Lynching of Jesse Washington

1004:, a Waco-based professional photographer, arrived at city hall shortly before the lynching, possibly at the mayor's request, and photographed the event. His photographs provide rare depictions of a lynching in progress, rather than typical lynching photography, which shows only dead victims. Gildersleeve's photographs include views of the crowd shot from a building and close images of Washington's body; some may have been taken by an assistant. Gildersleeve produced postcards featuring images of adolescents, some as young as twelve, gathered around Washington's body. The individuals in the photographs did not attempt to hide their identities. Berg believes that their willingness to be photographed indicates that they knew that no one would be prosecuted for Washington's death. Although some Waco residents sent the cards to out-of-town relatives, several prominent local citizens persuaded Gildersleeve to stop selling them, fearing that the images would damage the town's reputation. 943: 1321: 827:. Between 1890 and 1920, about 3,000 African Americans who were alleged perpetrators of crimes were killed by lynch mobs. They were conducted outside the legal system: Suspects were taken from jail and courtrooms or killed before arrest. Supporters of lynching justified the practice as a way to assert dominance over African Americans, to whom they attributed a criminal nature. Lynching also provided a sense of white solidarity in a culture with changing demographics and power structures. Although lynching was tolerated by much of southern society, opponents of the practice emerged, including some religious leaders and the nascent National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). 896:, while Fleming returned to Robinson. Fleming soon reported that he found a bloody hammer where Washington had indicated. In Dallas, Washington dictated and signed a statement that described the rape and murder of Fryer; the confession was published the next day in Waco newspapers. Newspapers sensationalized the murder, describing Fryer's attempts to resist Washington's attack, but the doctor who had examined her body concluded that she was killed before any assault. A lynch mob assembled in Waco that night to search the local jail, but dispersed after failing to find Washington. A local paper praised their effort. That night, a small, private funeral and burial were held for Lucy Fryer. 1121:

assignment in Waco soon after the lynching, posing as a journalist and attempting to interview people about the events. She found that most residents were reluctant to discuss the event. She spoke with town officials and obtained pictures of the lynching from Gildersleeve, who was initially reluctant to provide them. Although she feared for her safety, she enjoyed the challenge of the investigation. When speaking with city leaders, Freeman convinced them that she planned to defend Waco against criticism when she returned to the North. Some journalists soon grew suspicious of her and warned residents not to talk to outsiders. Local African Americans, however, gave her a warm reception.

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initially fought back, biting one man, but was soon beaten. A chain was placed around his neck and he was dragged toward city hall by a growing mob; on the way downtown, he was stripped, stabbed, and repeatedly beaten with blunt objects. By the time he was taken to city hall, a group had prepared wood for a bonfire next to a tree in front of the building. Washington, semiconscious and covered in blood, was doused with oil, hanged from the tree by a chain, and lowered to the ground. Members of the crowd cut off his fingers, toes, and genitals. The fire was lit and Washington was repeatedly raised and lowered into the flames until he

1086:, a black college. It published several articles that criticized the lynch mob and city leadership. In one article, the author proclaimed that Jesse Washington was innocent and George Fryer guilty. A. T. Smith, the paper's editor, was subsequently convicted of libel. When George Fryer sued the college for libeling him as a murderer, some Robinson residents interpreted his very umbrage as a sign that he had played a part in his wife's death. Bernstein states that it is "highly unlikely" that George Fryer played a role in Lucy's murder but notes that there is the "shadow of a possibility" that he bore some guilt. 1075:. A few citizens contemplated staging a protest against the lynching but declined to do so owing to concerns about reprisals or the appearance of hypocrisy. After the lynching, town officials maintained that it was attended by a small group of malcontents. Although their claim is contradicted by photographic evidence, several histories of Waco have repeated this assertion. There were no negative repercussions for Mayor Dollins or Police Chief Guy McNamara; although they did not attempt to stop the mob, they remained well respected in Waco. As was common with such attacks, no one was prosecuted for the lynching. 150: 968:

Washington's bones and links of the chain. One attendee kept part of Washington's genitalia; a group of children snapped the teeth out of Washington's head to sell as souvenirs. By the time the fire was extinguished, parts of Washington's arms and legs had been burned off, his torso and head were charred and his cranium was exposed. His body was removed from the tree and dragged behind a horse throughout the town. Washington's remains were transported to Robinson, where they were publicly displayed until a constable obtained the body late in the day and buried it.

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but a few quiet members of Waco's black community were present. As Washington was led into the courtroom, one audience member pointed a gun at him but was quickly overpowered. As the trial commenced, Judge Richard Irby Munroe attempted to keep order, insisting that the audience remain silent. Jury selection proceeded quickly: The defense did not challenge any selections of the prosecution. Judge Munroe asked Washington for a plea and explained the potential sentences. Washington muttered a response, possibly "yes", interpreted by the court as a guilty plea.

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was publicized, the anti-lynching movement included images of racially motivated brutality in their campaigns. Carrigan notes that Washington's death may have received more public attention than any other lynching in the United States, and sees the event as a "turning point in the history of mob violence in Central Texas". Although the outcry it provoked did not end the practice, it helped bring an end to public support of such attacks by city leaders. Carrigan states that the lynching was "the most infamous day in the history of central Texas" until the

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concluded that white residents were generally supportive of Washington's lynching after his conviction, although many were upset that he had been mutilated. She determined that the mob that took him from the courtroom was led by a bricklayer, a saloonkeeper, and several employees of an ice company. The NAACP did not publicly identify them. Freeman concluded that Washington killed Fryer, and suggested he had resented her domineering attitude towards him.

1228:. Authorities feared that negative publicity generated by lynchings—such as the NAACP's campaign following Washington's death—would hinder their efforts to attract business investors. The NAACP fought to portray lynching as a savage, barbaric practice, an idea that eventually gained traction in the public mind. Bernstein credits the group's efforts with helping to end "the worst public atrocities of the racist system" in the Waco region. 1332:, and began to lobby for a monument to the lynching. In 2002, Lester Gibson, another member of the city council, proposed that a plaque be installed at the courthouse where Washington was lynched. He further stated that the plaque should carry an apology from the city. The ideas were discussed, but were not developed. In the 2000s, the idea of a memorial was revived by a McLennan County commissioner and the Waco Chamber of Commerce; the 6142: 884:

although Jesse's parents and brother were released after a short time, he was held for further interrogation without an attorney or his parents present. His questioners in Waco reported that he denied complicity in Fryer's death, but offered contradictory details about his actions. Rumors spread after Washington's arrest that the youth had been in an altercation with a white man a few days before the murder.

3685: 1110: 762:. He was repeatedly lowered and raised over the fire for about two hours. After the fire was extinguished, his charred torso was dragged through the town. A professional photographer took pictures as the event unfolded, providing rare imagery of a lynching in progress. The pictures were printed and sold as 1187:. Freeman traveled around the U.S. to speak to audiences about her investigation, maintaining that a shift in public opinion could accomplish more than legislative actions. Although there were other lynchings as brutal as Washington's, the availability of photographs and the setting of his death made it a 1272:

writes that the event was "a defining moment in the history of lynching", arguing that with Washington's death, "lynching began to sow the seeds of its own collapse". Although the spectacle of violent mob attacks had previously benefited white supremacists, Wood contends that after Washington's death

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argues that the culture of central Texas had glorified retributive mob violence for decades before Washington's lynching, maintaining that this culture of violence explains how such a brutal attack could be publicly celebrated. Hale posits that Washington's death signaled a transition in the practice

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After four minutes of deliberation, the jury's foreman announced a guilty verdict and a sentence of death. The trial lasted about one hour. Court officers approached Washington to escort him away but were pushed aside by a surge of spectators, who seized Washington and dragged him outside. Washington

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The prosecution described the charges, and the court heard testimony from law enforcement officers and the doctor who examined Fryer's body. The doctor discussed how Fryer died, but did not mention rape. The prosecution rested, and Washington's attorney asked him whether he had committed the offense.

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of Waco published a notice on May 12 requesting that residents let the justice system determine Washington's fate. Sheriff Fleming traveled to Robinson on May 13 to ask residents to remain calm; his address was well received. Washington was assigned several inexperienced lawyers. His lawyers prepared

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In Robinson, Texas, Lucy Fryer was murdered while alone at her house on May 8, 1916. She was found clubbed to death, sprawled across the doorway of the farm's seed shed. It was a grisly scene that included signs of sexual assault. Officials determined a blunt instrument was used as the murder weapon.

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describes the city as then having a "thin veneer" of peace and respectability. Racial tension was present in the city: Local newspapers often emphasized crimes committed by African Americans, and Sank Majors, a black man, was lynched and hanged from a bridge near downtown Waco in 1905. A small number

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s article on the lynching; he edited and organized Freeman's report for publication, but did not credit her in the issue. Du Bois's article concluded with a call to support the anti-lynching movement. The NAACP distributed the report to hundreds of newspapers and politicians, a campaign that led to

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had campaigned against lynching in the past, this publication was their first to depict images of an attack. The NAACP's board was initially hesitant to publish such graphic content, but Du Bois insisted on doing so, arguing that uncensored coverage would push white Americans to support change. The

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The spectacle of the lynching drew a large crowd estimated at 10,000 to 15,000 at its peak, including the mayor John Dollins and the chief of police Guy McNamara, although lynching was illegal in Texas. Sheriff Fleming told his deputies not to try to stop the lynching, and no one was arrested after

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On the morning of May 15, Waco's courthouse quickly filled to capacity in anticipation of the trial: The crowd almost prevented some jurors from entering. Observers also filled the sidewalks around the courthouse; more than two thousand spectators were present. Attendees were almost entirely white,

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W. E. B. Du Bois had been incensed by news of the brutal attack, saying "any talk of the triumph of Christianity, or the spread of human culture, is idle twaddle as long as the Waco lynching is possible in the United States". After receiving Freeman's report, he placed a photograph of Washington's

