752:
results in lower quality images at view angles different from the original data acquisition. Furthermore, the 3D data can not only be used to create cross sectional images, but also projections can be calculated from the data. Three-dimensional data acquisition might also be helpful when dealing with complex vessel geometries where blood is flowing in all spatial directions (unfortunately, this case also requires three different flow encodings, one in each spatial direction). Both PC-MRA and TOF-MRA have advantages and disadvantages. PC-MRA has fewer difficulties with slow flow than TOF-MRA and also allows quantitative measurements of flow. PC-MRA shows low sensitivity when imaging pulsating and non-uniform flow. In general, slow blood flow is a major challenge in flow dependent MRA. It causes the differences between the blood signal and the static tissue signal to be small. This either applies to PC-MRA where the phase difference between blood and static tissue is reduced compared to faster flow and to TOF-MRA where the transverse blood magnetization and thus the blood signal are reduced. Contrast agents may be used to increase blood signal – this is especially important for very small vessels and vessels with very small flow velocities that normally show accordingly weak signal. Unfortunately, the use of gadolinium-based contrast media can be dangerous if patients suffer from poor renal function. To avoid these complications as well as eliminate the costs of contrast media, non-enhanced methods have been researched recently.
302:
655:, of the MRI signal is manipulated by bipolar gradients (varying magnetic fields) that are preset to a maximum expected flow velocity. An image acquisition that is reverse of the bipolar gradient is then acquired and the difference of the two images is calculated. Static tissues such as muscle or bone will subtract out, however moving tissues such as blood will acquire a different phase since it moves constantly through the gradient, thus also giving its speed of the flow. Since phase-contrast can only acquire flow in one direction at a time, 3 separate image acquisitions in all three directions must be computed to give the complete image of flow. Despite the slowness of this method, the strength of the technique is that in addition to imaging flowing blood, quantitative measurements of blood flow can be obtained.
800:(MRV) is achieved by exciting a plane inferiorly while signal is gathered in the plane immediately superior to the excitation plane, and thus imaging the venous blood which has recently moved from the excited plane. Differences in tissue signals, can also be used for MRA. This method is based on the different signal properties of blood compared to other tissues in the body, independent of MR flow effects. This is most successfully done with balanced pulse sequences such as TrueFISP or bTFE. BOLD can also be used in stroke imaging in order to assess the viability of tissue survival.
740:
712:
originating from body fat during the actual image acquisition, which is a method that is sensitive to small deviations in the magnetic and electromagnetic fields and as a result may show insufficient fat suppression in some areas. mDIXON methods can distinguish and accurately separate image signals created by fat or water. By using the 'water images' for MRA scans, virtually no body fat is seen so that no subtraction masks are needed for high quality MR venograms.
2341:
338:. The most common method used to encode velocity is the application of a bipolar gradient between the excitation pulse and the readout. A bipolar gradient is formed by two symmetric lobes of equal area. It is created by turning on the magnetic field gradient for some time, and then switching the magnetic field gradient to the opposite direction for the same amount of time. By definition, the total area (0th moment) of a bipolar gradient,
293:
signal than the saturated stationary tissue. As this method is dependent on flowing blood, areas with slow flow (such as large aneurysms) or flow that is in plane of the image may not be well visualized. This is most commonly used in the head and neck and gives detailed high-resolution images. It is also the most common technique used for routine angiographic evaluation of the intracranial circulation in patients with ischemic stroke.
36:
816:: Phase wrapping caused by the underestimation of maximum blood velocity in the image. The fast-moving blood about maximum set velocity for phase-contrast MRA gets aliased and the signal wraps from pi to -pi instead, making flow information unreliable. This can be avoided by using velocity encoding (VENC) values above the maximum measured velocity. It can also be corrected with the so-called phase-unwrapping.
