268:
2556:
they filmed over 50 hours of natural group conversation with 70 speakers, which led to eight DVDs in
Maliseet-Passamaquoddy subtitled in English. According to the Passamaquoddy-Maliseet Language Portal, this film "stimulated language revival programs for people who understand but cannot speak, and identified new sources of resiliency and leadership in the language-speaking community." Their approach to documentation is relatively novel and has garnered praise: "In contrast to 'elicitation,' in which linguists ask speakers questions to learn about a language, Language Keepers videos show how the language works in practice, and have provided many "new" words for the dictionary. They also document traditional Passamaquoddy culture activities, like canoe-building, and views of the world."
2625:
1291:
unstressable. Stressable vowels are available to be acted on by stress rules, while unstressable vowels might undergo syncope. Stress is assigned (to stressable vowels only) to initial syllables and even-numbered syllables, counting from right to left. There is a simultaneous left to right process that reassigns some unstressable vowels as stressable. Unstressable vowels which do not become stressable based on the left to right process are subject to syncope based on five rules LeSourd outlines in
206:
218:
1359:) are inanimate; people, personal names, animals, and trees are all animate. There is no perfect correspondence between the inherent "animateness" of a noun and its class for all words. However, the words for 'fingernail' and 'knee' are animate, but the words for 'heart' and 'tongue' are inanimate. Verbs impose restrictions on the noun class that one of their
2162:, which means the subjects and objects of transitive verbs are marked differently in different contexts according to where they fall relative to each other on a "person hierarchy". The person hierarchy lays out which word is considered more salient or takes precedence over another form. Leavitt's grammar gives the following hierarchy:
2518:
Because so much grammatical information is encoded in each word, word order is very free. There are few restrictions on the order words can appear, especially in simple one-verb sentences. One of the only restrictions is that the negative particle must precede the verb, but other words may intervene.
414:
era when changes in the education system and increased marriage outside of the speech community caused a large decrease in the number of children who learned or regularly used the language. As a result, in both Canada and the U.S. today, there are only 600 speakers of both dialects, and most speakers
1302:
to some syllables based on their position in the words. As LeSourd describes, Passamaquoddy stressed syllables can be relatively high-pitched or low-pitched, and final unstressed syllables can be distinctively low-pitched. Maliseet has similar pitch assignments, but again, differs from
Passamaquoddy
2555:
Since 2006, a project known as
Language Keepers, which attempts to document endangered languages and increase public group discourse in these languages, has worked with the Passamaquoddy and Wolastoqey communities and done extensive documentation of the language. In their first three years of work,
2254:
The hierarchy comes into play in sentences with transitive-animate (TA) verbs. When a TA verb's subject is higher on the person hierarchy than the object, the verb is conjugated in the direct form. If the subject is lower on the hierarchy than the object, the verb is conjugated in the inverse form.
1382:, they can both be proximate or both obviative. In all other cases, when two or more animate nouns or pronouns appear in the same clause, one will be proximate (the focus of the clause), and the others will be obviative. Proximate is the "default" noun ending; obviative forms use different endings.
1266:
Every phoneme except "o" and "h" can occur initially, medially, or finally; "o" and "h" are never word final. Clusters of two obstruents, geminate consonant pairs, and clusters of a sonorant followed by an obstruent are all common. Consonant clusters ending in a sonorant usually do not occur except
1290:
Stress is assigned based on a set of very complex rules, and a difference in stress and accent systems is one of the most prominent distinguishing features between
Maliseet and Passamaquoddy. According to LeSourd, in Passamaquoddy, some vowels are considered stressable and ones that are considered
1237:
The monophthongs (except "o") are lengthened when they occur in certain positions, although vowel length is not contrastive. One notable difference between the two dialects is that vowels are generally not as long in
Passamaquoddy as in Maliseet, but the distribution of long and short vowels are
2551:
Today
Maliseet-Passamaquoddy has a ranking of 7 on the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS); a 7 corresponds to "Shifting: The child-bearing generation can use the language among themselves, but it is not being transmitted to children." However, in spite of this bleak
2274:
verb forms. For them, the action is considered "self-contained" because they occur on the same level of the hierarchy. Thus, reflexive and reciprocal verbs are no longer transitive but become intransitive, with only one argument being shown and a reflexive or reciprocal theme marker used.
1416:
Some nouns cannot appear in an unpossessed form—that is, they must appear with one of the personal pronoun prefixes. All body parts and kinship terms are in this class. For each of these words, there is a corresponding word that can appear unpossessed. For example,
1389:, and (with some nouns) vocative cases. The Passamaquoddy-Maliseet Language Portal includes a chart showing all the possible declensions of nouns in various forms. Notably, the absentative case is marked not only with endings but also changes in pitch contour.
2088:, meaning that the subjects of intransitive verbs behave like the objects of transitive verbs. Because of this, transitive and intransitive verbs have subcategories based on which gender one of their arguments must be, so that there are four major verb types:
1378:. Inanimate nouns are never marked as obviative. Proximate nouns refer to something near the speaker or most central to the discourse, while obviative nouns refer to something that is distanced or more remote from consideration. When two nouns or pronouns are
2290:'I'. Overlapping pairs of this sort cannot be used as the subject-object pair of a transitive verb. Leavitt gives the following chart outlining the restrictions on how first- and second-person subject-object pairs can occur for transitive verbs:
2864:
from the Mi'kmaq-Maliseet
Institute, University of New Brunswick (includes sound files with the pronunciation of the entry words, videos of native speakers' conversations including the entry words, and detailed grammatical
415:
are older adults. Although the majority of younger people cannot speak the language (particularly the
Passamaquoddy dialect), there is growing interest in teaching the language in community classes and in some schools.
2028:: expresses doubt or uncertainty; used with Independent Indicative, Changed Conjunct, Unchanged Conjunct, and Subordinative modes; also marked for Preterite when in Independent Indicative or Unchanged Conjunct
1993:: used mainly in clauses to express subsequent or resulting action; can also be used alone as a "polite" imperative or as a second command following an imperative; also used in "how" questions
1585:(In the above chart, acute accents show relatively high pitch, and grave accents show relatively low pitch. Pitch is usually not marked except in dictionaries to distinguish similar words.)
4248:
410:
of eastern Maine. However, the two dialects differ only slightly, mainly in their phonology. The indigenous people widely spoke
Maliseet-Passamaquoddy in these areas until around the post-
2814:
2150:
Because verbs polysynthetic nature, subjects and objects are often not separate words, but affixes attached to the verbs; therefore, one word "sentences," are possible and even common.
1696:
Verbs are built from word stems, which consist of one or more roots. Roots can be initial, medial, or final, and can be combined to build rich levels of meaning into a verb:
1132:
is not dropped. There are many more environments where this occurs, but the syncope changes are usually entirely predictable. LeSourd describes many of the syncope rules in
1823:
Because
Maliseet-Passamaquoddy is polysynthetic, a large amount of grammatical information is expressed in one verb through the use of various inflections and affixes:
1730:: can be nominal, adjectival, or adverbial; denote things such as body parts, geographic features, shapes, and arrangements; can be final if a verb is very "noun-like"
4258:
1267:
in geminate pairs or when they occur initially with one of the personal pronoun prefixes. Clusters of three consonants can occur and are almost always of the form
2526:
in the language so identity sentences with no verb are possible. The word order is less free than in sentences with verbs and is fixed in negative identities.