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Sheriff, Samuel Fleming, who immediately investigated with a team of law enforcement officers, a group of local men, and a doctor. The doctor determined that Fryer had been killed by blunt-force trauma to the head. The local men suspected that Jesse Washington, a seventeen-year-old black youth who

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to investigate; she conducted a detailed probe in Waco, despite the reluctance of many residents to speak about the event. Freeman concluded that white residents were generally supportive of Washington's lynching. She also concluded that Washington killed Fryer. After receiving Freeman's report on

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On February 12, 2023, a racially diverse crowd of more than 300 people, including those who have worked on the Jesse Washington marker for the past seven years, gathered on Third Street in front of Waco City Hall. It was the same ground where a crowd of thousands gathered in May 1916 to watch the

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argued that Washington was possibly innocent of both charges. In her 2006 book, Patricia Bernstein noted that Washington's motives have never been established clearly, although he did confess to having a dispute about mules with Fryer and there was a witness who alleged to have seen a dispute, as

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Freeman interviewed both Sheriff Fleming and the judge who presided over the trial; each said that he did not deserve blame for the lynching. A schoolteacher who had known Washington told Freeman that the young man was illiterate and that all attempts to teach him to read had been futile. Freeman

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considers dubious. Waco residents, who likely had no connection with the rural Fryer family, constituted most of the crowd. Some people from nearby rural communities traveled to the city before the trial to witness the events. As the lynching occurred at midday, children from local schools walked

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Residents had telephoned acquaintances to spread the word of the lynching, allowing spectators to gather more quickly and in greater numbers than before the advent of telephones. Local media reported that "shouts of delight" were heard as Washington burned, although they noted that some attendees

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After the practice of lynching was suppressed in central Texas, it received little attention from local historians. However, Waco developed a reputation for racism—propagated in part by American history textbooks—to the vexation of the city's white residents. In the years following the lynching,

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In 1916, Waco, Texas was a prosperous city with a population of more than 30,000. After it became associated with crime in the 19th century, community leaders sought to change its reputation, sending delegations across the U.S. to promote it as an idyllic locale. By the 1910s, Waco's economy had

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Bernstein states that Washington's lynching was a unique event because of its scale and location; not only did it occur in a larger city with a reputation for progressiveness, but it was attended by 10,000 spectators who were excited by the brutal torture. Similar acts of mob violence typically

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Some residents condemned the lynching, including ministers and leaders of Baylor University. The judge who presided over Washington's trial later stated that members of the lynch mob were "murderers"; the jury's foreman told the NAACP that he disapproved of their actions. Some who witnessed the

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Historians have noted that Washington's death helped alter the way lynching was viewed. The widespread negative publicity helped curb public support for the practice. In the 1990s and 2000s, some Waco residents lobbied for a monument to Washington's lynching, but this idea failed to garner wide

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Over 10,000 spectators, including city officials and police, gathered to watch the attack. There was a celebratory atmosphere among whites at the spectacle of the murder, and many children attended during their lunch hour. Members of the mob cut off his fingers and hung him over a bonfire after

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That night, sheriff's deputies traveled to Washington's home, finding him in front of the house wearing blood-stained overalls. He said the stains were from a nosebleed. Jesse, his brother William, and their parents were taken to nearby Waco to be questioned by the county sheriff's department;

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The NAACP hired Elisabeth Freeman, a women's suffrage activist based in New York City, to investigate the lynching. She had traveled to Texas in late 1915 or early 1916 to help organize the suffrage movement and was already in Dallas for a statewide convention in early May. Freeman began her

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posits that the executioners attempted to keep him alive to increase his suffering. Washington attempted to climb the chain, but was unable to do so without fingers. The fire was extinguished after two hours, allowing bystanders to collect souvenirs from the site of the lynching, including

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of lynching, demonstrating its acceptance in modernized, 20th-century cities. She notes that Washington's lynching illustrates how technological innovations, such as telephones and inexpensive photographs, could empower lynch mobs but also increase society's condemnation of their actions.

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described the members of the lynch mob as "lower than any other people who at present inhabit the earth". Although many southern newspapers had previously defended lynching as a defense of civilized society, after Washington's death, they avoided casting the practice in such terms. The

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to prevent vigilante action. The Hill County sheriff, Fred Long, questioned Washington with Fleming. Washington eventually told them he had killed Fryer following an argument about her mules and described the murder weapon and its location. Long then brought Washington to

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noted previously. She also states that his confession could have been coerced and that there is evidence he had limited intellectual capacity. She suggests that the murder weapon—perhaps the strongest evidence against him—could have been planted by authorities.

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of the lynching, May 15, 2016, the mayor of Waco apologized in a formal ceremony to Washington's relatives and issued a proclamation condemning Washington's lynching and noting the anniversary of the event. A historical marker is being erected at the site.

1135:, the NAACP's newsletter, in a special issue that discussed the event. The issue was titled "The Waco Horror" and was published as an eight-page supplement to the July edition. Du Bois popularized "Waco Horror" as a name for Washington's lynching; the 1261:, arguing Waco residents felt a sense of collective righteousness after Washington's death, as they saw him as the presence of evil in the community. Bernstein compares the public brutality of the lynch mob to the medieval English practice of 754:. He was chained by his neck and dragged out of the county court by observers. He was then paraded through the street, all while being stabbed and beaten, before being held down and castrated. He was then lynched in front of Waco's city hall. 955:

Washington replied, "That's what I done" and quietly apologized. The lead prosecutor addressed the courtroom and declared that the trial had been conducted fairly, prompting an ovation from the crowd. The jury was sent to deliberate.

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Those unveiling the marker included relatives of Washington. Joining them were relatives of Sank Majors, a black man who was seized by a mob in 1905 while waiting retrial on rape charges and hanged from the Washington Avenue Bridge.

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briefly noted disapproval of the lynching, focusing criticism on papers they felt had attacked the city unfairly. They cast the condemnatory editorials in the aftermath of the lynching as "Holier than thou" remarks. A writer for the

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later said that the group's campaign placed "lynching into the public mind as something like a national problem". Bernstein describes this anti-lynching campaign as the "barest beginnings of a battle that would last many years".

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the event. Bernstein speculates that Fleming may have wanted to be seen as dealing harshly with crime to help his candidacy for re-election that year. Mayor John Dollins may have also encouraged the mob for political benefit.

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of the event in May 2016, the mayor of Waco held a formal ceremony to apologize to Washington's relatives and the African American community. A historical marker has been installed to memorialize the lynching.

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More lynchings took place in Waco in the 1920s, partially owing to the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan. By the late 1920s, however, Waco authorities had begun to protect blacks from lynching, as in the case of

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editorial opined that, "in no other land even pretending to be civilized could a man be burned to death in the streets of a considerable city amid the savage exultation of its inhabitants". In the

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defended the lynching, stating that Washington deserved to die and that blacks should view Washington's death as a warning against crime. The paper later carried an editorial from the

2927: 1220:, blacks fought back fiercely in the riots but suffered the most casualties and property losses. They believed their war service should have earned them better treatment as citizens. 3007: 880:

had worked on the Fryers' farm for five months, was responsible. One man said that he had seen Washington near the Fryer house a few minutes before Lucy's body was discovered.

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downtown to observe, some climbing into trees for a better view. Many parents approved of their children's attendance, hoping that the lynching would reinforce a belief in

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Although leaders of Waco's black community gave public condolences to the Fryer family, they complained about Washington's lynching only in private. One exception was the

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She and her husband George were English immigrants and had become well respected in the rural community where they operated a farm. News of the death quickly reached the

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The NAACP had struggled financially around that time. Their anti-lynching campaign helped them raise funds, but they scaled back the campaign as the U.S. entered

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The number of lynchings in the U.S. increased in the late 1910s, particularly in the postwar period. In addition, in the summer and fall of 1919 called

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has editorialized in support of a historical marker on the site of the lynching. Some descendants of Fryer objected to the proposed memorial. On the

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In the days after the lynching, newspapers fiercely condemned the event. Within a week, news of the lynching was published as far away as London. A

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Baylor University Institute for Oral History Interviews – Oral Memoirs of Harold Lester Goodman, eyewitness to the lynching of Jesse Washington.

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wrote that, "no savage was ever more cruel ... than the men who participated in this horrible, almost unbelievable episode". In Texas, the

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was assembled on May 11 in McLennan County and quickly returned an indictment against Washington; the trial was scheduled for May 15. The

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wide condemnation of the lynching. Many white observers were disturbed by photos of the southerners who celebrated the lynching.

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SoRelle, James M. (2007). "The "Waco Horror": The Lynching of Jesse Washington". In Bruce A. Glasrud; James Smallwood (eds.).

835:. In the mid-1910s, blacks constituted about twenty percent of the Waco population. In her 2006 study of lynching, journalist 5452: 3607: 3403: 3380: 3353: 3326: 3303: 3284: 3265: 3242: 3219: 3196: 3173: 3150: 3127: 3104: 3081: 3054: 689: 684: 3449:

Ehrenhaus, Peter; Owen, A. Susan (July–October 2004). "Race Lynching and Christian Evangelicalism: Performances of Faith".

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Although the lynching was supported by many Waco residents, it was condemned by newspapers around the United States. The

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concluded that Washington probably murdered Fryer but doubted that he raped her. The same year, Julie Armstrong of the

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become strong and the city had gained a pious reputation. A black middle class had emerged in the area, along with two

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Encyclopedia of African American History, 1896 to the Present: From the Age of Segregation to the Twenty-First Century

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In the 1990s, Lawrence Johnson, a member of Waco's city council, viewed pictures of the Washington lynching at the

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Other black newspapers also carried significant coverage of the lynching, as did liberal monthly magazines such as

139: 27: 6187: 6074: 5728: 5370: 4987: 4915: 1093:, an F5 tornado tore through Downtown Waco, killing 114 people and injuring 593 others. Some people in the local 528: 518: 4592: 4077: 5399: 5210: 5107: 4312: 4232: 4168: 4013: 3257: 1320: 4352: 5411: 5405: 5352: 4712: 4664: 4053: 3957: 3861: 3733: 3575: 3119: 747: 739: 553: 420: 350: 335: 243: 6045: 5769: 1172:

wrote in a later edition of the paper that "the crime at Waco is a challenge to our American civilization".