789:(SWI): This method exploits the susceptibility differences between tissues and uses the phase image to detect these differences. The magnitude and phase data are combined (digitally, by an image-processing program) to produce an enhanced contrast magnitude image which is exquisitely sensitive to venous blood, hemorrhage and iron storage. The imaging of venous blood with SWI is a
855:
142:
699:
principle only shows blood vessels, and not the surrounding tissue. Provided that the timing is correct, this may result in images of very high quality. An alternative is to use a contrast agent that does not, as most agents, leave the vascular system within a few minutes, but remains in the circulation up to an hour (a "
902:. Also, contrast media used for MRI tend to be less toxic than those used for CT angiography and catheter angiography, with fewer people having any risk of allergy. Also far less is needed to be injected into the patient. The greatest drawbacks of the method are its comparatively high cost and its somewhat limited
751:
For the acquisition of the images two different approaches exist. In general, 2D and 3D images can be acquired. If 3D data is acquired, cross sections at arbitrary view angles can be calculated. Three-dimensional data can also be generated by combining 2D data from different slices, but this approach
777:
Gated subtraction fast spin-echo: An imaging technique that subtracts two fast spin echo sequences acquired at systole and diastole. Arteriography is achieved by subtracting the systolic data, where the arteries appear dark, from the diastolic data set, where the arteries appear bright. Requires the
284:
One group of methods for MRA is based on blood flow. Those methods are referred to as flow dependent MRA. They take advantage of the fact that the blood within vessels is flowing to distinguish the vessels from other static tissue. That way, images of the vasculature can be produced. Flow dependent
781:
4D dynamic MR angiography (4D-MRA): The first images, before enhancement, serve as a subtraction mask to extract the vascular tree in the succeeding images. Allows the operator to divide arterial and venous phases of a blood-groove with visualisation of its dynamics. Much less time has been spent
698:
and is currently the most common method of performing MRA. The contrast medium is injected into a vein, and images are acquired both pre-contrast and during the first pass of the agent through the arteries. By subtraction of these two acquisitions in post-processing, an image is obtained which in
292:
Time-of-flight (TOF) or inflow angiography, uses a short echo time and flow compensation to make flowing blood much brighter than stationary tissue. As flowing blood enters the area being imaged it has seen a limited number of excitation pulses so it is not saturated, this gives it a much higher
808:
MRA techniques in general are sensitive to turbulent flow, which causes a variety of different magnetized proton spins to lose phase coherence (intra-voxel dephasing phenomenon), resulting in a loss of signal. This phenomenon may result in the overestimation of arterial stenosis. Other artifacts
706:
Subtractionless contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance angiography: recent developments in MRA technology have made it possible to create high quality contrast-enhanced MRA images without subtraction of a non-contrast enhanced mask image. This approach has been shown to improve diagnostic quality,
678:
and chemical shift of the different tissues of the voxel. One of the main advantages of this kind of techniques is that we may image the regions of slow flow often found in patients with vascular diseases more easily. Moreover, non-contrast enhanced methods do not require the administration of
663:
Whereas most of techniques in MRA rely on contrast agents or flow into blood to generate contrast (Contrast
Enhanced techniques), there are also non-contrast enhanced flow-independent methods. These methods, as the name suggests, do not rely on flow, but are instead based on the differences of
889:
MRA has been successful in studying many arteries in the body, including cerebral and other vessels in the head and neck, the aorta and its major branches in the thorax and abdomen, the renal arteries, and the arteries in the lower limbs. For the coronary arteries, however, MRA has been less
711:
as well as an increase of image background noise, both direct results of the image subtraction. An important condition for this approach is to have excellent body fat suppression over large image areas, which is possible by using mDIXON acquisition methods. Traditional MRA suppresses signals
1197:
Leiner, Tim; Habets, Jesse; Versluis, Bastiaan; Geerts, Liesbeth; Alberts, Eveline; Blanken, Niels; Hendrikse, Jeroen; Vonken, Evert-Jan; Eggers, Holger (2013-04-17). "Subtractionless first-pass single contrast medium dose peripheral MR angiography using two-point Dixon fat suppression".
909:
MRA procedures for visualizing cranial circulation are no different from the positioning for a normal MRI brain. Immobilization within the head coil will be required. MRA is usually a part of the total MRI brain examination and adds approximately 10 minutes to the normal MRI protocol.
862:
Occasionally, MRA directly produces (thick) slices that contain the entire vessel of interest. More commonly, however, the acquisition results in a stack of slices representing a 3D volume in the body. To display this 3D dataset on a 2D device such as a computer monitor, some
897:
An advantage of MRA compared to invasive catheter angiography is the non-invasive character of the examination (no catheters have to be introduced in the body). Another advantage, compared to CT angiography and catheter angiography, is that the patient is not exposed to any
715:
Non-enhanced magnetic resonance angiography: Since the injection of contrast agents may be dangerous for patients with poor kidney function, others techniques have been developed, which do not require any injection. These methods are based on the differences of
235:(vessel wall dilatations, at risk of rupture) or other abnormalities. MRA is often used to evaluate the arteries of the neck and brain, the thoracic and abdominal aorta, the renal arteries, and the legs (the latter exam is often referred to as a "run-off").
275:
of all other tissues (except fat). Short-TR sequences produce bright images of the blood. However, many other techniques for performing MRA exist, and can be classified into two general groups: 'flow-dependent' methods and 'flow-independent' methods.
873:(MIP), where the computer simulates rays through the volume and selects the highest value for display on the screen. The resulting images resemble conventional catheter angiography images. If several such projections are combined into a cine loop or
289:(PC-MRA) which utilizes phase differences to distinguish blood from static tissue and time-of-flight MRA (TOF MRA) which exploits that moving spins of the blood experience fewer excitation pulses than static tissue, e.g. when imaging a thin slice.
730:
and chemical shift of the different tissues of the voxel. A notable non-enhanced method for flow-independent angiography is balanced steady-state free precession (bSSFP) imaging which naturally produces high signal from arteries and veins.
793:(BOLD) technique which is why it was (and is sometimes still) referred to as BOLD venography. Due to its sensitivity to venous blood SWI is commonly used in traumatic brain injuries (TBI) and for high resolution brain venographies.
906:. The length of time the scans take can also be an issue, with CT being far quicker. It is also ruled out in patients for whom MRI exams may be unsafe (such as having a pacemaker or metal in the eyes or certain surgical clips).
