 74–79 3111:], 2665:Bibcode 2033:, see " 370:expands 4658: 4613: 4589: 4571: 4510: 4470: 4450: 4403: 4381: 4327: 4055: 4039: 4020: 4001: 3832: 3672: 3601: 3398:: 5–14 3258: 3132: 2718: 2683: 2640: 2630: 2601:, and 2292:ad hoc 2157:Aether 2053:. The 2002:light. 1941:per se 1802:where 914:While 880:, and 381:ad hoc 25:theory 4569:S2CID 4420:(PDF) 4379:S2CID 4353:arXiv 3999:S2CID 3971:(PDF) 3913:(PDF) 3884:(PDF) 3847:(PDF) 3830:S2CID 3802:(PDF) 3763:(PDF) 3719:(PDF) 3599:S2CID 3559:[ 3536:[ 3303:[ 3135:[ 2681:S2CID 561:) by 23:ether 4656:ISBN 4611:ISBN 4587:ISBN 4468:ISBN 4448:ISBN 4401:ISBN 4325:ISBN 4018:ISBN 2716:ISSN 2638:OCLC 2628:ISBN 2588:and 1976:and 1591:and 1357:and 967:and 583:and 106:and 95:and 4561:doi 4518:doi 4440:doi 4371:doi 3991:doi 3933:doi 3921:331 3867:doi 3855:328 3822:doi 3810:325 3783:doi 3771:323 3739:doi 3727:322 3589:hdl 3581:doi 3546:140 3360:doi 3317:doi 2708:doi 2673:doi 2146:by 2037:". 1345:". 944:all 718:or 171:As 63:'s 29:LET 4987:: 4974:, 4970:, 4966:, 4962:, 4958:, 4899:t′ 4718:, 4714:, 4681:, 4677:, 4636:, 4632:, 4567:, 4559:, 4547:, 4532:, 4516:, 4504:54 4502:, 4498:, 4446:, 4438:, 4426:, 4422:, 4377:, 4369:, 4361:, 4349:69 4347:, 4343:, 4077:10 4075:, 4071:, 4010:: 4006:. 3997:, 3989:, 3979:38 3977:, 3973:, 3957:10 3955:, 3951:, 3931:, 3919:, 3915:, 3890:, 3886:, 3865:, 3853:, 3849:, 3828:, 3820:, 3808:, 3804:, 3781:, 3769:, 3765:, 3737:, 3725:, 3721:, 3688:17 3686:, 3655:, 3640:47 3638:, 3634:, 3617:, 3597:, 3587:, 3579:, 3569:21 3567:, 3544:, 3519:, 3453:, 3449:, 3433:11 3431:, 3427:, 3412:, 3394:, 3358:, 3348:68 3346:, 3313:38 3311:, 3278:16 3276:, 3272:, 3219:, 3215:, 3198:, 3194:, 3179:, 3175:, 3158:, 3154:, 3115:, 3098:25 3096:, 3083:21 3081:, 3033:^ 3003:^ 2973:^ 2907:^ 2857:^ 2841:^ 2827:^ 2815:^ 2803:^ 2785:^ 2769:^ 2746:^ 2734:. 2714:. 2704:22 2702:. 2679:. 2671:. 2659:. 2636:. 2597:, 2542:. 2512:, 2478:. 2198:. 2137:." 1951:. 467:. 154:, 99:. 4895:t 4854:0 4796:. 4726:: 4720:3 4689:: 4683:7 4664:. 4638:5 4563:: 4555:: 4549:7 4520:: 4442:: 4434:: 4428:1 4373:: 4365:: 4355:: 4026:. 3993:: 3985:: 3935:: 3927:: 3898:: 3892:4 3869:: 3861:: 3824:: 3816:: 3785:: 3777:: 3752:. 3741:: 3733:: 3591:: 3583:: 3575:: 3463:. 3455:5 3396:5 3362:: 3354:: 3319:: 3221:6 3200:5 3181:2 3160:1 3117:1 2722:. 2710:: 2687:. 2675:: 2667:: 2661:8 2644:. 2460:2 2456:c 2452:m 2449:= 2446:E 2412:2 2408:c 2403:/ 2399:E 2373:2 2369:c 2365:m 2362:= 2359:E 2333:2 2329:c 2324:/ 2320:E 2252:) 1995:c 1993:/ 1991:v 1921:2 1917:c 1912:/ 1908:E 1905:) 1902:3 1898:/ 1894:1 1891:( 1856:2 1852:c 1846:m 1843:e 1839:E 1831:3 1828:4 1823:= 1818:0 1814:m 1787:, 1777:2 1773:c 1767:2 1763:v 1754:1 1748:0 1744:m 1738:= 1733:T 1729:m 1724:, 1717:3 1712:) 1703:2 1699:c 1693:2 1689:v 1680:1 1675:( 1668:0 1664:m 1658:= 1653:L 1649:m 1625:1 1622:= 1575:2 1571:c 1566:/ 1560:2 1556:v 1549:1 1544:= 1541:k 1518:k 1493:3 1489:k 1459:2 1455:c 1450:/ 1444:m 1441:e 1437:E 1410:2 1406:c 1401:/ 1397:E 1394:) 1391:3 1387:/ 1383:4 1380:( 1377:= 1374:m 1323:1 1315:t 1312:c 1290:2 1286:t 1280:2 1276:c 1267:2 1263:z 1259:+ 1254:2 1250:y 1246:+ 1241:2 1237:x 1199:2 1188:1 1184:1 1179:= 1176:k 1154:) 1150:x 1144:+ 1141:t 1137:( 1130:k 1127:= 1118:t 1113:, 1110:z 1104:= 1095:z 1090:, 1087:y 1081:= 1072:y 1067:, 1063:) 1059:t 1053:+ 1050:x 1046:( 1039:k 1036:= 1027:x 948:l 936:l 924:c 922:/ 920:v 864:2 860:c 855:/ 849:2 845:v 838:1 826:0 821:0 804:k 780:) 774:2 770:c 765:/ 759:2 755:v 751:) 748:2 744:/ 740:1 737:( 731:1 727:( 704:2 700:/ 696:1 664:t 660:t 656:A 652:t 648:B 644:A 628:2 624:c 619:/ 615:x 612:v 606:t 603:= 596:t 585:B 581:A 539:t 535:t 519:2 515:c 510:/ 506:x 503:v 497:t 494:= 487:t 460:0 442:2 438:c 433:/ 427:2 423:v 416:1 406:0 402:l 398:= 395:l 344:) 339:2 335:c 331:2 328:( 324:/ 318:2 314:v 284:2 280:c 275:/ 269:2 265:v 258:1 214:c 212:/ 210:v 73:c 71:/ 69:v 49:c 47:/ 45:v 27:(

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Knowledge

Lorentz ether theory

Index