2758:
2259:, and the inverse is shown by theme markers. Because of the direct–inverse system, Maliseet-Passamaquoddy does not have a clear way of otherwise showing
1474:
Personal pronouns differ from nouns and other pronouns in that they do not use plural markers, but instead, each form is unique. The third person is
2552:
assessment, there are significant efforts to revitalize the language and teach both children and adults who did not learn the language natively.
2907:
1588:
There are three demonstrative pronouns, which have both animate and inanimate forms and are inflected for number, obviation, and absentativity:
2879:
2810:
3585:
2570:
Along with the various resources available online, recent revitalization efforts have included Maliseet-Passamaquoddy class teachings at the
407:
973:
depending on where they appear in the word. When they appear adjacent to another consonant or following an apostrophe, they use the default
1810:. Some verbs that have a direct object when they are translated into English are, in reality, intransitive verbs where the noun has been
1374:
In addition to class and number, animate nouns and pronouns (except 'I', 'we', and 'you') are marked in sentences as either proximate or
228:
4243:
2934:
2038:
The Passamaquoddy-Maliseet Language Portal also includes verb charts showing extensive conjugations of different classes of verbs.
4253:
2559:
In addition to the film, the Language Keepers project—along with other linguists and community activists—has helped compile the
4273:
1432:
Nouns can be used in apposition with other nouns and function as adjectives (which do not exist as a separate class of words).
431:(1996). The bold letters are the spelling in the standard orthography, and the symbols between the slashes give the respective
427:
consists of 17 letters and an apostrophe. The following tables are based on the sound system described by Robert M. Leavitt in
2870:
267:
4233:
4212:
1363:
must be. The easiest way to distinguish animate and inanimate nouns is by their plural forms. Animate plural nouns end in
4238:
667:
641:
250:
2717:
2688:
4208:
3578:
2147:
AI intransitive verbs can only be used with animate subjects; TI verbs can only be used with inanimate objects, etc.
354:
2567:, today includes over 18,000 entries, many of which include audio and video files of native speaker pronunciations.
1638:'another, other' is a pronoun that also has animate and inanimate forms that can be inflected with various endings.
3363:
2085:
555:
961:
Many phonological processes that occur in Maliseet-Passamaquoddy, the most important of which are outlined below:
3663:
2835:
2747:
432:
403:
240:
4143:
3711:
1186:
is therefore left as a blank underscore when writing out the stem. In the following example, the verb stem is
2927:
4067:
4047:
3571:
3422:
3231:
3081:
2016:: actions in present time; also used as basic past tense or for future when combined with particles such as
1396:
and/or feminine suffixes. When these are combined with case markings, the order of suffixes is as follows:
1182:
changes to match the first vowel in the inflectional ending that follows the stem. The vowel preceding the
602:
192:
120:
890:
859:
851:
834:
826:
811:
801:
4189:
3953:
3444:
3331:
3326:
3116:
2571:
2542:
sequential commands, with the first verb in the imperative mode and the second in the subordinative mode.
2159:
1629:'what? (referring to inanimate noun)'. They are also inflected for number, obviation, and absentativity.
1128:'I am poor', which is built off the same verb stem, the first syllable is stressed. Therefore, the first
977:
pronunciation given in the consonant chart above. When they appear only adjacent to vowels or the prefix
620:
2586:
1295:. Maliseet has a similar approach, but the finer details of the stress assignment rules are different.
653:
543:
531:
468:
2529:
Complex and compound sentences with two or more verbs can be created in multiple ways, such as these:
1435:
Participles can be formed from the Changed Conjunct form of a verb and use the special plural endings
3613:
3526:
970:
665:
651:
639:
618:
600:
577:
565:
553:
541:
529:
502:
490:
2624:
2022:: past completed action; used with Independent Indicative, Changed Conjunct, and Subordinative modes
3358:
2920:
2789:
4027:
3963:
3383:
3353:
3343:
3123:
1482:
forms of the second person plural pronoun. The first and second person singular also have longer
567:
3721:
4268:
4195:
4174:
3910:
2988:
1475:
1360:
1328:
1320:
753:, five of which are spelled with a single letter and one which is spelled with the combination
402:, Canada. The language consists of two major dialects: Maliseet, which is mainly spoken in the
4263:
3130:
3103:
2584:
in New Brunswick, has recorded two albums of music sung partially or entirely in Wolastoqey,
2070:
1460:
1456:
1379:
1009:: . The following table summarizes these consonants and their voiced and unvoiced allophones:
629:
504:
492:
3776:
4179:
3991:
3880:
3703:
3668:
3630:
3519:
3036:
3031:
2982:
2951:
2581:
2271:
1468:
1339:
A fundamental characteristic of Maliseet-Passamaquoddy is that all nouns and pronouns have
1312:
387:
379:
115:
72:
3736:
1311:
There are four categories of words in Maliseet-Passamaquoddy: nouns, pronouns, verbs, and
711:. These "missing consonants" can appear in other forms of the word. For example, the stem
8:
4184:
4148:
3824:
3693:
3594:
3401:
3393:
3368:
3304:
3249:
3208:
3109:
3026:
2974:
2960:
1095:
590:
2574:
to increase inter-generational communication and transmission of knowledge and culture.
2034:: refers to an absentative noun; used with Independent Indicative or Subordinative modes
1641:
One of the most interesting features is the pronoun that functions similarly to English
1106:
is in the first syllable of a verb stem used without a prefix. For example, in the word
4158:
4093:
3935:
3872:
3857:
3726:
3648:
3643:
3494:
3438:
3428:
3321:
3201:
3154:
3057:
1906:
1811:
1649:, but which is inflected to match the anticipated word. Compare the bolded pronoun in:
1252:
penultimate syllables if that syllable is stressed or if the final syllable is stressed
683:) to represent word-initial consonants that are no longer pronounced due to historical
453:
448:
184:
4138:
4088:
3943:
3925:
3920:
3900:
3895:
3847:
3781:
3501:
3433:
3373:
3348:
3337:
3290:
3255:
3238:
2564:
1942:
1807:
1483:
1255:
word final vowels are sometimes lengthened, especially when they occur before a pause
982:
475:
458:
246:
4133:
4123:
4108:
4103:
4098:
4022:
4017:
4007:
3973:
3915:
3862:
3809:
3771:
3716:
3678:
3638:
3608:
3450:
3225:
3181:
3137:
3067:
2968:
2539:
a main clause plus a conditional clause in the changed or unchanged conjunct mode;
2050:
1928:
1919:
1452:
281:
2046:
Particles are all the words in the language that are not inflected. They include:
1238:
similar. LeSourd describes the following generalizations about vowel lengthening:
4128:
4118:
4113:
4072:
3981:
3948:
3905:
3852:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3791:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3731:
3683:
3673:
3538:
3313:
3300:
3165:
3159:
2943:
2721:
2260:
2054:
1932:
1803:
482:
463:
110:
102:
3741:
2896:
197:
4062:
4012:
3986:
3885:
3746:
3688:
3554:
3546:
3477:
3471:
3378:
3172:
2577:
2267:
1703:: usually adjectival or adverbial in meaning, such as color, quality, or state
521:
141:
2662:
2612:
4227:
4052:
3658:
3653:
3283:
3097:
3008:
2999:
2712:
2592:
2065:
1947:
1386:
974:
781:
579:
399:
395:
92:
53:
43:
2880:"Reviving Passamaquoddy: A Community Finds Healing Through Its Own Language"
2811:"Reviving Passamaquoddy: A Community Finds Healing Through Its Own Language"
1975:: usually used in adverbial clauses or in "who", "what", and "why" questions
4153:
4057:
3814:
3278:
3270:
2855:
2836:"Jeremy Dutcher's debut album blew up. His next one is even more ambitious"
2735:
Syntax at the edge: cross-clausal phenomena and the syntax of Passamaquoddy
2684:
1331:, with many morphemes generally corresponding to a single unit of meaning.