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included more images of lynchings in subsequent issues. Washington's death received continued discussion in

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African Americans Confront Lynching: Strategies of Resistance from the Civil War to the Civil Rights Era

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Historical marker with Waco City Hall and the "Friendship is for all Seasons" sculpture in background

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issue included accounts of the lynching that Freeman had obtained from Waco residents. Du Bois wrote

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In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, thousands of lynchings were committed primarily in the

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featured a lynching, thought to be based on Washington's death, as a key event in his 1952 novel

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Wood, Amy Louise (2005). "Lynching Photography and the Visual Reproduction of White Supremacy".

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In their 2004 study of lynching, Peter Ehrenhaus and A. Susan Owen compare the lynching to a

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portrays a witness to the lynching who describes the event to a civil rights rally in 1970s

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A 1911 postcard of a group of Waco residents on the river bank, alluding to George Seurat's

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maintained that several black Waco residents attended, a claim historian Grace Hale of the

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of Dallas reported the story, but did not publish an accompanying editorial. In Waco, the

844:. In 1916, several factors led to an increase in local racism, including the screening of 8: 6172: 6094: 6011: 5991: 5842: 5498: 4272: 4005: 3877: 3540: 2933: 1201: 1044: 905: 603: 345: 3646:"The Good Angel of Practical Fraternity": The Ku Klux Klan in McLennan County, 1915–1924 149: 6025: 5837: 5681: 5628: 5458: 5310: 5251: 4971: 4512: 4504: 4192: 3495: 3466: 3437: 3365: 3338: 3066: 3039: 1286: 1189: 1098: 1083: 888: 836: 641: 513: 503: 277: 193: 171: 3632:(Supplement to no. 3). Archived by the Modernist Journals Project: 1–8. Archived from 3162:

The Making of a Lynching Culture: Violence and Vigilantism in Central Texas, 1836–1916

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condemning the lynching, characterizing the column as part of an attack on the city.

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had a circulation of about 30,000, three times the size of the NAACP's membership.

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published an in-depth report featuring photographs of Washington's charred body in

779: 646: 475: 2973:"Crowd gathers to dedicate Jesse Washington marker, reflect on legacy of lynching" 2928:"J.B. Smith, "'Waco Horror' at 100: Why Jesse Washington's lynching still matters" 6035: 5568: 5504: 5274: 4872: 4792: 3925: 3917: 3909: 3901: 3821: 3433: 3116:

The First Waco Horror: The Lynching of Jesse Washington and the Rise of the NAACP

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of anti-lynching activists lived in the area, including the president of Waco's

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Francis, Megan Ming (2011). "The Battle for the Hearts and Minds of America".

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no defense and noted that he appeared placid in the days before the trial.

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Raising Racists: The Socialization of White Children in the Jim Crow South

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Lynching and Spectacle: Witnessing Racial Violence in America, 1890–1940

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Bernstein, Patricia (2007). "Waco Lynching". In Paul Finkelman (ed.).

1810: 1758: 1678: 1143:

had previously used the word "horror" to describe the event. In 1916,

5382: 5286: 5221: 4424: 1249:

occurred in smaller towns with fewer spectators. William Carrigan of

819:, reflecting the city's desire to present itself as an idyllic locale 533: 188: 3231:

Making Whiteness: the Culture of Segregation in the South, 1890–1940

1570: 5623: 2862: 2328: 1918: 1293:, possibly owing to a desire to avoid stigmatizing the city again. 759: 2528: 2435: 2224: 1395:"Lynchings Stats Year Dates Causes – Tuskegee University Archives" 1281:

African Americans often held Waco in disdain, and some viewed the

3745: 3422:

Souls: A Critical Journal of Black Politics, Culture, and Society

3208:

Seems Like Murder Here: Southern Violence and the Blues Tradition

2902: 2395: 1950: 854:, and the sale of photographs of a recently lynched black man in 3684: 893: 3600:

Black Holocaust: The Paris Horror and a Legacy of Texas Terror

3277:

Lynching to Belong: Claiming Whiteness Through Racial Violence

2506: 2504: 2349: 2347: 2155: 2153: 1109: 1101:

for the lynching of Jesse Washington over thirty years prior.

5723: 2874: 2751: 1296: 651: 5692:

Association of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching

1724: 1722: 1720: 1718: 1716: 1714: 1701: 1699: 1697: 1596: 1594: 1592: 1531: 1529: 1527: 3000:"The Horrifying Lynching At The Center Of "BlacKkKlansman"" 2850: 2640: 2501: 2479: 2477: 2344: 2271: 2269: 2267: 2200: 2150: 1630: 1413: 1411: 738:

was a seventeen-year-old African American farmhand who was

3536:"In Waco, a Push To Atone for The Region's Lynch-Mob Past" 3254:

Marked Unmarked Remembered. A Geography of American Memory

2780: 2778: 2464: 2462: 2286: 2284: 2170: 2168: 2013: 1967: 1965: 1618: 1548: 1546: 1544: 1512: 771:

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People

746:, on May 15, 1916, in what became a well-known example of 2763: 2657: 2655: 2540: 2252: 1711: 1694: 1589: 1524: 1464: 1435: 887:

On May 9, Sheriff Fleming took Washington to neighboring

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Imagery of Lynching: Black Men, White Women, and the Mob

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False accusations of rape as justification for lynchings

1042:

criticized the lynch mob, but spoke highly of Waco. The

5909:

National Museum of African American History and Culture

2775: 2703: 2691: 2628: 2552: 2459: 2411: 2281: 2165: 2110: 1962: 1850: 1826: 1798: 1558: 1541: 3562: 3315:

The African American Experience in Texas: An Anthology

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refrained from editorializing about the lynching. The

6203:

Racially motivated violence against African Americans

6130: 2042: 1786: 1500: 1447: 2739: 53:

Large crowd looking at the burned body of Washington

2679: 2098: 2059: 2025: 2001: 1977: 1906: 1879: 1862: 1774: 1606: 1104: 989:. Some Texans saw participation in a lynching as a 3516:"Fresh Outrage in Waco at Grisly Lynching of 1916" 3364: 3337: 3065: 3038: 2926: 1894: 946:Charred corpse of Jesse Washington among the ashes 938:Charred corpse of Jesse Washington among the ashes 3732: 3252:Lichtenstein, Andrew; Lichtenstein, Alex (2017). 3093:Popular Justice: A History of Lynching in America 2489: 2383: 6154: 5353:Thomas Moss, Henry Stewart, Calvin McDowell (TN) 3747:List of lynching victims in the United States 3718: 3448: 3392:The NAACP Crusade Against Lynching, 1909–1950 3296:Witnessing Lynching: American Writers Respond 2757: 716: 1071:lynching recorded persistent nightmares and 788:, and the NAACP featured his death in their 5783:Emmett Till Unsolved Civil Rights Crime Act 5754: 5599:Henry Hezekiah Dee and Charles Eddie Moore 5329:Elijah Frost, Abijah Gibson, Tom McCracken 3725: 3711: 3649:, 2009, Baylor University master's thesis. 3513: 2912: 2405: 778:the lynching, NAACP co-founder and editor 723: 709: 47: 6075:"The United States of Lyncherdom" (Twain) 5535:Thomas Harold Thurmond and John M. Holmes 4313:William "Froggie" James and Henry Salzner 3389: 3136: 3113: 3063: 2918: 2896: 2880: 2868: 2769: 2721: 2709: 2697: 2673: 2646: 2622: 2610: 2598: 2586: 2574: 2558: 2534: 2522: 2510: 2468: 2453: 2377: 2365: 2353: 2322: 2306: 2275: 2246: 2218: 2206: 2194: 2159: 2144: 2128: 2092: 2080: 1995: 1928: 1856: 1752: 1740: 1672: 1660: 1648: 1636: 1624: 1564: 1552: 1518: 1494: 1482: 1441: 695:Mass racial violence in the United States 3182: 3159: 2856: 2832: 2820: 2808: 2796: 2661: 2634: 2417: 2290: 2234: 2174: 2116: 2019: 1971: 1956: 1944: 1832: 1804: 1792: 1768: 1470: 1429: 1319: 1108: 941: 933: 925: 917: 865: 808: 16:1916 event in Waco, Texas, United States 5904:National Memorial for Peace and Justice 3616: 3419: 3335: 3312: 2570: 2546: 2483: 2334: 2318: 2302: 2258: 2190: 2132: 1940: 1820: 1816: 1764: 1728: 1705: 1688: 1684: 1600: 1579: 1535: 1506: 1417: 922:The crowd preparing to lynch Washington 6155: 3533: 3274: 3205: 3068:Mary Turner and the Memory of Lynching 2979:from the original on February 13, 2023 2908: 2892: 2844: 2733: 1231: 564:1912 racial conflict in Forsyth County 6183:Deaths from fire in the United States 5541:Roosevelt Townes and Robert McDaniels 5447:Lynching rampage in Brooks County, GA 5138: 3744: 3706: 3597: 2941:from the original on November 9, 2017 2924: 913: 6116:Lynching deaths in the United States 5246:Samuel Bierfield and Lawrence Bowman 5139: 3477: 3362: 3293: 3228: 3090: 3036: 3010:from the original on August 13, 2022 2997: 2960:Lichtenstein & Lichtenstein 2017 2784: 2745: 2685: 2495: 2429: 2401: 2389: 2338: 2230: 2186: 2104: 2068: 2053: 2036: 2007: 1983: 1924: 1912: 1900: 1888: 1873: 1844: 1780: 1612: 1583: 1458: 861: 5777:Justice for Victims of Lynching Act 5553:O'Day Short, wife, and two children 5335:T.J. House, James West, John Dorsey 3657:Waco Recalls a 90-Year-Old 'Horror' 3480:American Nineteenth Century History 1345:torture and burning of Washington. 13: 3591: 3373:University of North Carolina Press 3279:. Texas A&M University Press. 1265:people convicted of high treason. 870:McLennan County courthouse in 2006 14: 6214: 6163:1916 murders in the United States 5677:American Crusade Against Lynching 5323:Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer 3677: 3534:Moreno, Sylvia (April 26, 2006). 3514:Blumenthal, Ralph (May 1, 2005). 3064:Armstrong, Julie Buckner (2011). 2998:Vary, Adam B. (August 11, 2018). 690:Civil rights movement (1896–1954) 685:Civil rights movement (1865–1896) 316:Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer 6140: 5889:America's Black Holocaust Museum 5672:American anti-lynching activists 5644:Nadir of American race relations 5234:Steve Long and two half-brothers 5170:Great Hanging at Gainesville, TX 3683: 2991: 2965: 1263:hanging, drawing, and quartering 1105:NAACP investigation and campaign 376:Frazier B. Baker and Julia Baker 148: 6095:Wilmington insurrection of 1898 5729:National Conference on Lynching 5287:Juan, Antonio, and Marcelo Moya 5164:Marais des Cygnes, KS, massacre 4505:Mary Turner and her unborn baby 3617:Du Bois, W. E. B. (July 1916). 3025: 529:Wilmington insurrection of 1898 519:Spring Valley Race Riot of 1895 239:Expulsions of African Americans 5211:Gallatin County, KY, race riot 3451:Text and Performance Quarterly 3275:Nevels, Cynthia Skove (2007). 3258:West Virginia University Press 3229:Hale, Grace Elizabeth (1998). 3120:Texas A&M University Press 1387: 1: 6111:Lynching in the United States 5412:Springfield race riot of 1908 3830:Steve Long, Ace and Con Moyer 3734:Lynching in the United States 3507: 3390:Zangrando, Robert L. (1980). 3336:Waldrep, Christopher (2009). 3160:Carrigan, William D. (2006). 2925:Smith, J. B. (May 15, 2016). 1381: 1097:community saw the tornado as 850:, a movie that glorified the 804: 554:Springfield race riot of 1908 6005:Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson 5936:And you are lynching Negroes 5788:Emmett Till Antilynching Act 5523:Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith 5429:Harris County, GA, lynchings 5371:Wilmington, NC, insurrection 5217:New Orleans massacre of 1866 3697:Audio File – timestamp 45:40 3690:Lynching of Jesse Washington 3434:10.1080/10999949.2011.551477 3298:. Rutgers University Press. 3189:University Press of Kentucky 3166:University of Illinois Press 3114:Bernstein, Patricia (2006). 1330:National Civil Rights Museum 996: 796:support in the city. On the 594:Washington race riot of 1919 42:Lynching of Jesse Washington 7: 5914:Southern Poverty Law Center 5559:Moore's Ford, GA, lynchings 5187:? Lachenais and four others 4625:James Harvey and Joe Jordan 3942:Samuel "Mingo Jack" Johnson 3564:"The Crisis Vol. 12, No. 3" 3556: 3463:10.1080/1046293042000312779 3413: 3319:Texas Tech University Press 3212:University of Chicago Press 3183:DuRocher, Kristina (2011). 3074:University of Georgia Press 1369: 1242:University of South Florida 481:James Harvey and Joe Jordan 10: 6219: 5395:1906 Atlanta race massacre 5365:Phoenix, SC, election riot 5341:New Orleans 1891 lynchings 5293:Benjamin and Mollie French 3572:Modernist Journals Project 2442:Modernist Journals Project 1283:1953 Waco tornado outbreak 156:1906 Atlanta race massacre 6178:Deaths by person in Texas 6103: 5922: 5881: 5800: 5702:William O'Connell Bradley 5662: 5616: 5612: 5441:East St. Louis, IL, riots 5193:Fort Pillow, TN, massacre 5176:New York City draft riots 5145: 5134: 4883: 4152: 3757: 3753: 3740: 3671:Transcript of radio story 3492:10.1080/14664650500381090 3363:Wood, Amy Louise (2009). 2899:, pp. 3–5 & 200. 2871:, pp. 3–5 & 200. 2758:Ehrenhaus & Owen 2004 2537:, pp. 130 & 135. 1959:, pp. 114 & 119. 1270:Illinois State University 930:Washington's body hanging 589:Chicago race riot of 1919 107: 68: 58: 46: 41: 6193:Lynching deaths in Texas 5966:Deaths in police custody 5453:Jenkins County, GA, riot 5264:Chinese massacre of 1871 5182:Detroit race riot (1863) 4817:Lynching of Raymond Gunn 4609:Dick Rowland (attempted) 3346:Rowman & Littlefield 3047:Rutgers University Press 3030: 1059:Waco Semi-Weekly Tribune 978:Waco Semi-Weekly Tribune 549:Atlanta Massacre of 1906 5947:Battle of Liberty Place 5942:Attack on John Shillady 5930:James Allen (collector) 5763:Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill 5547:Beaumont, TX, Race Riot 5471:Omaha race riot of 1919 5459:Longview, TX, race riot 5435:Newberry, FL, lynchings 5377:Julia and Frazier Baker 5359:Porter and Spencer (MS) 5311:Thibodeax, LA, massacre 5269:Meridian, MS, race riot 5252:Opelousas, LA, massacre 4225:Paul Reed and Will Cato 3910:Big Nose George Parrott 3396:Temple University Press 3143:Oxford University Press 1303:recorded a version of " 1170:Oswald Garrison Villard 662:Back to Africa movement 209:Anti-miscegenation laws 113:; 108 years ago 28:Infobox civilian attack 20: 6188:History of Waco, Texas 6081:United States v. Shipp 5833:Rebecca Latimer Felton 5664:Anti-lynching movement 5581:Freedom Summer Murders 5511:Rosewood, FL, massacre 5476:Knoxville riot of 1919 4345:Laura and L. D. Nelson 3294:Rice, Anne P. (2003). 