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3595:. Under Saladin, the Ayyubids embarked on a program of reviving and strengthening Sunni Islam in Egypt to counter Christianity, which had been reviving under the religiously benign rule of the Fatimids, and Isma'ilism, the branch of Islam of the Fatimid state. Under the Bahri sultans, the promotion of Sunni Islam was pursued more vigorously than under the Ayyubids. The Mamluks were motivated by personal piety or political expediency for Islam was both an assimilating and unifying factor between the Mamluks and the majority of their subjects; the early mamluks had been brought up as Sunni Muslims and the Islamic faith was the only aspect of life shared between the Mamluk ruling elite and its subjects. While the precedent set by the Ayyubids highly influenced the Mamluk state's embrace of Sunni Islam, the circumstances in the Muslim Middle East in the aftermath of the Crusader and Mongol invasions also left Mamluk Egypt as the last major Islamic power able to confront the Crusaders and the Mongols. Thus, the early Mamluk embrace of Sunni Islam also stemmed from the pursuit of a moral unity within their realm based on the majority views of its subjects.
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nonetheless a reality at times, especially during the Bahri period, where
Baybars' sons Baraka and Solamish succeeded him, before Qalawun usurped the throne and was thereafter succeeded by four generations of direct descendants, with occasional interruptions. Hereditary rule was much less frequent under the Burji regime. Nonetheless, with rare exception, the Burji sultans were all linked to the regime's founder Barquq through blood or mamluk affiliation. The accession of blood relatives to the sultanate was often the result of the decision or indecision of leading Mamluk emirs or the will of the preceding sultan. The latter situation applied to the sultans Baybars, Qalawun, the latter's son, al-Nasir Muhammad and Barquq, who formally arranged for one or more of their sons to succeed them. More often than not, the sons of sultans were elected by the senior emirs with the intention that they serve as convenient figureheads presiding over an oligarchy of the emirs.
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3081:. Qaitbay's 28-year-long reign, the second longest in Mamluk history after al-Nasir Muhammad, was marked by relative stability and prosperity. Historical sources present a sultan whose character was markedly different from other Mamluk rulers. Notably, he disliked engaging in conspiracy, even though this had been a hallmark of Mamluk politics. He had a reputation for being even-handed and treating his colleagues and subordinates fairly, examplified by his magnanimous treatment of the deposed Timurbugha. These traits seem to have kept internal tensions and conspiracies at bay throughout his reign. While the Mamluk practices of confiscation, extortion, and bribery continued in fiscal matters, under Qaitbay they were practiced in a more systematic way that allowed individuals and institutions to function within a more predictable environment. His engagement with the civil bureaucracy and the
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2595:
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2463:
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major political, economic and military reforms ultimately intended to ensure his continued rule and consolidate the
Qalawuni–Bahri regime. Concurrent with his reign was the disintegration of the Ilkhanate into several smaller dynastic states and the consequent Mamluk effort to establish diplomatic and commercial relationships with the new states. Amid conditions reducing the flow of mamluks from the Mongol territories to the sultanate, al-Nasir Muhammad compensated by adopting new methods of training, and military and financial advancement that introduced a great level of permissiveness. This led to relaxed conditions for new mamluks and encouraged the pursuit of military careers in Egypt by aspiring mamluks outside of the empire.
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there were multiple sources of mostly rain-fed irrigation, and measures and rights were determined at the local level. Centralization in Syria and
Palestine was also more complicated than in Egypt due to the diversity of those regions' geography and their frequent invasions. The state's role in Syro-Palestinian agriculture was restricted to the fiscal administration and to the irrigation networks and other rural infrastructure. Although the degree of centralization was not as high as in Egypt, the Mamluks imposed sufficient control over the Syrian economy to derive significant revenues. The maintenance of the Mamluk army in Syria relied on the state's control over Syrian agricultural revenues.
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2398:
2843:) installed as a puppet sultan; the caliph had the support of the non-Circassian mamluks and legitimacy with the local population. Six months later, Shakyh ousted al-Musta'in after neutralizing his main rival, Nawruz, and assumed the sultanate. Shaykh's main policy was restoring state authority within the empire, which experienced further plagues in 1415–1417 and 1420. Shaykh replenished the treasury through tax collection expeditions akin to raids across the empire to compensate the tax arrears that accumlated under Faraj. Shaykh also commissioned and led military campaigns against the Mamluks' enemies in Anatolia, reasserting the state's influence there.
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2825:. That year, Timur invaded Syria, sacking Aleppo and Damascus. Timur ended his occupation of Syria in 1402 to fight the Ottomans in Anatolia, whom he deemed a more dangerous threat. Faraj held onto power during this turbulent period, which, in addition to Timur's devastating raids, the rise of Turkmen tribes in the Jazira, and attempts by Barquq's emirs to topple Faraj, also saw a famine in Egypt in 1403, a severe plague in 1405 and a Bedouin revolt that practically ended Mamluk control of Upper Egypt between 1401 and 1413. Mamluk authority throughout the sultanate significantly eroded, while the capital Cairo underwent an economic crisis.
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of worship during intercommunal clashes. As a result of popular pressure, Copts had their employment in the bureaucracy terminated at least nine times between the late 13th and mid-15th centuries, and on one occasion, in 1301, the government ordered the closure of all churches. Coptic bureaucrats were often restored to their positions after tensions passed. Many Copts were forced to convert to Islam or at least adopted outward expressions of Muslim faith to protect their employment and avoid the jizya and official measures against them. A large wave of Coptic conversions to Islam occurred in the 14th century, as a result of
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5034:, which were also elaborate, usually consisted of three tiers separated by balconies, with each tier having a different design than the others. Late Mamluk minarets, for example, most typically had an octagonal shaft for the first tier, a round shaft on the second, and a lantern structure with finial on the third level. Domes also transitioned from wooden or brick structures, sometimes of bulbous shape, to pointed stone domes with complex geometric or arabesque motifs carved into their outer surfaces. The peak of this stone dome architecture was achieved under Qaitbay in the late 15th century.
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2614:. The Mamluks concurrently experienced a deterioration of their lucrative position in international trade and the economy declined, further weakening the Bahri regime. Meanwhile, the harshness of Yalbugha's educational methods and his refusal to rescind his disciplinary reforms provoked a mamluk backlash. Yalbugha was killed by his mamluks in an uprising in 1366. The rebels were supported by Sultan al-Ashraf Sha'ban, who Yalbugha had installed in 1363. Sha'ban ruled as the real power in the sultanate until 1377, when he was killed by mamluk dissidents on his way to
4205:(non-mamluk soldiers). The Royal Mamluks, who were under the direct command of the sultan, were the highest-ranking body within the army, entry into which was exclusive. The Royal Mamluks were the private corps of the sultan. The lower-ranking emirs also had their own corps, akin to private armies, which were also mobilized by the sultan when needed. As emirs were promoted, the number of soldiers in their corps increased, and when rival emirs challenged each other's authority, they often utilized their forces, leading to major disruptions of civilian life. The
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to the latter's use of
Armenian and Georgian Christian auxiliaries, the attempted alliance between the Mongols and the Crusader powers, and the massacres of Muslim communities and the sparing of Christians in cities captured by the Mongols, contributed to rising anti-Christian sentiments in the Mamluk era. The manifestations of anti-Christian hostility were mostly spearheaded at the popular level rather than by the Mamluk sultans. The main source of popular hostility was resentment at the privileged positions many Christians held in the Mamluk bureaucracy.
4155:, caliph, who in turn confirmed Baybars as sultan. The caliph recognized the sultan's authority over Egypt, Syria, the Jazira, Diyar Bakr, the Hejaz and Yemen and any territory conquered from the Crusaders or Mongols. Al-Mustansir's Abbasid successors continued in their official capacity as caliphs, but held no real power. The less than year-long reign of Caliph al-Musta'in as sultan in 1412 was an anomaly. In an anecdotal testament to the caliph's lack of real authority, a group of rebellious mamluks responded to Lajin's presentation of the Caliph
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and scholarly elite. Another contributing factor was the wave of Arab tribal migration to Egypt and subsequent intermarriage between Arabs and the indigenous population. The
Mamluks contributed to the expansion of Arabic in Egypt through their victory over the Mongols and the Crusaders and the subsequent creation of a Muslim haven in Egypt and Syria for Arabic-speaking immigrants from other conquered Muslim lands. The continuing invasions of Syria by Mongol armies led to further waves of Syrian immigrants, including scholars and artisans, to Egypt.
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over time had also resulted in large numbers of soldiers feeling alienated and repeatedly threatening to revolt unless given extra payments, which drained the state's finances. To address the shortfalls, al-Ghuri resorted to heavy-handed and far-reaching taxation and extortion to refill the treasury, which elicited protests that were sometimes violent. He used the raised funds to repair fortresses throughout the region, to commission his own construction projects in Cairo, and to purchase a large number of new mamluks to fill his military ranks.
1988:. Qutuz sent military reinforcements to his erstwhile enemy an-Nasir Yusuf in Syria, and reconciled with the Bahriyya, including Baybars, who was allowed to return to Egypt, to face the common Mongol threat. Hulagu sent emissaries to Qutuz in Cairo, demanding submission to Mongol rule but Qutuz had them killed, an act which historian Joseph Cummins called the "worst possible insult to the Mongol throne". After hearing that Hulagu withdrew from Syria to claim the Mongol throne, Qutuz and Baybars mobilized a 120,000-strong force to conquer Syria.
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2688:, the latter a mamluk of Yalbugha. The rebels took over Syria and headed for Egypt, prompting Barquq to abdicate in favor of al-Salih Hajji. The alliance between Yalbugha al-Nasiri and Mintash soon fell apart and factional fighting ensued in Cairo, with Mintash ousting Yalbugha. Barquq was arrested and exiled to al-Karak where he rallied support. In Cairo, Barquq's loyalists took the citadel and arrested al-Salih Hajji. This paved the way for Barquq's usurpation of the sultanate once more in February 1390, firmly establishing the
3085:(Islamic jurists and scholars) appeared to reflect a genuine commitment to Sunni Islamic law. He was one of the most prolific Mamluk patrons of architecture, second only to al-Nasir Muhammad, and his patronage of religious and civic buildings extended to the provinces beyond Cairo. Nonetheless, Qaitbay operated in an environment of recurring plague epidemics that underpinned a general population decline. Agriculture suffered, the treasury was often stretched thin, and by the end of his reign the economy was still weak.
3533:, did not typically hold positions in the military elite and instead, were often part of the civilian administration or the Muslim religious establishment. Among the Bahri sultans and emirs, there existed a degree of pride of their Kipchak Turkish roots, and their non-Kipchak usurpers such as sultans Kitbuqa, Baybars II and Lajin were often de-legitimized in the Bahri-era sources for their non-Kipchak origins. The Mamluk elites of the Burji period were also apparently proud of their Circassian origins.
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Turkishness was the distinctive aspect of the Mamluk ruling elite, for only they knew how to speak
Turkish and had Turkish names. While the Mamluk elite was ethnically diverse, those who were not Turkic in origin were Turkicized nonetheless. As such, the ethnically Circassian mamluks who gained prominence with the rise of the Burji regime and became the dominant ethnic element of the government, were educated in the Turkish language and were considered to be Turks by the Arabic-speaking population.
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3718:, and a deep hostility to the aspects of mysticism and popular religious innovations promoted by the Sufis. While Ibn Taymiyya was not a typical representative of Sunni orthodoxy in the sultanate, he was the most prominent Muslim scholar of the Mamluk era and arrested several times by the Mamluks for his religious teachings, which are still influential in the modern Muslim world. Ibn Taymiyya's doctrines were regarded as heretical by the Sunni establishment patronized by the Mamluks.
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3869:(chief commander of the Bedouin) in Syria, led to conflict and rebellion among the tribes, leading to mass bloodshed in Syria in the aftermath of al-Nasir Muhammad's death. The Mamluk leadership in Syria, weakened by the losses of the Black Plague, was unable to quell the Bedouin through military expeditions, so they resolved to assassinate the chiefs of the tribes. The Al Fadl eventually lost favor, to the advantage of the Bedouin tribes around al-Karak under later Bahri sultans.
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3027:, was then chosen and eventually neturalized his opposition. His reign was marked by further political difficulties abroad and domestically. Cyprus remained a vassal, but Khushqadam's representative was killed in battle after insulting James II (who had been installed by Inal). At home, Bedouin tribes caused unrest and the sultan's attempts to suppress the Labid tribe in the Nile Delta and against the Hawwara in Upper Egypt had little effect.
698:
2340:, drew legitimacy by emphasizing his lineage from Qalawun. Like his predecessors, Khalil's main priorities were organizing the state apparati, defeating the Crusaders and Mongols, integrating Syria, and preserving the flow of new mamluks and weaponry into the empire. Baybars had purchased 4,000 mamluks, Qalawun 6,000–7,000 and by the end of Khalil's reign, there was an estimated total of 10,000 mamluks in the sultanate. In 1291, Khalil
1099:
3159:. The latter fled into exile and Qaitbay granted him sanctuary in Cairo in September 1481. Qaitbay eventually allowed him to return to Anatolia to lead a new attempt against Bayezid. This venture failed and Jem was fled into exile again, this time into Christian hands to the west. Bayezid interpreted Qaitbay's welcome to Jem as direct support for the latter's cause and was furious. Qaitbay also supported the Dulkadirid leader,
3364:, the governor of Aleppo, had secretly conspired with Selim and betrayed al-Ghuri, leaving with his troops part-way during the battle. In the subsequent chaos, al-Ghuri was killed. The surviving Mamluk forces returned to Aleppo but were denied entry to the city and marched back to Egypt, harassed along the way. Syria passed into Ottoman possession, and the Ottomans were welcomed in many places as deliverance from the Mamluks.
3462:, who could be an Ottoman officer or a local civilian. Their patronage extended to include retainers recruited from other Ottoman provinces as well as allies among the local urban population and tribes. Up to the early 17th century, the vast majority of Egyptian mamluks were still of Caucasian or Circassian origin. In the later 17th and 18th centuries, mamluks from other parts of the Ottoman Empire or its frontiers, such as
1514:) from his predecessors' emirs. He created a loyal paramilitary apparatus in Egypt so dominant that contemporaries viewed Egypt as "Salihi-ridden", according to historian Winslow William Clifford. While historian Stephen Humphreys asserts the Salihiyya's increasing dominance of the state did not personally threaten al-Salih due to their fidelity to him, Clifford believes the Salihiyya's autonomy fell short of such loyalty.
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4117:. Another prerogative, at least of the early Bahri sultans, was to import as many mamluks as possible, preferably those from the territories of the Mongols. The Mamluks' enemies, namely the Mongol states and their Muslim vassals, the Armenians, and the Crusaders, disrupted the flow of mamluks to the sultanate. Unable to meet the military's need for new mamluks, the sultans often resorted to recruiting
2062:(postal network) extending across Egypt and Syria, which led to large scale building of roads and bridges along the postal route. His military and administrative reforms cemented the power of the Mamluk state. He opened diplomatic channels with the Mongols to stifle their potential alliance with the Christian powers of Europe, while also sowing divisions between the Mongol Ilkhanate and the Mongol
3108:. Initially, the Mamluks failed in a series of campaigns against Shah Suwar. The tide turned in 1470–1471 when an agreement was reached between Qaitbay and Mehmed II, by which Qaitbay stopped supporting the Karamanids and the Ottomans stopped supporting the Dulkadirids. Now without Ottoman support, Shah Suwar was defeated in 1471 by a Mamluk expedition led by Qaitbay's senior field commander,
2610:. By then, mamluk solidarity and loyalty to the emirs had dissipated. To restore discipline and unity within the Mamluk state and military, Yalbugha revived the rigorous training of mamluks used under Baybars and Qalawun. In 1365, a Mamluk attempt to annex Armenia, which had since replaced Crusader Acre as the Christian commercial foothold of Asia, was stifled by an invasion of Alexandria by
5113:
the blazon usually symbolized the office or position they held at this time. The blazon appeared on their banners and it was retained even after they became sultans. Such blazons were an important feature of Mamluk visual culture and they are found on all kinds of objects manufactured for Mamluk patrons. They were also featured in Mamluk architecture, though less consistently. This
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slaves who rose through the ranks by their own efforts, were status-conscious patrons who commissioned luxury objects marked with emblems of their ownership. Architecture was the most significant form of Mamluk patronage and numerous artistic objects were commissioned to furnish Mamluk religious buildings, such as glass lamps, Qur'an manuscripts, brass candlesticks, and wooden
4233:. Baybars started biweekly inspections of the troops to verify sultanic orders were implemented, in addition to the periodic inspections where he distributed new arms to the troops. Beginning under Qalawun, the sultan and the military administration recorded all emirs in the empire and defined their roles as part of the right or left flanks of the army during wartime.
4933:. An example of the later period is a series of candlesticks commissioned by Qaitbay for Muhammad's tomb in the Prophet's Mosque in Medina. They are made of engraved brass, with black bitumen filling parts of the surfaces in order to create contrast with the motifs in polished brass. Their decoration consists almost entirely of Arabic calligraphy, with the
3116:, before agreeing to surrender himself if his life was spared and he was allowed to remain as a vassal. In the end, Qaitbay was unwilling to let him live and Shah Suwar was betrayed, brought to Cairo, and executed. Shah Budaq was installed as his replacement and as a Mamluk vassal, though the Ottoman-Mamluk rivalry over the Dulkadirid throne continued.
5124:: only about forty-five symbols were used. Early Mamluk blazons were simple, usually featuring a single symbol such as a cup, sword, or even animals. Some banners were merely distinguished by patterned fabrics and plain geometric divisions. The blazon of Baybars was a panther, lion, or leopard, while that of Qalawun, according to one author, was a
4735:
devoting special attention to the cultivation of the more arable low-lying regions. To ensure rural life was undisturbed by
Bedouin raiding, which disrupted agricultural work or damaged crops and agrarian infrastructure and thus decreased revenues, the Mamluks attempted to prevent Bedouin armament and confiscate existing weapons from them.
3124:. His son and successor, Ya'qub, resorted to inviting Yashbak min Mahdi to participate in a campaign against Edessa. As this avoided any challenge against Qaitbay's authority, Yashbak accepted. Although initially successful, he was killed during the siege of the city, thus depriving Qaitbay of his most important field commander.
3960:. Large lobed medallions in the center bear the name of the sultan (right) and blessing on him (left). Above and below on the right is the certificate of commissioning stating the manuscript to have been produced for his library, while opposite, on the facing page, the upper and lower panels contain the title of the work.
3886:, the Tha'laba tribes were entrusted to supervise the postal routes, but were often unreliable and joined the Al A'id tribe during their raids. Bedouin tribal wars frequently disrupted trade and travel in Upper Egypt, and destroyed cultivated lands and sugar processing plants. In the mid-14th century, the rival Arak and
1925:. The purge caused a shortage of officers, which led Aktay to recruit new supporters from among the army in Egypt and the Turkic Nasiri and Azizi mamluks from Syria, who had defected from an-Nasir Yusuf and moved to Egypt in 1250. Aybak felt threatened by the growing amitions of the Syrian mamluks' empowered patron
2926:, was taken captive, because of his alleged assistance to the pirates; the large ransoms paid to the Mamluks by the Cypriots allowed them to mint new gold coinage for the first time since the 14th century. Janus became Barsbay's vassal, an arrangement enforced on his successors for several decades after.
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Metalware, whether in the form of ewers, basins, or candlesticks, was widely used in various contexts and many examples have survived today. They were made of brass or bronze with inlaid decoration, though in the later periods decoration was often engraved rather than inlaid. The quality and quantity
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on non-Muslims), permission to construct houses of worship, and the public appearance of
Christians and Jews. Jews generally fared better than Christians, and the latter experienced more difficulties under the Mamluks than their Muslim predecessors. The association of Christians with the Mongols, due
3430:
While the Mamluk
Sultanate ceased to exist with the Ottoman conquest and the recruitment of Royal Mamluks ended, the mamluks as a military-social class continued to exist. They constituted a "self-perpetuating, largely Turkish-speaking warrior class" that continued to influence politics under Ottoman
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had circumnavigated Africa and reached India, thus opening a new route for
European trade with the east which bypassed the Middle East. This posed a serious threat to Muslim commerce, which was dominant in the area, as well as to the prosperity of Venice, which relied on trade passing from the Indian
2898:
to derive the greatest financial gain from the Red Sea transit route to Europe. Barsbay's efforts at monopolization and trade protection were meant to offset the severe financial losses of the agricultural sector due to the frequent recurring plagues that took a heavy toll on the farmers. In the long
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of Persia, and thereby consolidated his authority over Islamic Syria. During his early reign, Baybars expanded the Mamluk from 10,000 cavalry to 40,000, with a 4,000-strong royal guard at its core. The new force was rigidly disciplined and highly trained in horsemanship, swordsmanship and archery. To
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invasion of Syria led the Ayyubid emirs to reconcile, and Baybars to defect to an-Nasir Yusuf. Qutuz deposed Ali in 1259 and purged or arrested the Mu'izziya and any remaining Bahri mamluks in Egypt to eliminate potential opposition. The surviving Mu'izzi and Bahri mamluks went to Gaza, where Baybars
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were usually divided into three parts, with the main symbol placed within each division, sometimes in pairs. After this, late Mamluk blazons became even more elaborate but were more homogenous in style. They were filled with details, including up to five or six different symbols. By this point, they
4977:
Mamluk architecture is distinguished in part by the construction of multi-functional buildings whose floor plans became increasingly creative and complex due to the limited available space in the city and the desire to make monuments visually dominant in their urban surroundings. While Cairo was the
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before this period and Damascus was the most important production center during the Mamluk period. Coloured glass had been common in the preceding Ayyubid period, but during the Mamluk period enamel and gilding became the most important techniques of decorating glass. Mosque lamps had a bulbous body
4904:
and exhibit stylistic similarities with those produced under the contemporary Ilkhanids in Iran. The production of high-quality paper at this time also allowed for pages to be larger, which encouraged artists to elaborate new motifs and designs to fill these larger formats. Some manuscripts could be
4821:
system. In 1429, he ordered the spice trade to Europe be conducted through Cairo before goods reached Alexandria to end the direct transportation of spices from the Red Sea to Alexandria. In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, the Portuguese expansion into Africa and Asia significantly decreased
4808:
Under Barsbay, a state monopoly was established on luxury goods, namely spices, with the state setting prices and collecting a percentage of the profits. In 1387, Barsbay established direct control over Alexandria, the principal Egyptian commercial port, transferring its tax revenues to his personal
4402:
The Mamluk economy essentially consisted of two spheres: the state economy, which was organized like an elite household and controlled by the caste government headed by the sultan, and the free market economy, which was the domain of society and associated with the local subjects, in contrast to the
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could enter and rise high within the hierarchy, but typically did not enter military service. Instead, many entered into mercantile, scholastic or other civilian careers. The army Baybars inherited consisted of Kurdish and Turkic tribesmen, refugees from the Ayyubid armies of Syria, and other troops
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sermon). The process was not formalized and the electoral body never defined, but typically consisted of the emirs and mamluks of whichever Mamluk faction held sway; usurpations of the throne by rival factions were relatively common. Despite the electoral nature of accession, dynastic succession was
3902:
The Mamluks did not significantly alter the administrative, legal and economic systems they inherited from the Ayyubid state. The Mamluk ruled over essentially the same territory of the Ayyubid state, i.e. Egypt, Syria and the Hejaz. Unlike the collective sovereignty of the Ayyubids, where territory
3774:
The Coptic decline in Egypt occurred under the Bahri sultans and accelerated further under the Burji regime. There were several instances of Egyptian Muslim protests against the wealth of Copts and their employment with the state, and both Muslim and Christian rioters burned down each other's houses
3749:
Christians and Jews in the empire were governed by the dual authority of their respective religious institutions and the sultan. The authority of the former extended to many of the everyday aspects of Christian and Jewish life and was not restricted to the religious practices of the two communities.