1299:
684:
411:
383:
148:
68:
3958:
1802:
Verbs are classified by the final root in their stem, which marks them as
168:
3799:
2158:
Maliseet-Passamaquoddy, along with other Algonquian languages, is also a
1924:
882:
776:
750:
424:
1249:
1147:
that has undergone syncope) in the first syllable of their stem have an
3890:
3062:
3041:
2667:
2617:
2278:
Some first- and second-person pronouns overlap in meaning; for example
2256:
2060:
1393:
1340:
1316:
793:
786:
3563:
2902:
205:
3804:
3016:
2839:
1951:
1479:
1375:
1261:
966:
843:
818:
762:
758:
177:
161:
2506:
means that a form will be reflexive or reciprocal and intransitive;
217:
2685:"Passamaquoddy-Maliseet Language (Maliseet-Passamaquoddy Language)"
2536:
a main clause plus an embedded clause in the changed conjunct mode;
1324:
1148:
258:
224:
Maliseet-Passamaquoddy is classified as Severely Endangered by the
2912:
1344:
254:
723:'s/he is poor' (where the apostrophe indicates that the initial
3542:
3021:
2897:
OLAC resources in and about the Maliseet-Passamaquoddy language
2563:. This dictionary, which was started in the 1970s by linguist
1385:
Additionally, nouns can also be inflected for the absentative,
225:
86:
39:
346:
302:
1319:. Like other Algonquian languages, Maliseet-Passamaquoddy is
391:
57:
4249:
Indigenous languages of the North American eastern woodlands
2471:
2435:
2405:
2375:
2345:
2334:
2325:
2316:
2307:
2298:
2285:
2279:
2227:
2221:
2207:
2201:
2187:
2181:
2175:
1982:
1896:
1879:
1815:
1789:
1780:
1762:
1753:
1743:
1733:
1715:
1706:
1674:
1653:
1633:
1624:
1618:
1608:
1600:
1592:
1574:
1566:
1553:
1545:
1532:
1522:
1514:
1508:
1424:
1418:
1227:
1219:
1211:
1203:
1195:
1187:
1166:
1160:
1123:
1113:
1107:
996:
986:
728:
718:
712:
27:
1962:
The possible modes and how they are used in sentences are:
679:
Additionally, the standard orthography uses an apostrophe (
328:
322:
406:
in New Brunswick; and Passamaquoddy, spoken mostly in the
340:
257:
characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
316:
296:
290:
1969:: used in main clauses of statement and yes–no questions
1777:: verbal meanings, denoting actions, emotions or states
1245:
cluster but remain short before other consonant clusters
2861:
2785:
2266:
Another case for which the hierarchy is relevant is in
985:
equivalent of the same sound. For example, in the word
737:
remains pronounced because it occurs after the pronoun
271:
Plaque in French, English, and Maliseet at Fort La Tour
1613:'that, far from the speaker and listener but in sight'
761:, which are spelled as a combination of a vowel and a
355:
337:
334:
319:
310:
299:
210:
Distribution of Wolastoqey and Passamaquoddy peoples.
2005:: used for indirect commands (third person subjects)
1981:: used in "if" clauses and sentences beginning with
1343:: Like other Algonquian languages, nouns are either
1303:
in ways that serve to distinguish the two dialects.
343:
313:
305:
293:
2677:
331:
325:
287:
284:
1274:The most basic and common syllable structures are
1262:Distributional restrictions and syllable structure
4225:
4259:Endangered indigenous languages of the Americas
2874:. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Cooperative Society).
2737:(Ph.D.). Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
1298:In addition to stress rules, some rules assign
390:peoples along both sides of the border between
2714:Accent and Syllable Structure in Passamaquoddy
1293:Accent and Syllable Structure in Passamaquoddy
1134:Accent and Syllable Structure in Passamaquoddy
3579:
2928:
2284:'we (inclusive)' includes within its meaning
1151:form in the Changed Conjunct mode, where the
2546:
1820:(basket-do.AI-3.sg) 'he/she makes baskets'.
418:
1423:'dog' must appear in a possessed form, but
1122:drops out because it is unstressed. But in
3586:
3572:
2935:
2921:
2780:
2778:
2174:Second person and first plural inclusive (
1285:
216:
204:
2707:
2705:
2642:
2640:
2638:
2636:
2634:
1409:Locative, absentative, or vocative ending
956:
885:of the vowel due to the influence of the
2877:
2786:"Passamaquoddy-Maliseet Language Portal"
1856:final root vowels, inflectional endings
1845:final root vowels, inflectional endings
266:
229:Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
3593:
2775:
2580:, a Canadian classical singer from the
1892:direct, inverse; reflexive, reciprocal
1878:inflectional endings; theme markers in
1623:'who? (referring to animate noun)' and
1102:is very common. This often occurs when
687:. It occurs only word-initially before
251:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
4226:
2755:Passamaquoddy-Maliseet Language Portal
2702:
2631:
1327:into one-word unit. It is also fairly
1112:'if s/he is poor' (from the verb stem
1005:is unvoiced because it is adjacent to
727:has been dropped) as well as the word
3567:
2916:
2724:. 1993. New York: Garland Publishing.
2658:
2656:
2513:
2510:means a combination is not allowed.)
1864:first, second, third, third obviate
1367:, and inanimate plural nouns end in
423:The Maliseet-Passamaquoddy standard
2942:
2200:First person, not including 'you' (
2153:
13:
2908:Pronouncing Passamaquoddy-Maliseet
2653:
2606:
1451:There are five types of pronouns:
1429:'dog' is usually never possessed.
1315:; every type except particles are
14:
4285:
4244:First Nations languages in Canada
2862:Passamaquoddy-Maliseet Dictionary
2849:
2650:. 1996. Newcastle: Lincom Europa.