3091:Berg, Manfred (2011). 1325: 1117: 1082:newspaper, of Texas's 982:University of Virginia 947: 939: 931: 923: 871: 825:Southern United States 820: 742:in the county seat of 632:Anti-lynching movement 569:1917 Chester race riot 559:Johnson–Jeffries riots 426:Laura and L. D. Nelson 33:considered for merging 6052:Summer in Mississippi 5999:Mississippi Cold Case 5953:The Birth of a Nation 5894:Civil Rights Memorial 5823:Sidney Johnston Catts 5801:Defenders of lynching 5487:Duluth, MN, lynchings 5465:Elaine, AR, race riot 5423:Laura and L.D. Nelson 5389:Watkinsville lynching 5347:Ruggles Brothers (CA) 5305:Hamburg, SC, massacre 5281:Election riot of 1874 5228:Camilla, GA, massacre 5150:Death of Joseph Smith 3774:Elijah Parish Lovejoy 3667:National Public Radio 3662:All Things Considered 3639:on December 27, 2013. 3598:Bills, E. R. (2015). 3206:Gussow, Adam (2002). 3097:Government Institutes 2975:. February 12, 2023. 1323: 1291:Civil Rights Movement 1129:body on the cover of 1112: 1027:Montgomery Advertiser 993:for young white men. 945: 937: 929: 921: 869: 847:The Birth of a Nation 812: 524:Phoenix election riot 509:Rock Springs massacre 166:Historical background 92:31.55833°N 97.12972°W 5770:Costigan-Wagner Bill 5707:Ella Barksdale Brown 5505:Perry, FL, race riot 5417:Slocum, TX, massacre 5317:Mart and Tom Horrell 5275:Colfax, LA, massacre 5258:Bear River City riot 5108:James Craig Anderson 4908:Robert "Bobbie" Hall 4513:Hazel "Hayes" Turner 3692:at Wikimedia Commons 3578:on December 27, 2013 1073:psychological trauma 1021:James Weldon Johnson 758:saturating him with 574:East St. Louis riots 544:Evansville race riot 539:Robert Charles riots 6012:The Ox-Bow Incident 5992:Mississippi Burning 5843:John Trotwood Moore 5499:Tulsa race massacre 5493:Ocoee, FL, massacre 4988:Mack Charles Parker 4916:Willie James Howard 3541:The Washington Post 3037:Apel, Dora (2004). 2934:Waco Tribune-Herald 2883:, pp. 199–200. 2573:, pp. 197–98; 1943:, pp. 189–91; 1819:, pp. 189–91; 1767:, pp. 189–91; 1582:, pp. 186–87; 1334:Waco Herald Tribune 1268:Amy Louise Wood of 1232:Analysis and legacy 1202:Joel Elias Spingarn 637:Exodusters movement 604:Tulsa race massacre 498:Massacres and riots 97:31.55833; -97.12972 88: / 6026:Reconstruction era 5838:John Temple Graves 5682:Jessie Daniel Ames 5629:Indiana White Caps 5299:Ellenton, SC, riot 5222:Reno Brothers Gang 4972:Judge Edward Aaron 4169:Ballie Crutchfield 3568:Digitized Journals 3520:The New York Times 2859:, pp. 194–95. 2787:, pp. 181–83. 2649:, pp. 178–79. 2549:, pp. 197–98. 2513:, pp. 159–61. 2432:, pp. 180–82. 2356:, pp. 140–41. 2341:, pp. 180–82. 2261:, pp. 192–93. 2209:, pp. 124–26. 2162:, pp. 142–44. 2135:, pp. 191–93. 2022:, pp. 109–10. 1847:, pp. 103–04. 1731:, pp. 189–91. 1708:, pp. 188–89. 1639:, pp. 101–02. 1603:, pp. 186–87. 1538:, pp. 185–86. 1473:, pp. 171–72. 1461:, pp. 179–80. 1420:, pp. 183–84. 1326: 1287:divine retribution 1200:. NAACP president 1118: 1099:divine retribution 1084:Paul Quinn College 948: 940: 932: 924: 914:Trial and lynching 872: 837:Patricia Bernstein 821: 642:Atlanta Compromise 514:Thibodaux massacre 504:Opelousas massacre 278:Indiana White Caps 249:Lynching postcards 194:Compromise of 1877 172:Reconstruction era 6128: 6127: 6124: 6123: 6069:They Won't Forget 5986:Lynching postcard 5899:The Legacy Museum 5868:James K. Vardaman 5808:Theodore G. Bilbo 5796: 5795: 5687:Martin C. Ansorge 5608: 5607: 5593:Michael Schwerner 5400:Kemper County, MS 5240:Pulaski, TN, riot 5130: 5129: 5126: 5125: 4833:Shedrick Thompson 4713:Bernice Raspberry 4433:Name unknown (MS) 4337:Name unknown (TX) 3958:Joseph Vermillion 3926:John Wesley Heath 3688:Media related to 3643:Fair, Richard H. 3619:"The Waco Horror" 3609:978-1-68179-017-6 3405:978-0-87722-174-6 3382:978-0-8078-3254-7 3355:978-0-7425-5272-2 3328:978-0-89672-609-3 3305:978-0-8135-3330-8 3286:978-1-58544-589-9 3267:978-1-94366-589-1 3244:978-0-679-77620-8 3221:978-0-226-31098-5 3198:978-0-8131-3001-9 3175:978-0-252-07430-1 3152:978-0-19-516779-5 3129:978-1-58544-544-8 3106:978-1-56663-802-9 3083:978-0-8203-3765-4 3056:978-0-8135-3459-6 2847:, pp. 62–64. 2486:, pp. 58–60. 2325:, pp. 76–77. 2309:, pp. 62–63. 2056:, pp. 31–32. 1691:, pp. 66–67. 1627:, pp. 93–94. 1521:, pp. 88–89. 1444:, pp. 11–13. 1352:In the 2018 film 1137:Houston Chronicle 1114:Elisabeth Freeman 1080:Paul Quinn Weekly 1054:Waco Morning News 1033:Houston Chronicle 1002:Fred Gildersleeve 976:disapproved. The 963:. German scholar 862:Murder and arrest 842:Baylor University 775:Elisabeth Freeman 733: 732: 614:Rosewood massacre 177:Voter suppression 140:Nadir of American 125: 124: 111:May 15, 1916 6210: 6145: 6144: 6143: 6136: 5923:Related articles 5873:Thomas E. Watson 5863:Benjamin Tillman 5828:Thomas Dixon Jr. 5752: 5751: 5614: 5613: 5517:Jim and Mark Fox 5205:Memphis massacre 5140:Multiple victims 5136: 5135: 5119: 5111: 5103: 5095: 5087: 5079: 5071: 5063: 5055: 5047: 5039: 5036:Wharlest Jackson 5031: 5023: 5015: 5007: 4999: 4991: 4983: 4975: 4967: 4959: 4951: 4943: 4935: 4932:John Cecil Jones 4927: 4919: 4911: 4903: 4895: 4876: 4868: 4860: 4852: 4844: 4836: 4828: 4825:Matthew Williams 4820: 4812: 4804: 4796: 4788: 4780: 4772: 4764: 4756: 4748: 4740: 4732: 4724: 4716: 4708: 4700: 4692: 4684: 4676: 4668: 4660: 4652: 4644: 4636: 4628: 4620: 4612: 4604: 4596: 4588: 4585:Berry Washington 4580: 4572: 4564: 4556: 4548: 4540: 4532: 4524: 4516: 4508: 4500: 4492: 4484: 4476: 4468: 4460: 4452: 4449:Anthony Crawford 4444: 4441:Jesse Washington 4436: 4428: 4420: 4412: 4404: 4396: 4388: 4380: 4372: 4364: 4361:Zachariah Walker 4356: 4348: 4340: 4332: 4324: 4321:Grant Richardson 4316: 4308: 4300: 4292: 4284: 4276: 4268: 4265:Earnest Williams 4260: 4252: 4244: 4236: 4228: 4220: 4212: 4204: 4196: 4188: 4180: 4172: 4164: 4145: 4137: 4129: 4121: 4118:John Henry James 4113: 4105: 4097: 4089: 4081: 4073: 4070:Stephen Williams 4065: 4057: 4049: 4041: 4033: 4025: 4022:Ephraim Grizzard 4017: 4009: 4001: 3993: 3985: 3982:Brown Washington 3977: 3969: 3961: 3953: 3945: 3937: 3929: 3921: 3913: 3905: 3897: 3889: 3886:Arthur St. Clair 3881: 3873: 3865: 3857: 3849: 3846:John W. 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E. B. Du Bois 736:Jesse Washington 725: 718: 711: 647:Niagara Movement 451:Anthony Crawford 441:Jesse Washington 381:John Henry James 371:Stephen Williams 356:Ephraim Grizzard 351:People's Grocery 267:Vigilante groups 182:Disfranchisement 154:Violence in the 152: 127: 126: 121: 119: 114: 103: 102: 100: 99: 98: 93: 89: 86: 85: 84: 81: 51: 39: 38: 36: 6218: 6217: 6213: 6212: 6211: 6209: 6208: 6207: 6198:May 1916 events 6153: 6152: 6151: 6141: 6139: 6131: 6129: 6120: 6099: 6036:Scottsboro Boys 5918: 5877: 5792: 5750: 5658: 5604: 5569:Harriette Moore 5529:Tate County, MS 5141: 5122: 5114: 5106: 5098: 5090: 5082: 5076:Arthur McDuffie 5074: 5066: 5058: 5050: 5042: 5034: 5026: 5018: 5010: 5002: 4994: 4986: 4978: 4970: 4962: 4954: 4946: 4938: 4930: 4922: 4914: 4906: 4898: 4890: 4879: 4873:Elbert Williams 4871: 4865:Austin Callaway 4863: 4855: 4847: 4839: 4831: 4823: 4815: 4807: 4799: 4791: 4783: 4775: 4769:Thomas Williams 4767: 4759: 4753:Thomas Bradshaw 4751: 4745:Albert Williams 4743: 4735: 4729:Joseph Upchurch 4727: 4719: 4711: 4703: 4695: 4687: 4679: 4671: 4663: 4655: 4647: 4639: 4631: 4623: 4615: 4607: 4599: 4591: 4583: 4575: 4567: 4559: 4551: 4543: 4535: 4527: 4519: 4511: 4503: 4495: 4487: 4479: 4471: 4463: 4455: 4447: 4439: 4431: 4423: 4415: 4407: 4399: 4391: 4385:George Saunders 4383: 4375: 4367: 4359: 4351: 4343: 4335: 4327: 4319: 4311: 4303: 4295: 4287: 4279: 4271: 4263: 4255: 4247: 4239: 4233:Bunk Richardson 4231: 4223: 4215: 4207: 4199: 4191: 4183: 4175: 4167: 4159: 4148: 4142:Benjamin Thomas 4140: 4132: 4124: 4116: 4108: 4102:Joseph H. McCoy 4100: 4094:William Andrews 4092: 4084: 4076: 4068: 4062:Richard Puryear 4060: 4052: 4044: 4036: 4028: 4020: 4012: 4004: 3996: 3988: 3980: 3972: 3964: 3956: 3948: 3940: 3932: 3924: 3918:Charles Thurber 3916: 3908: 3902:Joseph Standing 3900: 3892: 3884: 3876: 3868: 3860: 3852: 3844: 3836: 3828: 3822:Clubfoot George 3820: 3812: 3804: 3796: 3788: 3780: 3772: 3764: 3749: 3736: 3731: 3699:, June 23, 1997 3680: 3636: 3621: 3610: 3602:. Eakin Press. 