703:"). Since longer time is available for image acquisition, higher resolution imaging is possible. A problem, however, is the fact that both arteries and veins are enhanced at the same time if higher resolution images are required.
839:: In many vessels, blood flow is slower near the vessel walls than near the center of the vessel. This causes blood near the vessel walls to become saturated and can reduce the apparent caliber of the vessel.
845:: Because the technique acquires images in slabs (as in Multiple overlapping thin-slab acquisition, MOTSA), a non-uniform flip angle across the slab can appear as horizontal stripe in the composed images.
438:, the phase accrued during the application of the gradient, is 0 for stationary spins: their phase is unaffected by the application of the bipolar gradient. For spins moving with a constant velocity,
518:
409:
363:
822:: caused by the switching of the gradients field in the main field B0. This causes the over magnetic field to be distort and give inaccurate phase information for the flow.
653:
579:
436:
301:
778:
use of electrocardiographic gating. Trade names for this technique include Fresh Blood
Imaging (Toshiba), TRANCE (Philips), native SPACE (Siemens) and DeltaFlow (GE).
626:
606:
549:
463:
305:
2300:
223:(MRI) to image blood vessels. Magnetic resonance angiography is used to generate images of arteries (and less commonly veins) in order to evaluate them for
251:, based on flow effects or on contrast (inherent or pharmacologically generated). The most frequently applied MRA methods involve the use intravenous
415:
The bipolar gradient can be applied along any axis or combination of axes depending on the direction along which flow is to be measured (e.g. x).
53:
2377:
2015:
1699:
100:
1829:
72:
1841:
2169:
1113:
79:
1441:
329:
286:
2277:
828:: accelerating blood flow is not properly encoded by phase-contrast technique, which can lead to errors in quantifying blood flow.
1807:
86:
877:
object, the depth impression is improved, and the observer can get a good perception of 3D structure. An alternative to MIP is
324:(lower). Laminar flow is present in the true lumen (closed arrow) and helical flow is present in the false lumen (open arrow).
1812:
1331:
1251:"Cervical carotid MR angiography with multiple overlapping thin-slab acquisition: comparison with conventional angiography"
1047:
471:
68:
2755:
2575:
1653:
2570:
2205:
2084:
1824:
1733:
881:
where the MR signal is translated to properties like brightness, opacity and color and then used in an optical model.
2729:
2370:
1663:
119:
1648:
1643:
1526:
2633:
1728:
1711:
1398:
1388:
919:
786:
2089:
1936:
1819:
371:
57:
17:
2032:
334:
Phase-contrast (PC-MRA) can be used to encode the velocity of moving blood in the magnetic resonance signal's
2215:
2069:
1668:
1543:
1535:
1434:
864:
680:
2399:
93:
2760:
2539:
2363:
2326:
2260:
2192:
2182:
2160:
1931:
1899:
1530:
869:
790:
1299:
1990:
1958:
1941:
260:
2064:
1799:
1539:
1408:
1249:
Blatter, D D; Bahr, A L; Parker, D L; Robison, R O; Kimball, J A; Perry, D M; Horn, S (December 1993).
890:
successful than CT angiography or invasive catheter angiography. Most often, the underlying disease is
858:
Maximum intensity projection of an MRA covering from the aortic arch to just below the circle of Willis
744:
321:
220:
2408:
2305:
1973:
1963:
1324:
341:
2699:
2653:
2344:
2295:
2074:
1953:
1926:
1687:
1472:
1427:
1303:
156:
635:
554:
418:
2704:
2648:
2243:
2079:
2020:
2005:
1894:
1716:
1692:
1403:
1358:
46:
2683:
2560:
2468:
2436:
2114:
1983:
1914:
1721:
1378:
684:
1978:
1909:
1775:
1658:
1577:
1484:
1373:
611:
1114:"Measurement of Flow with NMR Imaging Using a Gradient Pulse and Phase Difference Technique"
944:
Campeau; Huston (2012). "Vascular disorders—magnetic resonance angiography: Brain vessels".
894:, but medical conditions like aneurysms or abnormal vascular anatomy can also be diagnosed.
2638:
2321:
2010:
1948:
1770:
1368:
1317:
924:
584:
527:
441:
313:
1250:
1088:
8:
2597:
2592:
2544:
2267:
2145:
1968:
1704:
739:
2255:
2104:
2099:
2000:
1883:
1738:
1489:
1231:
1144:
1018:
983:
903:
899:
695:
252:
228:
796:
Similar procedures to flow effect based MRA can be used to image veins. For instance,
2587:
2530:
2094:
2059:
2054:
1995:
1743:
1592:
1278:
1270:
1223:
1215:
1179:
1136:
1132:
1070:
1023:
1005:
961:
700:
27:
Group of techniques based on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to image blood vessels.