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overwhelmed the defenders on 22 January 1517 and reached Cairo. Over the following days, furious fighting continued between Mamluks, locals, and Ottomans, resulting in much damage to the city and three days of pillaging. Selim proclaimed an amnesty on 31 January, at which point many of the remaining
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in 1514. Soon after, he attacked and defeated the Dulkadirids, a Mamluk vassal, for refusing to aid him against the Safavids. Secure now against Ismail I, in 1516 he drew together a great army aiming at conquering Egypt, but to obscure the fact he presented the mobilisation of his army as being part
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under Mamluk suzerainty. The conquest of Nubia was not permanent and the process of invading the region and installing vassal kings was repeated by Baybars's successors. Nonetheless, Baybars' initial conquest led to the annual expectation of tribute from the Nubians by the Mamluks until the Makurian
1590:
where the Egyptians destroyed the Crusaders on 6 April. King Louis IX and a few of his surviving nobles were taken as prisoners, effectively ending the Seventh Crusade. Turanshah proceeded to place his own entourage and mamluks, known as the 'Mu'azzamiya', in positions of authority at the expense of
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was even more extensive, turning Mamluk cities into centers of both trade and consumption. Imported luxury goods from the East sometimes influenced local artistic vocabularies, as exemplified by the incorporation of Chinese motifs into both objects and architecture.The Mamluks themselves, as former
4734:
Among the responsibilities of a Mamluk provincial or district governor were repopulating abandoned areas to foster agricultural production, protecting the lands from Bedouin raids, increasing productivity in barren lands (likely through the upkeep and expansion of existing irrigation networks), and
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system was fundamental in assuring a legitimized, controlled and guaranteed access to the resources of the Syro-Egyptian realm to an upper level of Mamluk society that was primarily military in form and organization. As such it was a fundamental feature of Mamluk society, on the one hand giving way
2287:
Qalawun's early reign was marked by policies intended to garner support from the merchant class, the Muslim bureaucracy and the religious establishment. He eliminated the illegal taxes that burdened the merchants and commissioned extensive building and renovation projects for Islam's holiest sites,
5112:
Mamluks sultans and emirs also had personal blazons, which were important symbols of their status and a distinctive cultural feature of the Mamluk ruling class. With the possible exception of the earliest years of the regime, Mamluks chose their own blazons. This was done while they were emirs and
4891:
Patronage varied over time, but the two high points of the arts were the reigns of al-Nasir Muhammad and of Qaitbay. Some art forms also varied in importance over time. For example, enameled glassware was a prominent industry during the first half of the Mamluk period but declined significantly in
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these goods. Trade continued nonetheless and despite papal restrictions on trade with the Muslims during the Crusades. Mediterranean trade was dominated by spices, such as pepper, muscat nuts and flowers, cloves and cinnamon, as well as medicinal drugs and indigo. These goods originated in Persia,
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revenue from plagues, and the encroachment of abandoned farmlands by Bedouin tribes had led to a financial crisis in the sultanate. To compensate these losses, the Mamluks applied a three-pronged approach: taxing the urban middle classes, boosting production and sale of cotton and sugar to Europe,
4730:
In Egypt, Mamluk centralization of agricultural production was more thorough than in Syria and Palestine. All agriculture in Egypt depended on a single source of irrigation, the Nile, and the measures and rights to irrigation were determined by the river's flooding, whereas in Syria and Palestine,
4720:
Agriculture was the primary source of revenue in the Mamluk economy. Agricultural products were the main exports of Mamluk Egypt, Syria and Palestine. Moreover, the major industries of sugar and textile production depended on crops (sugar cane and cotton). Every agricultural commodity was taxed by
4220:
The Ayyubid army had lacked a clear and permanent hierarchical system and one of Baybars's early reforms was creating such a hierarchy. To that end, he a ranking system for emirs of ten, forty and one hundred, each indicating the number of mamluks were assigned to an emir's command. An emir of one
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was especially suspected by the Mamluks of collaboration with the Europeans due to the close relations between the Maronite Church and the papacy in Rome and the Christian European powers, particularly Cyprus. The Greek Orthodox Church declined after the Mamluk destruction of its spiritual center,
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had already been established as the language of religion, culture and the bureaucracy in Egypt, and was widespread among non-Muslim communities there as well. Arabic's wide usage among Muslim and non-Muslim commoners had likely been motivated by their aspiration to learn the language of the ruling
2427:
Baybars II ruled for roughly one year before al-Nasir Muhammad became sultan again in 1310, this time ruling for over three decades in a period often considered by historians to be the zenith of the Mamluk empire. To avoid the experiences of his previous two reigns where the mamluks of Qalawun and
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in September 1260. The battle ended in a Mongol rout and Kitbuqa's capture and execution. Afterward, the Mamluks recaptured Damascus and the other Syrian cities taken by the Mongols. Upon Qutuz's triumphant return to Cairo, he was assassinated in a Bahri plot. Baybars then assumed power in October
3518:
The ruling military elite of the sultanate was exclusive to those of mamluk background, with rare exceptions. Ethnicity served as a major factor separating the mostly Turkic or Turkicized Mamluk elite from their Arabic-speaking subjects. Ethnic origin was a key component of an individual mamluk's
3239:
Al-Ghuri also attempted reforms of the Mamluk military. He recognized the impact of gunpowder technology used by the Ottomans and Europeans, but which the Mamluks had eschewed. In 1507, he established a foundry to produce cannons and created a new regiment trained to use them, known as the 'Fifth
3235:
Al-Ghuri is often viewed negatively by historical commentators, particularly Ibn Iyas, for his draconic fiscal policies. He inherited a state beset by financial problems. In addition to the demographic and economic changes under his predecessors, changes in the organisation of the Mamluk military
3103:
The challenges to Mamluk dominance abroad were also mounting, particularly to the north. Shah Suwar, the leader of the Dulkadirid principality in Anatolia, benefited from Ottoman support and was an excellent military tactician. Meanwhile, Qaitbay supported the ruler of the Karamanid principality,
2885:
Barsbay pursued an economic policy of establishing state monopolies over the lucrative trade with Europe, particularly spices, at the expense of local merchants. European merchants were forced to buy spices from state agents who set prices that maximized revenue rather than promoting competition.
2478:
Under al-Nasir Muhammad, the Mamluks repulsed an Ilkhanid invasion of Syria in 1313 and concluded a peace treaty with the Ilkhanate in 1322, bringing a long-lasting end to the Mamluk–Mongol wars. Afterward, al-Nasir Muhammad ushered in a period of stability and prosperity through the enactment of
4788:
Mamluk Egypt was a major producer of textiles and a supplier of raw materials for Western Europe. The frequent outbreaks of the Black Plague led to a decline in the production of textiles, silk products, sugar, glass, soaps, and paper, which coincided with the Europeans' increasing production of
3799:
and Damascus in 1400. The Syriac Christians also significant declined in Syria due to intra-communal disputes over patriarchal succession and the destruction of churches by the Timurids or local Kurdish tribes. The Mamluks inaugurated a similar decline of the Armenian Orthodox Church after their
2882:, another Circassian emir of Barquq, in 1422. Under Barsbay, the Mamluk Sultanate reached its greatest territorial extent and was militarily dominant throughout the region, but his legacy was mixed in the eyes of contemporary commentators who criticized his fiscal methods and economic policies.
2711:
Barquq solidified power in 1393, when his forces killed the major opponent to his rule, Mintash, in Syria. Barquq oversaw the mass recruitment of Circassians (estimated at 5,000 recruits) into the mamluk ranks and the restoration of the state's authority throughout its realm in the tradition of
3147:
annexed Cyprus. The Venetians promised Qaitbay their occupation would benefit him as well, as their large fleet than could better keep the peace in the eastern Mediterranean than the Cypriots. Venice also agreed to continue the Cypriots' yearly tribute of 8,000 ducats to Cairo. A treaty signed
3009:
in 1453 and ordered public celebrations to commemorate the event, much like the celebrations of a Mamluk victory. It is unclear whether Inal and the Mamluks understood the implications of this event. It marked the rise of the Ottomans as a superpower, a status that brought them into increasing
3514:
was the spoken language of the Mamluk ruling elite. According to Petry, "the Mamluks regarded Turkish as their caste's vehicle of communication, even though they themselves spoke Central Asian dialects such as Qipjak, or Circassian, a Caucasic language." According to historian Michael Winter,
3367:
The Mamluk Sultanate survived a little longer until 1517. Tuman Bay, whom al-Ghuri had left as deputy in Cairo, was hastily and unanimously proclaimed sultan on 10 October 1516. The emirs rejected his plan to confront the next Ottoman advance at Gaza, so instead he prepared a final defense at
2388:
in 1299. Ghazan largely withdrew from Syria shortly after due to a lack of fodder for their numerous horses and the residual Ilkhanid force retreated in 1300 at the approach of the rebuilt Mamluk army. Another Ilkhanid invasion in 1303 was repelled after a Mamluk victory at the Battle of Marj
4096:
Among the sultan's responsibilities were issuing and enforcing specific legal orders and general rules, making the decision to go to war, levying taxes for military campaigns, ensuring the proportionate distribution of food supplies throughout the empire and, in some cases, overseeing the
2529:
of al-Karak, was declared sultan. Ahmad relocated to al-Karak and left a deputy to govern in Cairo. This unorthodox arrangement, together with his seclusive and frivolous behavior and his execution of loyal partisans, ended with Ahmad's deposition and replacement by his half-brother
1918:, a principal organizer of Turanshah's assassination and the recipient of Fakhr ad-Din's large estate by Shajar al-Durr; the latter viewed Aktay as a counterweight to Aybak. Aybak moved against the Bahriyya by shutting their Roda headquarters in 1251 and assassinating Aktay in 1254.
1309:, overthrew the sultan in 1382 and again in 1390, inaugurating Burji rule. Mamluk authority across the empire eroded under his successors due to foreign invasions, tribal rebellions, and natural disasters, and the state entered into a long period of financial distress. Under Sultan
2973:, appointed regent. The usual disputes over succession ensued and after three months Jaqmaq won and became sultan, exiling Yusuf to Alexandria. Jaqmaq maintained friendly relations with the Ottomans. His most important foreign military effort was an abortive campaign to conquer
4221:
hundred could further be assigned one thousand mounted troops during battle. Baybars instituted uniformity within the army and ended the improvised nature of the Ayyubid forces in Egypt and Syria. Baybars and Qalawun standardized the undefined Ayyubid policies of distributing
5068:
s or khans), actually grew in number during the Ottoman period. In modern times, from the late 19th century onwards, a 'neo-Mamluk' style also appeared, partly as a nationalist response against Ottoman and European styles, in an effort to promote local 'Egyptian' styles.
3119:
The next challenge to Qaitbay was the rise of the Aq Qoyunlu leader Uzun Hasan. The latter led an expedition into Mamluk territory around Aleppo in 1472, but was routed by Yashbak. The next year, Uzun Hassan was more resoundingly defeated in battle against Mehmed II near
5037:
After the Ottoman conquest of 1517, new Ottoman-style buildings were introduced, however the Mamluk style continued to be repeated or combined with Ottoman elements in many subsequent monuments. Some building types which first appeared in the late Mamluk period, such as
4039:
Lesser-ranked emirs viewed the sultan as a peer whom they entrusted with ultimate authority and as a benefactor whom they expected to guarantee their salaries and monopoly on the military. When emirs felt the sultan was not ensuring their benefits, disruptive riots,
5082:. After Selim II conquered Damascus in 1516, a contemporary writer, Ibn Tulun, noted that the rich yellow silk banner of the Mamluks was replaced by the plain red banner of the Ottomans. Red banners are also known to have been used by the Mamluks. The historian
4050:, defined by historian Amalia Levanoni as "the fostering of a common bond between mamluks who belonged to the household of a single master and their loyalty towards him." The foundation of Mamluk organization and factional unity was based on the principles of
3279:, in direct opposition to the Sunnism of the Mamluks and Ottomans. Tensions along this frontier encouraged al-Ghuri to rely more on the Ottomans for aid, a policy that the Venetians ultimately also urged him to follow in order to counter their common foe, the
4599:
to a military hierarchy that crystallized into an even more developed economic hierarchy and that had substantial economic interests in society at large; on the other hand, it deeply characterized the realm's economic and social development, its agriculture,
4978:
main center of patronage, Mamluk architecture also appears in Damascus, Jerusalem, Aleppo, and Medina. Patrons, including sultans and high-ranking emirs, typically set out to build mausoleums for themselves but attached to them charitable structures such as
1610:. She ensured the Salihiyya's dominance of the paramilitary elite, and inaugurated patronage and kinship ties with the Salihiyya. In particular, she cultivated close ties with the Jamdari (pl. Jamdariyya) and Bahri (pl. Bahriyya) corps, distributing to them
4785:, and increasing tariffs on commodities. At this time, the long-established trade between Europe and the Islamic world began to make up a significant part of state revenues as the Mamluks taxed the merchants operating or passing through the empire's ports.
4056:, which was a crucial component of a sultan's authority and power. The sultan also derived power from other emirs, with whom there was constant tension, particularly in peacetime. According to Holt, the factious nature of emirs who were not the sultan's
2428:
Khalil held sway and periodically assumed power, al-Nasir Muhammad established a centralized autocracy. In 1310, he imprisoned, exiled or killed any Mamluk emirs that supported those who toppled him in the past, including the Burji mamluks. He assigned
5229:
2312:
in Cairo. After the détente with the Ilkhanids, Qalawun suppressed internal dissent by imprisoning dozens of high-ranking emirs in Egypt and Syria. He diversified the hitherto mostly Turkic mamluk ranks by purchasing numerous non-Turks, particularly
4403:
ethnic outsiders of the ruling elite. The Mamluks introduced greater centralization of the economy by organizing the state bureaucracy in Cairo (Damascus and Aleppo already had organized bureaucracies), and the military hierarchy and its associated
5013:
mosque, though the vaulted iwans of the early period were replaced with flat-roofed iwans in the later period. The decoration of monuments also became more elaborate over time, with stone-carving and colored marble paneling and mosaics (including
6299:
of gold roundels (bawlikir). The two musicians at the lower right both wear turkic coats and plumed caps, one of which has an upwardly turned brim. The plumes are set in a front metal plaque ('amud) (Nationalbibliothek, Vienna, ms A. F. 9, fol.
4905:
monumental in size; for example, one Qur'an manuscript produced for al-Ashraf Sha'ban measured between 75 and 105 centimetres tall. One of the stylistic features that distinguished Mamluk manuscript decoration was the presence of gilded foliate
4899:
In the art of manuscript decoration, the Qur'an was the book most commonly produced with a high degree of artistic elaboration. Cairo, Damascus, and Aleppo were among the main centers of manuscript production. Mamluk-period Qur'ans were richly
2981:, involving three expeditions between 1440 and 1444. Domestically, Jaqmaq largely continued Barsbay's monopolies, though he promised to enact reforms and formally rescinded some tariffs. Jaqmaq died in February 1453. His eighteen-year-old son,
1394:, or household slave. After thorough training in martial arts, court etiquette and Islamic sciences, these slaves were freed but expected to remain loyal to their master and serve his household. Mamluks formed part of the military apparatus in
2805:
6294:
Fig. 22. Frontispiece of a court scene from a Maqamat manuscript, probably from Egypt, dated 1334. The enthroned prince wears a brocaded qabli' maftulJ with inscribed Tiraz armbands over a qabli' turki which is clinched at the waist with a
3598:
The Mamluks cultivated and utilized Muslim leaders to channel the religious feelings of their Muslim subjects in a manner that did not disrupt the sultanate's authority. Similar to their Ayyubid predecessors, the Bahri sultans favored the
3252:, and craftsmen. The traditional mamluk army, however, regarded firearms with contempt and vigorously resisted their incorporation into Mamluk warfare, which prevented al-Ghuri from making effective use of them until the end of his reign.
3384:
Selim initially offered the Mamluk sultan peace as an Ottoman vassal, but his messengers were intercepted and killed by mamluks. Tuman Bay, with 4,000 cavalry and some 8,000 infantry, confronted the Ottomans in a final bloody battle near
5077:
The Mamluk sultans followed the Ayyubids in using yellow as the official colour associated with the sultan and used on sultanic banners. Baybars is said to have noted the yellow colour of his banners in opposition to the red banners of
2587:(descendants of mamluks who did not undergo the enslavement/manumission process) in the military and administration, a process lasted for the remainder of the Bahri period. This caused resentment among Hasan's own mamluks, led by Emir
3669:
was the most popular order. The Shadhiliyya lacked an institutional structure and was flexible in its religious thought, allowing it to easily adapt to its local environment. It incorporated Sunni Islamic piety with its basis in the
2411:. "In the paintings the facial cast of these Turks is obviously reflected, and so are the special fashions and accoutrements they favored". The brimmed hats in the bottom right corner are Mongol. Al-Nasir Muhammad was himself of
4421:. The monetary system during the Mamluk period was highly unstable due to frequent monetary changes enacted by the sultans. Increased circulation of copper coins and the increased use of copper in dirhams often led to inflation.
6263:
The sultan who possibly commissioned the manuscript and who may be the one depicted on the dedicatory title page is An-Nasir Muhammad b. Qala'un, who was in power for the third time from 709 AH / 1309–10 AD to 741 AH / 1340–41
3878:. The tribe remained strong after al-Nasir Muhammad's death, but frequently rebelled against the succeeding Bahri sultans. They were restored after each rebellion, before the tribe's sheikh was finally executed in 1353. In
2886:
This monopoly set a precedent for his successors, some of whom established monopolies over other goods such as sugar and textiles. Barsbay compelled Red Sea traders to offload their goods at the Mamluk-held Hejazi port of
4515:
represented a right to collect revenue from a fixed territory and was accorded to an officer (an emir) as income and a financial source to provision his soldiers. Before the Mamluks' rise, there was a growing tendency of
4331:) was the sultan's chief of staff, responsible for organizing the royal court's daily activities, managing the sultan's personal budget, and supervising all of the buildings of the Citadel of Cairo and its staff. The
3555:
4080:
of Syria who had power bases in their provinces. Typically, the faction most loyal to the sultan were the Royal Mamluks, particularly those whom the sultan had personally recruited and manumitted, as opposed to the
3352:
of the war against Ismail I. The war started in 1516 which led to the later incorporation of Egypt and its dependencies in the Ottoman Empire, with Mamluk cavalry proving no match for the Ottoman artillery and the
2568:
and other plagues followed, causing mass death in the country, which led to major social and economic changes in the region. In 1351, the senior emirs, led by Emir Taz, ousted and replaced Hasan with his brother,
11306:
2899:
term, the monopoly over the spice trade had a negative effect on Egyptian commerce and became a motivation for European merchants to seek alternative routes to the east around Africa and across the Atlantic.
2092:
in 1266. Baybars's destroy captured fortresses along the Syrian coast to prevent their potential future use by new waves of Crusaders. In August 1266, the Mamluks launched a punitive expedition against the
4587:
was a more stable revenue source than other methods the Mamluks employed, such as tax hikes, the sale of administrative offices, and extortion of the population. According to historian Jo van Steenbergen,
1626:, was rebuffed from monopolizing power by the army and the Bahriyya and Jamdariyya, who all asserted that sultanic authority was exclusive to the Ayyubids. The Bahriyya compelled Aybak to share power with
2229:
as co-sultan in 1264. This represented a break from the Mamluk tradition of choosing the sultan by merit rather than lineage. In July 1277, Baybars died en route to Damascus, and was succeeded by Baraka.
2151:
2109:, both cities in interior Palestine. Unlike the coastal fortresses, the Mamluks strengthened and utilized the interior cities as major garrisons and administrative centers. In 1268, the Mamluks captured
4375:
4841:
3232:, a former rival who opposed him in 1504–1505, as governor of Damascus in 1506. The latter remained a major figure during his reign but he acknowledged Cairo's suzerainty and helped to keep the peace.
5128:. Starting with al-Nasir Muhammad, epigraphic blazons (with Arabic script) became part of the heraldic repertoire. From the late 14th to the mid-15th centuries, blazons became more complex and their
1252:
in 1260, halting their southward expansion. They then conquered or gained suzerainty over the Ayyubids' Syrian principalities. By the end of the 13th century, through the efforts of sultans Baybars,
4361:
became a powerful office in the late 14th century, particularly under Barquq and al-Nasir Faraj, who transferred the responsibilities of the special bureau for their mamluks to the authority of the
2268:, a top deputy of Baybars, as sultan in November 1279. The Ilkhanids launched a massive offensive against Syria in 1281. The Mamluks were outnumbered by the 80,000-strong Ilkhanid-Armenian-Georgian-
1936:
Aybak was assassinated on 10 April 1257, possibly on orders from Shajar al-Durr, who was assassinated a week later. Their deaths left a relative power vacuum in Egypt, with Aybak's teenage son,
3816:. Qalawun purchased horses from the Bedouin of Barqa, which were inexpensive but of high quality, while al-Nasir Muhammad spent extravagantly for horses from Bedouins in Barqa, Syria, Iraq and
4721:
the state, with the sultan's treasury taking the largest share of the revenues; emirs and major private brokers followed. An emir's main source of income were the agricultural products of his
3872:
In Egypt, during al-Nasir Muhammad's third reign, the Mamluks had a similar relationship with the Bedouin. The Isa Ibn Hasan al-Hajjan tribe became powerful there after being assigned massive
2906:
to a minimum, sent troops to occupy the Hejaz and rein in the Bedouin, and took direct control of much of the region's administration. He aimed to secure the Egyptian Mediterranean coast from
3800:
conquest of the Cilicia in 1374, in addition to the raids of the Timurids in 1386 and the conflict between the Timurids and the Aq Qoyunlu and Kara Qoyonlu tribal confederations in Cilicia.
3299:
took place between Portuguese forces in the Indian Ocean and Muslim expeditions sent against them. A Mamluk fleet of fifty ships left from Jeddah in 1506, with assistance of forces from the
3127:
2941:
to largely submit to their suzerainty, Mamluk authority in Upper Egypt was mostly relegated to the emirs of the Hawwara tribe. The latter had grown wealthy from their burgeoning trade with
4892:
the 15th century. Most of the surviving examples of carpets, by contrast, date from the end of the Mamluk period. Ceramic production was relatively less important overall, in part because
4777:
and profiting from their transit position in the trade between Europe and the Far East. The last was the Mamluks' most lucrative policy and was accomplished by cultivating trade ties with
4967:
2680:
His accession was enabled by Yalbugha's mamluks, whose corresponding rise to power left Barquq vulnerable. His rule was challenged by a revolt in Syria in 1389 by the Mamluk governors of
1586:. On 27 February, Turanshah arrived in al-Mansura to lead the Egyptian army. On 5 April 1250, the Crusaders evacuated their camp opposite al-Mansura. The Egyptians followed them into the
3397:, one of Cairo's gates, on 13 April 1517. In reward for his betrayal at Marj Dabiq, Selim installed Khayr Bak as Ottoman governor of Egypt. Janbirdi was appointed governor of Damascus.
1484:
1456:. Mamluks were highly committed to their master, to whom they often referred to as 'father', and were in turn treated more as kinsmen than as slaves. The Ayyubid emir and future sultan
1349:). These names emphasized the ethnic origin of the rulers and Mamluk writers did not explicitly highlight their status as slaves, except on rare occasions during the Circassian period.