3594: 3592:Further reading 3581: 3579: 3559: 3546: 3544: 3524: 3522: 3510: 3416: 3406: 3383: 3356: 3329: 3306: 3287: 3268: 3245: 3222: 3199: 3176: 3153: 3141:. Vol. 5. 3130: 3107: 3084: 3057: 3033: 3028: 3023: 3013: 3011: 2996: 2992: 2982: 2980: 2971: 2970: 2966: 2958: 2954: 2944: 2942: 2923: 2919: 2913:Blumenthal 2005 2907: 2903: 2891: 2887: 2879: 2875: 2867: 2863: 2855: 2851: 2843: 2839: 2831: 2827: 2819: 2815: 2807: 2803: 2795: 2791: 2783: 2776: 2768: 2764: 2756: 2752: 2744: 2740: 2732: 2728: 2720: 2716: 2708: 2704: 2696: 2692: 2684: 2680: 2672: 2668: 2660: 2653: 2645: 2641: 2633: 2629: 2621: 2617: 2609: 2605: 2597: 2593: 2585: 2581: 2569: 2565: 2557: 2553: 2545: 2541: 2533: 2529: 2521: 2517: 2509: 2502: 2494: 2490: 2482: 2475: 2467: 2460: 2452: 2448: 2440: 2436: 2428: 2424: 2416: 2412: 2406:Blumenthal 2005 2404:, p. 216; 2400: 2396: 2388: 2384: 2376: 2372: 2364: 2360: 2352: 2345: 2333: 2329: 2317: 2313: 2301: 2297: 2289: 2282: 2274: 2265: 2257: 2253: 2245: 2241: 2233:, p. 363; 2229: 2225: 2217: 2213: 2205: 2201: 2193:, p. 195; 2189:, p. 181; 2185: 2181: 2173: 2166: 2158: 2151: 2143: 2139: 2127: 2123: 2115: 2111: 2103: 2099: 2091: 2087: 2079: 2075: 2067: 2060: 2052: 2043: 2035: 2026: 2018: 2014: 2006: 2002: 1994: 1990: 1982: 1978: 1970: 1963: 1955: 1951: 1939: 1935: 1927:, p. 217; 1923: 1919: 1911: 1907: 1899: 1895: 1887: 1880: 1872: 1863: 1855: 1851: 1843: 1839: 1831: 1827: 1815: 1811: 1803: 1799: 1791: 1787: 1779: 1775: 1763: 1759: 1751: 1747: 1739: 1735: 1727: 1712: 1704: 1695: 1687:, p. 188; 1683: 1679: 1671: 1667: 1659: 1655: 1647: 1643: 1635: 1631: 1623: 1619: 1611: 1607: 1599: 1590: 1578: 1571: 1563: 1559: 1551: 1542: 1534: 1525: 1517: 1513: 1505: 1501: 1493: 1489: 1481: 1477: 1469: 1465: 1457: 1448: 1440: 1436: 1428: 1424: 1416: 1409: 1399: 1397: 1393: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1372: 1360:Harry Belafonte 1259:blood sacrifice 1234: 1107: 1039:Austin American 999: 991:rite of passage 987:white supremacy 961:burned to death 916: 877:McLennan County 864: 816:La Grande Jatte 807: 752:Robinson, Texas 729: 700: 699: 675: 667: 666: 657:Great Migration 627: 619: 618: 609:Perry race riot 579:Elaine massacre 499: 491: 490: 306:Andrew Richards 301: 293: 292: 229: 221: 220: 216:Convict leasing 167: 159: 158: 141: 117: 115: 112: 96: 94: 90: 87: 82: 79: 77: 75: 74: 54: 37: 21: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6216: 6206: 6205: 6200: 6195: 6190: 6185: 6180: 6175: 6170: 6165: 6150: 6149: 6126: 6125: 6122: 6121: 6119: 6118: 6113: 6107: 6105: 6101: 6100: 6098: 6097: 6092: 6084: 6077: 6072: 6065: 6055: 6048: 6046:Stone Mountain 6043: 6038: 6033: 6028: 6023: 6015: 6008: 6002: 5995: 5988: 5983: 5976: 5968: 5963: 5956: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5932: 5926: 5924: 5920: 5919: 5917: 5916: 5911: 5906: 5901: 5896: 5891: 5885: 5883: 5879: 5878: 5876: 5875: 5870: 5865: 5860: 5858:Goodloe Sutton 5855: 5850: 5848:John T. Morgan 5845: 5840: 5835: 5830: 5825: 5820: 5818:Julian S. Carr 5815: 5813:Cole L. Blease 5810: 5804: 5802: 5798: 5797: 5794: 5793: 5791: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5773: 5766: 5758: 5756: 5749: 5748: 5743: 5736: 5731: 5726: 5721: 5714: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5697:Flossie Bailey 5694: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5668: 5666: 5660: 5659: 5657: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5620: 5618: 5610: 5609: 5606: 5605: 5603: 5602: 5596: 5589:Andrew Goodman 5578: 5572: 5562: 5556: 5550: 5544: 5538: 5532: 5526: 5520: 5514: 5508: 5502: 5496: 5490: 5484: 5478: 5473: 5468: 5462: 5456: 5450: 5444: 5438: 5432: 5426: 5420: 5414: 5409: 5403: 5397: 5392: 5386: 5383:Pana, IL, riot 5380: 5374: 5368: 5362: 5356: 5350: 5344: 5338: 5332: 5326: 5320: 5314: 5308: 5302: 5296: 5290: 5284: 5278: 5272: 5266: 5261: 5255: 5249: 5243: 5237: 5231: 5225: 5219: 5214: 5208: 5202: 5196: 5190: 5184: 5179: 5173: 5167: 5161: 5146: 5143: 5142: 5132: 5131: 5128: 5127: 5124: 5123: 5121: 5120: 5112: 5104: 5100:James Byrd Jr. 5096: 5088: 5084:Michael Donald 5080: 5072: 5064: 5056: 5048: 5040: 5032: 5024: 5016: 5008: 5000: 4992: 4984: 4980:Willie Edwards 4976: 4968: 4960: 4952: 4944: 4936: 4928: 4920: 4912: 4904: 4900:Johannes Kunze 4896: 4887: 4885: 4881: 4880: 4878: 4877: 4869: 4861: 4853: 4845: 4841:George Armwood 4837: 4829: 4821: 4813: 4805: 4797: 4789: 4781: 4773: 4765: 4761:Winston Pounds 4757: 4749: 4741: 4733: 4725: 4717: 4709: 4701: 4693: 4685: 4677: 4669: 4661: 4653: 4645: 4637: 4629: 4621: 4613: 4605: 4597: 4589: 4581: 4573: 4569:John Hartfield 4565: 4561:Wesley Everest 4557: 4549: 4545:Wallace Baynes 4541: 4537:Olli Kinkkonen 4533: 4529:Jim McIlherron 4525: 4517: 4509: 4501: 4493: 4485: 4477: 4469: 4461: 4453: 4445: 4437: 4429: 4421: 4413: 4409:Charles Fisher 4405: 4397: 4389: 4381: 4373: 4365: 4357: 4349: 4341: 4333: 4325: 4317: 4309: 4301: 4293: 4285: 4277: 4269: 4261: 4253: 4245: 4237: 4229: 4221: 4217:Marie Thompson 4213: 4205: 4197: 4193:J. D. Mayfield 4189: 4181: 4173: 4165: 4156: 4154: 4150: 4149: 4147: 4146: 4138: 4130: 4122: 4114: 4106: 4098: 4090: 4082: 4074: 4066: 4058: 4050: 4042: 4034: 4030:Samuel J. Bush 4026: 4018: 4010: 4002: 3994: 3986: 3978: 3970: 3966:George Meadows 3962: 3954: 3946: 3938: 3930: 3922: 3914: 3906: 3898: 3890: 3882: 3874: 3866: 3858: 3854:Alexander Boyd 3850: 3842: 3834: 3826: 3818: 3810: 3802: 3794: 3786: 3782:Josefa Segovia 3778: 3770: 3761: 3759: 3751: 3750: 3738: 3737: 3730: 3729: 3722: 3715: 3707: 3701: 3700: 3693: 3679: 3678:External links 3676: 3675: 3674: 3650: 3641: 3614: 3608: 3593: 3590: 3589: 3588: 3558: 3555: 3554: 3553: 3531: 3509: 3506: 3505: 3504: 3475: 3446: 3415: 3412: 3411: 3410: 3404: 3387: 3381: 3360: 3354: 3333: 3327: 3310: 3304: 3291: 3285: 3272: 3266: 3249: 3243: 3226: 3220: 3203: 3197: 3180: 3174: 3157: 3151: 3134: 3128: 3111: 3105: 3088: 3082: 3061: 3055: 3032: 3029: 3027: 3024: 3022: 3021: 2990: 2964: 2962:, p. 136. 2952: 2917: 2901: 2897:Bernstein 2006 2885: 2881:Bernstein 2006 2873: 2869:Bernstein 2006 2861: 2849: 2837: 2835:, p. 206. 2825: 2823:, p. 192. 2813: 2801: 2799:, p. 185. 2789: 2774: 2772:, p. 119. 2770:Bernstein 2006 2762: 2760:, p. 286. 2750: 2748:, p. 221. 2738: 2726: 2722:Bernstein 2006 2714: 2710:Bernstein 2006 2702: 2698:Armstrong 2011 2690: 2688:, p. 102. 2678: 2676:, p. 191. 2674:Bernstein 2006 2666: 2651: 2647:Bernstein 2006 2639: 2637:, p. 196. 2627: 2625:, p. 182. 2623:Bernstein 2006 2615: 2613:, p. 173. 2611:Bernstein 2006 2603: 2601:, p. 174. 2599:Bernstein 2006 2591: 2589:, p. 114. 2587:Armstrong 2011 2579: 2577:, p. 169. 2575:Bernstein 2006 2563: 2559:Zangrando 1980 2551: 2539: 2535:Bernstein 2006 2527: 2525:, p. 162. 2523:Bernstein 2006 2515: 2511:Bernstein 2006 2500: 2488: 2473: 2469:Bernstein 2006 2458: 2456:, p. 129. 2454:Bernstein 2006 2446: 2434: 2422: 2420:, p. 191. 2410: 2394: 2382: 2380:, p. 155. 2378:Bernstein 2006 2370: 2368:, p. 144. 2366:Bernstein 2006 2358: 2354:Bernstein 2006 2343: 2337:, p. 68; 2327: 2323:Bernstein 2006 2321:, p. 68; 2311: 2307:Bernstein 2006 2305:, p. 68; 2295: 2293:, p. 198. 2280: 2278:, p. 165. 2276:Bernstein 2006 2263: 2251: 2249:, p. 200. 2247:Bernstein 2006 2239: 2237:, p. 193. 2223: 2221:, p. 146. 2219:Bernstein 2006 2211: 2207:Bernstein 2006 2199: 2197:, p. 181. 2195:Bernstein 2006 2179: 2177:, p. 189. 2164: 2160:Bernstein 2006 2149: 2147:, p. 127. 2145:Bernstein 2006 2137: 2131:, p. 11; 2129:Bernstein 2006 2121: 2119:, p. 190. 2109: 2107:, p. 220. 