2561:Passamaquoddy-Maliseet Dictionary
1742:'he/she breaks his/her own arm' (
2623:
280:
2856:Passamaquoddy-Maliseet Language
2828:
2817:from the original on 2024-05-26
2792:from the original on 2014-03-28
2764:from the original on 2022-03-22
2691:from the original on 2010-07-27
2663:Maliseet-Passamaquoddy language
2061:Negative and positive particles
1914:separate endings in most forms
1617:The interrogative pronouns are
1241:vowels are lengthened before a
4254:Languages of the United States
2803:
2740:
2727:
2522:There is no word for the verb
2255:The direct form is considered
1412:Number/gender/obviation ending
1392:Nouns can also be marked with
1347:. All abstract nouns (such as
1:
4274:Severely endangered languages
2868:Chamberlin, Montague (1899).
2599:
1306:
1159:. For example, the verb stem
995:is voiced: . But in the word
438:
4234:Eastern Algonquian languages
4068:Labrador Inuit Pidgin French
2733:Bruening, Benjamin. (2001).
2041:
1788:'I have had enough to eat' (
1174:With verb stems that end in
965:Several consonants have two
893:may also be pronounced as .
7:
4190:Plains Indian Sign Language
3549:language •
3138:Quiripi–Naugatuck–Unquachog
3117:Massachusett Pidgin English
2572:University of New Brunswick
1950:, absentative, dubitative,
1895:prefixes; theme markers in
1446:
10:
4290:
4239:Endangered Algic languages
4041:Pidgins, creoles and mixed
2587:Wolastoqiyik Lintuwakonawa
1999:: used for direct commands
1655:nkisi puna ntahtuwossomut
1178:, the vowel preceding the
4205:
4167:
4081:
4040:
4000:
3972:
3934:
3871:
3823:
3790:
3702:
3629:
3622:
3601:
3536:
3511:
3486:
3463:
3414:
3392:
3312:
3299:
3269:
3218:
3191:
3147:
3089:
3080:
3050:
3007:
2998:
2959:
2950:
2547:Status and revitalization
2079:
2009:The possible tenses are:
1853:transitive, intransitive
1605:'that, near the listener'
1507:
1504:
1248:vowels are lengthened in
1208:'when you killed him/her'
744:
419:Phonology and orthography
237:
215:
203:
191:
175:
159:
154:
138:
99:
79:
63:
49:
35:
26:
21:
4048:Algonquian–Basque pidgin
3423:Algonquian–Basque pidgin
3364:North of Superior Ojibwa
2687:. Native-languages.org.
2533:the use of conjunctions;
1761:'he/she has big hands' (
1714:'he/she has wet shoes' (
1691:
1334:
1016:Consonant (Orthography)
3271:Mesquakie–Sauk–Kickapoo
3000:Cree–Montagnais–Naskapi
2673:(subscription required)
2472:
2436:
2406:
2376:
2346:
2335:
2326:
2317:
2308:
2299:
2286:
2280:
2228:
2222:
2208:
2202:
2188:
2182:
2176:
2160:direct–inverse language
2115:inanimate-intransitive
1983:
1937:stem shape, inflection
1897:
1880:
1816:
1790:
1781:
1763:
1754:
1744:
1734:
1716:
1707:
1675:
1654:
1634:
1625:
1619:
1609:
1601:
1593:
1575:
1567:
1554:
1546:
1533:
1523:
1515:
1509:
1480:inclusive and exclusive
1425:
1419:
1323:, often combining many
1286:Stress and pitch accent
1228:
1220:
1212:
1204:
1196:
1188:
1171:('when he/she smoked').
1167:
1161:
1124:
1114:
1108:
997:
987:
733:'I am poor' (where the
729:
719:
713:
404:Saint John River Valley
382:language spoken by the
28:
4213:Canadian dictionaries
4196:Maritime Sign Language
4175:American Sign Language
3664:Malecite-Passamaquoddy
3245:Maliseet–Passamaquoddy
2903:Passamaquoddy-Maliseet
2648:Passamaquoddy-Maliseet
2613:Maliseet-Passamaquoddy
2263:distinction on verbs.
1967:Independent indicative
957:Phonological processes
757:. There are also five
429:Passamaquoddy-Maliseet
408:St. Croix River Valley
276:Maliseet-Passamaquoddy
272:
239:This article contains
198:Maliseet-Passamaquoddy
126:Maliseet-Passamaquoddy
22:Maliseet-Passamaquoddy
4209:Canadian style guides
2136:transitive-inanimate
2107:animate-intransitive
1956:inflectional endings
1662:'I put my cup on the
1537:'we, us (inclusive)'
1527:'we, us (exclusive)'
1478:, and there are both
376:skicinuwi-latuwewakon
270:
4180:Quebec Sign Language
3623:Indigenous languages
3090:Southern New England
2582:Tobique First Nation
2026:Dubitative preterite
1345:animate or inanimate
1019:Voiceless allophone
4149:Pennsylvania German
3595:Languages of Canada
3369:Northwestern Ojibwa
3332:Border Lakes Ojibwa
3327:Berens River Ojibwa
3232:Carolina Algonquian
3110:Massachusett Pidgin
2871:Maliseet Vocabulary
2858:at Native Languages
2711:LeSourd, Philip S.
2646:Leavitt, Robert M.
2167:
2128:transitive-animate
2086:ergative–absolutive
2084:The verb system is
2003:Conjunct imperative
1842:animate, inanimate
1491:
898:
877:, it is written as
770:
378:) is an endangered
89: (2016 census)
16:Algonquian language
4185:Inuk Sign Language
4144:Newfoundland Irish
4109:Tagalog (Filipino)
4082:Minority languages
3954:Heiltsuk-Oowekyala
3712:Babine-Witsuwitʼen
3602:Official languages
3082:Eastern Algonquian
2842:, October 6, 2023.
2720:2014-02-22 at the
2514:Building sentences
2165:
2075:Emphatic particles
1979:Unchanged conjunct
1571:'he/she, him/her'
1490:Personal Pronouns
1489:
1467:, and a hesitator/
1165:('smoke') becomes
1143:(or an underlying
991:'he/she arrives',
896:
768:
717:produces the word
372:skicinuwatuwewakon
273:
121:Eastern Algonquian
29:skicinuwatuwewakon
4221:
4220:
4139:Doukhobor Russian
4036:
4035:
3561:
3560:
3555:extinct languages
3459:
3458:
3410:
3409:
3338:Broken Oghibbeway
3265:
3264:
3076:
3075:
2884:Cultural Survival
2671:(18th ed., 2015)
2621:(19th ed., 2016)
2565:Philip S. LeSourd
2500:
2499:
2252:
2251:
2166:Person hierarchy
2145:
2144:
1960:
1959:
1931:, subordinative,
1875:singular, plural
1583:
1582:
1550:'you (singular)'
1406:Diminutive suffix
1224:'he/she kills me'
1092:
1091:
1022:Voiced allophone
954:
953:
867:
866:
677:
676:
265:
264:
247:rendering support
243:phonetic symbols.