1066:
243:
A variety of techniques can be used to generate the pictures of blood vessels, both
2448:
2394:
2386:
1921:
1780:
1552:
1504:
1363:
1262:
1235:
1207:
1171:
1148:
1128:
1062:
1013:
995:
953:
878:
629:
147:
192:
2616:
2582:
2526:
2416:
2130:
1582:
1548:
1521:
1516:
1450:
1383:
891:
760:
Flow-independent NEMRA methods are not based on flow, but exploit differences in
708:
162:
2602:
2506:
2483:
2460:
2431:
2272:
1175:
688:
1266:
1211:
1033:
957:
2749:
2478:
2473:
1904:
1873:
1861:
1856:
1614:
1509:
1274:
1219:
1009:
335:
317:
179:
175:
1000:
2734:
2565:
2287:
2140:
2135:
2042:
1866:
1851:
1785:
1227:
1183:
1027:
965:
874:
309:
1282:
1140:
1074:
2678:
2643:
2625:
2511:
2426:
2421:
2210:
1765:
1597:
1587:
1567:
1557:
1499:
1494:
1463:
1353:
1341:
186:
782:
researching this method so far in comparison with other methods of MRA.
2724:
2670:
2516:
1846:
1609:
1604:
1572:
256:
984:"Magnetic resonance angiography: current status and future directions"
202:
2173:
2109:
1562:
982:
Hartung, Michael P; Grist, Thomas M; François, Christopher J (2011).
232:
35:
2443:
2355:
2196:
694:
Contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance angiography uses injection of
224:
1419:
2225:
1628:
170:
2493:
2220:
244:
1309:
679:
additional contrast agent, which have been recently linked to
2247:
1458:
774:
and chemical shift to distinguish blood from static tissue.
2497:
248:
1196:
141:
1048:"Verification and Evaluation of Internal Flow and Motion"
755:
1248:
1162:
Kramer; Grist (Nov 2012). "Peripheral MR Angiography".
854:
465:, along the direction of the applied bipolar gradient:
306:
Vastly undersampled
Isotropic Projection Reconstruction
285:
MRA can be divided into different categories: There is
638:
614:
587:
557:
530:
513:{\displaystyle \Delta \Phi =\gamma v_{x}\Delta m_{1}}
474:
444:
421:
374:
344:
981:
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
647:
620:
600:
573:
543:
512:
457:
430:
403:
357:
867:method has to be used. The most common method is
2747:
2407:
658:
2371:
1435:
1325:
943:
279:
988:Journal of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance
551:and the 1st moment of the bipolar gradient,
1161:
268:of blood to about 250 ms, shorter than the
2378:
2364:
1442:
1428:
1332:
1318:
524:The accrued phase is proportional to both
140:
1302:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
1017:
999:
734:
404:{\displaystyle \int G_{\text{bip}}\,dt=0}
388:
330:Phase contrast magnetic resonance imaging
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
2278:Orthogonal polarization spectral imaging
853:
738:
300:
1121:Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography
837:Saturation artifact due to laminar flow
707:because it prevents motion subtraction
146:Time-of-flight MRA at the level of the
14:
2748:
1111:
756:Non-enhanced techniques in development
2359:
1423:
1313:
1045:
581:, thus providing a means to estimate
296:
2385:
977:
975:
219:) is a group of techniques based on
58:adding citations to reliable sources
29:
2576:Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation
1449:
24:
2571:Isolated organ perfusion technique
2085:Sestamibi parathyroid scintigraphy
642:
639:
558:
497:
478:
475:
425:
422:
25:
2772:
1293:
1255:American Journal of Roentgenology
972:
2340:
2339:
1133:10.1097/00004728-198408000-00002
849:
632:of the imaged spins. To measure
308:(VIPR) of a Phase Contrast (PC)
255:, particularly those containing
69:"Magnetic resonance angiography"
34:
2634:Digital subtraction angiography
1842:Cholangiopancreatography (MRCP)
1399:Digital subtraction angiography
1389:Computed tomography angiography
1339:
1067:10.1148/radiology.154.2.3966130
925:Transcranial doppler sonography
920:Computed tomography angiography
884:
787:susceptibility weighted imaging
743:3D rendered MRA to identify an
45:needs additional citations for
2659:Magnetic resonance angiography
2090:Radioactive iodine uptake test
1394:Magnetic resonance angiography
1300:Magnetic+Resonance+Angiography
1242:
1190:
1155:
1105:
1081:
1039:
937:
358:{\displaystyle G_{\text{bip}}}
238:
213:Magnetic resonance angiography
135:Magnetic resonance angiography
13:
1:
2730:Ankle–brachial pressure index
2070:Radionuclide ventriculography
1544:Lower gastrointestinal series
1536:Upper gastrointestinal series
1112:Bryant, D. J. (August 1984).