2097: 2095:, p. 131. 2093:Bernstein 2006 2085: 2083:, p. 130. 2081:Bernstein 2006 2073: 2071:, p. 180. 2058: 2041: 2039:, p. 104. 2024: 2012: 2010:, p. 395. 2000: 1996:Bernstein 2006 1988: 1986:, p. 179. 1976: 1974:, p. 187. 1961: 1949: 1947:, p. 104. 1933: 1931:, p. 111. 1929:Bernstein 2006 1917: 1915:, p. 217. 1905: 1893: 1891:, p. 216. 1878: 1876:, p. 181. 1861: 1857:Bernstein 2006 1849: 1837: 1835:, p. 113. 1825: 1809: 1807:, p. 124. 1797: 1785: 1783:, p. 103. 1773: 1757: 1755:, p. 108. 1753:Bernstein 2006 1745: 1743:, p. 106. 1741:Bernstein 2006 1733: 1710: 1693: 1677: 1675:, p. 102. 1673:Bernstein 2006 1665: 1663:, p. 100. 1661:Bernstein 2006 1653: 1651:, p. 101. 1649:Bernstein 2006 1641: 1637:Bernstein 2006 1629: 1625:Bernstein 2006 1617: 1615:, p. 215. 1605: 1588: 1586:, p. 102. 1569: 1565:Bernstein 2006 1557: 1553:Bernstein 2006 1540: 1523: 1519:Bernstein 2006 1511: 1509:, p. 185. 1499: 1495:Bernstein 2006 1487: 1483:Bernstein 2006 1475: 1463: 1446: 1442:Bernstein 2006 1434: 1432:, p. 179. 1422: 1407: 1385: 1383: 1380: 1379: 1378: 1371: 1368: 1355:BlacKkKlansman 1314:Sironia, Texas 1309:Madison Cooper 1233: 1230: 1218:Washington, DC 1141:New York Times 1106: 1103: 1010:New York Times 998: 995: 915: 912: 863: 860: 833:black colleges 806: 803: 773:(NAACP) hired 731: 730: 728: 727: 720: 713: 705: 702: 701: 698: 697: 692: 687: 682: 680:Black genocide 676: 674:Related topics 673: 672: 669: 668: 665: 664: 659: 654: 649: 644: 639: 634: 628: 625: 624: 621: 620: 617: 616: 611: 606: 601: 599:Ocoee massacre 596: 591: 586: 581: 576: 571: 566: 561: 556: 551: 546: 541: 536: 531: 526: 521: 516: 511: 506: 500: 497: 496: 493: 492: 489: 488: 483: 478: 473: 471:John Hartfield 468: 463: 461:Jim McIlherron 458: 453: 448: 443: 438: 433: 428: 423: 418: 413: 408: 403: 401:Marie Thompson 398: 393: 388: 383: 378: 373: 368: 366:Samuel J. Bush 363: 358: 353: 348: 343: 338: 336:Joe Vermillion 333: 331:George Meadows 328: 323: 318: 313: 308: 302: 299: 298: 295: 294: 291: 290: 285: 280: 275: 269: 268: 264: 263: 258: 253: 252: 251: 241: 235: 234: 233:Common actions 230: 227: 226: 223: 222: 219: 218: 213: 212: 211: 206: 196: 191: 186: 185: 184: 174: 168: 165: 164: 161: 160: 153: 145: 144: 142:race relations 136: 135: 123: 122: 109: 105: 104: 72: 66: 65: 60: 56: 55: 52: 44: 43: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6215: 6204: 6201: 6199: 6196: 6194: 6191: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6168:1916 in Texas 6166: 6164: 6161: 6160: 6158: 6148: 6138: 6137: 6134: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6108: 6106: 6102: 6096: 6093: 6091: 6089: 6085: 6083: 6082: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6071: 6070: 6066: 6063: 6059: 6056: 6054: 6053: 6049: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6041:Silent Parade 6039: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6022: 6020: 6016: 6014: 6013: 6009: 6006: 6003: 6001: 6000: 5996: 5994: 5993: 5989: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5981: 5980:Hang 'Em High 5977: 5975: 5973: 5969: 5967: 5964: 5962: 5961: 5957: 5955: 5954: 5950: 5948: 5945: 5943: 5940: 5937: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5927: 5925: 5921: 5915: 5912: 5910: 5907: 5905: 5902: 5900: 5897: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5887: 5886: 5884: 5880: 5874: 5871: 5869: 5866: 5864: 5861: 5859: 5856: 5854: 5851: 5849: 5846: 5844: 5841: 5839: 5836: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5805: 5803: 5799: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5778: 5774: 5772: 5771: 5767: 5765: 5764: 5760: 5759: 5757: 5753: 5747: 5744: 5741: 5740:Strange Fruit 5737: 5735: 5732: 5730: 5727: 5725: 5722: 5719: 5715: 5713: 5712:Father Divine 5710: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5669: 5667: 5665: 5661: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5634:Jim Crow laws 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5621: 5619: 5615: 5611: 5600: 5597: 5594: 5590: 5586: 5582: 5579: 5576: 5573: 5570: 5566: 5563: 5560: 5557: 5554: 5551: 5548: 5545: 5542: 5539: 5536: 5533: 5530: 5527: 5524: 5521: 5518: 5515: 5512: 5509: 5506: 5503: 5500: 5497: 5494: 5491: 5488: 5485: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5466: 5463: 5460: 5457: 5454: 5451: 5448: 5445: 5442: 5439: 5436: 5433: 5430: 5427: 5424: 5421: 5418: 5415: 5413: 5410: 5407: 5406:Walker family 5404: 5401: 5398: 5396: 5393: 5390: 5387: 5384: 5381: 5378: 5375: 5372: 5369: 5366: 5363: 5360: 5357: 5354: 5351: 5348: 5345: 5342: 5339: 5336: 5333: 5330: 5327: 5324: 5321: 5318: 5315: 5312: 5309: 5306: 5303: 5300: 5297: 5294: 5291: 5288: 5285: 5282: 5279: 5276: 5273: 5270: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5259: 5256: 5253: 5250: 5247: 5244: 5241: 5238: 5235: 5232: 5229: 5226: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5215: 5212: 5209: 5206: 5203: 5200: 5197: 5194: 5191: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5177: 5174: 5171: 5168: 5165: 5162: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5148: 5147: 5144: 5137: 5133: 5117: 5116:Ahmaud Arbery 5113: 5109: 5105: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5092:Yusef Hawkins 5089: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5073: 5069: 5068:Betty Gardner 5065: 5061: 5060:Marian Pyszko 5057: 5053: 5049: 5045: 5044:Carol Jenkins 5041: 5037: 5033: 5029: 5028:Vernon Dahmer 5025: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4997: 4993: 4989: 4985: 4981: 4977: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4961: 4957: 4956:George W. Lee 4953: 4949: 4945: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4888: 4886: 4882: 4874: 4870: 4866: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4809:James Cameron 4806: 4802: 4801:George Hughes 4798: 4794: 4793:J. C. Collins 4790: 4786: 4785:Leonard Woods 4782: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4721:Owen Flemming 4718: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4702: 4698: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4674: 4673:Fred N. Selak 4670: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4582: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4522: 4521:George Taylor 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4497:Robert Prager 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4481:Charles Jones 4478: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4297:"Mose" Creole 4294: 4290: 4289:Matthew Chase 4286: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4257:William Burns 4254: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4161:Fred Rochelle 4158: 4157: 4155: 4151: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4126:F. W. Stewart 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4110:John Anderson 4107: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4046:Alfred Blount 4043: 4039: 4038:John Peterson 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3894:Michael Green 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3806:Henry Plummer 3803: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3790:Pancho Daniel 3787: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3762: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3728: 3723: 3721: 3716: 3714: 3709: 3708: 3705: 3698: 3694: 3691: 3686: 3682: 3681: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3663: 3658: 3654: 3653:Goodwyn, Wade 3651: 3648: 3647: 3642: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3620: 3615: 3611: 3605: 3601: 3596: 3595: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3560: 3543: 3542: 3537: 3532: 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2797:Carrigan 2006 2793: 2786: 2781: 2779: 2771: 2766: 2759: 2754: 2747: 2742: 2735: 2730: 2723: 2718: 2712:, p. 96. 2711: 2706: 2700:, p. 60. 2699: 2694: 2687: 2682: 2675: 2670: 2664:, p. 14. 2663: 2662:Carrigan 2006 2658: 2656: 2648: 2643: 2636: 2635:Carrigan 2006 2631: 2624: 2619: 2612: 2607: 2600: 2595: 2588: 2583: 2576: 2572: 2567: 2561:, p. 30. 