4281:
4134:Hutterite German
3627:
3626:
3588:
3581:
3574:
3565:
3564:
3527:Proto-Algonquian
3359:Nipissing Ojibwa
3310:
3309:
3087:
3086:
3005:
3004:
2957:
2956:
2937:
2930:
2923:
2914:
2913:
2901:ELAR archive of
2893:
2891:
2890:
2843:
2832:
2826:
2825:
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2800:
2798:
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2770:
2769:
2763:
2752:
2744:
2738:
2731:
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2699:
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2644:
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2411:
2381:
2351:
2340:
2331:
2322:
2313:
2304:
2293:
2292:
2289:
2283:
2248:Inanimate nouns
2231:
2225:
2211:
2205:
2191:
2185:
2179:
2168:
2164:
2154:Person hierarchy
2091:
2090:
2051:Cardinal numbers
1986:
1973:Changed conjunct
1900:
1883:
1826:
1825:
1819:
1795:
1787:
1768:
1760:
1749:
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1713:
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1526:
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1512:
1492:
1488:
1428:
1422:
1231:
1223:
1215:
1207:
1200:'I kill him/her'
1199:
1191:
1170:
1164:
1127:
1117:
1111:
1013:
1012:
1001:'far away', the
1000:
990:
899:
895:
892:
861:
853:
836:
828:
813:
803:
771:
767:
732:
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682:
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645:
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583:
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231:
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187:
171:
164:
144:
105:
31:
19:
18:
4289:
4288:
4284:
4283:
4282:
4280:
4279:
4278:
4224:
4223:
4222:
4217:
4201:
4163:
4129:Canadian Gaelic
4077:
4032:
4028:Coast Tsimshian
3996:
3968:
3930:
3867:
3819:
3786:
3698:
3618:
3597:
3592:
3562:
3557:
3532:
3512:Proto-languages
3507:
3482:
3455:
3406:
3388:
3295:
3261:
3214:
3187:
3166:Pidgin Delaware
3143:
3072:
3046:
2994:
2946:
2944:Algic languages
2941:
2888:
2886:
2852:
2847:
2846:
2833:
2829:
2820:
2818:
2809:
2808:
2804:
2795:
2793:
2784:
2783:
2776:
2767:
2765:
2761:
2750:
2746:
2745:
2741:
2732:
2728:
2722:Wayback Machine
2710:
2703:
2694:
2692:
2683:
2682:
2678:
2672:
2661:
2654:
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2632:
2622:
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2549:
2516:
2156:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2082:
2055:ordinal numbers
2044:
1814:into the verb:
1694:
1676:nkisewestuwama
1597:'this, near me'
1558:'you (plural)'
1449:
1403:Feminine suffix
1337:
1309:
1288:
1264:
981:, they use the
959:
881:to reflect the
873:appears before
747:
680:
470:
441:
435:pronunciation:
421:
364:
360:
356:
309:
283:
279:
245:Without proper
233:
232:
223:
211:
183:
167:
160:
145:
140:
134:
106:
103:Language family
101:
90:
82:
81:Native speakers
17:
12:
11:
5:
4287:
4277:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4256:
4251:
4246:
4241:
4236:
4219:
4218:
4206:
4203:
4202:
4200:
4199:
4192:
4187:
4182:
4177:
4171:
4169:
4168:Sign languages
4165:
4164:
4162:
4161:
4156:
4151:
4146:
4141:
4136:
4131:
4126:
4121:
4116:
4111:
4106:
4101:
4096:
4091:
4085:
4083:
4079:
4078:
4076:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4063:Chinook Jargon
4060:
4055:
4050:
4044:
4042:
4038:
4037:
4034:
4033:
4031:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
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4004:
4002:
3998:
3997:
3995:
3994:
3989:
3984:
3978:
3976:
3970:
3969:
3967:
3966:
3964:Nuu-chah-nulth
3961:
3956:
3951:
3946:
3940:
3938:
3932:
3931:
3929:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3913:
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3898:
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3779:
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3734:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3708:
3706:
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3699:
3697:
3696:
3691:
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3559:
3558:
3537:
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3515:
3513:
3509:
3508:
3506:
3505:
3498:
3490:
3488:
3484:
3483:
3481:
3480:
3475:
3467:
3465:
3461:
3460:
3457:
3456:
3454:
3453:
3448:
3445:Miami–Illinois
3441:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3418:
3416:
3412:
3411:
3408:
3407:
3405:
3404:
3398:
3396:
3390:
3389:
3387:
3386:
3384:Western Ojibwa
3381:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3354:Eastern Ojibwa
3351:
3346:
3344:Central Ojibwa
3341:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3318:
3316:
3307:
3297:
3296:
3294:
3293:
3288:
3287:
3286:
3279:Mesquakie–Sauk
3275:
3273:
3267:
3266:
3263:
3262:
3260:
3259:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3235:
3228:
3222:
3220:
3216:
3215:
3213:
3212:
3205:
3197:
3195:
3189:
3188:
3186:
3185:
3178:
3177:
3176:
3169:
3162:
3151:
3149:
3145:
3144:
3142:
3141:
3134:
3127:
3124:Mohegan–Pequot
3120:
3113:
3106:
3101:
3093:
3091:
3084:
3078:
3077:
3074:
3073:
3071:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3054:
3052:
3048:
3047:
3045:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3013:
3011:
3002:
2996:
2995:
2993:
2992:
2985:
2980:
2979:
2978:
2965:
2963:
2954:
2948:
2947:
2940:
2939:
2932:
2925:
2917:
2911:
2910:
2905:
2899:
2894:
2878:Meg Holladay.