930:
798:Magnetic resonance venography
681:nephrogenic systemic fibrosis
2540:Endovascular aneurysm repair
2261:Optical coherence tomography
2183:Myocardial perfusion imaging
1771:Dental panoramic radiography
1164:Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am
870:maximum intensity projection
803:
791:blood-oxygen-level dependent
659:Flow-independent angiography
648:{\displaystyle \Delta \Phi }
574:{\displaystyle \Delta m_{1}}
431:{\displaystyle \Delta \Phi }
7:
913:
312:of a 56-year-old male with
10:
2777:
2756:Magnetic resonance imaging
2065:Ventilation/perfusion scan
1540:Small-bowel follow-through
1409:Carbon dioxide angiography
1176:10.1016/j.mric.2012.08.002
745:aberrant subclavian artery
327:
322:superior mesenteric artery
280:Flow-dependent angiography
221:magnetic resonance imaging
2717:
2692:
2669:
2624:
2615:
2553:
2525:
2492:
2459:
2393:
2335:
2314:
2306:Dynamic angiothermography
2286:
2242:
2191:
2168:
2158:
2123:
2050:
2040:
2031:
1974:Abdominal ultrasonography
1882:
1798:
1758:
1677:
1636:
1627:
1480:
1471:
1457:
1349:
1267:10.2214/ajr.161.6.8249741
1212:10.1007/s00330-013-2833-y
958:10.1016/j.nic.2012.02.006
809:observed in MRA include:
199:
185:
169:
155:
139:
134:
2700:Intravascular ultrasound
2654:Radionuclide angiography
2296:Non-contact thermography
2075:Radionuclide angiography
1927:Doppler echocardiography
1304:Medical Subject Headings
946:Neuroimaging Clin. N. Am
2705:Carotid ultrasonography
2649:Fluorescein angiography
2080:Radioisotope renography
1404:Fluorescein angiography
1359:Cardiac catheterization
1046:Moran, Paul R. (1985).
1001:10.1186/1532-429X-13-19
879:direct volume rendering
843:Venetian blind artifact
621:{\displaystyle \gamma }
2684:Impedance phlebography
2561:Cardiopulmonary bypass
2469:Ambulatory phlebectomy
2437:Carotid endarterectomy
2115:Gastric emptying study
1379:CT pulmonary angiogram
859:
748:
735:2D and 3D acquisitions
685:chronic kidney disease
649:
622:
602:
575:
545:
514:
459:
432:
405:
359:
325:
227:(abnormal narrowing),
1776:X-ray motion analysis
1659:X-ray microtomography
1578:Hysterosalpingography
1485:Pneumoencephalography
1374:Pulmonary angiography
857:
742:
650:
623:
603:
601:{\displaystyle v_{x}}
576:
546:
544:{\displaystyle v_{x}}
515:
460:
458:{\displaystyle v_{x}}
433:
406:
360:
304:
2639:Cerebral angiography
2400:Endovascular surgery
2301:Contact thermography
2011:Emergency ultrasound
1949:Transcranial Doppler
1700:Abdominal and pelvis
1369:Cerebral angiography
636:
612:
585:
555:
528:
472:
442:
419:
372:
342:
54:improve this article
2761:Vascular procedures
2598:Seldinger technique
2593:First rib resection
2545:Open aortic surgery
2268:Confocal microscopy
2146:Indium-111 WBC scan
1969:Echoencephalography
1705:Virtual colonoscopy
832:Time-of-flight MRA:
785:BOLD venography or
696:MRI contrast agents
2256:Optical tomography
2105:Dacryoscintigraphy
2100:Immunoscintigraphy
1739:Whole body imaging
1490:Dental radiography
1200:European Radiology
904:spatial resolution
900:ionizing radiation
860:
814:Phase-contrast MRA
749:
645:
618:
598:
571:
541:
510:
455:
428:
401:
355:
326:
297:Phase-contrast MRA
287:phase-contrast MRA
2743:
2742:
2713:
2712:
2611:
2610:
2588:Revascularization
2353:
2352:
2315:Target conditions
2238:
2237:
2234:
2233:
2154:
2153:
2095:Bone scintigraphy
2060:Scintimammography
2055:Cholescintigraphy
1900:contrast-enhanced
1794:
1793:
1754:
1753:
1744:Full-body CT scan
1644:General operation
1623:
1622:
1593:Angiocardiography
1417:
1416:
683:in patients with
385:
352:
210:
209:
171:OPS-301 code
130:
129:
122:
104:
16:(Redirected from
2768:
2718:Other diagnostic
2622:
2621:
2449:Carotid stenting
2409:Arterial disease
2405:
2404:
2387:Vascular surgery
2380:
2373:
2366:
2357:
2356:
2343:
2342:
2166:
2165:
2048:
2047:
2038:
2037:
1922:Echocardiography
1781:Hounsfield scale
1634:
1633:
1553:Cholecystography
1478:
1477:
1469:
1468:
1444:
1437:
1430:
1421:
1420:
1364:Microangiography
1334:
1327:
1320:
1311:
1310:
1287:
1286:
1261:(6): 1269–1277.
1246:
1240:
1239:
1206:(8): 2228–2235.
1194:
1188:
1187:
1159:
1153:
1152:
1118:
1109:
1103:
1102:
1100:
1099:
1085:
1079:
1078:
1052:
1043:
1037:
1031:
1021:
1003:
979:
970:
969:
952:(2): 207–33, x.