4199:
from armies dispersed by the Mongols. After the Battle of Ain Jalut, Baybars restructured the army into three components: the Royal Mamluk regiment, the soldiers of the emirs, and the
2434:
to over thirty of his own mamluks. Initially, he left most of his father's mamluks undisturbed, but in 1311 and 1316, he imprisoned and executed most of them, and again redistributed
2581:
deposed Salih and restored Hasan in 1355, after which Hasan gradually purged Taz, Shaykhu and Sirghitmish and their mamluks from his administration. Hasan recruited and promoted the
3439:
s. The difference between these Ottoman regiments and the Egyptian mamluk regiments became blurred over time as intermarriage became common, resulting in a more mixed social class.
2561:
After Hajji's death, the senior emirs hastily appointed another son of al-Nasir Muhammad, the twelve-year-old al-Nasir Hasan. Coinciding with Hasan's first reign, in 1347–1348, the
4875:
metalwork, woodwork, and textiles—were prized around the Mediterranean as well as in Europe, where they had a profound impact on local production. Mamluk glassware influenced the
4349:
s (lesser majordomos) who oversaw specific aspects of the court and citadel, such as the sultan's treasury, private property, and the kitchens of the citadel. Emirs had their own
3473:
Throughout the Ottoman period, powerful mamluk households and factions struggled for control of important political offices and of Egypt's revenues. Between 1688 and 1755, mamluk
4409:
system. In Egypt, the centrality of the Nile River facilitated Mamluk centralization of the region. The Mamluks used the same currency system as the Ayyubids, consisting of gold
3477:, allied with Bedouin and factions within the Ottoman garrison, deposed at least thirty-four governors. The mamluks remained a dominating force in Egyptian politics until their
12774:
3393:, another former Mamluk commander, persuaded the Ottoman sultan that Tuman Bay was too dangerous to keep alive. Accordingly, the last Mamluk sultan was executed by hanging at
10270:
Haarmann, Ulrich (1998). "Joseph's Law – The Careers and Activities of Mamluk Descendants before the Ottoman Conquest of Egypt". In Philipp, Thomas; Haarmann, Ulrich (eds.).
1929:
growing ambitions. Upon learning of Aydughdi's plot to install an-Nasir Yusuf as sultan, which would leave Aydughdi as practical ruler of Egypt, Aybak imprisoned Aydughdi in
11807:
4236:
4131:
To legitimize their rule, the Mamluks presented themselves as the defenders of Islam, and, beginning with Baybars, sought confirmation of their executive authority from a
2487:
Al-Nasir Muhammad died in 1341 and his rule was followed by a succession of descendants in a period marked by political instability. Most of his successors, except for
11802:
11797:
656:
631:
617:
603:
589:
575:
561:
547:
533:
11186:
Yosef, Koby (2012). "Dawlat al-atrāk or dawlat al-mamālīk? Ethnic Origin or Slave Origin as the Defining Characteristic of the Ruling Élite in the Mamlūk Sultanate".
7505:
Ritratti et elogii di capitanii illustri. The portraits engraved by Pompilio Totti; the letterpress by J. Roscius, A. Mascardi, F. Leonida, O. Tronsarelli, and others
3894:
rulers of the region, forcing the Mamluks to rely on them for tax collection. The Bedouin were purged from Upper and Lower Egypt by the campaigns of Shaykhu in 1353.
5022:) replacing stucco as the most dominant architectural decoration. Monumental decorated entrance portals became common compared to earlier periods, often carved with
8785:"A Blood-Measuring Device, folio from a manuscript of The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices (Kitab al-hiyal al-nafisa), AKM11, The Aga Khan Museum"
4655:
was completed in 1315 under al-Nasir Muhammad and influenced political and economic developments of the Mamluk Sultanate until its fall in the early 16th century.
4676:
lands to meet the fiscal needs of the military, namely payment of emirs and their subordinates. The state resolved to increase allotments by dispersing an emir's
3188:
1926:
1500:
Al-Salih became sultan of Egypt in 1240, and, upon his accession, he manumitted and promoted large numbers of his mamluks, provisioning them through confiscated
5519:"Frontispiece, folio from a manuscript of The Prescription for Pleasure (Sulwan al-Muta' fi 'Udwan al-Atba') of Ibn Zafar al-Siqili, AKM12, The Aga Khan Museum"
3808:
Bedouins were a reserve force in the Mamluk military. During the third reign of al-Nasir Muhammad, the Bedouin tribes, particularly those of Syria, such as the
1960:
13009:
3644:
s. This policy was partly motivated to accommodate an increasingly diverse Muslim population whose components had immigrated to Egypt from regions where other
5192:
3255:
1594:
An electoral college dominated by the Salihiyya then convened to choose a successor to Turanshah among the Ayyubid emirs, with opinion largely split between
1298:(r. 1293–1294, 1299–1309, 1310–1341), before giving way to the internal strife characterizing the succession of his sons, when real power was held by senior
4248:
Gradually, as mamluks filled administrative and courtier posts within the state, Mamluk innovations to the Ayyubid hierarchy were developed. The offices of
2685:
2673:
in 1378, giving him command of the Mamluk army, which he used to oust Baraka in 1380. Ali died in May 1381 and was succeeded by his nine-year-old brother,
7211:
4797:
and made their way to Europe via the Mamluk ports of Syria and Egypt. These ports were frequented by European merchants, who in turn sold gold and silver
4097:
investigation and punishment of alleged criminals. The sultan or his appointees led the Hajj caravans from Cairo and Damascus to Mecca in the capacity of
3779:, destruction of churches, and to retain employment. By the end of the Mamluk period, the ratio of Muslims to Christians in Egypt may have risen to 10:1.
3148:
between the two powers in 1490 formalized this arrangement. It was a sign that the Mamluks were now depending partly on the Venetians for naval security.
2373:
to his supporters. He was unable to keep power and al-Nasir Muhammad was restored as sultan in 1298, ruling over a fractious realm until being toppled by
1914:
led to Bahri rioting in Cairo, the first of many intra-Salihi clashes about his ascendancy. The Bahriyya and Jamdariyya were represented by their patron,
169:
13004:
3109:
2699:
2080:
With his power in Egypt and Islamic Syria consolidated by 1265, Baybars launched expeditions against the Crusader fortresses throughout Syria, capturing
4000:
of al-Karak, Safed, Tripoli, Homs and Hama. In Hama, the Mamluks permitted the Ayyubids to continue governing until 1341 (its popular governor in 1320,
2509:), were sultans in name only, with the patrons of the leading mamluk factions holding actual power. The first of al-Nasir Muhammad's sons to accede was
2097:
for its alliance with the Mongols, laying waste to numerous Armenian villages and significantly weakening the kingdom. At around the same time, Baybars
3911:
remained the capital of the empire and its social, economic and administrative center, with the Citadel of Cairo serving as the sultan's headquarters.
3216:(or al-Ghawri) was placed on the throne in 1501. Al-Ghuri secured his position over several months and appointed new figures to key posts. His nephew,
2215:
4944:
Glass lamps were another high point of Mamluk art, particularly those commissioned for mosques. Egypt and Syria already possessed a rich tradition of
4013:
A consistent accession process occurred with every new sultan. It mostly involved an election by a council of emirs and mamluks (who would proffer an
3174:
over the next six years. By 1491, both sides were exhausted and an Ottoman embassy arrived in Cairo in the spring. An agreement was concluded and the
13019:
12329:
1948:
made two attempts to conquer Egypt in November 1257 and 1258 but were defeated. They then turned on an-Nasir Yusuf in Damascus, who defeated them at
1945:
1599:
1921:
Afterward, Aybak purged his retinue and the Salihiyya of perceived dissidents, causing a temporary exodus of Bahri mamluks, most of whom settled in
3855:
to the Al Fadl to prevent their defection to the Ilkhanate, which the Al Fadl had frequently done during the early 14th century. Competition over
2132:
in 1272, in July 1273, the Mamluks, who by then considered the Assassins' independence as problematic, wrested control of their fortresses in the
11576:
3041:
2915:
2177:. In 1265, the Mamluks invaded northern Makuria, forcing the Nubian king to become their vassal. Around that time, the Mamluks had conquered the
1013:
3546:
13014:
7717:
3519:
identity, and ethnic identity manifested itself through given names, dress, access to administrative positions and was indicated by a sultan's
3229:
1313:
major efforts were taken to replenish the treasury, particularly monopolization of trade with Europe and tax expeditions into the countryside.
2738:. Barquq instituted this to better control the Egyptian countryside from the rising strength of the Bedouin tribes. He further dispatched the
2276:, confirming Mamluk dominance in Syria. The Ilkhanids' rout enabled Qalawun to proceed against Crusader holdouts in Syria and in May 1285, he
12198:
11237:
10148:"Why Domenico Had to Die and Black Slaves Wore Red Uniforms: Military Technology and Its Decisive Role in the 1517 Ottoman Conquest of Egypt"
4822:
the revenues of the Mamluk–Venetian monopoly on trans-Mediterranean trade. This contributed to and coincided with the fall of the sultanate.
2033:
13044:
10682:
From Slave to Sultan: The Career of Al-Manṣūr Qalāwūn and the Consolidation of Mamluk Rule in Egypt and Syria (678–689 A.H./1279–1290 A.D.)
10147:
3212:
Qaitbay's death on 8 August 1496 inaugurated several years of instability. Eventually, following several brief reigns by other candidates,
1616:
and other privileges. Her efforts and Egyptian military's preference to preserve the Ayyubid state were evident when the Salihi mamluk and
6706:
4625:
units), assessment of land quality, and the annual estimated tax revenue of the parcels, and classification of a parcel's legal status as
4300:(commander of the audience). These additional offices were largely ceremonial posts and were closely connected to the military hierarchy.
3566:
154:
4211:
had inferior status to the mamluk regiments. It had its own administrative structure and was under the direct command of the sultan. The
10230:
Hathaway, Jane (2019). "Mamlūks, Ottoman period". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).
4044:
plots or delays to calls for service were all likely scenarios. Often, the practical restrictions on a sultan's power came from his own
2440:
to his own mamluks. By 1316, the number of mamluks decreased to 2,000. Al-Nasir Muhammad further consolidated power by replacing Caliph
11824:
11792:
3010:
conflict with the evermore stagnant Mamluk Sultanate. By then, the state was under severe financial stress, with the state selling off
1127:
2862:
Before Shaykh died in 1421, he attempted to offset the power of the Circassians by importing Turkish mamluks and installing a Turk as
2851:
1567:. Although the Salihiyya welcomed his succession, Turanshah challenged their dominance in the paramilitary apparatus by promoting his
1545:. Al-Salih opposed the evacuation of Damietta and threatened to punish the city's garrison. This provoked a mutiny by his garrison in
12653:
12181:
11663:
7772:
The Muslim Diaspora (Volume 2, 1500–1799): A Comprehensive Chronology of the Spread of Islam in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas
7402:"Shirt of Mail and Plate of Al-Ashraf Sayf ad-Din Qaitbay (ca. 1416/18–1496), 18th Burji Mamluk Sultan of Egypt | probably Egyptian"
12665:
12056:
10189:
17:
10846:
Egypt and Syria Under the Circassian Sultans, 1382–1468 A.D.: Systematic Notes to Ibn Taghrî Birdî's Chronicles of Egypt, Volume 1
2594:
12100:
11834:
2663:, though the oligarchy of the senior emirs held the reins of power. Among the senior emirs who rose to prominence under Ali were
10430:
Muslims, Mongols and Crusaders: An Anthology of Articles Published in the Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
4762:. Early into their rule, the Mamluks expanded the empire's role in foreign trade, with Baybars signing a commercial treaty with
12999:
12989:
11377:
10080:
9860:
Contact and Conflict in Frankish Greece and the Aegean, 1204–1453: Crusade, Religion and Trade between Latins, Greeks and Turks
6699:
3924:
3702:. While the Mamluks patronized the Sunni ulema through appointments to government office, they patronized the Sufis by funding
3559:
3324:
3171:
2197:(Cyrenaica). In 1268, the Makurian king, David I, overthrew the Mamluks' vassal and in 1272, raided the Mamluk Red Sea port of
1200:
496:
3016:
properties, depriving the treasury of their tax revenues. Coins based on precious metals nearly disappeared from circulation.
2756:
to become a Mamluk vassal. Towards the end of the 14th century, challengers to the Mamluks emerged in Anatolia, including the
12902:
11346:
11261:
11176:
11153:
11134:
11115:
11092:
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11027:
11004:
10985:
10913:
10892:
10865:
10833:
10812:
10793:
10770:
10751:
10730:
10709:
10690:
10669:
10648:
10625:
10604:
10583:
10562:
10541:
10500:
10479:
10437:
10410:
10389:
10347:
10323:
10300:
10279:
10260:
10239:
10199:
10178:
10159:
10123:
10101:
10057:
10036:
10015:
9996:
9975:
9954:
9933:
9909:
9888:
9867:
9844:
9823:
9759:
9676:
9653:
9632:
8304:
8266:
8247:
8201:
8182:
8002:
7780:
6683:
6601:
6402:
6375:
6350:
6323:
5381:
5347:
10311:
10209:
Al-Harithy, Howyda N. (1996). "The Complex of Sultan Hasan in Cairo: Reading Between the Lines". In Necıpoğlu, Gülru (ed.).
5002:
agreements that also served the secondary purpose of ensuring some form of income or property for the patrons' descendants.
4093:
s occasionally constituted a hostile faction, such as with as-Salih Ayyub and the Qalawuni successors of al-Nasir Muhammad.
3738:
numerals, dated 1282/1283. This astrolabe and other items of its kind are proof that Mamluks still used Coptic numerals and
3572:
A wide range of Islamic religious expression existed in Egypt during the early Mamluk era, namely Sunni Islam and its major
13034:
12726:
12380:
12324:
12280:
12093:
11767:
11757:
11717:
5248:
4607:
The system consisted of land assignments from the state in return for military services. Land was assessed by the periodic
3662:
and gain more influence over them. Nevertheless, the Shafi'i scholars kept a number of privileges over their counterparts.
2945:
and achieved a degree of local popularity due to their piety, education and generally benign treatment of the inhabitants.
1627:
12574:
9664:
3710:
s (Sufi lodges). On the other end of the spectrum of Sunni religious expression were the teachings of the Hanbali scholar
3077:. Timurbugha was deposed in turn on 31 January 1468, but voluntarily consented to the accession of his second in command,
2832:, against whom Faraj had sent seven military expeditions. The emirs could not usurp the throne themselves, and had Caliph
13029:
12994:
12385:
12125:
12011:
5133:
were possibly no longer used as individualized personal blazons but perhaps more as general marks of their social class.
3933:
3155:, to the Ottoman throne, Ottoman-Mamluk tensions escalated. Bayezid's claim to the throne was challenged by his brother,
2902:
Barsbay undertook efforts protect the caravan routes to the Hejaz from Bedouin raids. He reduced the independence of the
2855:
2607:
783:
10615:
10375:
9719:
9690:
7770:
3023:, ruled for a short stint under challenges from the governors of Damascus and Jeddah. A compromise candidate, the Greek
2462:
2148:, but withdrew to avoid overstretching his forces and risk being cut off from Syria by a larger incoming Ilkhanid army.
13039:
13024:
12984:
12838:
12769:
12648:
12270:
12147:
11814:
11695:
11622:
11610:
11571:
4996:
s (public fountains), or mosques. The revenues and expenses of these charitable complexes were governed by inalienable
3812:, were strengthened and integrated into the economy. Bedouin tribes were also a major supplier of the Mamluk cavalry's
3478:
3450:
During this period, a number of mamluk 'households' formed, with a complex composition including both true mamluks and
3431:
rule. They existed as military units in parallel with the more strictly Ottoman regiments like the janissaries and the
3020:
1050:
1003:
803:
763:
12373:
11902:
10934:
10458:
10220:
9043:
6287:
5295:
4917:
of metalwork was also generally higher in the early period. One of the best examples of this period is the so-called
3246:). The latter's ranks were filled recruits from outside the traditional mamluk system, including Turkmens, Persians,
2660:
2407:
10137:
Ibn Khaldūn in Egypt: His Public Functions and His Historical Research, 1382–1406, a Study in Islamic Historiography
5988:
5848:
5230:"The Mamluks and Their Acceptance of Oghuz Turkish as Literary Language: Political Maneuver or Cultural Aspiration?"
3163:(who had replaced Shah Budaq), against the Ottomans, but Ala al-Dawla was compelled to shift his loyalty to Bayezid
12506:
12169:
11892:
5168:
4949:
with a wide flaring neck at the top. They were produced in the thousands and suspended from the ceiling by chains.
4172:
3903:
was divided among members of the royal family, the Mamluk state was unitary. Under many Ayyubid sultans, Egypt had
3787:
2531:
2308:. His building activities later shifted to more secular and personal purposes, including his large, multi-division
2225:
Baybars attempted to establish his Zahirid house as the state's ruling dynasty by appointing his four-year-old son
6254:
4743:
4217:
regiments declined in the 14th century when professional non-mamluk soldiers generally stopped joining the force.
3970:
The Mamluk sultan was the supreme government authority, while he delegated power to provincial governors known as
2377:, a Circassian mamluk of Qalawun, who was wealthier, and more pious and cultured than his immediate predecessors.
1952:. An-Nasir Yusuf followed up with a siege of al-Mughith and the Bahriyya at al-Karak, but the growing threat of a
12865:
12833:
12586:
12312:
11722:
11442:
10358:
8784:
4528:
as personal, heritable property. The Mamluks effectively ended this, with the exception of some areas, mainly in
3743:
3296:
2704:
2677:, with real power held by Barquq as regent. The next year, Barquq toppled al-Salih Hajji and assumed the throne.
2526:
1369:
1358:
1223:(1382–1517), called after the predominant ethnicity or corps of the ruling Mamluks during these respective eras.
716:
9702:
3665:
The Mamluks embraced the Sufi orders in the empire. Sufism was widespread in Egypt by the 13th century, and the
2636:
2066:. His diplomacy was additionally intended to maintain the flow of Turkic mamluks from Mongol-held Central Asia.
1636:
12434:
12228:
12191:
5163:
4460:
inspected weights and measures and the quality of goods, maintained legal trade, and detected price gouging. A
3368:
al-Raydaniyya to the north of Cairo. In the early days of 1517, Tuman Bay received news that a Mamluk army was
2985:, was installed on the throne but soon lost all support when he tried to buy the loyalty of other mamluks with
2550:
1120:
7602:
2937:
in 1433. The Aq Qoyonlu consequently recognized Mamluk suzerainty. While the Mamluks succeeded in forcing the
2397:
12721:
12516:
11922:
11447:
11430:
9621:"The Logistics of the Mamluk-Mongol War, with Special Reference to the Battle of Wadi'l-Khaznadar, 1299 C.E."
4192:
The sultans were products of the military hierarchy, entry into which was essentially restricted to mamluks.
4139:, but the latter was destroyed when the Mongols sacked the Abbasid capital Baghdad in 1258 and killed Caliph
3796:
3259:
Anonymous 1511 painting depicting a reception of Venetian ambassadors in Damascus during the time of al-Ghuri
2982:
2344:, the last major Crusader stronghold in Palestine and Mamluk rule consequently extended across all of Syria.
2133:
743:
12633:
10316:
History and Society During the Mamluk Period (1250–1517): Studies of the Annemarie Schimmel Research College
4497:
system was inherited from the Ayyubids and further organized under the Mamluks to fit their military needs.
4023:, a state-organized procession through Cairo led by the sultan, and the reading of the sultan's name in the
12697:
12501:
12469:
12285:
11917:
11787:
11710:
11283:, by Yusef. William Popper, translator Abu L-Mahasin ibn Taghri Birdi, University of California Press 1954.
10152:
The Mamluk-Ottoman Transition: Continuity and Change in Egypt and Bilād al-Shām in the Sixteenth Century, 2
3201:
3058:
2929:
In response to Aq Qoyonlu raids against the Jazira, the Mamluks launched expeditions against them, sacking
813:
10876:
4918:
4845:
2038:
12948:
12860:
12702:
12444:
12334:
12157:
11952:
11819:
11762:
11658:
11533:
4714:
2385:
2094:
1980:, the intellectual and spiritual center of the Islamic world, in 1258, and proceeded westward, capturing
1080:
622:
13049:
12855:
12660:
12557:
12540:
12523:
12464:
12290:
12245:
12176:
12115:
12088:
11732:
11591:
11370:
5518:
5105:
4880:
4575:
to non-mamluks to extract more profits. By 1343, the practice was commonplace and by 1347, the sale of
4276:(treasurer), which existed during the Ayyubid period, were preserved, but Baybars added the offices of
3088:
2966:
2692:. The ruling Mamluks of this period were mostly Circassians drawn from the Christian population of the
2545:
2074:
1556:
9836:
Practising Diplomacy in the Mamluk Sultanate: Gifts and Material Culture in the Medieval Islamic World
5316:
5120:
Unlike European heraldry, Mamluk blazons used a much more limited set of images and symbols for their
12979:
12821:
12764:
12731:
12496:
12406:
12368:
12363:
12351:
12250:
11942:
11912:
11897:
11649:
10978:
Creating Medieval Cairo: Empire, Religion, and Architectural Preservation in Nineteenth-century Egypt
10763:
Twilight of Majesty: The Reigns of the Mamlūk Sultans Al-Ashrāf Qāytbāy and Qanṣūh Al-Ghawrī in Egypt
10366:
6340:
6313:
4782:
4105:(commander of the Hajj caravan). Starting with Qalawun, the sultans monopolized the provision of the
3823:
Baybars and Qalawun, and the Syrian viceroys of al-Nasir Muhammad during his first two reigns, emirs
3193:
1587:
1583:
1294:. The sultanate then experienced a long period of stability and prosperity during the third reign of
1113:
677:
5089:
4466:
or Muslim scholar occupied the post, but in the 15th century, mamluk emirs began to be appointed as
3389:
on 2 April 1517, where he was defeated and captured. Selim intended to spare him, but Khayr Bak and
2525:, appointed instead. By January 1342, Qawsun and Kujuk were toppled, and the latter's half-brother,
12897:
12877:
12685:
12511:
12307:
12295:
12132:
12110:
11777:
11727:
11668:
11627:
11503:
11498:
11464:
11425:
9919:
9698:
6751:
The legend reads "This sultan of Babylon is great and powerful amongst those of this region.". in
5989:"Sultans with Horns: The Political Significance of Headgear in the Mamluk Empire (MSR XII.2, 2008)"
5849:"Sultans with Horns: The Political Significance of Headgear in the Mamluk Empire (MSR XII.2, 2008)"
5158:
4888:. Decorative motifs in one art form were often applied in other art forms, including architecture.
3839:
were of low quality. During al-Nasir Muhammad's third reign, the Al Fadl were granted high-quality
2467:
2214:
kingdom's demise in the mid-14th century. Furthermore, the Mamluks received the submission of King
2206:
1649:
1564:
886:
734:
190:
11256:
Al-Maqrizi, al-Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar, Matabat aladab, Cairo 1996,
5086:(d. 1470) recorded that Sultan al-Mu'ayyad gifted a red banner to one of his vassals in Anatolia.
5009:
was adopted for madrasas and became more common for new monumental complexes than the traditional
1896:
by that time, with Turkic polities occupying South and Western Asia, the other main one being the
13054:
12806:
12429:
12164:
12016:
11989:
11974:
11969:
11705:
11605:
9899:
6753:
3511:
3139:
armor belonging to Sultan Qaitbay, one of the few surviving sets of armor from the Mamluk period.