2560: 2555: 2548: 2543: 2536: 2531: 2524: 2519: 2512: 2507: 2505: 2497: 2492: 2485: 2480: 2478: 2471:, p. 60. 2470: 2465: 2463: 2455: 2450: 2443: 2438: 2431: 2426: 2419: 2418:Carrigan 2006 2414: 2407: 2403: 2398: 2391: 2386: 2379: 2374: 2367: 2362: 2355: 2350: 2348: 2340: 2336: 2331: 2324: 2320: 2315: 2308: 2304: 2299: 2292: 2291:Carrigan 2006 2287: 2285: 2277: 2272: 2270: 2268: 2260: 2255: 2248: 2243: 2236: 2235:Carrigan 2006 2232: 2227: 2220: 2215: 2208: 2203: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2183: 2176: 2175:Carrigan 2006 2171: 2169: 2161: 2156: 2154: 2146: 2141: 2134: 2130: 2125: 2118: 2117:Carrigan 2006 2113: 2106: 2101: 2094: 2089: 2082: 2077: 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Wells 5734:Paul Robeson 5639:Ku Klux Klan 5585:James Chaney 5575:Anniston, AL 5199:Plummer Gang 5154:Joseph Smith 5052:Henry Marrow 5012:Frank Morris 4940:Willie Earle 4849:Cordie Cheek 4777:Henry Choate 4697:Dan Anderson 4657:Raymond Byrd 4641:Samuel Smith 4593:Willie Baird 4473:Frank Little 4465:Paulo Boleta 4440: 4393:Robert Perry 4369:Mary Jackson 4329:King Johnson 4281:James Hodges 4201:George White 4185:Walker Davis 4086:Jacob Henson 4014:Robert Lewis 3974:Ellen Watson 3862:Jim Williams 3838:Wyatt Outlaw 3660: 3644: 3634:the original 3629: 3625: 3599: 3580:. Retrieved 3576:the original 3567: 3545:. Retrieved 3539: 3523:. Retrieved 3519: 3483: 3479: 3454: 3450: 3428:(1): 46–71. 3425: 3421: 3391: 3366: 3339: 3314: 3295: 3276: 3253: 3230: 3207: 3184: 3161: 3138: 3115: 3092: 3067: 3040: 3026:Bibliography 3012:. Retrieved 3003: 2993: 2983:February 13, 2981:. Retrieved 2967: 2955: 2943:. Retrieved 2932: 2920: 2904: 2888: 2876: 2864: 2852: 2840: 2828: 2816: 2811:, p. 1. 2804: 2792: 2765: 2753: 2741: 2729: 2724:, p. 5. 2717: 2705: 2693: 2681: 2669: 2642: 2630: 2618: 2606: 2594: 2582: 2571:SoRelle 2007 2566: 2554: 2547:SoRelle 2007 2542: 2530: 2518: 2498:, p. 8. 2491: 2484:Francis 2011 2449: 2437: 2425: 2413: 2397: 2392:, p. 7. 2385: 2373: 2361: 2335:Waldrep 2009 2330: 2319:Waldrep 2009 2314: 2303:Waldrep 2009 2298: 2259:SoRelle 2007 2254: 2242: 2226: 2214: 2202: 2191:SoRelle 2007 2182: 2140: 2133:SoRelle 2007 2124: 2112: 2100: 2088: 2076: 2015: 2003: 1998:, p. 3. 1991: 1979: 1952: 1941:SoRelle 2007 1936: 1920: 1908: 1896: 1852: 1840: 1828: 1821:Waldrep 2009 1817:SoRelle 2007 1812: 1800: 1795:, p. 2. 1788: 1776: 1771:, p. 1. 1765:SoRelle 2007 1760: 1748: 1736: 1729:SoRelle 2007 1706:SoRelle 2007 1689:Waldrep 2009 1685:SoRelle 2007 1680: 1668: 1656: 1644: 1632: 1620: 1608: 1601:SoRelle 2007 1580:SoRelle 2007 1560: 1536:SoRelle 2007 1514: 1507:SoRelle 2007 1502: 1490: 1478: 1466: 1437: 1425: 1418:SoRelle 2007 1398:. 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Anderson 4305:"Pie" Hill 4273:Jim Miller 4249:Slab Pitts 4241:Ed Johnson 4078:Amos Hicks 3998:Dick Lundy 3990:Jim Taylor 3626:The Crisis 3508:Newspapers 1382:References 1338:centennial 1275:Waco siege 1210:Red Summer 1184:The Nation 1166:The Crisis 1162:The Crisis 1152:The Crisis 1145:The Crisis 1132:The Crisis 901:grand jury 805:Background 798:centennial 792:campaign. 785:The Crisis 584:Red Summer 486:Joe Pullen 436:John Evans 411:Ed Johnson 341:Jim Taylor 288:Red Shirts 118:1916-05-15 83:97°07′47″W 80:31°33′30″N 6021:(musical) 4737:Joe Smith 4681:Tom Payne 4649:L. Q. Ivy 4577:Jay Lynch 4425:Leo Frank 4153:1900–1940 3547:April 19, 3525:April 19, 3500:144176806 3471:161449077 3442:143935694 3014:March 25, 2785:Wood 2009 2746:Hale 1998 2686:Berg 2011 2496:Rice 2003 2430:Wood 2009 2402:Hale 1998 2390:Rice 2003 2339:Wood 2009 2231:Hale 1998 2187:Wood 2009 2105:Hale 1998 2069:Wood 2009 2054:Apel 2004 2037:Berg 2011 2008:Wood 2005 1984:Wood 2009 1925:Hale 1998 1913:Hale 1998 1901:Wood 2009 1889:Hale 1998 1874:Wood 2009 1845:Berg 2011 1781:Berg 2011 1613:Hale 1998 1584:Berg 2011 1459:Wood 2009 1400:August 7, 1299:musician 1277:of 1993. 1236:In 2011, 1150:Although 997:Aftermath 766:in Waco. 764:postcards 626:Reactions 534:Pana riot 300:Lynchings 244:Lynchings 228:Practices 189:Redeemers 31:is being 6088:Vendetta 5624:Lynching 5595:) (1964) 5160:) (1844) 4134:Sam Hose 3557:Websites 3414:Journals 3008:Archived 2977:Archived 2939:Archived 1370:See also 1139:and the 1036:and the 760:coal oil 748:lynching 386:Sam Hose 132:a series 130:Part of 59:Location 35:. › 24:template 5617:General 4006:Joe Coe 3878:Jo Reed 3582:May 15, 2945:May 21, 1214:Chicago 1116:in 1913 740:lynched 346:Joe Coe 116: ( 6133:Portal 6019:Parade 6007:(1965) 5882:Memory 5601:(1964) 5577:(1961) 5571:(1952) 5561:(1946) 5555:(1945) 5549:(1943) 5543:(1937) 5537:(1933) 5531:(1932) 5525:(1930) 5519:(1927) 5513:(1923) 5507:(1922) 5501:(1921) 5495:(1920) 5489:(1920) 5483:(1919) 5467:(1919) 5461:(1919) 5455:(1919) 5449:(1918) 5443:(1917) 5437:(1916) 5431:(1912) 5425:(1911) 5419:(1910) 5408:(1908) 5402:(1906) 5391:(1905) 5385:(1899) 5379:(1898) 5373:(1898) 5367:(1898) 5361:(1897) 5355:(1892) 5349:(1892) 5343:(1891) 5337:(1880) 5331:(1879) 5325:(1879) 5319:(1878) 5313:(1878) 5307:(1876) 5301:(1876) 5295:(1876) 5289:(1874) 5277:(1873) 5271:(1871) 5260:(1868) 5254:(1868) 5248:(1868) 5242:(1868) 5236:(1868) 5230:(1868) 5224:(1868) 5213:(1866) 5207:(1866) 5201:(1864) 5195:(1864) 5189:(1863) 5178:(1863) 5172:(1862) 5166:(1858) 5118:(2020) 5110:(2011) 5102:(1998) 5094:(1989) 5086:(1981) 5078:(1979) 5070:(1978) 5062:(1975) 5054:(1970) 5046:(1968) 5038:(1967) 5030:(1966) 5022:(1965) 5014:(1964) 5006:(1964) 4998:(1964) 4990:(1959) 4982:(1957) 4974:(1957) 4966:(1955) 4958:(1955) 4950:(1955) 4942:(1947) 4934:(1946) 4926:(1944) 4918:(1944) 4910:(1943) 4902:(1943) 4894:(1941) 4875:(1940) 4867:(1940) 4859:(1934) 4851:(1933) 4843:(1933) 4835:(1932) 4827:(1931) 4819:(1931) 4811:(1930) 4803:(1930) 4795:(1928) 4787:(1927) 4779:(1927) 4771:(1927) 4763:(1927) 4755:(1927) 4747:(1927) 4739:(1927) 4731:(1927) 4723:(1927) 4715:(1927) 4707:(1927) 4699:(1927) 4691:(1927) 4683:(1927) 4675:(1926) 4667:(1926) 4659:(1926) 4651:(1925) 4643:(1924) 4635:(1923) 4627:(1922) 4619:(1921) 4611:(1921) 4603:(1920) 4595:(1920) 4587:(1919) 4579:(1919) 4571:(1919) 4563:(1919) 4555:(1919) 4547:(1919) 4539:(1918) 4531:(1918) 4523:(1918) 4515:(1918) 4507:(1918) 4499:(1918) 4491:(1917) 4483:(1917) 4475:(1917) 4467:(1916) 4459:(1916) 4451:(1916) 4443:(1916) 4435:(1915) 4427:(1915) 4419:(1914) 4411:(1914) 4403:(1913) 4395:(1913) 4387:(1912) 4379:(1912) 4371:(1912) 4363:(1911) 4355:(1911) 4347:(1911) 4339:(1911) 4331:(1911) 4323:(1910) 4315:(1909) 4307:(1909) 4299:(1909) 4291:(1909) 4283:(1909) 4275:(1909) 4267:(1907) 4259:(1907) 4251:(1906) 4243:(1906) 4235:(1906) 4227:(1904) 4219:(1904) 4211:(1903) 4203:(1903) 4195:(1903) 4187:(1903) 4179:(1901) 4171:(1901) 4163:(1901) 4144:(1899) 4136:(1899) 4128:(1898) 4120:(1898) 4112:(1898) 4104:(1897) 4096:(1897) 4088:(1896) 4080:(1894) 4072:(1894) 4064:(1894) 4056:(1893) 4048:(1893) 4040:(1893) 4032:(1893) 4024:(1892) 4016:(1892) 4008:(1891) 4000:(1891) 3992:(1891) 3984:(1890) 3976:(1889) 3968:(1889) 3960:(1889) 3952:(1888) 3944:(1886) 3936:(1886) 3928:(1884) 3920:(1882) 3912:(1881) 3904:(1879) 3896:(1878) 3888:(1877) 3880:(1875) 3872:(1872) 3864:(1871) 3856:(1870) 3848:(1870) 3840:(1870) 3832:(1868) 3824:(1864) 3816:(1864) 3808:(1864) 3800:(1863) 3792:(1858) 3784:(1851) 3776:(1837) 3768:(1836) 3606: 3498: 3469: 3440: 3402: 3379: 3352: 3325: 3302: 3283: 3264: 3241: 3218: 3195: 3172: 3149: 3126: 3103: 3080: 3053: 894:Dallas 134:on the 6147:Texas 5565:Harry 3637:(PDF) 3622:(PDF) 3496:S2CID 3467:S2CID 3438:S2CID 3031:Books 1297:Blues 652:NAACP 6062:list 5972:Fury 5654:Jews 5567:and 5283:(AL) 3604:ISBN 3584:2012 3549:2012 3527:2012 3400:ISBN 3377:ISBN 3350:ISBN 3323:ISBN 3300:ISBN 3281:ISBN 3262:ISBN 3239:ISBN 3216:ISBN 3193:ISBN 3170:ISBN 3147:ISBN 3124:ISBN 3101:ISBN 3078:ISBN 3051:ISBN 3016:2022 2985:2023 2947:2018 1402:2023 1216:and 1181:and 108:Date 3669:. 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Lynching of Jesse Washington

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