941:
701:blood-pool agent
654:
652:
651:
646:
630:Larmor frequency
627:
625:
624:
619:
607:
605:
604:
599:
597:
596:
580:
578:
577:
572:
570:
569:
550:
548:
547:
542:
540:
539:
519:
517:
516:
511:
509:
508:
496:
495:
464:
462:
461:
456:
454:
453:
437:
435:
434:
429:
410:
408:
407:
402:
387:
386:
383:
364:
362:
361:
356:
354:
353:
350:
320:(upper) and the
203:edit on Wikidata
195:
165:
148:Circle of Willis
144:
132:
131:
125:
118:
114:
111:
105:
103:
62:
38:
30:
21:
2776:
2775:
2771:
2770:
2769:
2767:
2766:
2765:
2746:
2745:
2744:
2739:
2709:
2688:
2665:
2617:Medical imaging
2607:
2583:Vascular access
2549:
2527:Aortic aneurysm
2521:
2488:
2455:
2417:Vascular bypass
2398:
2389:
2384:
2354:
2349:
2331:
2310:
2282:
2230:
2216:PET mammography
2187:
2150:
2136:Gallium-67 scan
2131:Octreotide scan
2119:
2027:
1878:
1790:
1750:
1673:
1654:High-resolution
1619:
1583:Skeletal survey
1549:Cholangiography
1462:
1453:
1451:Medical imaging
1448:
1418:
1413:
1384:Cholangiography
1345:
1338:
1296:
1291:
1290:
1247:
1243:
1195:
1191:
1160:
1156:
1116:
1110:
1106:
1097:
1095:
1093:www.cis.rit.edu
1087:
1086:
1082:
1050:
1044:
1040:
980:
973:
942:
938:
933:
916:
892:atherosclerosis
887:
852:
806:
773:
766:
758:
737:
729:
722:
677:
670:
661:
637:
634:
633:
613:
610:
609:
592:
588:
586:
583:
582:
565:
561:
556:
553:
552:
535:
531:
529:
526:
525:
504:
500:
491:
487:
473:
470:
469:
449:
445:
443:
440:
439:
420:
417:
416:
382:
378:
373:
370:
369:
349:
345:
343:
340:
339:
332:
299:
282:
274:
266:
259:to shorten the
253:contrast agents
241:
206:
191:
161:
151:
126:
115:
109:
106:
63:
61:
51:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2774:
2764:
2763:
2758:
2741:
2740:
2738:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2721:
2719:
2715:
2714:
2711:
2710:
2708:
2707:
2702:
2696:
2694:
2690:
2689:
2687:
2686:
2681:
2675:
2673:
2667:
2666:
2664:
2663:
2662:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2630:
2628:
2619:
2613:
2612:
2609:
2608:
2606:
2605:
2603:Vascular snare
2600:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2579:
2578:
2568:
2563:
2557:
2555:
2551:
2550:
2548:
2547:
2542:
2536:
2534:
2523:
2522:
2520:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2507:Venous cutdown
2503:
2501:
2490:
2489:
2487:
2486:
2484:Vein stripping
2481:
2476:
2471:
2465:
2463:
2461:Venous disease
2457:
2456:
2454:
2453:
2452:
2451:
2441:
2440:
2439:
2432:Endarterectomy
2429:
2424:
2419:
2413:
2411:
2402:
2391:
2390:
2383:
2382:
2375:
2368:
2360:
2351:
2350:
2348:
2347:
2336:
2333:
2332:
2330:
2329:
2324:
2318:
2316:
2312:
2311:
2309:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2292:
2290:
2284:
2283:
2281:
2280:
2275:
2273:Endomicroscopy
2270:
2265:
2264:
2263:
2252:
2250:
2240:
2239:
2236:
2235:
2232:
2231:
2229:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2202:
2200:
2189:
2188:
2186:
2185:
2179:
2177:
2163:
2156:
2155:
2152:
2151:
2149:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2127:
2125:
2121:
2120:
2118:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2077:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2057:
2051:
2045:
2035:
2029:
2028:
2026:
2025:
2024:
2023:
2018:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1987:
1986:
1981:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1945:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1919:
1918:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1888:
1886:
1880:
1879:
1877:
1876:
1871:
1870:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1834:
1833:
1832:
1822:
1817:
1816:
1815:
1804:
1802:
1796:
1795:
1792:
1791:
1789:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1762:
1760:
1756:
1755:
1752:
1751:
1749:
1748:
1747:
1746:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1725:
1724:
1719:
1709:
1708:
1707:
1697:
1696:
1695:
1690:
1681:
1679:
1675:
1674:
1672:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1656:
1651:
1646:
1640:
1638:
1631:
1625:
1624:
1621:
1620:
1618:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1601:
1600:
1595:
1585:
1580:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1560:
1555:
1546:
1533:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1513:
1512:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1487:
1481:
1475:
1466:
1455:
1454:
1447:
1446:
1439:
1432:
1424:
1415:
1414:
1412:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1350:
1347:
1346:
1337:
1336:
1329:
1322:
1314:
1308:
1307:
1295:
1294:External links
1292:
1289:
1288:
1241:
1189:
1154:
1127:(4): 588–593.
1104:
1080:
1061:(2): 433–441.