2875:
2866:
2859:
2851:
2850:External links
2848:
2845:
2844:
2827:
2802:
2774:
2739:
2726:
2701:
2676:
2652:
2630:
2604:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2578:Jeremy Dutcher
2548:
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2332:
2323:
2314:
2305:
2296:
2261:active–passive
2250:
2249:
2246:
2242:
2241:
2240:Obviate forms
2238:
2234:
2233:
2220:Third person (
2218:
2214:
2213:
2198:
2194:
2193:
2172:
2155:
2152:
2143:
2142:
2134:
2126:
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2017:
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1935:
1922:
1916:
1915:
1912:
1911:positive, neg
1909:
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1832:
1831:Possibilities
1829:
1800:
1799:
1798:
1797:
1772:
1771:
1770:
1751:
1725:
1724:
1723:
1693:
1690:
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1688:
1668:
1667:
1659:... tuwihputik
1615:
1614:
1606:
1598:
1581:
1580:
1572:
1564:
1560:
1559:
1551:
1543:
1542:Second person
1539:
1538:
1529:
1528:
1520:
1506:
1502:
1501:
1498:
1495:
1476:gender-neutral
1448:
1445:
1414:
1413:
1410:
1407:
1404:
1401:
1336:
1333:
1308:
1305:
1287:
1284:
1263:
1260:
1259:
1258:
1257:
1256:
1253:
1246:
1235:
1234:
1233:
1232:'they kill me'
1225:
1217:
1209:
1201:
1172:
1155:changes to an
1137:
1098:of unstressed
1090:
1089:
1087:
1085:
1079:
1078:
1076:
1074:
1068:
1067:
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1063:
1057:
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1017:
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1010:
958:
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940:
934:
933:
931:
925:
924:
922:
916:
915:
913:
907:
906:
905:Pronunciation
903:
865:
864:
862:
854:
846:
840:
839:
837:
829:
821:
815:
814:
806:
804:
796:
790:
789:
784:
779:
774:
749:There are six
746:
743:
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672:
660:
658:
646:
634:
632:
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625:
613:
611:
609:
607:
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586:
584:
572:
560:
548:
536:
524:
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517:
515:
513:
511:
509:
497:
485:
479:
478:
473:
466:
461:
456:
451:
446:
440:
437:
420:
417:
263:
262:
249:, you may see
235:
234:
222:
221:
213:
212:
209:
201:
200:
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188:
181:
173:
172:
165:
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155:Language codes
152:
151:
146:
142:Writing system
139:
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133:
132:
131:
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129:
128:
109:
107:
100:
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96:
83:
80:
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65:
61:
60:
51:
47:
46:
37:
36:Native to
33:
32:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4286:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4269:Passamaquoddy
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4231:
4229:
4216:
4214:
4210:
4204:
4198:
4197:
4193:
4191:
4188:
4186:
4183:
4181:
4178:
4176:
4173:
4172:
4170:
4166:
4160:
4157:
4155:
4152:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4140:
4137:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4092:
4090:
4087:
4086:
4084:
4080:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4053:Broken Slavey
4051:
4049:
4046:
4045:
4043:
4039:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4005:
4003:
3999:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3980:
3979:
3977:
3975:
3971:
3965:
3962:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3947:
3945:
3942:
3941:
3939:
3937:
3933:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3879:
3878:
3876:
3874:
3870:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3830:
3828:
3826:
3822:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3798:
3797:
3795:
3793:
3789:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3709:
3707:
3705:
3701:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3680:
3677:
3675:
3672:
3670:
3667:
3665:
3662:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3636:
3634:
3632:
3628:
3625:
3621:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3606:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3589:
3584:
3582:
3577:
3575:
3570:
3569:
3566:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3535:
3529:
3528:
3524:
3522:
3521:
3517:
3516:
3514:
3510:
3504:
3503:
3499:
3497:
3496:
3492:
3491:
3489:
3485:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3473:
3469:
3468:
3466:
3462:
3452:
3449:
3447:
3446:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3424:
3420:
3419:
3417:
3413:
3403:
3400:
3399:
3397:
3395:
3391:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3339:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3319:
3317:
3315:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3292:
3289:
3285:
3282:
3281:
3280:
3277:
3276:
3274:
3272:
3268:
3258:
3257:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3240:
3236:
3234:
3233:
3229:
3227:
3224:
3223:
3221:
3217:
3211:
3210:
3206:
3204:
3203:
3199:
3198:
3196:
3194:
3190:
3184:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3174:
3170:
3168:
3167:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3157:
3156:
3153:
3152:
3150:
3146:
3140:
3139:
3135:
3133:
3132:
3128:
3126:
3125:
3121:
3119:
3118:
3114:
3112:
3111:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3099:
3095:
3094:
3092:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3079:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3055:
3053:
3049:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3014:
3012:
3010:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2997:
2991:
2990:
2989:Nawathinehena
2986:
2984:
2981:
2977:
2976:
2972:
2971:
2970:
2967:
2966:
2964:
2962:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2938:
2933:
2931:
2926:
2924:
2919:
2918:
2915:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2900:
2898:
2895:
2885:
2881:
2876:
2873:
2872:
2867:
2863:
2860:
2857:
2854:
2853:
2841:
2837:
2831:
2816:
2812:
2806:
2791:
2787:
2781:
2779:
2760:
2756:
2749:
2748:"Noun Charts"
2743:
2736:
2730:
2723:
2719:
2716:
2715:
2708:
2706:
2690:
2686:
2680:
2670:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2657:
2649:
2643:
2641:
2639:
2637:
2635:
2626:
2620:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2605:
2597:
2595:
2594:
2593:Motewolonuwok
2589:
2588:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2573:
2568:
2566:
2562:
2557:
2553:
2541:
2538:
2535:
2532:
2531:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2520:
2511:
2509:
2505:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2475:
2470:
2469:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2440:
2439:
2434:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2410:
2409:
2404:
2403:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2379:
2374:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2350:
2349:
2344:
2343:
2339:
2338:
2333:
2330:
2329:
2324:
2321:
2320:
2315:
2312:
2311:
2306:
2303:
2302:
2297:
2295:
2294:
2291:
2288:
2282:
2276:
2273:
2269:
2264:
2262:
2258:
2247:
2244:
2243:
2239:
2236:
2235:
2230:
2224:
2219:
2216:
2215:
2210:
2204:
2199:
2196:
2195:
2190:
2184:
2178:
2173:
2170:
2169:
2163:
2161:
2151:
2148:
2140:
2135:
2132:
2127:
2124:
2123:
2119:
2114:
2111:
2106:
2104:Intransitive
2103:
2102:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2066:Interjections
2064:
2062:
2059:
2056:
2052:
2049:
2048:
2047:
2039:
2033:
2030:
2027:
2024:
2021:
2018:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2010:
2004:
2001:
1998:
1995:
1992:
1991:Subordinative
1989:
1985:
1980:
1977:
1974:
1971:
1968:
1965:
1964:
1963:
1955:
1953:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1940:
1936:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1917:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1891:
1888:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1874:
1871:
1870:
1866:
1863:
1860:
1859:
1855:
1852:
1850:Transitivity
1849:
1848:
1844:
1841:
1838:
1837:
1834:Expressed by
1833:
1830:
1828:
1827:
1824:
1821:
1818:
1817:posonut•ehk•e
1813:
1809:
1805:
1794:
1793:
1786:
1785:
1779:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1767:
1766:
1759:
1758:
1752:
1748:
1747:
1740:
1738:
1732:
1731:
1729:
1726:
1720:
1719:
1712:
1710:
1705:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1698:
1697:
1686:
1681:
1679:
1673:
1672:
1671:
1665:
1660:
1658:
1652:
1651:
1650:
1648:
1644:
1639:
1636:
1630:
1627:
1621:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1590:
1589:
1586:
1579:'they, them'
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1563:Third person
1562:
1561:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1541:
1540:
1535:
1531:
1530:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1511:
1505:First person
1503:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1493:
1487:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1472:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1461:interrogative
1458:
1457:demonstrative
1454:
1444:
1443:(inanimate).