1977:
1881:
1796:
1041:
773:
580:
311:
218:
107:
3714:, which emphasized stringent moral rigor based on literal interpretations of the Qur'an and the
2347:
Khalil's death in 1293 led to period of factional struggle, with Khalil's prepubescent brother,
1321:
The 'Mamluk Sultanate' is a modern historiographical term. Arabic sources for the period of the
12958:
12887:
12816:
12638:
12606:
12300:
12238:
12233:
11947:
11412:
10554:
A Turning Point in Mamluk History: The Third Reign of Al-Nāṣir Muḥammad Ibn Qalāwūn (1310–1341)
10333:
10312:"Social Milieus and Worldviews in Mamluk Adab-Encyclopedias: The Example of Poverty and Wealth"
9988:
State Formation and the Structure of Politics in Mamluk Syro-Egypt, 648–741 A.H./1250–1340 C.E.
5142:
5079:
5030:. Influences from Syria, Ilkhanid Iran, and possibly even Venice were evident in these trends.
4901:
3961:
3907:
over the Syrian provinces, but under the Mamluks this paramountcy was consistent and absolute.
3879:
3592:
3176:
3024:
3006:
2833:
2521:, held real power and imprisoned and executed Abu Bakr and had al-Nasir Muhammad's infant son,
2249:
1769:
1711:
1154:
379:
355:
146:
31:
11015:
10781:
10636:
9855:
7503:
6591:
6392:
3180:
was reaffirmed. During the rest of Qaitbay's reign, no further external conflicts took place.
12892:
12784:
12754:
12643:
12623:
12569:
12481:
12120:
12078:
12073:
12051:
11859:
11849:
11634:
11513:
11481:
11363:
11164:
11080:
10594:
10169:
Garcin, Jean-Claude (1998). "The Regime of the Circassian Mamluks". In Petry, Carl F. (ed.).
10068:
9620:
5129:
3482:
3369:
3205:
3062:
2965:
Barsbay died on 7 June 1438 and, per his wishes, was succeeded by his fourteen-year-old son,
2923:
2829:
2534:
in June 1342. Isma'il ruled until his death in August 1345, and was succeeded by his brother
2441:
2273:
2098:
1373:
298:
11106:
Plague and Empire in the Early Modern Mediterranean World: The Ottoman Experience, 1347–1600
4702:
4244:(horsemanship manual) by Aḥmad al-Miṣrī ("the Egyptian"), dated 1371, Mamluk Egypt or Syria.
3762:(protected peoples) status, determined the taxes paid by Christians and Jews, including the
2712:
Baybars and Qalawun. A major innovation to this system was the division of Egypt into three
2553:(1356–1363) is the largest and costliest Mamluk building in Cairo, despite being built in a
1968:(horsemanship manual) by Aḥmad al-Miṣrī ("the Egyptian"), dated 1371, Mamluk Egypt or Syria.
114:
12759:
12709:
12579:
11683:
11673:
5006:
4177:
3845:
in abundance, strengthening the tribe to become the most powerful among the Bedouin of the
3776:
3357:
3160:
3105:
3092:
2599:
2565:
2499:
2341:
1787:
1591:
the Salihiyya. On 2 May 1250, disgruntled Salihi emirs assassinated Turanshah at Fariskur.
1493:
793:
753:
566:
461:
10069:"The Prince who Favored the Desert: Fragmentary Biography of al-Nasir Ahmad (d. 745/1344)"
4688:
holders neglecting the administrative oversight, maintenance, and infrastructure of their
3001:, won enough support to be declared sultan two months after Jaqmaq's death. He ruled when
2049:
In 1263, Baybars deposed al-Mughith based on allegations of collaboration with the Mongol
8:
12870:
12850:
12670:
12618:
12613:
12552:
12454:
12137:
12068:
12063:
11782:
11486:
7401:
4971:
4958:
4113:(mantle) that was annually draped over the Kaaba, in addition to patronizing Jerusalem's
3626:. Baybars ended the Ayyubid and early Mamluk tradition of selecting a Shafi'i scholar as
3390:
3348:
2978:
2535:
2219:
2159:
by Aḥmad al-Miṣrī ("the Egyptian"), dated 1371, Mamluk Egypt or Syria. He is wearing the
2118:
2004:
1778:
1245:
1226:
The first rulers of the sultanate hailed from the mamluk regiments of the Ayyubid sultan
983:
223:
160:
10857:
Tell This in My Memory: Stories of Enslavement from Egypt, Sudan, and the Ottoman Empire
12680:
12591:
12491:
12358:
12186:
12152:
12105:
12083:
11979:
11881:
11752:
11639:
11586:
11104:
10964:
10135:
9800:
9049:
7711:
4778:
3522:
3506:
Although Arabic was used as the administrative language of the sultanate, a variety of
3373:
3276:
3144:
3070:
2970:
2958:
2510:
2226:
2186:
2174:
2129:
2069:
1992:
1915:
1847:
1534:
1060:
1023:
895:
11040:
Islamic Law in Action: Authority, Discretion, and Everyday Experiences in Mamluk Egypt
9967:
Trading Conflicts: Venetian Merchants and Mamluk Officials in Late Medieval Alexandria
4227:
to emirs. This reform created a clear link between an emir's rank and the size of his
12934:
12828:
12628:
12535:
12486:
12439:
12424:
12339:
12255:
12142:
12040:
12021:
11854:
11528:
11523:
11454:
11437:
11420:
11342:
11323:
11315:
11257:
11172:
11149:
11130:
11111:
11088:
11065:
11044:
11023:
11000:
10981:
10930:
10909:
10888:
10861:
10829:
10808:
10789:
10766:
10747:
10726:
10705:
10686:
10665:
10644:
10621:
10600:
10579:
10558:
10537:
10496:
10475:
10454:
10433:
10406:
10385:
10343:
10319:
10296:
10275:
10256:
10235:
10216:
10195:
10174:
10155:
10119:
10097:
10076:
10053:
10032:
10011:
9992:
9971:
9950:
9929:
9905:
9884:
9863:
9840:
9819:
9792:
9755:
9729:
9672:
9649:
9628:
9053:
9039:
7776:
6679:
6597:
6398:
6371:
6346:
6319:
6283:
5377:
5343:
5291:
5268:
5121:
4910:
4853:
4849:
4391:
4136:
3943:
3824:
3790:
Christians from the coastal areas to prevent their contact with European powers. The
3507:
3467:
3415:
3300:
3280:
2938:
2911:
2869:
2693:
2611:
2606:
Yalbugha became regent to Hasan's successor, the young son of the late sultan Hajji,
2588:
2539:
2402:
2348:
2122:
1908:
Aybak was the main bulwark against the Bahri and Jamdari emirs, and his promotion as
1805:
1751:
1731:
1560:
1528:
1481:). These mamluks were called the 'Salihiyya' (singular 'Salihi') after their master.
1440:
had a private mamluk corps. Most of the mamluks in the Ayyubids' service were ethnic
1433:
1411:
1295:
945:
935:
915:
905:
848:
707:
636:
594:
538:
367:
304:
175:
12690:
11127:
The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia: Pagans, Christians and Muslims Along the Middle Nile
4472:
to recompense them during cash shortages or as a result of the gradual shift of the
4041:
4004:, was granted the honorary title of sultan by al-Nasir Muhammad), but otherwise the
3290:
was one of the major concerns of al-Ghuri's time. In 1498, the Portuguese navigator
12789:
12746:
12716:
12564:
12346:
12275:
12217:
11932:
11927:
11907:
11829:
11644:
11476:
11459:
11400:
11212:
10956:
10700:
Northrup, Linda S. (1998b). "The Bahri Mamluk Sultanate". In Petry, Carl F. (ed.).
9782:
9031:
6003:
5863:
5260:
4991:
4945:
4893:
4614:
4114:
3213:
2992:
2471:
2356:
2337:
2289:
2244:
2202:
1760:
1720:
1658:
1460:
acquired about one thousand mamluks (some of them free-born) from Syria, Egypt and
1264:
1070:
686:
12601:
11311:
11081:"Introduction: Constantinople and Granada, Christian-Muslim Interaction 1350–1516"
4770:. By the 15th century, internal upheaval from Mamluk power struggles, diminishing
3864:
3113:
2384:
was a Muslim convert, had invaded Syria and routed a Mamluk army near Homs in the
2169:
To Egypt's south, Baybars had initiated an aggressive policy toward the Christian
12779:
12596:
12547:
12449:
12265:
12001:
11984:
11615:
11540:
11336:
11273:
11059:
11038:
10924:
10903:
10880:
10855:
10844:
10823:
10741:
10720:
10680:
10659:
10617:
The Ottomans and the Mamluks: Imperial Diplomacy and Warfare in the Islamic World
10573:
10552:
10531:
10511:
10490:
10469:
10448:
10421:
10400:
10337:
10290:
10250:
10210:
10111:
10091:
10047:
10026:
9986:
9965:
9944:
9923:
9878:
9834:
9813:
9643:
6673:
6277:
5083:
4864:
4456:
in Cairo was the most important and his position akin to a finance minister. The
4160:
4152:
4148:
4140:
3849:. Beyond his personal admiration of the Bedouin, al-Nasir Muhammad's distributed
3791:
3739:
3735:
3463:
3304:
2903:
2868:
to serve as regent for his infant son Ahmad. After his death, a Circassian emir,
2757:
2724:; provinces), similar to the administrative divisions in Syria. The new Egyptian
2329:
2309:
2301:
2277:
2253:
2140:. In 1277, Baybars launched an expedition against the Ilkhanids, routing them in
2102:
1897:
1700:
1546:
1542:
1415:
1407:
1343:). During Burji rule, it was also referred to as the 'State of the Circassians' (
1275:
1196:
1145:
955:
552:
330:
213:
142:
81:
55:
10596:
A Military History of Modern Egypt: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War
9453:
9179:
4694:, and concentrating solely on collecting taxes, resulting in less productivity.
3694:(invocation of God). Other Sufi orders with large numbers of adherents were the
12928:
12882:
12736:
12675:
12459:
12260:
11772:
11700:
11559:
11493:
11217:
11200:
10370:
10362:
9714:
9706:
9665:""Jeux de miroir": Architecture of Istanbul and Cairo from Empire to Modernism"
4876:
4836:
4794:
4790:
4186:
3817:
3813:
3410:
3311:
in 1509. In 1515, a joint Ottoman-Mamluk fleet set out under the leadership of
3268:
2942:
2878:
and assumed power. Tatar died three months into his reign and was succeeded by
2822:
2796:
2752:
During Barquq's reign, in 1387, the Mamluks had forced the Anatolian entity in
2674:
2570:
2562:
2488:
2416:
2085:
2073:
Enameled and gilded bottle with the scene of battle. Egypt, late 13th century.
1972:
While mamluk factions fought for control of Egypt and Syria, the Mongols under
1607:
1595:
1457:
1414:
dynasties. Mamluk regiments constituted the backbone of Egypt's military under
1399:
1227:
1208:
1204:
1187:
from the mid-13th to early 16th centuries. It was ruled by a military caste of
1176:
868:
838:
649:
478:
398:
248:
11276:, al-Nujum al-Zahirah Fi Milook Misr wa al-Qahirah, al-Hay'ah al-Misreyah 1968
9787:
9770:
5264:
4159:'s decree asserting Lajin's authority with the following comment, recorded by
3295:
Ocean to the Mediterranean through Mamluk lands. For over more than a decade,
1642:
12973:
12811:
12799:
12794:
12474:
11564:
11327:
10425:
10292:
A Tale of Two Factions: Myth, Memory, and Identity in Ottoman Egypt and Yemen
9796:
9733:
9710:
9694:
5272:
4649:
system and the first was carried out in 1298 under Lajin. A second and final
4529:
4182:
4032:
4001:
3846:
3726:
3406:
3308:
3291:
2828:
Faraj was toppled in 1412 by the Syria-based emirs, Tanam, Jakam, Nawruz and
2689:
2641:
2631:
2318:
2269:
2126:
2017:
1953:
1937:
1893:
1869:
1575:
1436:'s black African infantry with mamluks. Each Ayyubid sultan and high-ranking
1418:
in the late 12th and early 13th centuries, beginning under the first Ayyubid
1395:
1322:
1249:
1220:
1212:
993:
482:
123:
10960:
10116:
The Art of the Qu'ran: Treasures from the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts
5104:, a red cup on a yellow field, is prominently visible on the upper section.
4852:(r.1285-1341), which from the 17th century was used as a baptismal font for
4758:
Egypt and Syria played a central transit role in international trade in the
3329:
2538:. The latter was killed in a mamluk revolt and was succeeded by his brother
1559:. As the Crusaders advanced, al-Salih died and was succeeded by his Jazira (
12938:
12528:
11937:
11596:
11085:
Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History, Volume 5 (1350–1500)
10944:
9686:
6255:"Al-Hariri, Maqamat ('Assemblies') – Discover Islamic Art – Virtual Museum"
5125:
5059:
4963:
4906:
4100:
3751:
3711:
3287:
3217:
3136:
3069:
Khushqadam died on 9 October 1467 and the mamluk emirs initially installed
2769:
2297:
2063:
1858:
1742:
1678:
1669:
1445:
1103:
435:
266:
228:
9035:
6275:
5311:
4747:
2933:
and massacring its Muslim inhabitants in 1429 and attacking their capital
11957:
11688:
11678:
11471:
11290:
11232:
10450:
The Middle East in the Middle Ages: The Early Mamluk Sultanate, 1250–1382
10212:
Muqarnas: An Annual on the Visual Culture of the Islamic World, Volume 13
6279:
Arab Dress: A Short History : from the Dawn of Islam to Modern Times
5093:
4815:) instead of the imperial treasury, which was linked with the military's
4759:
4600:
3904:
3883:
3588:
3585:
3394:
3312:
2578:
2554:
2514:
2452:
2380:
Early into al-Nasir Muhammad's second reign, the Ilkhanids, whose leader
2336:
Qalawun was the last Salihi sultan and after his death in 1290, his son,
2314:
1973:
1814:
1449:
1383:
1216:
858:
301:
244:
11251:
The Road to Knowledge of the Return of Kings, Chronicles of the Crusades
10905:
The Citadel of Cairo: A New Interpretation of Royal Mameluk Architecture
10402:
The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517
10028:
History's Greatest Wars: The Epic Conflicts that Shaped the Modern World
9804:
9025:
3591:, particularly in Upper Egypt. There remained a significant minority of
3360:, the Ottomans were victorious against an army led by al-Ghuri himself.
2785:
2209:
and installed their ally Shakanda as king. This brought the fortress of
12006:
11964:
11243:
10968:
9302:
4509:
of the Muslims differed from the European concept of fiefs in that the
4163:: "Stupid fellow. For God's sake—who pays any heed to the caliph now?"
4156:
3887:
3600:
3442:
3156:
3152:
3132:
3074:
2986:
2953:
2934:
2811:
Ambassadors of al-Nasir Faraj present tribute, including a giraffe, to
2765:
2746:
2374:
2324:
2210:
1930:
1237:), usurping power from his successor in 1250. The Mamluks under Sultan
343:
254:
3678:, Sufi mysticism, and elements of popular religion such as sainthood,
2858:
in Cairo, completed in 1432. The carved dome (center) covers his tomb.
12845:
12317:
10947:(1967). "Northern Lebanon Under the Dominance of Ġazīr (1517–1591)".
6007:
5867:
5153:
5010:
4926:
4913:
were often decorated with star-shaped or hexagonal geometric motifs.
4542:
4447:
4387:
4255:
4144:
4014:
3953:
3783:
3731:
3699:
3695:
3671:
3551:
3456:, who could also rise to high ranks. Each household was headed by an
3361:
3353:
3002:
2907:
2194:
2161:
2050:
1922:
1691:
1287:
697:
186:
9597:
9434:
5288:
Over-stating the Arab State: Politics and Society in the Middle East
11518:
11286:
10782:"The Military Institution and Innovation in the Late Mamluk Period"
10339:
A History of the Sudan: From the Coming of Islam to the Present Day
9575:
9573:
9571:
6559:
6475:
6368:
Arab dress: a short history; from the dawn of Islam to modern times
6167:
5253:
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland
5114:
5025:
4435:
3948:
3767:
3686:(visitation) to the tombs of saintly or religious individuals, and
3666:
3334:
3264:
2919:
2731:
2412:
2145:
2141:
2000:
1985:
1603:
1538:
1471:
1441:
1291:
925:
10093:
Crowds and Sultans: Urban Protest in Late Medieval Egypt and Syria
9535:
9533:
9531:
9529:
9386:
9314:
8856:
8854:
7702:
Ibn Iyas, Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad (1955). Wiet, Gaston (trans.) (ed.).
4143:. Three years later, Baybars reestablished the institution of the
3347:, the new Ottoman sultan, defeated the Safavids decisively at the
3151:
With the death of Mehmed II in 1481 and the accession of his son,
2821:
Barquq died in 1399 and was succeeded by his eleven-year-old son,
1533:
Tensions between as-Salih and his mamluks culminated in 1249 when
5031:
4979:
4936:
4868:
4802:
3957:
3809:
3705:
3681:
3619:
3378:
3344:
3338:
3223:
3121:
3096:
3078:
3046:
3036:
2879:
2739:
2681:
2667:
and Baraka, both Circassian mamluks of Yalbugha. Barquq was made
2574:
2352:
2265:
2257:
2239:
2178:
2114:
2042:
2028:
1996:
1949:
1579:
1422:
1389:
1310:
1279:
1253:
1242:
608:
423:
283:
272:
260:
11165:"The Re-Emergence of the Mamluks Following the Ottoman Conquest"
9946:
Ottoman Seapower and Levantine Diplomacy in the Age of Discovery
9815:
The Arts of the Mamluks in Egypt and Syria: Evolution and Impact
9568:
9502:
9265:
9263:
9224:
6889:
4367:, turning the latter into the state's chief financial official.
4343:(grand master of the house) to distinguish from his subordinate
1885:
The Mamluk Sultanate and some of the main contemporary polities
1403:
11550:
11508:
11355:
10786:
The Cambridge History of Egypt, Vol. 1: Islamic Egypt, 640–1517
9752:
Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of Architecture and its Culture
9526:
9374:
8936:
8924:
8851:
6703:
6019:
6017:
5101:
5097:
5053:
4922:
4885:
4857:
4805:, silk, wool and linen fabrics, furs, wax, honey, and cheeses.
4767:
4620:
4414:
4132:
4108:
4026:
3757:
3715:
3675:
3623:
3615:
3581:
3575:
3563:
3499:
2974:
2930:
2887:
2742:
2664:
2654:
2518:
2420:
2381:
2360:
2305:
2293:
2281:
2198:
2182:
2137:
1981:
1836:
1461:
1453:
1419:
1379:
1306:
1192:
1188:
1180:
474:
288:
11201:"The Term Mamlūk and Slave Status during the Mamluk Sultanate"
10702:
The Cambridge History of Egypt, Vol. 1: Islamic Egypt 640–1517
9925:
New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual
8993:
8899:
8897:
8895:
8893:
4929:
and horizontal scenes of animals, hunters, and riders playing
3750:
The Mamluk government, often under the official banner of the
11581:
11386:
11246:, Al Selouk Leme'refatt Dewall al-Melouk, Dar al-kotob, 1997.
9260:
8116:
8104:
6954:
6952:
5017:
4872:
4798:
4763:
4533:
4427:
4410:
4395:
3908:
3763:
3689:
3446:
One of the last Mamluks, painted by William Page in 1816-1824
3082:
3054:
2891:
2812:
2792:
2761:
2753:
2735:
2615:
2522:
2459:(head judge) to issue legal rulings advancing his interests.
2401:
Mamluk court scene, with possible depiction of Mamluk Sultan
2364:
2190:
2170:
2110:
2106:
2081:
2057:
1941:
1901:
1623:
1568:
1283:
1238:
1184:
411:
200:
11211:(1). Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas: 7–34.
10453:. Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press.
9985:
Clifford, Winslow William (2013). Conermann, Stephan (ed.).
9350:
9292:
9290:
9214:
9212:
9210:
9197:
9195:
9193:
8802:
8800:
8798:
8424:
8400:
8388:
8160:
8158:
8133:
8131:
7951:
7426:
7424:
7422:
7331:
7329:
7327:
6979:
6735:
6733:
6731:
6729:
6716:
6714:
6143:
6131:
6046:
6044:
6014:
5883:
5881:
5879:
5877:
4503:
were a central component of the Mamluk power structure. The
1470:(viceroy) of Egypt during the absence of his father, Sultan
11994:
11293:, translator, Journal d'un Bourgeois du Caire. Paris: 1955.
8914:
8912:
8890:
8839:
7683:
7248:
7246:
6631:
6629:
6627:
6625:
6424:
6422:
6420:
6418:
6416:
6414:
6186:
6184:
6182:
6107:
5953:
5438:
5436:
4930:
4418:
4240:
Horsemen wheeling around, with a sword in each one's hand.
3434:
3386:
3272:
2895:
2619:
2456:
2193:(western Arabia), the desert regions west of the Nile, and
2089:
1503:
1437:
1299:
11061:
Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals
11020:
Egypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk Eras IV
10533:
World-Maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca
9480:
9478:
9476:
9474:
9338:
9248:
9236:
8878:
8738:
8650:
8648:
8646:
8621:
8619:
8604:
8582:
8580:
8478:
8189:
7731:
7729:
7727:
7635:
7275:
7273:
7053:
7043:
7041:
6949:
6937:
6841:
6119:
6085:
6083:
5970:
5968:
5941:
5803:
5801:
5747:
5725:
5723:
5659:
5657:
5376:. Edinburg: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 164–165.
4909:
over pastel-coloured backgrounds set within wide margins.
4682:
across several provinces and for short terms. This led to
4551:, successfully resisted the abolition of their hereditary
4390:(1136–1206). Edition created for an amir of Mamluk Sultan
1195:. The sultanate was established with the overthrow of the
10722:
The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World
10073:
Mamluks and Ottomans: Studies in Honour of Michael Winter
9558:
9556:
9554:
9552:
9550:
9548:
9490:
9422:
9287:
9207:
9190:
9005:
8981:
8969:
8795:
8716:
8714:
8677:
8675:
8436:
8155:
8143:
8128:
8092:
7992:
7990:
7963:
7939:
7419:
7324:
7312:
7028:
7026:
7024:
7022:
7020:
7018:
6969:
6967:
6831:
6829:
6726:
6711:
6702:
Collection of Mamluk Qur'an Manuscripts inscribed in the
6487:
6465:
6463:
6461:
6201:
6199:
6041:
5874:
5735:
5708:
5698:
5696:
5669:
5642:
5572:
5570:
5568:
5541:
5529:
5228:
Turan, Fikret; Boeschoten, Hendrik; Stein, Heidi (2007).
3562:
Collection of Mamluk Qur'an Manuscripts inscribed in the
3474:
3200:", "Campson Gauro, king of Egypt") by Florentine painter
10008:
L'Égypte des Mamelouks: L'empire des esclaves, 1250–1517
9904:. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 75–76.
9147:
9135:
8909:
8866:
8817:
8815:
8755:
8753:
8687:
8412:
8376:
8364:
8318:
8316:
8314:
8294:
8292:
8290:
8288:
8254:
8225:
8223:
8068:
8058:
8056:
8043:
8041:
8039:
8014:
8012:
7975:
7659:
7583:
7571:
7484:
7448:
7243:
7089:
7065:
6793:
6622:
6571:
6411:
6179:
5818:
5816:
5788:
5786:
5477:
5475:
5433:
5342:. Wisconsin, USA: Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 757.