1038:
971:
935:
934:
932:
929:
928:
927:
922:
915:
912:
886:
883:
851:
848:
847:
846:
840:
834:
829:
823:
817:
805:
802:
771:
764:
757:
754:
736:
733:
727:
720:
689:kidney failure
675:
668:
660:
657:
644:
641:
617:
595:
591:
568:
564:
560:
538:
534:
522:
521:
507:
503:
499:
494:
490:
486:
483:
480:
477:
452:
448:
427:
424:
413:
412:
400:
397:
394:
391:
381:
377:
348:
328:Main article:
298:
295:
281:
278:
272:
264:
240:
237:
208:
207:
200:
197:
196:
189:
183:
182:
173:
167:
166:
159:
153:
152:
145:
137:
136:
128:
127:
42:
40:
33:
26:
18:MR angiography
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2773:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2753:
2751:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2722:
2720:
2716:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2697:
2695:
2691:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2676:
2674:
2672:
2668:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2636:
2635:
2632:
2631:
2629:
2627:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2614:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2577:
2574:
2573:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2558:
2556:
2552:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2479:Sclerotherapy
2477:
2475:
2474:Laser surgery
2472:
2470:
2467:
2466:
2464:
2462:
2458:
2450:
2447:
2446:
2445:
2442:
2438:
2435:
2434:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2414:
2412:
2410:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2381:
2376:
2374:
2369:
2367:
2362:
2361:
2358:
2346:
2338:
2337:
2334:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2319:
2317:
2313:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2293:
2291:
2289:
2285:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2262:
2259:
2258:
2257:
2254:
2253:
2251:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2184:
2181:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2157:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2141:Ga-68-DOTATOC
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2128:
2126:
2122:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2052:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2030:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2013:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1976:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1954:Intravascular
1952:
1950:
1947:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1924:
1923:
1920:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1892:
1890:
1889:
1887:
1885:
1881:
1875:
1874:Synthetic MRI
1872:
1868:
1865:
1863:
1860:
1858:
1855:
1854:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1843:
1840:
1838:
1835:
1831:
1828:
1827:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1814:
1811:
1810:
1809:
1806:
1805:
1803:
1801:
1797:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1763:
1761:
1757:
1745:
1742:
1741:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1723:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1714:
1713:
1710:
1706:
1703:
1702:
1701:
1698:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1685:
1683:
1682:
1680:
1676:
1670:
1667:
1665:
1664:Electron beam
1662:
1660:
1657:
1655:
1652:
1650:
1647:
1645:
1642:
1641:
1639:
1635:
1632:
1630:
1626:
1616:
1615:Orbital x-ray
1613:
1611:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1599:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1590:
1589:
1586:
1584:
1581:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1550:
1547:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1534:
1532:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1511:
1510:Bronchography
1508:
1507:
1506:
1503:
1501:
1498:
1496:
1493:
1491:
1488:
1486:
1483:
1482:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1445:
1440:
1438:
1433:
1431:
1426:
1425:
1422:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1397:
1395:
1392:
1390:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1351:
1348:
1344:
1343:
1335:
1330:
1328:
1323:
1321:
1316:
1315:
1312:
1305:
1301:
1298:
1297:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1245:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1193:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1170:(4): 761–76.
1169:
1165:
1158:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1115:
1108:
1094:
1090:
1084:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1049:
1042:
1035:
1029:
1025:
1020:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1002:
997:
993:
989:
985:
978:
976:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
940:
936:
926:
923:
921:
918:
917:
911:
907:
905:
901:
895:
893:
882:
880:
876:
872:
871:
866:
856:
850:Visualization
844:
841:
838:
835:
833:
830:
827:
824:
821:
820:Maxwell terms
818:
815:
812:
811:
810:
801:
799:
794:
792:
788:
783:
779:
775:
770:
763:
753:
746:
741:
732:
726:
719:
713:
710:
704:
702:
697:
692:
690:
686:
682:
674:
667:
656:
631:
615:
593:
589:
566:
562:
536:
532:
505:
501:
492:
488:
484:
481:
468:
467:
466:
450:
446:
398:
395:
392:
389:
379:
375:
368:
367:
366:
346:
337:
331:
323:
319:
318:celiac artery
315:
311:
307:
303:
294:
290:
288:
277:
271:
267:
263:
258:
254:
250:
246:
236:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
204:
198:
194:
190:
188:
184:
181:
177:
174:
172:
168:
164:
160:
158:
154:
149:
143:
138:
133:
124:
121:
113:
110:December 2014
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
81:
78:
74:
71: –
70:
66:
65:Find sources:
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
2735:Toe pressure
2658:
2566:Cardioplegia
2322:Acute stroke
2288:Thermography
2043:scintigraphy
2033:Radionuclide
2021:pre-hospital
1867:Tractography
1836:
1786:Radiodensity
1688:calcium scan
1649:Quantitative
1393:
1340:
1258:
1254:
1244:
1203:
1199:
1192:
1167:
1163:
1157:
1124:
1120:
1107:
1096:. Retrieved
1092:
1089:"CHAPTER-13"
1083:
1058:
1054:
1041:
991:
987:
949:
945:
939:
908:
896:
888:
885:Clinical use
875:QuickTime VR
868:
861:
842:
836:
831:
826:Acceleration
825:
819:
813:
807:
797:
795:
784:
780:
776:
768:
761:
759:
750:
724:
717:
714:
705:
693:
672:
665:
662:
523:
414:
333:
310:MRI sequence
291:
283:
269:
261:
242:
216:
212:
211:
116:
107:
97:
90:
83:
76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
44:
2679:Portography
2644:Aortography
2626:Angiography
2512:Arteriotomy
2427:Atherectomy
2422:Angioplasty
2211:Cardiac PET
1984:renal tract
1959:Gynecologic
1891:Techniques
1862:restriction
1837:Angiography
1820:Neurography
1766:Fluoroscopy
1712:Angiography
1693:angiography
1637:Techniques:
1598:Aortography
1588:Angiography
1568:Cystography
1558:Mammography
1500:Myelography
1495:Sialography
1464:radiography
1354:Angiography
1342:Angiography
365:, is null:
314:dissections
239:Acquisition
187:MedlinePlus
2750:Categories
2725:Angioscopy
2693:Ultrasound
2671:Venography
2531:dissection
2517:Phlebotomy
2124:Full body:
1910:endoscopic
1884:Ultrasound
1813:functional
1610:Lymphogram
1605:Venography
1573:Arthrogram
1098:2020-04-13
931:References
257:gadolinium
229:occlusions
80:newspapers
2327:Pregnancy
2206:Brain PET
2174:gamma ray
2110:DMSA scan
1964:Obstetric
1857:diffusion
1852:Sequences
1830:perfusion
1722:Pulmonary
1669:Cone beam
1563:Pyelogram
1275:0361-803X
1220:0938-7994
1055:Radiology
1034:CC-BY-2.0
1010:1532-429X
994:(1): 19.
865:rendering
804:Artifacts
709:artifacts
643:Φ
640:Δ
616:γ
559:Δ
498:Δ
485:γ
479:Φ
476:Δ
426:Φ
423:Δ
376:∫
233:aneurysms
2494:Arterial
2444:Stenting
2395:Vascular
2345:Category
2197:positron
1717:Coronary
1228:23591617
1184:23088949
1028:21388544
966:22548929
914:See also
245:arteries
225:stenosis
2244:Optical
2226:PET-MRI
2006:Carotid
2001:Scrotal
1895:doppler
1825:Cardiac
1734:Thyroid
1678:Targets
1629:CT scan
1283:8249741
1236:2635492
1149:8700276
1141:6736356
1075:3966130
1019:3060856
628:is the
316:of the
163:D018810
94:scholar
2500:access
2498:venous
2221:PET-CT
1996:Breast
1991:Rectal
1915:duplex
1847:Breast
1684:Heart
1306:(MeSH)
1281:
1273:
1234:
1226:
1218:
1182:
1147:
1139:
1073:
1026:
1016:
1008:
964:
193:007269
96:
89:
82:
75:
67:
2554:Other
2248:Laser
2170:SPECT
1979:renal
1808:Brain
1759:Other
1459:X-ray
1232:S2CID
1145:S2CID
1117:(PDF)
1051:(PDF)
336:phase
249:veins
201:[
180:3-828
176:3-808
101:JSTOR
87:books
2496:and
2397:and
2016:FAST
1729:Head
1279:PMID
1271:ISSN
1224:PMID
1216:ISSN
1180:PMID
1137:PMID
1071:PMID
1024:PMID
1006:ISSN
962:PMID
687:and
247:and
157:MeSH
73:news
2193:PET
2161:ECT
2159:3D/
2041:2D/
1942:ICE
1937:TEE
1932:TTE
1800:MRI
1531:DXR
1527:DXA
1522:KUB
1517:AXR
1505:CXR
1263:doi
1259:161
1208:doi
1172:doi
1129:doi
1063:doi
1059:154
1014:PMC
996:doi
954:doi
520:(2)
411:(1)
384:bip
351:bip
231:,
217:MRA
56:by
2752::
2529:/
2199:):
2176:):
1905:3D
1473:2D
1277:.
1269:.
1257:.
1253:.
1230:.
1222:.
1214:.
1204:23
1202:.
1178:.
1168:20
1166:.
1143:.
1135:.
1123:.
1119:.
1091:.
1069:.
1057:.
1053:.
1022:.
1012:.
1004:.
992:13
990:.
986:.
974:^
960:.
950:22
948:.
767:,
723:,
691:.
671:,
608:.
178:,
2533::
2379:e
2372:t
2365:v
2246:/
2195:(
2172:(
1551:/
1542:/
1538:/
1529:/
1461:/
1443:e
1436:t
1429:v
1333:e
1326:t
1319:v
1285:.
1265::
1238:.
1210::
1186:.
1174::
1151:.
1131::
1125:8
1101:.
1077:.
1065::
1036:)
1032:(
1030:.
998::
968:.
956::
772:2
769:T
765:1
762:T
747:.
728:2
725:T
721:1
718:T
676:2
673:T
669:1
666:T
594:x
590:v
567:1
563:m
537:x
533:v
506:1
502:m
493:x
489:v
482:=
451:x
447:v
399:0
396:=
393:t
390:d
380:G
347:G
273:1
270:T
265:1
262:T
215:(
205:]
150:.
123:)
117:(
112:)
108:(
98:·
91:·
84:·
77:·
50:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