1442:
1439:(animate) or
1438:
1433:
1430:
1427:
1421:
1411:
1408:
1405:
1402:
1399:
1398:
1397:
1395:
1390:
1388:
1383:
1381:
1377:
1372:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1332:
1330:
1329:agglutinative
1326:
1322:
1321:polysynthetic
1318:
1314:
1304:
1301:
1296:
1294:
1283:
1281:
1277:
1272:
1270:
1254:
1251:
1247:
1244:
1240:
1239:
1236:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1216:'you kill me'
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1193:
1190:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1163:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1135:
1131:
1126:
1121:
1118:), the first
1116:
1110:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1094:
1093:
1088:
1086:
1084:
1081:
1080:
1077:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1069:
1066:
1064:
1062:
1059:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1051:
1048:
1047:
1044:
1042:
1040:
1037:
1036:
1033:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1025:
1021:
1018:
1015:
1014:
1008:
1004:
999:
994:
989:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
963:
962:
950:
948:
945:
944:
941:
939:
936:
935:
932:
930:
927:
926:
923:
921:
918:
917:
914:
912:
909:
908:
904:
901:
900:
894:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
863:
858:
855:
850:
847:
845:
842:
841:
838:
833:
830:
825:
822:
820:
817:
816:
810:
807:
805:
800:
797:
795:
792:
791:
788:
785:
783:
780:
778:
775:
773:
772:
769:Monophthongs
766:
764:
760:
756:
752:
742:
740:
736:
731:
726:
721:
715:
710:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
685:sound changes
673:
669:
664:
661:
659:
655:
650:
647:
643:
638:
635:
633:
631:
628:
627:
622:
617:
614:
612:
610:
608:
604:
599:
596:
594:
592:
589:
588:
585:
581:
576:
573:
569:
564:
561:
557:
552:
549:
545:
540:
537:
533:
528:
525:
523:
520:
519:
516:
514:
512:
510:
506:
501:
498:
494:
489:
486:
484:
481:
480:
477:
474:
472:
467:
465:
462:
460:
457:
455:
452:
450:
447:
445:
444:
436:
434:
430:
426:
416:
413:
409:
405:
401:
400:New Brunswick
397:
396:United States
393:
389:
388:Passamaquoddy
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
368:
351:
277:
269:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
242:
236:
230:
227:
219:
214:
207:
202:
199:
196:
194:
190:
186:
182:
180:
179:
174:
170:
166:
163:
158:
153:
150:
147:
143:
137:
127:
124:
123:
122:
119:
118:
117:
114:
113:
112:
108:
104:
98:
94:
93:United States
88:
84:
78:
74:
73:Passamaquoddy
70:
66:
62:
59:
55:
54:New Brunswick
52:
48:
45:
44:United States
41:
38:
34:
30:
25:
20:
4264:Wolastoqiyik
4207:
4194:
4154:Plautdietsch
3815:Inuvialuktun
3550:
3525:
3518:
3500:
3493:
3470:
3443:
3421:
3336:
3254:
3244:
3237:
3230:
3207:
3200:
3192:
3180:
3171:
3164:
3136:
3131:Narragansett
3129:
3122:
3115:
3108:
3104:Massachusett
3096:
2987:
2973:
2887:. Retrieved
2883:
2869:
2834:Melody Lau,
2830:
2819:. Retrieved
2805:
2794:. Retrieved
2766:. Retrieved
2754:
2742:
2734:
2729:
2713:
2693:. Retrieved
2679:
2666:
2647:
2616:
2608:
2591:
2585:
2576:
2569:
2560:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2528:
2523:
2521:
2517:
2507:
2503:
2501:
2494:
2489:
2482:
2473:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2437:
2426:
2421:
2414:
2407:
2398:
2393:
2386:
2377:
2366:
2361:
2354:
2347:
2336:
2327:
2318:
2309:
2300:
2277:
2265:
2253:
2157:
2149:
2146:
2138:
2130:
2117:
2109:
2083:
2071:Conjunctions
2045:
2037:
2031:
2025:
2019:
2013:
2008:
2002:
1996:
1990:
1978:
1972:
1966:
1961:
1867:inflections
1822:
1812:incorporated
1808:intransitive
1801:
1791:
1783:
1774:
1769:'hand, arm')
1764:
1756:
1750:'hand, arm')
1745:
1736:
1727:
1717:
1708:
1700:
1695:
1684:
1683:'I spoke to
1677:
1669:
1663:
1656:
1646:
1642:
1640:
1631:
1616:
1587:
1584:
1473:
1464:
1450:
1440:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1415:
1391:
1384:
1373:
1368:
1364:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1341:noun classes
1338:
1310:
1297:
1292:
1289:
1279:
1275:
1273:
1268:
1265:
1242:
1229:nehpuh·uku·k
1183:
1179:
1175:
1156:
1152:
1144:
1140:
1133:
1129:
1119:
1103:
1099:
1082:
1071:
1060:
1049:
1038:
1027:
1006:
1002:
992:
978:
960:
946:
937:
928:
919:
910:
886:
878:
874:
870:
868:
856:
848:
831:
823:
808:
798:
754:
751:monophthongs
748:
738:
734:
724:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
688:
678:
662:
648:
636:
615:
597:
574:
562:
550:
538:
526:
499:
487:
428:
422:
412:World War II
375:
371:
275:
274:
238:
176:
125:
69:Wolastoqiyik
3992:Assiniboine
3881:Bella Coola
3800:Inuinnaqtun
3520:Proto-Algic
3193:Nanticockan
3037:Swampy Cree
3032:Plains Cree
2983:Gros Ventre
2590:(2018) and
2125:Transitive
2032:Absentative
1666:... table.'
1463:, the word
1139:Verbs with
1115:-kotomakey-
897:Diphthongs
630:Approximant
425:orthography
253:instead of
91:100 in the
4228:Categories
3891:Halkomelem
3704:Athabaskan
3694:Potawatomi
3631:Algonquian
3402:Potawatomi
3394:Potawatomi
3305:Potawatomi
3209:Piscataway
3063:Innu-aimun
3042:Woods Cree
3027:Moose Cree
2975:Besawunena
2952:Algonquian
2889:2012-08-07
2821:2013-04-11
2796:2013-04-11
2768:2022-12-31
2695:2013-01-29
2668:Ethnologue
2618:Ethnologue
2600:References
2272:reciprocal
2099:Inanimate
2057:are nouns)
1997:Imperative
1933:imperative
1925:indicative
1889:Hierarchy
1804:transitive
1687:... Mary.'
1394:diminutive
1307:Morphology
1125:nkotomakey
967:allophones
759:diphthongs
730:nkótomakey
439:Consonants
384:Wolastoqey
380:Algonquian
116:Algonquian
4159:Ukrainian
4094:Cantonese
3959:Kwakʼwala
3858:Tuscarora
3825:Iroquoian
3805:Inuktitut
3777:Tsuutʼina
3727:Chipewyan
3722:Chilcotin
3649:Blackfoot
3644:Algonquin
3553:indicate
3495:Nansemond
3487:Uncertain
3439:Menominee
3429:Blackfoot
3322:Algonquin
3202:Nanticoke
3148:Delawaran
3058:Atikamekw
3017:East Cree
2961:Arapahoan
2840:CBC Music
2268:reflexive
2042:Particles
2020:Preterite
1987:'if only'
1952:preterite
1632:The word
1547:kìl, kilá
1497:Singular
1471:pronoun.
1400:Noun stem
1380:conjoined
1376:obviative
1361:arguments
1353:happiness
1325:morphemes
1317:inflected
1313:particles
1221:nehpoh·oq
1213:knehpih·i
1205:nehpeh·eq
1109:ktomakeyu
975:voiceless
971:alternate
902:Spelling
720:'tomakéyu
714:ktomakéyu
591:Fricative
359:-ih-seet
178:Glottolog
162:ISO 639-3
64:Ethnicity
4089:Mandarin
3944:Ditidaht
3936:Wakashan
3926:Thompson
3921:Squamish
3911:shíshálh
3901:Okanagan
3896:Lillooet
3873:Salishan
3848:Onondaga
3782:Tutchone
3737:Gwichʼin
3502:Pamunkey
3434:Cheyenne
3374:Oji-Cree
3349:Chippewa
3291:Kickapoo
3256:Powhatan
3239:Etchemin
3155:Delaware
2815:Archived
2790:Archived
2759:Archived
2718:Archived
2689:Archived
2596:(2023).