4563:
was an emir's main income source, and starting in 1337,
4166:
3827:
and Baybars II, were averse to granting Bedouin sheikhs
3228:
and his second in command. In Syria, al-Ghuri appointed
2775:
1995:
and confronted the Mongol army Hulagu left behind under
11338:
The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society
11016:"Identifying a Late Medieval Cadastral Survey of Egypt"
10877:"Representing the Mamluks in Mamluk Historical Writing"
9471:
9410:
9398:
9362:
9326:
9113:
9111:
8726:
8699:
8643:
8616:
8577:
8567:
8565:
8563:
8561:
8536:
8534:
8521:
8519:
8517:
8468:
8466:
8453:
8451:
7929:
7927:
7914:
7912:
7910:
7873:
7871:
7808:
7796:
7752:
7750:
7748:
7746:
7744:
7724:
7625:
7623:
7603:"The reception of the Venetian ambassadors in Damascus"
7561:
7559:
7557:
7555:
7553:
7551:
7536:
7524:
7460:
7360:
7358:
7356:
7354:
7352:
7350:
7348:
7346:
7344:
7300:
7290:
7288:
7270:
7231:
7180:
7168:
7146:
7144:
7142:
7140:
7125:
7101:
7038:
6865:
6853:
6816:
6814:
6812:
6810:
6808:
6771:
6769:
6767:
6610:
6547:
6394:
Egypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk Eras
6211:
6095:
6080:
6068:
5965:
5905:
5798:
5759:
5720:
5654:
5448:
5374:
Turkish Myth and Muslim Symbol: The Battle of Manzikert
2542:, who was also killed in a mamluk revolt in late 1347.
9545:
9514:
9159:
8765:
8711:
8672:
8235:
8208:
7987:
7015:
6964:
6925:
6913:
6901:
6826:
6781:
6641:
6535:
6458:
6446:
6434:
6196:
5929:
5917:
5893:
5771:
5693:
5681:
5630:
5618:
5606:
5582:
5565:
5553:
5499:
5460:
4970:(built 1470–1474), one of the finest examples of late
4664:
system was expanded, and increasingly larger areas of
4424:
The Mamluks created an administrative body called the
3803:
3073:
as his successor. After two months he was replaced by
1571:
retinue from the Jazira and Syria as a counterweight.
1207:
in 1517. Mamluk history is generally divided into the
9275:
9123:
9096:
9084:
9072:
9060:
8827:
8812:
8750:
8546:
8311:
8285:
8220:
8170:
8080:
8053:
8036:
8009:
7820:
7647:
7472:
6155:
6056:
6029:
5828:
5813:
5783:
5594:
5487:
5472:
5399:
5397:
5395:
5393:
4384:
The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices
3608:, while additionally promoting the other major Sunni
3419:
Armour of a Mamluk horseman from the Ottoman period,
1549:, which only dissipated with the intervention of the
11148:(7th ed.). American University in Cairo Press.
11018:. In Vermeulen, Urbain; van Steenbergen, Jo (eds.).
10825:
The Civilian Elite of Cairo in the Later Middle Ages
10743:
The Civilian Elite of Cairo in the Later Middle Ages
9901:
Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture
9667:. In Necipoğlu, Gülru; Barry Flood, Finbarr (eds.).
9585:
9108:
8948:
8660:
8631:
8592:
8558:
8531:
8514:
8502:
8490:
8463:
8448:
8352:
8340:
8328:
8273:
8024:
7924:
7907:
7895:
7883:
7868:
7856:
7844:
7832:
7741:
7671:
7620:
7548:
7512:
7436:
7382:
7370:
7341:
7285:
7258:
7192:
7156:
7137:
7113:
7077:
7003:
6991:
6877:
6805:
6764:
6653:
6235:
6223:
5421:
5227:
5209:
5063:
5051:
5045:
5039:
5023:
5015:
4997:
4989:
4983:
4934:
4816:
4810:
4771:
4722:
4689:
4683:
4677:
4671:
4665:
4659:
4650:
4644:
4638:
4632:
4626:
4618:
4608:
4593:
4582:
4576:
4570:
4564:
4558:
4552:
4546:
4536:
4523:
4517:
4510:
4504:
4498:
4492:
4482:
4473:
4467:
4461:
4451:
4441:
4433:
4425:
4404:
4362:
4356:
4350:
4344:
4338:
4332:
4310:
4304:
4295:
4289:
4283:
4277:
4271:
4265:
4259:
4249:
4228:
4222:
4212:
4206:
4200:
4193:
4118:
4106:
4098:
4088:
4082:
4075:
4069:
4063:
4057:
4051:
4045:
4024:
4018:
4005:
3995:
3989:
3983:
3977:
3971:
3873:
3862:
3856:
3850:
3840:
3834:
3828:
3755:
3703:
3687:
3679:
3657:
3651:
3645:
3639:
3633:
3627:
3609:
3603:
3573:
3528:
3520:
3457:
3451:
3432:
3247:
3241:
3221:
3011:
2996:
2873:
2863:
2725:
2719:
2713:
2668:
2582:
2435:
2429:
2368:
2055:
2041:(1320–1340). This is a probable depiction of Sultan
1909:
1617:
1611:
1550:
1509:
1501:
1465:
1387:
1344:
1338:
1332:
1326:
1159:
87:
61:
11268:
Description topographique et historique de l'Egypte
10997:
Tarikh Misr al-Islamiyah (History of Islamic Egypt)
9856:"A Damascene Eyewitness to the Battle of Nicopolis"
6523:
6511:
6499:
6276:Yedida Kalfon Stillman, Norman A. Stillman (2003).
5409:
5197:
3721:
3381:in Middle Egypt with some of his remaining forces.
3333:Ottoman painting showing the head of Mamluk Sultan
2392:
2351:, being overthrown the following year by an ethnic
1940:, as heir to the sultanate and Aybak's close aide,
11305:
11103:
10885:The Historiography of Islamic Egypt: (c. 950–1800)
10575:The Ottoman Turks: An Introductory History to 1923
10134:
9024:Currie, Gabriela; Christensen, Lars (April 2022).
5390:
5117:practice was unique in the medieval Muslim world.
4062:stemmed from their primary loyalty being to their
2264:Baraka was ousted in a power struggle ending with
2189:, while attempting to extend their control to the
1892:. Most of the Asian continent was occupied by the
1578:, a junior regiment of the Salihiyya commanded by
1325:refer to the dynasty as the 'State of the Turks' (
10252:The Invention of Race in the European Middle Ages
9023:
6370:(Rev. 2. ed.). Brill. p. 67, Plate 22.
4569:holders sometimes leased or sold rights to their
3275:. The Safavids styled themselves as champions of
2054:improve intracommunication, Baybars instituted a
1957:had established a shadow state opposed to Qutuz.
1402:since at least the 9th century, rising to become
12971:
11335:Winter, Michael; Levanoni, Amalia, eds. (2004).
10643:. Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 213–226.
10071:. In Wasserstein, David J.; Ayalon, Ami (eds.).
9898:Bloom, Jonathan; Blair, Sheila (2009). "Flags".
9832:
9811:
9768:
9749:
9603:
9579:
9539:
9508:
9392:
9380:
9320:
9269:
6895:
6565:
6481:
6282:. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. pp. Fig. 22.
6173:
6023:
5249:"Some Notes on the Feudal System of the Mamlūks"
4135:. The Ayyubids had owed their allegiance to the
2659:Sha'ban was succeeded by his seven-year-old son
1448:, who, upon entering service, were converted to
27:State in Egypt, Hejaz and the Levant (1250–1517)
11167:. In Philipp, Thomas; Haarmann, Ulrich (eds.).
11146:Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide
11013:
9858:. In Chrissis, Nikolaos G.; Carr, Mike (eds.).
9625:Logistics of Warfare in the Age of the Crusades
8942:
8930:
8860:
4617:), which a survey of land parcels (measured by
4440:(inspector-general) in charge. There were four
4181:Mamluk lancers, early 16th century (etching by
4087:s, who were recruited by his predecessors. The
3742:for various practical and scientific purposes.
2117:on 18 May. In 1271, Baybars captured the major
11334:
9949:. Albany: State University of New York Press.
9771:"The Jalayirid Connection in Mamluk Metalware"
9662:
9440:
4017:), the sultan's assumption of the regal title
3170:or 1484, which soon triggered the start of an
2367:. To consolidate control, Lajin redistributed
13010:States and territories disestablished in 1517
11371:
10929:. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press.
10641:Islamic Art in the Metropolitan Museum of Art
10422:"The Position and Power of the Mamluk Sultan"
9877:Blair, Sheila S.; Bloom, Jonathan M. (1995).
9754:. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press.
6390:
4478:'s role from the legal realm to enforcement.
3400:
3315:, but ultimately it did not accomplish much.
2113:before conquering the Crusader stronghold of
1522:
1121:
11169:The Mamluks in Egyptian Politics and Society
10272:The Mamluks in Egyptian Politics and Society
10110:
9880:The Art and Architecture of Islam, 1250–1800
9663:Avcıoğlu, Nebahat; Volait, Mercedes (2017).
9230:
6338:
6311:
5193:Mamluk Sultanate in the Catalan Atlas (1375)
4766:and Qalawun signed a similar agreement with
174:Extent of the Mamluk Sultanate under Sultan
73:
47:
10118:. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution.
9669:A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture
9184:The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History
6391:Vermeulen, Urbain; Smet, Daniel De (1995).
5371:
4316:
3580:s (schools of jurisprudence) and different
3112:. Shah Suwar held out in his fortress near
2749:to Upper Egypt to check the Arab Bedouins.
2389:al-Suffar in the plains south of Damascus.
2272:coalition, but routed the coalition at the
13005:States and territories established in 1250
11378:
11364:
11194:. Hebrew University of Jerusalem: 387–410.
11083:. In Thomas, David; Mallett, Alex (eds.).
10376:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
10208:
10150:. In Conermann, Stephan; Şen, Gül (eds.).
9897:
9876:
9833:Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (2014). "Africa".
9720:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
9496:
9356:
9308:
9296:
9254:
9242:
9218:
9201:
9180:"The Art of the Mamluk Period (1250–1517)"
9030:. Cambridge University Press. p. 74.
8484:
7716:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
7318:
6635:
6577:
4123:(Ilkhanid deserters or prisoners of war).
3914:
3650:s prevailed. The diffusion of the post of
2482:
1128:
1114:
168:
11216:
11057:
10922:
10699:
10678:
10520:
10384:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 321–330.
10089:
9786:
9728:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 944–945.
9011:
8999:
8987:
8975:
8903:
8872:
8845:
8806:
8303:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBritannica (
8265:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBritannica (
8246:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBritannica (
8200:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBritannica (
8181:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBritannica (
8164:
8149:
8137:
8122:
8110:
8001:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBritannica (
7969:
7945:
7689:
6739:
6428:
6190:
6149:
6137:
6125:
6101:
5911:
5807:
5765:
5753:
5729:
5663:
5600:
5454:
5442:
5356:
4074:also rebelled at times, particularly the
3782:In Syria, the Mamluks uprooted the local
3656:enabled Mamluk sultans to patronize each
2772:tribes of southern and eastern Anatolia.
2625:
2011:
1606:. Consensus settled on al-Salih's widow,
1541:in their bid to conquer Egypt during the
13020:16th-century disestablishments in Africa
11143:
10592:
10571:
10550:
10332:
10288:
10269:
10229:
10187:
10171:The Cambridge History of Egypt, Volume 1
10045:
9984:
9942:
9918:
9641:
9484:
9416:
9404:
9368:
9344:
9332:
9281:
8960:
8918:
8744:
8732:
8720:
8705:
8693:
8681:
8610:
8586:
8442:
8430:
8418:
8406:
8394:
8382:
8370:
7957:
7826:
7814:
7802:
7704:Journal d'un Bourgeois du Caire, vol. II
7701:
7641:
7252:
6985:
6859:
6847:
6720:
6647:
6616:
6589:
6493:
6469:
6452:
6440:
6397:. Peeters Publishers. pp. 313–314.
6365:
6345:. New York : Rizzoli. p. 162.
6318:. New York : Rizzoli. p. 148.
6217:
6205:
6113:
6089:
6074:
6050:
5974:
5959:
5947:
5935:
5923:
5899:
5887:
5777:
5741:
5714:
5702:
5687:
5675:
5648:
5636:
5624:
5612:
5588:
5559:
5547:
5535:
5505:
5466:
5088:
4962:
4925:today), a large brass basin inlaid with
4840:
4742:
4701:
4374:
4235:
4176:
3982:). The vice-regent of Egypt was the top
3725:
3558:in 1334. This manuscript is part of the
3545:
3441:
3414:
3328:
3254:
3187:
3126:
3087:
3040:
3019:Inal died on 26 February 1461. His son,
2952:
2948:
2918:in 1425–1426, during which the island's
2850:
2698:
2635:
2593:
2544:
2461:
2396:
2323:
2243:
2233:
2150:
2068:
2032:
1959:
1483:
10994:
10975:
10657:
10467:
10132:
10024:
9645:The Crusades: The War for the Holy Land
9428:
7768:
6871:
6787:
6035:
5834:
5822:
5792:
5481:
5427:
5215:
3377:Mamluks surrendered. Tuman Bay fled to
3318:
30:For the Mamluk sultanate of Delhi, see
14:
12972:
11162:
11124:
11101:
10980:. American University in Cairo Press.
10943:
10901:
10874:
10853:
10842:
10634:
10488:
10471:A History of African Societies to 1870
10309:
10295:. State University of New York Press.
10168:
10096:. American University in Cairo Press.
9963:
9853:
9740:
9685:
9618:
9562:
9520:
9165:
9153:
9141:
9102:
9090:
9078:
9066:
8884:
8833:
8821:
8771:
8759:
8298:
8260:
8241:
8195:
8176:
8074:
8062:
8047:
8018:
7996:
7059:
7032:
6973:
6958:
6943:
6931:
6919:
6907:
6835:
6241:
6229:
6161:
6062:
5493:
5337:
5246:
5203:
5072:
4879:industry. Trade with Iran, India, and
4068:. Emirs who were part of the sultan's
3632:(chief judge) and instead appointed a
3584:orders, but also small communities of
2037:Enthroned ruler and attendants in the
1867:
1856:
1740:
13015:13th-century establishments in Africa
12404:
12215:
12038:
11879:
11398:
11359:
11303:
11198:
11188:Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam
11185:
11078:
11036:
10821:
10802:
10779:
10760:
10739:
10718:
10613:
10509:
10446:
10145:
10066:
9591:
9446:
9129:
9117:
9027:Eurasian Musical Journeys: Five Tales
8954:
8666:
8654:
8625:
8598:
8552:
8496:
8457:
8358:
8346:
8334:
8322:
8279:
8229:
8098:
8086:
8030:
7756:
7735:
7653:
7629:
7565:
7542:
7530:
7518:
7490:
7478:
7466:
7442:
7430:
7364:
7335:
7306:
7294:
7279:
7264:
7237:
7198:
7186:
7174:
7150:
7131:
7119:
7107:
7095:
7083:
7047:
7009:
6671:
6659:
6541:
6529:
6517:
6505:
5986:
5846:
5576:
5415:
5403:
5290:. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 67.
5285:
4738:
4670:(taxable lands) were appropriated as
4603:, and rural demography in particular.
4167:Military and administrative hierarchy
4126:
2961:minted in Cairo between 1438 and 1440
2914:piracy. Related to this, he launched
2872:, married Shaykh's widow, ousted the
2776:Crises and restoration of state power
2201:. In 1276, the Mamluks defeated King
1845:
1834:
1729:
1718:
1709:
1698:
1689:
1676:
1667:
1656:
1647:
12954:
10529:
10419:
10398:
10356:
10248:
10005:
8637:
8571:
8540:
8525:
8508:
8472:
8214:
7981:
7933:
7918:
7901:
7889:
7877:
7862:
7850:
7838:
7677:
7665:
7589:
7577:
7454:
7388:
7376:
7162:
7071:
6997:
6883:
6820:
6799:
6775:
6553:
4010:of the provinces were mamluk emirs.
3527:. The sons of mamluks, known as the
3498:By the time the Mamluks took power,
3183:
1823:
1812:
1803:
1794:
1785:
1776:
1767:
1758:
1749:
1496:, Mamluk Egypt or Syria, circa 1330.
13045:Historical transcontinental empires
12944:
7769:Jenkins, Everett Jr. (7 May 2015).
3994:of Damascus, then Aleppo, then the
3804:Bedouin relationship with the state
3541:
3267:had emerged in 1501 and forged the
3053:", "The great Caitbeius, Sultan of
3030:
2846:
2517:. Al-Nasir Muhammad's senior aide,
2022:
1191:(freed slave soldiers) headed by a
1149:
74:
48:
24:
11297:
11266:Idem in French: Bouriant, Urbain,
11226:
10765:. University of Washington Press.
10639:. In Ettinghausen, Richard (ed.).
9943:Brummett, Palmira Johnson (1994).
9177:
6678:. Thames and Hudson. p. 193.
6593:Dictionary of Islamic Architecture
5365:
5136:
4968:Funerary complex of Sultan Qaitbay
4863:Mamluk decorative arts—especially
4288:(commander of the royal stables),
2969:, with a leading emir of Barsbay,
2648:
1557:Fakhr ad-Din ibn Shaykh al-Shuyukh
1490:Sulwan al-Muta’ fi ‘Udwan al-Atba’
25:
13066:
12325:Role of the Egyptian Armed Forces
11249:Idem in English: Bohn, Henry G.,
10849:. University of California Press.
10523:Memoirs of John lord de Joinville
10492:Economic Concepts of Ibn Taimiyah
10215:. Leiden: Brill. pp. 68–79.
10141:. University of California Press.
9186:. The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
6754:"The Cresques Project – Panel IV"
5331:
5304:
2359:, who in turn was succeeded by a
1944:, as strongman. The Bahriyya and
1630:, a grandson of Sultan al-Kamil.
12953:
12943:
12933:
12924:
12923:
12182:Refugees of the Syrian civil war
11385:
11314:; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John;
9812:Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (2012).
9769:Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (2009).
9750:Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (2007).
9171:
9017:
8777:
7762:
7695:
7595:
7508:(in Italian). 1646. p. 218.
7496:
7394:
7204:
6745:
5169:Military of the Mamluk Sultanate
4432:to supervise the market, with a
4294:(chief of the mamluk corps) and
4173:Military of the Mamluk Sultanate
3932:
3923:
3722:Christian and Jewish communities
3286:The latter's expansion into the
2804:
2795:(left) and the Mamluk troops of
2784:
2496: 1347–1351, 1354–1361
2393:Third reign of al-Nasir Muhammad
1641:
1635:
1582:, defeated the Crusaders at the
1517:
1097:
696:
654:
629:
615:
601:
587:
573:
559:
545:
531:
153:
113:
106:
12666:Identification card controversy
11238:The Concise History of Humanity
10805:The Mamluk Sultanate: A History
10593:McGregor, Andrew James (2006).
10314:. In Conermann, Stephan (ed.).
10133:Fischel, Walter Joseph (1967).
9612:
9454:"Neo-Mamluk Style Beyond Egypt"
6698:This manuscript is part of the
6692:
6665:
6583:
6384:
6359:
6332:
6305:
6269:
6247:
5980:
5840:
5511:
4952:
4481:
4270:(commander of the arsenal) and
3754:which gave Christians and Jews
3744:Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum
3374:Ottoman attack at al-Raydaniyya
2838:
2705:Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Barquq
2504:
2493:
2446:
2125:. Despite an alliance with the
2008:1260, inaugurating Bahri rule.
1476:
1427:
1370:Slavery in the Mamluk Sultanate
1359:History of the Mamluk Sultanate
1269:
1258:
1232:
11572:Khedivate and Kingdom of Egypt
11322:(3rd ed.). Brill Online.
11171:. Cambridge University Press.
11110:. Cambridge University Press.
11058:Streusand, Douglas E. (2018).
10828:. Princeton University Press.
10807:. Cambridge University Press.
10788:. Cambridge University Press.
10746:. Princeton University Press.
10725:. Knopf Doubleday Publishing.
10704:. Cambridge University Press.
10599:. Greenwood Publishing Group.
10474:. Cambridge University Press.
10274:. Cambridge University Press.
10255:. Cambridge University Press.
10173:. Cambridge University Press.
9928:. Edinburgh University Press.
7406:The Metropolitan Museum of Art
6339:Ettinghausen, Richard (1977).
6312:Ettinghausen, Richard (1977).
5279:
5247:Poliak, A. N. (January 1937).
5240:
5221:
5185:
5164:List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
4697:
4446:s based in Cairo, Alexandria,
4386:(Kitab al-hiyal al-nafisa) of
3890:tribes of Upper Egypt, became
3325:Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)
2598:Qur'an commissioned by sultan
2405:. Probably Egypt, dated 1334.
1386:slave, distinguished from the
13:
1:
13000:Former countries in West Asia
12990:Medieval history of Palestine
11880:
10860:. Stanford University Press.
10854:Powell, Eve M. Trout (2012).
10232:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three
5340:The Later Crusades, 1189–1311
5179:
4707:
4382:: folio from a manuscript of
4337:was often referred to as the
3897:
3797:Timurid destruction of Aleppo
3556:Ahmad ibn Kamal al-Mutatabbib
3420:
3164:
2791:Battle between the troops of
1886:
1555:(commander of the military),
128:
12199:Twin towns and sister cities
12039:
11711:Assassination of Anwar Sadat
11079:Teule, Herman G. B. (2013).
11014:van Steenbergen, Jo (2005).
10614:Muslu, Cihan Yüksel (2014).
10420:Holt, Peter Malcolm (2005).
10399:Holt, Peter Malcolm (1986).
10052:. Harvard University Press.
9854:Binbaş, İlker Evrim (2014).
9745:. London: Variorum Reprints.
9311:, pp. 70, 85–87, 92–93.
7213:Rönesans'ta Osmanlı esintisi
6707:Memory of the World Register
6366:Stillman, Yedida K. (2003).
5372:Hillenbrand, Carole (2007).
3567:Memory of the World Register
3470:, began to appear in Egypt.
3356:. On 24 August 1516, at the
2957:Gold dinar of Mamluk sultan
2644:, late 1370s or early 1380s.
2591:, who killed Hasan in 1361.
2455:, as well as compelling the
7:
13035:Medieval history of Lebanon
12727:Vehicle registration plates
12405:
12381:Water supply and sanitation
12216:
11399:
11304:Petry, Carl Forbes (2012).
11144:Williams, Caroline (2018).
11043:. Oxford University Press.
10784:. In Petry, Carl F. (ed.).
10489:Islahi, Abdul Azim (1988).
10468:Isichei, Elizabeth (1997).
10342:. Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
10234:. Brill. pp. 124–129.
9743:The Mamluk Military Society
9623:. In Pryor, John H. (ed.).
6700:National Library of Egypt's
5338:Setton, Kenneth M. (1969).
5147:
5064:
5052:
5046:
5040:
5024:
5016:
4998:
4990:
4984:
4935:
4817:
4811:
4772:
4723:
4715:Museum of Islamic Art, Doha
4706:Mamluk Wool Carpet, Egypt,
4690:
4684:
4678:
4672:
4666:
4660:
4651:
4645:
4639:
4633:
4627:
4619:
4609:
4594:
4583:
4577:
4571:
4565:
4559:
4553:
4547:
4537:
4524:
4518:
4511:
4505:
4499:
4493:
4483:
4474:
4468:
4462:
4452:
4442:
4434:
4426:
4405:
4363:
4357:
4351:
4345:
4339:
4333:
4311:
4305:
4296:
4290:
4284:
4278:
4272:
4266:
4260:
4250:
4229:
4223:
4213:
4207:
4201:
4194:
4119:
4107:
4099:
4089:
4083:
4076:
4070:
4064:
4058:
4052:
4046:
4025:
4019:
4006:
3996:
3990:
3984:
3978:
3972:
3874:
3863:
3857:
3851:
3841:
3835:
3829:
3756:
3704:
3688:
3680:
3658:
3652:
3646:
3640:
3634:
3628:
3610:
3604:
3574:
3560:National Library of Egypt's
3536:
3529:
3521:
3493:
3458:
3452:
3433:
3248:
3242:
3222:
3012:
2997:
2995:, who Barsbay had made his
2874:
2864:
2856:Barsbay's mausoleum complex
2726:
2720:
2714:
2669:
2583:
2436:
2430:
2386:Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar
2369:
2330:Mausoleum of Sultan Qalawun
2121:fortress from the Crusader
2056:
1910:
1618:
1612:
1551:
1510:
1502:
1466:
1388:
1345:
1339:
1333:
1327:
1160:
623:Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
88:
62:
10:
13071:
13030:Medieval history of Jordan
12995:Former countries in Africa
12386:Water resources management
11218:10.3989/alqantara.2013.001
10926:Cairo: The City Victorious
10902:Rabbat, Nasser O. (1995).
10495:. The Islamic Foundation.
10405:. Addison Wesley Longman.
10188:Grainger, John D. (2016).
10049:Cairo: Histories of a City
9441:Avcıoğlu & Volait 2017
6596:. Routledge. p. 269.
5312:"Mamluk | Islamic dynasty"
5140:
5106:Metropolitan Museum of Art
4956:
4848:, basin from the reign of
4834:
4825:
4545:), who became part of the
4370:
4170:
4147:by making a member of the
3488:
3404:
3401:Mamluks under Ottoman rule
3322:
3297:a series of confrontations
3051:Mag Caitbeivs Cairi Svltan
3034:
2760:and the Turkmen allies of
2652:
2629:
2451:) with his own appointee,
2317:, forming out of them the
2237:
2075:Metropolitan Museum of Art
2026:
2015:
1526:
1523:Conflict with the Ayyubids
1464:by 1229, while serving as
1406:in Egypt and Syria as the
1367:
1363:
1356:
1352:
1290:, the Hejaz, and southern
29:
13040:Medieval history of Syria
13025:Medieval history of Libya
12985:Medieval history of Egypt
12919:
12745:
12417:
12413:
12400:
12281:Impact on the environment
12271:Entrepreneurship policies
12224:
12211:
12047:
12034:
11888:
11875:
11843:
11745:
11411:
11407:
11394:
10679:Northrup, Linda (1998a).
10572:McCarthy, Justin (2014).
10551:Levanoni, Amalia (1995).
10516:. Chester Beatty Library.
10318:. Bonn University Press.
10191:Syria: An Outline History
10154:. Bonn University Press.
10090:Elbendary, Amina (2015).
9883:. Yale University Press.
9818:. V&R unipress GmbH.
9788:10.1163/22118993-90000147
9642:Asbridge, Thomas (2010).
6590:Petersen, Andrew (2002).
5265:10.1017/S0035869X00096179
4941:script prominently used.
4919:Baptistère of Saint-Louis
4846:Baptistère de Saint Louis
4557:. In the Mamluk era, the
3833:, and when they did, the
3202:Cristofano dell'Altissimo
3198:Campson Gavro re d'Egitto
3059:Cristofano dell'Altissimo
3057:") by Florentine painter
2155:Horseman impales a bear.
2095:Armenian Cilician Kingdom
2039:Baptistère de Saint Louis
1574:On 11 February 1250, the
1508:(akin to fiefs; singular
1199:in Egypt in 1250 and was
1175:, was a state that ruled
859:Roman and Byzantine Egypt
510:
506:
497:Ottoman conquest of Cairo
493:
471:
458:
454:
446:
442:
429:
417:
405:
392:
388:
378:
374:
361:
349:
337:
324:
320:
310:
294:
282:
237:
206:
196:
182:
167:
139:
103:
98:
41:
12052:Administrative divisions
11728:2011 Egyptian revolution
11669:1952 Egyptian revolution
11465:Lighthouse of Alexandria
11163:Winter, Michael (1998).
10843:Popper, William (1955).
10661:Mamluk 'Askari 1250–1517
10521:Joinville, Jean (1807).
10249:Heng, Geraldine (2018).
10146:Fuess, Albrecht (2022).
10114:; Rettig, Simon (2016).
10046:AlSayyad, Nezar (2013).
10025:Cummins, Joseph (2011).
9231:Farhad & Rettig 2016
6259:islamicart.museumwnf.org
5987:Fuess, Albrecht (2018).
5847:Fuess, Albrecht (2018).
5286:Ayubi, Nazih N. (1996).
5174:
5159:Egypt in the Middle Ages
4380:A Blood-Measuring Device
4282:(secretary or adviser),
3307:in 1507 but lost at the
3007:conquered Constantinople
2916:campaigns against Cyprus
2684:and Aleppo, Mintash and
2513:, who al-Nasir Muhammad
2468:Al-Nasir Muhammad Mosque
1337:) or 'State of Turkey' (
69:State of the Circassians
18:Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)
12256:Egyptian stock exchange
11102:Varlik, Nükhet (2015).
11037:Stilt, Kristen (2011).
10999:. Cairo: Dar al-Maref.
10995:Shayyal, Jamal (1967).
10976:Sanders, Paula (2008).
10961:10.1163/157005867X00029
10923:Rodenbeck, Max (1999).
10875:Rabbat, Nasser (2001).
10822:Petry, Carl F. (2014).
10803:Petry, Carl F. (2022).
10780:Petry, Carl F. (1998).
10761:Petry, Carl F. (1993).
10740:Petry, Carl F. (1981).
10719:Paine, Lincoln (2015).
10658:Nicolle, David (2014).
10635:Nickel, Helmut (1972).
10530:King, David A. (1999).
10310:Herzog, Thomas (2014).
10289:Hathaway, Jane (2012).
9991:Bonn University Press.
9619:Amitai, Reuven (2006).
6758:www.cresquesproject.net
5317:Encyclopædia Britannica
5100:, dated 1329. Qawsun's
4896:were widely available.
4522:holders to treat their
3976:(deputy sultans, sing.
3915:Authority of the sultan
3512:Mamluk-Kipchak language
3305:defeated the Portuguese
3025:Khushqadam al-Mu'ayyadi
2551:complex of Sultan Hasan
2515:designated as successor
2483:End of the Bahri regime
2278:captured and garrisoned
1999:in the plains south of
1316:
804:3rd Intermediate Period
784:2nd Intermediate Period
764:1st Intermediate Period
581:Principality of Antioch
356:Abū al-Faḍl Al-Musta'in
121:Flags according to the
12587:International rankings
11592:Egyptian–Ethiopian War
11320:Encyclopaedia of Islam
11125:Welsby, Derek (2002).
11022:. Peeters Publishers.
10447:Irwin, Robert (1986).
10336:; Daly, M. W. (1961).
10067:Drory, Joseph (2006).
9964:Christ, Georg (2012).
9862:. Ashgate Publishing.
9741:Ayalon, David (1979).
9648:. Simon and Schuster.
9627:. Ashgate Publishing.
9497:Bloom & Blair 2009
9357:Blair & Bloom 1995
9309:Blair & Bloom 1995
9297:Blair & Bloom 1995
9255:Blair & Bloom 1995
9243:Blair & Bloom 1995
9219:Blair & Bloom 1995
9202:Blair & Bloom 1995
8485:Blair & Bloom 1995
7319:Blair & Bloom 1995
6675:Qurʾāns of the Mamlūks
6578:Blair & Bloom 1995
5191:Photographic extract:
5143:List of Mamluk sultans
5109:
4974:
4860:
4830:
4755:
4754:. Mamluk period, 1315.
4717:
4605:
4399:
4245:
4189:
3962:Chester Beatty Library
3949:Al-Kawākib ad-durriyya
3746:
3638:from each of the four
3569:
3447:
3427:
3341:
3263:In the meantime, Shah
3260:
3209:
3177:status quo ante bellum
3140:
3100:
3066:
3005:, the Ottoman sultan,
2962:
2859:
2708:
2645:
2626:Burji rule (1382–1517)
2603:
2558:
2475:
2424:
2333:
2261:
2166:
2077:
2046:
2012:Bahri rule (1250–1382)
1969:
1964:Horsemen with lances.
1497:
1274:), they conquered the
32:Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)
12192:Terrorism and tourism
11650:1948 Arab–Israeli War
11482:Library of Alexandria
11307:"Circassians, Mamlūk"
10664:. Osprey Publishing.
10510:James, David (1983).
10010:(in French). Perrin.
10006:Clot, André (2009) .
9604:Behrens-Abouseif 2009
9580:Behrens-Abouseif 2014
9540:Behrens-Abouseif 2007
9509:Behrens-Abouseif 2012
9443:, pp. 1140–1142.
9393:Behrens-Abouseif 2007
9381:Behrens-Abouseif 2007
9321:Behrens-Abouseif 2007
9270:Behrens-Abouseif 2007
9036:10.1017/9781108913805
6896:Behrens-Abouseif 2007
6672:James, David (1988).
6566:Behrens-Abouseif 2007
6482:Behrens-Abouseif 2007
6174:Behrens-Abouseif 2007
6024:Behrens-Abouseif 2014
5996:Mamlūk Studies Review
5862:(2): 76, 84, Fig. 5.
5856:Mamlūk Studies Review
5362:Levanoni 1995, p. 17.
5092:
4966:
4844:
4746:
4705:
4590:
4450:and Lower Egypt. The
4378:
4239:
4180:
3946:to the manuscript of
3729:
3549:
3445:
3418:
3332:
3323:Further information:
3258:
3206:Galleria degli Uffizi
3196:(r. 1501–1516, here "
3191:
3130:
3091:
3063:Galleria degli Uffizi
3044:
3035:Further information:
2956:
2949:Successors of Barsbay
2854:
2702:
2640:Mamluk Sultan in the
2639:
2602:, dated to 1372 until
2597:
2548:
2465:
2400:
2327:
2300:in Jerusalem and the
2247:
2234:Early Qalawuni period
2154:
2105:, and shortly after,
2072:
2036:
1963:
1927:Jamal ad-Din Aydughdi
1565:al-Mu'azzam Turanshah
1487:
1374:Black Sea slave trade
744:Early Dynastic Period
207:Common languages
12903:World Heritage Sites
12722:Units of measurement
12177:Proposed new capital
11923:Environmental issues
11684:United Arab Republic
11577:Muhammad Ali dynasty
11199:Yosef, Koby (2013).
10031:. Fair Winds Press.
9002:, pp. 269, 271.
8943:van Steenbergen 2005
8931:van Steenbergen 2005
8861:van Steenbergen 2005
7706:. Paris. p. 67.
6051:Holt & Daly 1961
5058:) and multi-storied
5044:s (a combination of
5007:four-iwan floor plan
3956:made for the sultan
3550:Finispiece from the
3358:Battle of Marj Dabiq
3319:Fall to the Ottomans
3243:al-Ṭabaqa al-Khamisa
3075:Timurbugha al-Zahiri
3049:(r.1468-1496, here "
2707:in Cairo (1384–1386)
2408:Maqamat of al-Hariri
2332:in Cairo (1284–1285)
1991:The Mamluks entered
1882:class=notpageimage|
1584:Battle of al-Mansura
1494:Ibn Zafar al-Siqilli
1432:), who replaced the
1340:al-Dawla al-Turkiyya
1215:(1250–1382) and the
1014:Muhammad Ali dynasty
567:Kingdom of Jerusalem
189:nominally under the
12575:Freedom of religion
12470:Mass sexual assault
11835:Timekeeping devices
11733:2013 Rabaa massacre
11706:Egyptian–Libyan War
10357:Holt, P.M. (1991).
10334:Holt, Peter Malcolm
9671:. Wiley Blackwell.
9606:, pp. 149–159.
9233:, pp. 104–105.
8887:, pp. 146–147.
8433:, pp. 182–183.
8397:, pp. 176–177.
8198:, pp. 114–115.
8125:, pp. 268–269.
8113:, pp. 265–266.
8101:, pp. 394–395.
7984:, pp. 421–422.
7960:, pp. 126–127.
7668:, pp. 236–237.
7592:, pp. 235–236.
7580:, pp. 232–234.
7457:, pp. 226–228.
7433:, pp. 145–147.
7338:, pp. 128–129.
7074:, pp. 193–195.
7062:, pp. 293–294.
6988:, pp. 284–286.
6961:, pp. 291–292.
6946:, pp. 290–291.
6802:, pp. 127–128.
6568:, pp. 201–203.
6556:, pp. 122–123.
6484:, pp. 173–175.
6176:, pp. 132–134.
6152:, pp. 115–116.
6140:, pp. 119–120.
6116:, pp. 109–110.
5962:, pp. 103–104.
5073:Emblems and blazons
4972:Mamluk architecture
4959:Mamluk architecture
4326:master of the house
3391:Janbirdi al-Ghazali
3349:Battle of Chaldiran
3099:in Jerusalem (1482)
3071:Yalbay al-Mu'ayyadi
2979:Knights of St. John
2363:mamluk of Qalawun,
2355:mamluk of Qalawun,
2119:Krak des Chevaliers
2005:Battle of Ain Jalut
1537:'s forces captured
1404:governing dynasties
1161:Salṭanat al-Mamālīk
849:Ptolemaic dynasties
161:Mecia de Viladestes
12765:Art (contemporary)
12445:Capital punishment
12335:Telecommunications
12012:Towns and villages
11980:Qattara Depression
11793:Muslim Brotherhood
11763:Cigarette industry
11623:British occupation
11534:Crusader invasions
11504:Rashidun Caliphate
11310:. In Fleet, Kate;
11253:, AMS Press, 1969.
11129:. British Museum.
10082:9-78-0-415-37278-7
9703:Lévi-Provençal, E.
8966:Stilt 2011, p. 24.
8409:, p. 178–179.
7493:, pp. 99–100.
5950:, pp. 99–100.
5110:
4975:
4894:Chinese porcelains
4861:
4756:
4739:Trade and industry
4718:
4581:became taxed. The
4400:
4246:
4190:
4127:Role of the caliph
3988:, followed by the
3820:(eastern Arabia).
3747:
3570:
3448:
3428:
3342:
3337:being remitted to
3261:
3210:
3172:Ottoman–Mamluk war
3145:Republic of Venice
3141:
3101:
3067:
2971:Sayf al-Din Jaqmaq
2963:
2959:Sayf ad-Din Jaqmaq
2860:
2830:al-Mu'ayyad Shaykh
2709:
2686:Yalbugha al-Nasiri
2646:
2608:al-Mansur Muhammad
2604:
2559:
2511:al-Mansur Abu Bakr
2476:
2425:
2365:Husam al-Din Lajin
2334:
2262:
2256:by the Mamluks of
2252:, led against the
2187:Dahlak Archipelago
2167:
2078:
2047:
1970:
1916:Faris al-Din Aktay
1588:Battle of Fariskur
1535:Louis IX of France
1498:
1346:Dawlat al-Jarakisa
1061:Sultanate of Egypt
1051:British occupation
1024:Khedivate of Egypt
896:Rashidun caliphate
717:Predynastic Period
89:Dawlat al-Jarākisa
43:State of the Turks
13050:Former sultanates
12967:
12966:
12915:
12914:
12911:
12910:
12839:Football stadiums
12770:Botanical gardens
12649:Catholic dioceses
12541:Gender inequality
12465:Human trafficking
12396:
12395:
12330:Tallest buildings
12291:Military industry
12207:
12206:
12148:Political parties
12101:Islamic extremism
12089:Foreign relations
12030:
12029:
11871:
11870:
11867:
11866:
11611:French occupation
11529:Fatimid Caliphate
11524:Ikhshidid dynasty
11348:978-90-04-13286-3
11279:Idem in English:
11262:978-977-241-175-7
11178:978-0-521-59115-7
11155:978-977-416-855-0
11136:978-0-7141-1947-2
11117:978-1-316-35182-6
11094:978-90-04-25278-3
11071:978-0-429-96813-6
11050:978-0-19-960243-8
11029:978-90-429-1524-4
11006:978-977-02-5975-7
10987:978-977-416-095-0
10915:978-90-04-10124-1
10894:978-90-04-11794-5
10867:978-0-8047-8375-0
10835:978-1-4008-5641-1
10814:978-1-108-47104-6
10795:978-0-521-06885-7
10772:978-0-295-97307-4
10753:978-1-4008-5641-1
10732:978-1-101-97035-5
10711:978-0-521-06885-7
10692:978-3-515-06861-1
10685:. Franz Steiner.
10671:978-1-78200-929-0
10650:978-0-87099-111-0
10627:978-0-85773-580-5
10606:978-0-2759-8601-8
10585:978-1-317-89048-5
10564:978-90-04-10182-1
10543:978-90-04-11367-1
10502:978-0-86037-665-1
10481:978-0-521-45599-2
10439:978-0-415-45096-6
10412:978-1-317-87152-1
10391:978-90-04-08112-3
10349:978-1-317-86366-3
10325:978-3-8471-0228-1
10302:978-0-7914-8610-8
10281:978-0-5215-9115-7
10262:978-1-108-42278-9
10241:978-90-04-16165-8
10201:978-1-4738-6083-4
10194:. Pen and Sword.
10180:978-0-521-06885-7
10161:978-3-8470-1152-1
10125:978-1-58834-578-3
10103:978-977-416-717-1
10059:978-0-674-07245-9
10038:978-1-61058-055-7
10017:978-2-262-03045-2
9998:978-3-8471-0091-1
9977:978-90-04-22199-4
9956:978-0-7914-1701-0
9935:978-1-4744-6462-8
9911:978-0-19-530991-1
9890:978-0-300-05888-8
9869:978-1-4094-3926-4
9846:978-0-85773-541-6
9825:978-3-89971-915-4
9761:978-977-416-077-6
9678:978-1-119-06857-0
9655:978-1-84983-770-5
9634:978-0-7546-5197-0
9431:, pp. 39–41.
9395:, pp. 80–84.
9359:, pp. 83–84.
9347:, pp. 30–31.
9323:, pp. 73–77.
9156:, pp. 33–34.
9144:, pp. 19–20.
8906:, pp. 37–38.
8848:, pp. 38–39.
8747:, pp. 11–12.
8657:, pp. 22–23.
8628:, pp. 30–31.
8613:, pp. 31–32.
8263:, pp. 15–16.
8077:, pp. 60–61.
7782:978-1-4766-0889-1
7738:, pp. 50–52.
7692:, pp. 44–45.
7644:, pp. 42–44.
7545:, pp. 48–49.
7533:, pp. 47–48.
7469:, pp. 92–93.
7309:, pp. 46–47.
7282:, pp. 45–46.
7240:, pp. 43–44.
7189:, pp. 42–43.
7177:, pp. 41–42.
7134:, pp. 40–41.
7110:, pp. 39–40.
7098:, p. 36, 42.
7050:, pp. 38–39.
6850:, pp. 76–80.
6723:, pp. 88–89.
6685:978-0-500-97367-7
6603:978-1-134-61366-3
6544:, pp. 28–29.
6496:, pp. 31–33.
6404:978-90-6831-683-4
6377:978-90-04-11373-2
6352:978-0-8478-0081-0
6325:978-0-8478-0081-0
6128:, pp. 84–85.
6053:, pp. 17–18.
5890:, pp. 92–93.
5756:, pp. 70–71.
5744:, pp. 73–74.
5717:, pp. 79–80.
5678:, pp. 75–76.
5651:, pp. 72–73.
5579:, pp. 19–21.
5550:, pp. 68–69.
5538:, pp. 67–68.
5383:978-0-7486-2572-7
5349:978-0-299-04844-0
5005:The cruciform or
4850:al-Nasir Muhammad
4532:, where longtime
4392:Al-Nasir Muhammad
4309:(from the Arabic
4137:Abbasid Caliphate
3973:nuwwab al-saltana
3795:Antioch, and the
3593:Coptic Christians
3479:final elimination
3301:Gujarat Sultanate
3184:Reign of al-Ghuri
3110:Yashbak min Mahdi
3021:al-Mu'ayyad Ahmad
2939:Anatolian beyliks
2745:tribesmen of the
2730:were Alexandria,
2694:northern Caucasus
2612:Peter I of Cyprus
2600:Al-Ashraf Sha'ban
2589:Yalbugha al-Umari
2540:al-Muzaffar Hajji
2500:al-Ashraf Sha'ban
2403:al-Nasir Muhammad
2349:al-Nasir Muhammad
2207:Battle of Dongola
2136:range, including
2123:County of Tripoli
1942:Sayf al-Din Qutuz
1933:in 1254 or 1255.
1561:Upper Mesopotamia
1529:Battle of al-Kura
1434:Fatimid Caliphate
1296:al-Nasir Muhammad
1164:), also known as
1158:
1138:
1137:
1089:
1088:
1042:Late Modern Egypt
1032:
1031:
1004:French occupation
974:
973:
936:Ikhshidid dynasty
906:Umayyad caliphate
877:
876:
831:Greco-Roman Egypt
822:
821:
725:
724:
708:Prehistoric Egypt
670:
669:
666:
665:
662:
661:
642:
641:
637:Tahirid Sultanate
595:County of Tripoli
539:Abbasid Caliphate
460:• Murder of
431:• 1516–1517
419:• 1260–1277
407:• 1250–1257
368:Al-Mutawakkil III
363:• 1508–1516
351:• 1406–1414
339:• 1262–1302
305:elective monarchy
191:Abbasid Caliphate
176:Al-Nasir Muhammad
92:
66:
16:(Redirected from
13062:
12980:Mamluk Sultanate
12957:
12956:
12947:
12946:
12937:
12927:
12926:
12732:Waste management
12497:Academic grading
12415:
12414:
12402:
12401:
12374:Railway stations
12352:Cultural tourism
12251:Economic regions
12213:
12212:
12036:
12035:
11877:
11876:
11546:Mamluk Sultanate
11477:Diocese of Egypt
11460:Battle of Actium
11409:
11408:
11396:
11395:
11380:
11373:
11366:
11357:
11356:
11352:
11331:
11309:
11281:History of Egypt
11222:
11220:
11195:
11182:
11159:
11140:
11121:
11109:
11098:
11075:
11054:
11033:
11010:
10991:
10972:
10940:
10919:
10898:
10881:Kennedy, Hugh N.
10871:
10850:
10839:
10818:
10799:
10776:
10757:
10736:
10715:
10696:
10675:
10654:
10631:
10610:
10589:
10568:
10547:
10526:
10517:
10506:
10485:
10464:
10443:
10416:
10395:
10353:
10329:
10306:
10285:
10266:
10245:
10226:
10205:
10184:
10165:
10142:
10140:
10129:
10112:Farhad, Massumeh
10107:
10086:
10063:
10042:
10021:
10002:
9981:
9960:
9939:
9915:
9894:
9873:
9850:
9839:. I. B. Tauris.