2257:unmarked
2096:Animate
1929:conjunct
1680:... Mali
1519:'I, me'
1484:emphatic
1453:personal
1447:Pronouns
1420:'temisol
1387:locative
1357:the past
1197:nehpah·a
1192:'kill':
1189:-nehp_h-
969:, which
883:rounding
454:Alveolar
449:Bilabial
259:Help:IPA
185:male1292
4124:Italian
4104:Spanish
4099:Punjabi
4023:Tlingit
4018:Kutenai
4008:Beothuk
3916:Shuswap
3906:Saanich
3863:Wyandot
3810:Inupiaq
3772:Tahltan
3717:Carrier
3679:Naskapi
3669:Miꞌkmaq
3639:Abenaki
3609:English
3551:Italics
3451:Shawnee
3250:Mi'kmaq
3226:Abenaki
3182:Mahican
3068:Naskapi
2969:Arapaho
2865:charts)
2474:kiluwaw
2337:kiluwaw
2229:nekomaw
2183:kiluwaw
2014:Present
1948:present
1872:Number
1861:Person
1839:Gender
1792:-hp(i)-
1765:-ptine-
1746:-ptine-
1701:Initial
1610:yat-yet
1602:not-nit
1594:wot-yut
1576:nekomàw
1555:kiluwìw
1500:Plural
1486:forms:
1426:olomuss
1168:wetomat
1162:-wotom-
1136:(1993).
1096:Syncope
782:Central
522:Plosive
476:Glottal
459:Palatal
394:in the
255:Unicode
85:355 in
4119:German
4114:Arabic
4073:Michif
4058:Bungee
3982:Stoney
3974:Siouan
3949:Haisla
3853:Seneca
3843:Oneida
3838:Mohawk
3833:Cayuga
3767:Tagish
3762:Slavey
3757:Sekani
3752:Nicola
3732:Dogrib
3689:Ottawa
3684:Ojibwe
3674:Munsee
3614:French
3543:Pidgin
3539:Creole
3464:Others
3415:Others
3379:Ottawa
3314:Ojibwa
3301:Ojibwa
3219:Others
3160:Munsee
3051:Others
3022:Michif
2080:Syntax
1907:Aspect
1901:verbs
1884:verbs
1796:'eat')
1728:Medial
1722:'wet')
1711:kosone
1469:filler
1349:prayer
1149:ablaut
988:peciye
983:voiced
745:Vowels
471:-velar
363:-ə-mə-
226:UNESCO
95:(2007)
87:Canada
75:(2010)
67:5,500
50:Region
40:Canada
4013:Haida
4001:other
3987:Sioux
3886:Comox
3792:Inuit
3747:Kaska
3547:Mixed
3478:Yurok
3472:Wiyot
3173:Unami
2762:(PDF)
2751:(PDF)
2524:to be
2438:kilun
2408:nilun
2328:kilun
2319:nilun
2281:kilun
2223:nekom
2209:nilun
2189:kilun
1984:nopal
1943:Tense
1782:nmemi
1775:Final
1757:ptine
1737:ptine
1692:Verbs
1647:er...
1643:uh...
1635:kotok
1568:nékom
1534:kilùn
1524:nilùn
1465:other
1335:Nouns
1300:pitch
998:pihce
869:When
777:Front
763:glide
707:, or
681:'
483:Nasal
469:Labio
464:Velar
392:Maine
149:Latin
111:Algic
58:Maine
3659:Innu
3654:Cree
3284:Sauk
3098:Loup
3009:Cree
2270:and
1920:Mode
1755:kini
1735:tomi
1718:pus-
1678:iyey
1670:to:
1657:ihik
1516:nilá
1278:and
1250:open
794:High
787:Back
398:and
386:and
365:KWOD
71:and
3742:Hän
2665:at
2615:at
2378:kil
2348:nil
2310:kil
2301:nil
2287:nil
2203:nil
2177:kil
1806:or
1739:ssu
1709:pus
1645:or
1626:keq
1620:wen
1510:nìl
1441:-il
1437:-ik
1280:CVC
1269:CsC
891:/e/
860:/a/
852:/æ/
844:Low
835:/ə/
827:/e/
819:Mid
812:/u/
802:/i/
741:).
433:IPA
374:or
367:-ee
361:PAS
357:MAL
241:IPA
193:ELP
169:pqm
4230::
4211:-
2882:.
2838:.
2813:.
2788:.
2777:^
2757:.
2753:.
2704:^
2655:^
2633:^
2508:--
2490:--
2483:--
2465:--
2455:--
2450:--
2445:--
2427:--
2415:--
2399:--
2394:--
2367:--
2362:--
2245:5
2237:4
2232:)
2226:,
2217:3
2212:)
2197:2
2192:)
2186:,
2180:,
2171:1
2139:TI
2131:TA
2118:II
2110:AI
1927:,
1898:ta
1881:ai
1784:hp
1685:uh
1664:uh
1513:,
1459:,
1455:,
1371:.
1369:-l
1365:-k
1355:,
1351:,
1282:.
1276:CV
1271:.
1243:hC
979:n-
947:ey
938:ay
929:iw
920:ew
911:aw
889:.
849:eh
765::
755:eh
739:n-
703:,
699:,
695:,
691:,
580:kʷ
556:tʃ
370:;
347:iː
303:iː
56:;
42:;
4215:
3587:e
3580:t
3573:v
3545:/
3541:/
3303:–
2936:e
2929:t
2922:v
2892:.
2824:.
2799:.
2771:.
2698:.
2504:R
2502:(
2495:R
2460:R
2422:R
2387:R
2355:R
2206:,
2053:(
1184:h
1180:h
1176:h
1157:e
1153:o
1145:o
1141:o
1130:o
1120:o
1104:o
1100:o
1083:c
1072:s
1061:q
1050:k
1039:t
1028:p
1007:h
1003:c
993:c
887:w
879:u
875:w
871:o
857:a
832:o
824:e
809:u
799:i
735:k
725:k
709:c
705:s
701:q
697:k
693:t
689:p
670:/
668:w
666:/
663:w
656:/
654:j
652:/
649:y
644:/
642:l
640:/
637:l
623:/
621:h
619:/
616:h
605:/
603:s
601:/
598:s
582:/
578:/
575:q
570:/
568:k
566:/
563:k
558:/
554:/
551:c
546:/
544:t
542:/
539:t
534:/
532:p
530:/
527:p
507:/
505:n
503:/
500:n
495:/
493:m
491:/
488:m
350:/
344:d
341:ɒ
338:w
335:k
332:ˈ
329:ə
326:m
323:ə
320:s
317:æ
314:p
311:ˌ
306:t
300:s
297:ɪ
294:l
291:æ
288:m
285:ˈ
282:/
278:(
261:.
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