9829:
9808:
9790:
9765:
9746:
9737:
9682:
9659:
9638:
9607:
9601:
9595:
9589:
9583:
9577:
9566:
9560:
9543:
9537:
9524:
9518:
9512:
9506:
9500:
9494:
9488:
9482:
9469:
9468:
9466:
9464:
9450:
9444:
9438:
9432:
9426:
9420:
9414:
9408:
9402:
9396:
9390:
9384:
9378:
9372:
9366:
9360:
9354:
9348:
9342:
9336:
9330:
9324:
9318:
9312:
9306:
9300:
9294:
9285:
9279:
9273:
9267:
9258:
9252:
9246:
9240:
9234:
9228:
9222:
9216:
9205:
9199:
9188:
9187:
9175:
9169:
9163:
9157:
9151:
9145:
9139:
9133:
9127:
9121:
9115:
9106:
9100:
9094:
9088:
9082:
9076:
9070:
9064:
9058:
9057:
9021:
9015:
9009:
9003:
8997:
8991:
8985:
8979:
8973:
8967:
8964:
8958:
8952:
8946:
8940:
8934:
8928:
8922:
8916:
8907:
8901:
8888:
8882:
8876:
8870:
8864:
8858:
8849:
8843:
8837:
8831:
8825:
8819:
8810:
8804:
8793:
8792:
8781:
8775:
8769:
8763:
8757:
8748:
8742:
8736:
8730:
8724:
8718:
8709:
8703:
8697:
8691:
8685:
8679:
8670:
8664:
8658:
8652:
8641:
8635:
8629:
8623:
8614:
8608:
8602:
8596:
8590:
8584:
8575:
8569:
8556:
8550:
8544:
8538:
8529:
8523:
8512:
8506:
8500:
8494:
8488:
8482:
8476:
8470:
8461:
8455:
8446:
8440:
8434:
8428:
8422:
8416:
8410:
8404:
8398:
8392:
8386:
8380:
8374:
8368:
8362:
8356:
8350:
8344:
8338:
8332:
8326:
8320:
8309:
8308:
8296:
8283:
8277:
8271:
8270:
8258:
8252:
8251:
8239:
8233:
8227:
8218:
8217:, p. 76-78.
8212:
8206:
8205:
8193:
8187:
8186:
8174:
8168:
8162:
8153:
8147:
8141:
8135:
8126:
8120:
8114:
8108:
8102:
8096:
8090:
8084:
8078:
8072:
8066:
8060:
8051:
8045:
8034:
8028:
8022:
8016:
8007:
8006:
7994:
7985:
7979:
7973:
7967:
7961:
7955:
7949:
7943:
7937:
7931:
7922:
7916:
7905:
7899:
7893:
7887:
7881:
7875:
7866:
7860:
7854:
7848:
7842:
7836:
7830:
7824:
7818:
7812:
7806:
7800:
7794:
7793:
7791:
7789:
7766:
7760:
7754:
7739:
7733:
7722:
7721:
7715:
7707:
7699:
7693:
7687:
7681:
7675:
7669:
7663:
7657:
7651:
7645:
7639:
7633:
7627:
7618:
7617:
7615:
7613:
7599:
7593:
7587:
7581:
7575:
7569:
7563:
7546:
7540:
7534:
7528:
7522:
7516:
7510:
7509:
7500:
7494:
7488:
7482:
7476:
7470:
7464:
7458:
7452:
7446:
7440:
7434:
7428:
7417:
7416:
7414:
7412:
7398:
7392:
7386:
7380:
7374:
7368:
7362:
7339:
7333:
7322:
7316:
7310:
7304:
7298:
7292:
7283:
7277:
7268:
7262:
7256:
7250:
7241:
7235:
7229:
7228:
7226:
7224:
7218:
7208:
7202:
7196:
7190:
7184:
7178:
7172:
7166:
7160:
7154:
7148:
7135:
7129:
7123:
7117:
7111:
7105:
7099:
7093:
7087:
7081:
7075:
7069:
7063:
7057:
7051:
7045:
7036:
7030:
7013:
7007:
7001:
6995:
6989:
6983:
6977:
6971:
6962:
6956:
6947:
6941:
6935:
6929:
6923:
6917:
6911:
6905:
6899:
6893:
6887:
6881:
6875:
6869:
6863:
6857:
6851:
6845:
6839:
6833:
6824:
6818:
6803:
6797:
6791:
6785:
6779:
6773:
6762:
6761:
6749:
6743:
6737:
6724:
6718:
6709:
6696:
6690:
6689:
6669:
6663:
6657:
6651:
6645:
6639:
6633:
6620:
6614:
6608:
6607:
6587:
6581:
6575:
6569:
6563:
6557:
6551:
6545:
6539:
6533:
6527:
6521:
6515:
6509:
6503:
6497:
6491:
6485:
6479:
6473:
6467:
6456:
6450:
6444:
6438:
6432:
6426:
6409:
6408:
6388:
6382:
6381:
6363:
6357:
6356:
6336:
6330:
6329:
6309:
6303:
6302:
6273:
6267:
6266:
6251:
6245:
6239:
6233:
6227:
6221:
6215:
6209:
6203:
6194:
6188:
6177:
6171:
6165:
6159:
6153:
6147:
6141:
6135:
6129:
6123:
6117:
6111:
6105:
6099:
6093:
6087:
6078:
6072:
6066:
6060:
6054:
6048:
6039:
6033:
6027:
6021:
6012:
6011:
6008:10.6082/M100007Z
5993:
5984:
5978:
5972:
5963:
5957:
5951:
5945:
5939:
5933:
5927:
5921:
5915:
5909:
5903:
5897:
5891:
5885:
5872:
5871:
5868:10.6082/M100007Z
5853:
5844:
5838:
5832:
5826:
5820:
5811:
5805:
5796:
5790:
5781:
5775:
5769:
5763:
5757:
5751:
5745:
5739:
5733:
5727:
5718:
5712:
5706:
5700:
5691:
5685:
5679:
5673:
5667:
5661:
5652:
5646:
5640:
5634:
5628:
5622:
5616:
5610:
5604:
5598:
5592:
5586:
5580:
5574:
5563:
5557:
5551:
5545:
5539:
5533:
5527:
5526:
5515:
5509:
5503:
5497:
5491:
5485:
5479:
5470:
5464:
5458:
5452:
5446:
5440:
5431:
5425:
5419:
5413:
5407:
5401:
5388:
5387:
5369:
5363:
5360:
5354:
5353:
5335:
5329:
5328:
5326:
5324:
5308:
5302:
5301:
5283:
5277:
5276:
5244:
5238:
5237:
5225:
5219:
5213:
5207:
5201:
5195:
5189:
5067:
5057:
5049:
5043:
5029:
5021:
5001:
4995:
4987:
4940:
4820:
4814:
4775:
4752:The Musical Boat
4726:
4712:
4709:
4693:
4687:
4681:
4675:
4669:
4663:
4654:
4648:
4642:
4636:
4630:
4624:
4615:cadastral survey
4612:
4597:
4586:
4580:
4574:
4568:
4562:
4556:
4550:
4540:
4527:
4521:
4514:
4508:
4502:
4496:
4486:
4477:
4471:
4465:
4455:
4445:
4439:
4431:
4408:
4366:
4360:
4358:ustadar al-aliya
4354:
4348:
4342:
4340:ustadar al-aliya
4336:
4330:
4327:
4324:
4321:
4318:
4314:
4308:
4299:
4293:
4287:
4281:
4275:
4269:
4263:
4253:
4232:
4226:
4216:
4210:
4204:
4197:
4122:
4115:Dome of the Rock
4112:
4104:
4092:
4086:
4079:
4073:
4067:
4061:
4055:
4049:
4030:
4022:
4009:
3999:
3993:
3987:
3981:
3979:na'ib al-saltana
3975:
3936:
3927:
3877:
3868:
3861:and the post of
3860:
3854:
3844:
3838:
3832:
3761:
3709:
3693:
3685:
3661:
3655:
3649:
3643:
3637:
3631:
3613:
3607:
3579:
3542:Muslim community
3532:
3526:
3481:at the hands of
3461:
3455:
3438:
3425:
3422:
3370:defeated at Gaza
3251:
3245:
3227:
3169:
3166:
3093:Sabil of Qaitbay
3061:(16th century),
3031:Reign of Qaitbay
3015:
3000:
2998:atabeg al-asakir
2993:Sayf al-Din Inal
2983:al-Mansur Uthman
2904:Sharifs of Mecca
2890:rather than the
2877:
2875:atabeg al-asakir
2867:
2865:atabeg al-asakir
2847:Reign of Barsbay
2842:
2841: 1406–1413
2840:
2808:
2788:
2729:
2723:
2717:
2703:Interior of the
2672:
2670:atabeg al-asakir
2586:
2566:arrived in Egypt
2536:al-Kamil Sha'ban
2532:al-Salih Isma'il
2508:
2507: 1363–1367
2506:
2497:
2495:
2472:Citadel of Cairo
2466:Interior of the
2450:
2449: 1302–1340
2448:
2439:
2433:
2372:
2357:al-Adil Kitbugha
2338:al-Ashraf Khalil
2328:Interior of the
2310:hospital complex
2290:Prophet's Mosque
2250:siege of Tripoli
2203:David of Makuria
2061:
2023:Reign of Baybars
1913:
1891:
1888:
1876:
1874:
1865:
1863:
1854:
1852:
1843:
1841:
1832:
1830:
1821:
1819:
1810:
1808:
1801:
1799:
1792:
1790:
1783:
1781:
1774:
1772:
1765:
1763:
1756:
1754:
1747:
1745:
1738:
1736:
1727:
1725:
1716:
1714:
1707:
1705:
1696:
1694:
1687:
1685:
1674:
1672:
1665:
1663:
1654:
1652:
1645:
1639:
1621:
1615:
1598:of Damascus and
1554:
1513:
1507:
1488:Frontispiece of
1480:
1479: 1218–1238
1478:
1469:
1431:
1430: 1174–1193
1429:
1393:
1348:
1342:
1336:
1330:
1278:, expanded into
1273:
1272: 1290–1293
1271:
1265:al-Ashraf Khalil
1262:
1261: 1279–1290
1260:
1236:
1235: 1240–1249
1234:
1163:
1153:
1151:
1142:Mamluk Sultanate
1130:
1123:
1116:
1104:Egypt portal
1102:
1101:
1100:
1071:Kingdom of Egypt
1047:
1046:
990:
989:
892:
891:
835:
834:
740:
739:
713:
712:
700:
690:
672:
671:
658:
657:
646:
645:
633:
632:
619:
618:
605:
604:
591:
590:
577:
576:
563:
562:
549:
548:
535:
534:
528:
527:
512:
511:
172:
157:
149:
133:
130:
117:
110:
93:
91:
85:
77:
76:
72:
67:
65:
59:
51:
50:
46:
39:
38:
21:
13070:
13069:
13065:
13064:
13063:
13061:
13060:
13059:
12970:
12969:
12968:
12963:
12907:
12898:Public holidays
12888:National anthem
12741:
12654:Coptic Churches
12597:Egyptian Arabic
12507:Medical schools
12409:
12392:
12308:Nuclear program
12220:
12203:
12133:Nationality law
12126:Supreme Council
12111:Law enforcement
12043:
12026:
12002:Sinai Peninsula
11985:Red Sea Riviera
11884:
11863:
11839:
11741:
11628:1919 revolution
11616:Revolt of Cairo
11541:Ayyubid dynasty
11519:Tulunid dynasty
11403:
11390:
11384:
11349:
11316:Rowson, Everett
11300:
11298:Further reading
11274:Ibn Taghribirdi
11229:
11227:Primary sources
11179:
11156:
11137:
11118:
11095:
11072:
11051:
11030:
11007:
10988:
10937:
10916:
10895:
10868:
10836:
10815:
10796:
10773:
10754:
10733:
10712:
10693:
10672:
10651:
10628:
10620:. I.B. Tauris.
10607:
10586:
10565:
10544:
10503:
10482:
10461:
10440:
10413:
10392:
10363:Bosworth, C. E.
10350:
10326:
10303:
10282:
10263:
10242:
10223:
10202:
10181:
10162:
10126:
10104:
10083:
10060:
10039:
10018:
9999:
9978:
9957:
9936:
9920:Bosworth, C. E.
9912:
9891:
9870:
9847:
9826:
9762:
9679:
9656:
9635:
9615:
9610:
9602:
9598:
9590:
9586:
9578:
9569:
9561:
9546:
9538:
9527:
9519:
9515:
9507:
9503:
9495:
9491:
9483:
9472:
9462:
9460:
9452:
9451:
9447:
9439:
9435:
9427:
9423:
9415:
9411:
9403:
9399:
9391:
9387:
9379:
9375:
9367:
9363:
9355:
9351:
9343:
9339:
9331:
9327:
9319:
9315:
9307:
9303:
9295:
9288:
9280:
9276:
9268:
9261:
9253:
9249:
9241:
9237:
9229:
9225:
9217:
9208:
9200:
9191:
9178:Yalman, Suzan.
9176:
9172:
9164:
9160:
9152:
9148:
9140:
9136:
9128:
9124:
9116:
9109:
9101:
9097:
9089:
9085:
9077:
9073:
9065:
9061:
9046:
9022:
9018:
9010:
9006:
8998:
8994:
8986:
8982:
8974:
8970:
8965:
8961:
8953:
8949:
8941:
8937:
8929:
8925:
8917:
8910:
8902:
8891:
8883:
8879:
8871:
8867:
8859:
8852:
8844:
8840:
8832:
8828:
8820:
8813:
8805:
8796:
8789:Aga Khan Museum
8783:
8782:
8778:
8770:
8766:
8758:
8751:
8743:
8739:
8731:
8727:
8719:
8712:
8704:
8700:
8696:, pp. 8–9.
8692:
8688:
8680:
8673:
8665:
8661:
8653:
8644:
8636:
8632:
8624:
8617:
8609:
8605:
8597:
8593:
8585:
8578:
8570:
8559:
8551:
8547:
8539:
8532:
8524:
8515:
8507:
8503:
8495:
8491:
8483:
8479:
8471:
8464:
8456:
8449:
8445:, p. 1183.
8441:
8437:
8429:
8425:
8417:
8413:
8405:
8401:
8393:
8389:
8381:
8377:
8369:
8365:
8357:
8353:
8345:
8341:
8333:
8329:
8321:
8312:
8302:
8297:
8286:
8278:
8274:
8264:
8259:
8255:
8245:
8240:
8236:
8228:
8221:
8213:
8209:
8199:
8194:
8190:
8180:
8175:
8171:
8163:
8156:
8148:
8144:
8136:
8129:
8121:
8117:
8109:
8105:
8097:
8093:
8085:
8081:
8073:
8069:
8061:
8054:
8046:
8037:
8029:
8025:
8017:
8010:
8000:
7995:
7988:
7980:
7976:
7968:
7964:
7956:
7952:
7944:
7940:
7932:
7925:
7917:
7908:
7900:
7896:
7888:
7884:
7876:
7869:
7861:
7857:
7849:
7845:
7837:
7833:
7825:
7821:
7813:
7809:
7801:
7797:
7787:
7785:
7783:
7767:
7763:
7755:
7742:
7734:
7725:
7709:
7708:
7700:
7696:
7688:
7684:
7676:
7672:
7664:
7660:
7652:
7648:
7640:
7636:
7628:
7621:
7611:
7609:
7601:
7600:
7596:
7588:
7584:
7576:
7572:
7564:
7549:
7541:
7537:
7529:
7525:
7517:
7513:
7502:
7501:
7497:
7489:
7485:
7477:
7473:
7465:
7461:
7453:
7449:
7441:
7437:
7429:
7420:
7410:
7408:
7400:
7399:
7395:
7387:
7383:
7375:
7371:
7363:
7342:
7334:
7325:
7317:
7313:
7305:
7301:
7293:
7286:
7278:
7271:
7263:
7259:
7251:
7244:
7236:
7232:
7222:
7220:
7216:
7210:
7209:
7205:
7197:
7193:
7185:
7181:
7173:
7169:
7161:
7157:
7149:
7138:
7130:
7126:
7118:
7114:
7106:
7102:
7094:
7090:
7082:
7078:
7070:
7066:
7058:
7054:
7046:
7039:
7031:
7016:
7008:
7004:
6996:
6992:
6984:
6980:
6972:
6965:
6957:
6950:
6942:
6938:
6930:
6926:
6918:
6914:
6906:
6902:
6894:
6890:
6882:
6878:
6870:
6866:
6858:
6854:
6846:
6842:
6834:
6827:
6819:
6806:
6798:
6794:
6786:
6782:
6774:
6765:
6752:
6750:
6746:
6738:
6727:
6719:
6712:
6697:
6693:
6686:
6670:
6666:
6658:
6654:
6646:
6642:
6636:Al-Harithy 1996
6634:
6623:
6615:
6611:
6604:
6588:
6584:
6576:
6572:
6564:
6560:
6552:
6548:
6540:
6536:
6528:
6524:
6516:
6512:
6504:
6500:
6492:
6488:
6480:
6476:
6468:
6459:
6451:
6447:
6439:
6435:
6427:
6412:
6405:
6389:
6385:
6378:
6364:
6360:
6353:
6337:
6333:
6326:
6310:
6306:
6290:
6274:
6270:
6253:
6252:
6248:
6240:
6236:
6228:
6224:
6216:
6212:
6204:
6197:
6189:
6180:
6172:
6168:
6160:
6156:
6148:
6144:
6136:
6132:
6124:
6120:
6112:
6108:
6100:
6096:
6088:
6081:
6073:
6069:
6061:
6057:
6049:
6042:
6034:
6030:
6022:
6015:
5991:
5985:
5981:
5973:
5966:
5958:
5954:
5946:
5942:
5934:
5930:
5922:
5918:
5910:
5906:
5898:
5894:
5886:
5875:
5851:
5845:
5841:
5833:
5829:
5821:
5814:
5806:
5799:
5791:
5784:
5776:
5772:
5764:
5760:
5752:
5748:
5740:
5736:
5728:
5721:
5713:
5709:
5701:
5694:
5686:
5682:
5674:
5670:
5662:
5655:
5647:
5643:
5635:
5631:
5623:
5619:
5611:
5607:
5599:
5595:
5587:
5583:
5575:
5566:
5558:
5554:
5546:
5542:
5534:
5530:
5523:Aga Khan Museum
5517:
5516:
5512:
5504:
5500:
5492:
5488:
5480:
5473:
5465:
5461:
5453:
5449:
5441:
5434:
5426:
5422:
5414:
5410:
5402:
5391:
5384:
5370:
5366:
5361:
5357:
5350:
5336:
5332:
5322:
5320:
5310:
5309:
5305:
5298:
5284:
5280:
5245:
5241:
5236:. Harrassowitz.
5226:
5222:
5214:
5210:
5202:
5198:
5190:
5186:
5182:
5177:
5150:
5145:
5139:
5137:List of sultans
5084:Ibn Taghribirdi
5075:
4961:
4955:
4839:
4833:
4828:
4741:
4710:
4700:
4658:Gradually, the
4631:(endowment) or
4489:
4373:
4328:
4325:
4322:
4319:
4264:(chamberlain),
4242:Nihāyat al-su’l
4175:
4169:
4161:Ibn Taghribirdi
4149:Abbasid dynasty
4129:
4015:oath of loyalty
3968:
3967:
3966:
3965:
3939:
3938:
3937:
3929:
3928:
3917:
3900:
3806:
3792:Maronite Church
3740:Coptic calendar
3724:
3544:
3539:
3496:
3491:
3423:
3413:
3403:
3327:
3321:
3277:Twelver Shi'ism
3214:Qansuh al-Ghuri
3194:Qansuh al-Ghuri
3186:
3167:
3039:
3033:
2951:
2849:
2837:
2819:
2818:
2817:
2816:
2815:
2809:
2801:
2800:
2789:
2778:
2758:Ottoman dynasty
2657:
2651:
2649:Reign of Barquq
2634:
2628:
2523:al-Ashraf Kujuk
2503:
2492:
2485:
2445:
2395:
2302:Ibrahimi Mosque
2242:
2236:
2227:al-Sa'id Baraka
2222:further south.
2157:Nihāyat al-suʾl
2103:Knights Templar
2031:
2025:
2020:
2014:
1966:Nihāyat al-su’l
1946:al-Mughith Umar
1911:atabeg al-askar
1906:
1905:
1904:
1898:Delhi Sultanate
1889:
1884:
1878:
1877:
1870:
1868:
1866:
1859:
1857:
1855:
1850:
1848:
1846:
1844:
1839:
1837:
1835:
1833:
1828:
1826:
1824:
1822:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1806:
1804:
1802:
1797:
1795:
1793:
1788:
1786:
1784:
1779:
1777:
1775:
1770:
1768:
1766:
1761:
1759:
1757:
1752:
1750:
1748:
1743:
1741:
1739:
1734:
1732:
1730:
1728:
1721:
1719:
1717:
1712:
1710:
1708:
1703:
1701:
1699:
1697:
1692:
1690:
1688:
1683:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1675:
1670:
1668:
1666:
1661:
1659:
1657:
1655:
1650:
1648:
1646:
1619:atabeg al-askar
1600:al-Mughith Umar
1552:atabeg al-askar
1543:Seventh Crusade
1531:
1525:
1520:
1475:
1426:
1376:
1366:
1361:
1355:
1328:Dawlat al-Atrak
1319:
1305:One such emir,
1276:Crusader states
1268:
1257:
1231:
1197:Ayyubid dynasty
1134:
1098:
1096:
1091:
1090:
1044:
1034:
1033:
987:
976:
975:
956:Ayyubid dynasty
946:Fatimid dynasty
926:Tulunid dynasty
916:Abbasid dynasty
889:
879:
878:
832:
824:
823:
737:
727:
726:
710:
688:
681:
655:
630:
616:
602:
588:
574:
560:
553:Ayyubid dynasty
546:
532:
502:22 January 1517
499:
486:
464:
432:
420:
408:
395:
364:
352:
340:
327:
278:
233:
178:
158:
151:
143:Attributed arms
141:
135:
131:
119:
118:
111:
94:
86:
79:
71:
70:
68:
63:Dawlat al-Atrāk
60:
53:
45:
44:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
13068:
13058:
13057:
13055:Former empires
13052:
13047:
13042:
13037:
13032:
13027:
13022:
13017:
13012:
13007:
13002:
12997:
12992:
12987:
12982:
12965:
12964:
12962:
12961:
12951:
12941:
12931:
12920:
12917:
12916:
12913:
12912:
12909:
12908:
12906:
12905:
12900:
12895:
12890:
12885:
12880:
12875:
12874:
12873:
12868:
12863:
12858:
12848:
12843:
12842:
12841:
12836:
12834:Football clubs
12826:
12825:
12824:
12819:
12809:
12804:
12803:
12802:
12797:
12787:
12782:
12777:
12772:
12767:
12762:
12757:
12751:
12749:
12743:
12742:
12740:
12739:
12734:
12729:
12724:
12719:
12714:
12713:
12712:
12707:
12706:
12705:
12695:
12694:
12693:
12688:
12683:
12673:
12668:
12663:
12658:
12657:
12656:
12651:
12641:
12636:
12626:
12621:
12616:
12611:
12610:
12609:
12604:
12599:
12589:
12584:
12583:
12582:
12577:
12567:
12562:
12561:
12560:
12555:
12545:
12544:
12543:
12533:
12532:
12531:
12521:
12520:
12519:
12514:
12509:
12504:
12499:
12489:
12484:
12479:
12478:
12477:
12472:
12467:
12457:
12452:
12447:
12442:
12437:
12432:
12430:Animal welfare
12427:
12421:
12419:
12411:
12410:
12398:
12397:
12394:
12393:
12391:
12390:
12389:
12388:
12378:
12377:
12376:
12371:
12366:
12356:
12355:
12354:
12344:
12343:
12342:
12332:
12327:
12322:
12321:
12320:
12313:Power stations
12310:
12305:
12304:
12303:
12293:
12288:
12283:
12278:
12273:
12268:
12263:
12261:Egyptian pound
12258:
12253:
12248:
12243:
12242:
12241:
12231:
12225:
12222:
12221:
12209:
12208:
12205:
12204:
12202:
12201:
12196:
12195:
12194:
12184:
12179:
12174:
12173:
12172:
12165:Prime Minister
12162:
12161:
12160:
12150:
12145:
12140:
12135:
12130:
12129:
12128:
12118:
12113:
12108:
12103:
12098:
12097:
12096:
12086:
12081:
12076:
12071:
12066:
12061:
12060:
12059:
12048:
12045:
12044:
12032:
12031:
12028:
12027:
12025:
12024:
12019:
12014:
12009:
12004:
11999:
11998:
11997:
11987:
11982:
11977:
11972:
11970:Northern coast
11967:
11962:
11961:
11960:
11950:
11945:
11940:
11935:
11930:
11925:
11920:
11915:
11910:
11905:
11900:
11895:
11889:
11886:
11885:
11873:
11872:
11869:
11868:
11865:
11864:
11862:
11857:
11852:
11847:
11845:
11841:
11840:
11838:
11837:
11832:
11827:
11822:
11817:
11812:
11811:
11810:
11805:
11800:
11790:
11785:
11780:
11775:
11770:
11765:
11760:
11755:
11749:
11747:
11743:
11742:
11740:
11739:
11738:
11737:
11736:
11735:
11730:
11720:
11715:
11714:
11713:
11708:
11703:
11701:Yom Kippur War
11693:
11692:
11691:
11686:
11681:
11676:
11671:
11656:
11655:
11654:
11653:
11652:
11642:
11637:
11632:
11631:
11630:
11620:
11619:
11618:
11603:
11602:
11601:
11600:
11599:
11594:
11584:
11579:
11569:
11568:
11567:
11557:
11556:
11555:
11554:
11553:
11543:
11538:
11537:
11536:
11526:
11521:
11516:
11511:
11506:
11496:
11491:
11490:
11489:
11484:
11479:
11469:
11468:
11467:
11462:
11452:
11451:
11450:
11445:
11435:
11434:
11433:
11423:
11417:
11415:
11405:
11404:
11392:
11391:
11383:
11382:
11375:
11368:
11360:
11354:
11353:
11347:
11332:
11312:Krämer, Gudrun
11299:
11296:
11295:
11294:
11284:
11277:
11271:
11264:
11254:
11247:
11241:
11228:
11225:
11224:
11223:
11196:
11183:
11177:
11160:
11154:
11141:
11135:
11122:
11116:
11099:
11093:
11076:
11070:
11055:
11049:
11034:
11028:
11011:
11005:
10992:
10986:
10973:
10955:(2): 144–166.
10941:
10935:
10920:
10914:
10899:
10893:
10872:
10866:
10851:
10840:
10834:
10819:
10813:
10800:
10794:
10777:
10771:
10758:
10752:
10737:
10731:
10716:
10710:
10697:
10691:
10676:
10670:
10655:
10649:
10637:"A Mamluk Axe"
10632:
10626:
10611:
10605:
10590:
10584:
10569:
10563:
10548:
10542:
10527:
10518:
10507:
10501:
10486:
10480:
10465:
10459:
10444:
10438:
10417:
10411:
10396:
10390:
10367:van Donzel, E.
10354:
10348:
10330:
10324:
10307:
10301:
10286:
10280:
10267:
10261:
10246:
10240:
10227:
10221:
10206:
10200:
10185:
10179:
10166:
10160:
10143:
10130:
10124:
10108:
10102:
10087:
10081:
10064:
10058:
10043:
10037:
10022:
10016:
10003:
9997:
9982:
9976:
9961:
9955:
9940:
9934:
9916:
9910:
9895:
9889:
9874:
9868:
9851:
9845:
9830:
9824:
9809:
9781:(1): 149–159.
9766:
9760:
9747:
9738:
9699:Kramers, J. H.
9695:Gibb, H. A. R.
9683:
9677:
9660:
9654:
9639:
9633:
9614:
9611:
9609:
9608:
9596:
9584:
9582:, p. 178.
9567:
9565:, p. 213.
9544:
9525:
9523:, p. 217.
9513:
9511:, p. 309.
9501:
9489:
9470:
9445:
9433:
9421:
9409:
9397:
9385:
9373:
9361:
9349:
9337:
9325:
9313:
9301:
9286:
9274:
9259:
9257:, p. 107.
9247:
9245:, p. 109.
9235:
9223:
9206:
9189:
9170:
9168:, p. 163.
9158:
9146:
9134:
9132:, p. 244.
9122:
9107:
9095:
9083:
9071:
9059:
9044:
9016:
9014:, p. 261.
9012:Northrup 1998b
9004:
9000:Northrup 1998b
8992:
8990:, p. 277.
8988:Northrup 1998b
8980:
8978:, p. 270.
8976:Northrup 1998b
8968:
8959:
8947:
8945:, p. 477.
8935:
8933:, p. 476.
8923:
8921:, p. 171.
8908:
8904:Elbendary 2015
8889:
8877:
8873:Elbendary 2015
8865:
8863:, p. 475.
8850:
8846:Elbendary 2015
8838:
8826:
8811:
8809:, p. 254.
8807:Northrup 1998b
8794:
8776:
8774:, p. 158.
8764:
8749:
8737:
8725:
8710:
8698:
8686:
8671:
8659:
8642:
8640:, p. 243.
8630:
8615:
8603:
8591:
8576:
8574:, p. 248.
8557:
8555:, p. 468.
8545:
8543:, p. 240.
8530:
8528:, p. 239.
8513:
8511:, p. 238.
8501:
8489:
8487:, p. 113.
8477:
8475:, p. 237.
8462:
8447:
8435:
8423:
8421:, p. 182.
8411:
8399:
8387:
8385:, p. 175.
8375:
8373:, p. 173.
8363:
8351:
8339:
8327:
8325:, p. 120.
8310:
8284:
8272:
8253:
8244:, p. 115.
8234:
8232:, p. 109.
8219:
8207:
8188:
8169:
8167:, p. 267.
8165:Northrup 1998b
8154:
8152:, p. 268.
8150:Northrup 1998b
8142:
8140:, p. 269.
8138:Northrup 1998b
8127:
8123:Northrup 1998b
8115:
8111:Northrup 1998b
8103:
8091:
8089:, p. 394.
8079:
8067:
8052:
8035:
8023:
8008:
7999:, p. 114.
7986:
7974:
7972:, p. 114.
7970:Rodenbeck 1999
7962:
7950:
7948:, p. 113.
7946:Rodenbeck 1999
7938:
7936:, p. 410.
7923:
7921:, p. 325.
7906:
7904:, p. 263.
7894:
7892:, p. 258.
7882:
7880:, p. 256.
7867:
7865:, p. 254.
7855:
7853:, p. 253.
7843:
7841:, p. 251.
7831:
7819:
7807:
7795:
7781:
7761:
7740:
7723:
7694:
7690:Streusand 2018
7682:
7680:, p. 239.
7670:
7658:
7656:, p. 415.
7646:
7634:
7619:
7594:
7582:
7570:
7547:
7535:
7523:
7511:
7495:
7483:
7481:, p. 138.
7471:
7459:
7447:
7435:
7418:
7393:
7391:, p. 218.
7381:
7379:, p. 217.
7369:
7340:
7323:
7311:
7299:
7284:
7269:
7257:
7255:, p. 289.
7242:
7230:
7203:
7191:
7179:
7167:
7165:, p. 209.
7155:
7136:
7124:
7112:
7100:
7088:
7076:
7064:
7052:
7037:
7035:, p. 294.
7014:
7002:
7000:, p. 195.
6990:
6978:
6976:, p. 293.
6963:
6948:
6936:
6934:, p. 314.
6924:
6922:, p. 290.
6912:
6910:, p. 300.
6900:
6898:, p. 225.
6888:
6886:, p. 147.
6876:
6874:, p. 194.
6864:
6852:
6840:
6838:, p. 291.
6825:
6823:, p. 128.
6804:
6792:
6780:
6778:, p. 127.
6763:
6744:
6742:, p. 288.
6740:Northrup 1998b
6725:
6710:
6691:
6684:
6664:
6662:, p. 637.
6652:
6640:
6621:
6619:, p. 119.
6609:
6602:
6582:
6570:
6558:
6546:
6534:
6522:
6510:
6498:
6486:
6474:
6457:
6445:
6433:
6431:, p. 253.
6429:Northrup 1998b
6410:
6403:
6383:
6376:
6358:
6351:
6331:
6324:
6304:
6288:
6268:
6246:
6234:
6222:
6220:, p. 114.
6210:
6195:
6193:, p. 252.
6191:Northrup 1998b
6178:
6166:
6164:, p. 139.
6154:
6150:Northrup 1998a
6142:
6138:Northrup 1998a
6130:
6126:Northrup 1998a
6118:
6106:
6102:Northrup 1998a
6094:
6092:, p. 108.
6079:
6077:, p. 107.
6067:
6065:, p. 254.
6055:
6040:
6028:
6013:
5979:
5977:, p. 106.
5964:
5952:
5940:
5928:
5916:
5912:Northrup 1998a
5904:
5892:
5873:
5839:
5827:
5812:
5808:Northrup 1998a
5797:
5782:
5770:
5766:Northrup 1998a
5758:
5754:Northrup 1998a
5746:
5734:
5730:Northrup 1998a
5719:
5707:
5692:
5680:
5668:
5664:Northrup 1998a
5653:
5641:
5629:
5617:
5605:
5601:Joinville 1807
5593:
5581:
5564:
5552:
5540:
5528:
5510:
5498:
5496:, p. 944.
5486:
5471:
5459:
5455:Rodenbeck 1999
5447:
5445:, p. 250.
5443:Northrup 1998b
5432:
5420:
5408:
5389:
5382:
5364:
5355:
5348:
5330:
5303:
5296:
5278:
5239:
5220:
5208:
5196:
5183:
5181:
5178:
5176:
5173:
5172:
5171:
5166:
5161:
5156:
5149:
5146:
5141:Main article:
5138:
5135:
5074:
5071:
4957:Main article:
4954:
4951:
4877:Venetian glass
4837:Mamluk carpets
4832:
4829:
4827:
4824:
4812:diwan al-khass
4795:Southeast Asia
4740:
4737:
4699:
4696:
4643:organized the
4488:
4480:
4372:
4369:
4346:ustadar saghir
4291:ru'us al-nawab
4187:British Museum
4171:Main article:
4168:
4165:
4128:
4125:
3941:
3940:
3931:
3930:
3922:
3921:
3920:
3919:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3899:
3896:
3814:Arabian horses
3805:
3802:
3788:Greek Orthodox
3723:
3720:
3614:s, namely the
3543:
3540:
3538:
3535:
3508:Kipchak Turkic
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3411:Ottoman Empire
3402:
3399:
3320:
3317:
3269:Safavid Empire
3220:was appointed
3192:Mamluk Sultan
3185:
3182:
3045:Mamluk Sultan
3032:
3029:
2950:
2947:
2943:central Africa
2848:
2845:
2823:an-Nasir Faraj
2810:
2803:
2802:
2797:al-Nasir Faraj
2790:
2783:
2782:
2781:
2780:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2675:al-Salih Hajji
2653:Main article:
2650:
2647:
2630:Main article:
2627:
2624:
2571:al-Salih Salih
2563:Bubonic Plague
2555:time of plague
2527:al-Nasir Ahmad
2489:al-Nasir Hasan
2484:
2481:
2394:
2391:
2298:al-Aqsa Mosque
2274:battle of Homs
2235:
2232:
2134:Jabal Ansariya
2099:captured Safed
2027:Main article:
2024:
2021:
2016:Main article:
2013:
2010:
1978:sacked Baghdad
1880:
1879:
1640:
1634:
1633:
1632:
1628:al-Ashraf Musa
1608:Shajar al-Durr
1596:an-Nasir Yusuf
1524:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1458:as-Salih Ayyub
1365:
1362:
1357:Main article:
1354:
1351:
1334:Dawlat al-Turk
1318:
1315:
1228:as-Salih Ayyub
1205:Ottoman Empire
1150:سلطنة المماليك
1136:
1135:
1133:
1132:
1125:
1118:
1110:
1107:
1106:
1093:
1092:
1087:
1086:
1083:
1077:
1076:
1073:
1067:
1066:
1063:
1057:
1056:
1053:
1045:
1040:
1039:
1036:
1035:
1030:
1029:
1026:
1020:
1019:
1016:
1010:
1009:
1006:
1000:
999:
996:
988:
982:
981:
978:
977:
972:
971:
968:
966:Mamluk dynasty
962:
961:
958:
952:
951:
948:
942:
941:
938:
932:
931:
928:
922:
921:
918:
912:
911:
908:
902:
901:
898:
890:
887:Medieval Egypt
885:
884:
881:
880:
875:
874:
871:
869:Sasanian Egypt
865:
864:
861:
855:
854:
851:
845:
844:
841:
839:Argead dynasty
833:
830:
829:
826:
825:
820:
819:
816:
810:
809:
806:
800:
799:
796:
790:
789:
786:
780:
779:
776:
774:Middle Kingdom
770:
769:
766:
760:
759:
756:
750:
749:
746:
738:
733:
732:
729:
728:
723:
722:
719:
711:
706:
705:
702:
701:
693:
692:
683:
682:
675:
668:
667:
664:
663:
660:
659:
652:
650:Ottoman Empire
643:
640:
639:
634:
626:
625:
620:
612:
611:
606:
598:
597:
592:
584:
583:
578:
570:
569:
564:
556:
555:
550:
542:
541:
536:
524:
523:
518:
508:
507:
504:
503:
500:
494:
491:
490:
487:
479:al-Salih Hajji
472:
469:
468:
465:
459:
456:
455:
452:
451:
448:
444:
443:
440:
439:
433:
430:
427:
426:
421:
418:
415:
414:
409:
406:
403:
402:
399:Shajar al-Durr
396:
393:
390:
389:
386:
385:
382:
376:
375:
372:
371:
365:
362:
359:
358:
353:
350:
347:
346:
341:
338:
335:
334:
328:
325:
322:
321:
318:
317:
314:
308:
307:
296:
292:
291:
286:
280:
279:
277:
276:
270:
264:
258:
252:
241:
239:
235:
234:
232:
231:
226:
221:
219:Mamluk-Kipchak
216:
210:
208:
204:
203:
198:
194:
193:
184:
180:
179:
173:
165:
164:
152:
137:
136:
120:
112:
105:
104:
101:
100:
96:
95:
42:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
13067:
13056:
13053:
13051:
13048:
13046:
13043:
13041:
13038:
13036:
13033:
13031:
13028:
13026:
13023:
13021:
13018:
13016:
13013:
13011:
13008:
13006:
13003:
13001:
12998:
12996:
12993:
12991:
12988:
12986:
12983:
12981:
12978:
12977:
12975:
12960:
12952:
12950:
12942:
12940:
12936:
12932:
12930:
12922:
12921:
12918:
12904:
12901:
12899:
12896:
12894:
12891:
12889:
12886:
12884:
12881:
12879:
12876:
12872:
12869:
12867:
12864:
12862:
12859:
12857:
12854:
12853:
12852:
12849:
12847:
12844:
12840:
12837:
12835:
12832:
12831:
12830:
12827:
12823:
12820:
12818:
12815:
12814:
12813:
12810:
12808:
12805:
12801:
12798:
12796:
12793:
12792:
12791:
12788:
12786:
12783:
12781:
12778:
12776:
12773:
12771:
12768:
12766:
12763:
12761:
12760:Art (ancient)
12758:
12756:
12753:
12752:
12750:
12748:
12744:
12738:
12735:
12733:
12730:
12728:
12725:
12723:
12720:
12718:
12715:
12711:
12708:
12704:
12701:
12700:
12699:
12696:
12692:
12689:
12687:
12684:
12682:
12679:
12678:
12677:
12674:
12672:
12669:
12667:
12664:
12662:
12659:
12655:
12652:
12650:
12647:
12646:
12645:
12642:
12640:
12639:Blasphemy law
12637:
12635:
12632:
12631:
12630:
12627:
12625:
12622:
12620:
12617:
12615:
12612:
12608:
12607:Sign Language
12605:
12603:
12602:Saʽidi Arabic
12600:
12598:
12595:
12594:
12593:
12590:
12588:
12585:
12581:
12578:
12576:
12573:
12572:
12571:
12568:
12566:
12563:
12559:
12556:
12554:
12551:
12550:
12549:
12546:
12542:
12539:
12538:
12537:
12534:
12530:
12527:
12526:
12525:
12522:
12518:
12515:
12513:
12510:
12508:
12505:
12503:
12500:
12498:
12495:
12494:
12493:
12490:
12488:
12485:
12483:
12480:
12476:
12473:
12471:
12468:
12466:
12463:
12462:
12461:
12458:
12456:
12453:
12451:
12448:
12446:
12443:
12441:
12438:
12436:
12433:
12431:
12428:
12426:
12423:
12422:
12420:
12416:
12412:
12408:
12403:
12399:
12387:
12384:
12383:
12382:
12379:
12375:
12372:
12370:
12367:
12365:
12362:
12361:
12360:
12357:
12353:
12350:
12349:
12348:
12345:
12341:
12338:
12337:
12336:
12333:
12331:
12328:
12326:
12323:
12319:
12316:
12315:
12314:
12311:
12309:
12306:
12302:
12299:
12298:
12297:
12294:
12292:
12289:
12287:
12284:
12282:
12279:
12277:
12274:
12272:
12269:
12267:
12264:
12262:
12259:
12257:
12254:
12252:
12249:
12247:
12244:
12240:
12239:National Bank
12237:
12236:
12235:
12232:
12230:
12227:
12226:
12223:
12219:
12214:
12210:
12200:
12197:
12193:
12190:
12189:
12188:
12185:
12183:
12180:
12178:
12175:
12171:
12168:
12167:
12166:
12163:
12159:
12156:
12155:
12154:
12151:
12149:
12146:
12144:
12141:
12139:
12136:
12134:
12131:
12127:
12124:
12123:
12122:
12119:
12117:
12114:
12112:
12109:
12107:
12104:
12102:
12099:
12095:
12092:
12091:
12090:
12087:
12085:
12082:
12080:
12077:
12075:
12072:
12070:
12067:
12065:
12062:
12058:
12055:
12054:
12053:
12050:
12049:
12046:
12042:
12037:
12033:
12023:
12020:
12018:
12015:
12013:
12010:
12008:
12005:
12003:
12000:
11996:
11993:
11992:
11991:
11988:
11986:
11983:
11981:
11978:
11976:
11973:
11971:
11968:
11966:
11963:
11959:
11956:
11955:
11954:
11951:
11949:
11946:
11944:
11941:
11939:
11936:
11934:
11931:
11929:
11926:
11924:
11921:
11919:
11916:
11914:
11911:
11909:
11906:
11904:
11901:
11899:
11896:
11894:
11891:
11890:
11887:
11883:
11878:
11874:
11861:
11858:
11856:
11853:
11851:
11848:
11846:
11842:
11836:
11833:
11831:
11828:
11826:
11823:
11821:
11818:
11816:
11813:
11809:
11806:
11804:
11801:
11799:
11796:
11795:
11794:
11791:
11789:
11786:
11784:
11781:
11779:
11776:
11774:
11771:
11769:
11766:
11764:
11761:
11759:
11756:
11754:
11751:
11750:
11748:
11744:
11734:
11731:
11729:
11726:
11725:
11724:
11721:
11719:
11716:
11712:
11709:
11707:
11704:
11702:
11699:
11698:
11697:
11694:
11690:
11687:
11685:
11682:
11680:
11677:
11675:
11672:
11670:
11667:
11666:
11665:
11662:
11661:
11660:
11657:
11651:
11648:
11647:
11646:
11643:
11641:
11638:
11636:
11633:
11629:
11626:
11625:
11624:
11621:
11617:
11614:
11613:
11612:
11609:
11608:
11607:
11604:
11598:
11595:
11593:
11590:
11589:
11588:
11585:
11583:
11580:
11578:
11575:
11574:
11573:
11570:
11566:
11565:Ottoman Egypt
11563:
11562:
11561:
11558:
11552:
11549:
11548:
11547:
11544:
11542:
11539:
11535:
11532:
11531:
11530:
11527:
11525:
11522:
11520:
11517:
11515:
11512:
11510:
11507:
11505:
11502:
11501:
11500:
11497:
11495:
11492:
11488:
11485:
11483:
11480:
11478:
11475:
11474:
11473:
11470:
11466:
11463:
11461:
11458:
11457:
11456:
11453:
11449:
11446:
11444:
11441:
11440:
11439:
11436:
11432:
11429:
11428:
11427:
11424:
11422:
11419:
11418:
11416:
11414:
11410:
11406:
11402:
11397:
11393:
11388:
11381:
11376:
11374:
11369:
11367:
11362:
11361:
11358:
11350:
11344:
11340:
11339:
11333:
11329:
11325:
11321:
11317:
11313:
11308:
11302:
11301:
11292:
11288:
11285:
11282:
11278:
11275:
11272:
11270:, Paris 1895.
11269:
11265:
11263:
11259:
11255:
11252:
11248:
11245:
11242:
11240:
11239:
11234:
11231:
11230:
11219:
11214:
11210:
11206:
11202:
11197:
11193:
11189:
11184:
11180:
11174:
11170:
11166:
11161:
11157:
11151:
11147:
11142:
11138:
11132:
11128:
11123:
11119:
11113:
11108:
11107:
11100:
11096:
11090:
11086:
11082:
11077:
11073:
11067:
11064:. Routledge.
11063:
11062:
11056:
11052:
11046:
11042:
11041:
11035:
11031:
11025:
11021:
11017:
11012:
11008:
11002:
10998:
10993:
10989:
10983:
10979:
10974:
10970:
10966:
10962:
10958:
10954:
10950:
10946:
10945:Salibi, Kamal
10942:
10938:
10936:0-679-44651-6
10932:
10928:
10927:
10921:
10917:
10911:
10907:
10906:
10900:
10896:
10890:
10886:
10882:
10878:
10873:
10869:
10863:
10859:
10858:
10852:
10848:
10847:
10841:
10837:
10831:
10827:
10826:
10820:
10816:
10810:
10806:
10801:
10797:
10791:
10787:
10783:
10778:
10774:
10768:
10764:
10759:
10755:
10749:
10745:
10744:
10738:
10734:
10728:
10724:
10723:
10717:
10713:
10707:
10703:
10698:
10694:
10688:
10684:
10683:
10677:
10673:
10667:
10663:
10662:
10656:
10652:
10646:
10642:
10638:
10633:
10629:
10623:
10619:
10618:
10612:
10608:
10602:
10598:
10597:
10591:
10587:
10581:
10578:. Routledge.
10577:
10576:
10570:
10566:
10560:
10556:
10555:
10549:
10545:
10539:
10535:
10534:
10528:
10525:. Gyan Books.
10524:
10519:
10515:
10514:
10513:The Arab Book
10508:
10504:
10498:
10494:
10493:
10487:
10483:
10477:
10473:
10472:
10466:
10462:
10460:0-8093-1286-7
10456:
10452:
10451:
10445:
10441:
10435:
10432:. Routledge.
10431:
10427:
10426:Hawting, G.R.
10423:
10418:
10414:
10408:
10404:
10403:
10397:
10393:
10387:
10383:
10379:
10377:
10372:
10368:
10364:
10360:
10355:
10351:
10345:
10341:
10340:
10335:
10331:
10327:
10321:
10317:
10313:
10308:
10304:
10298:
10294:
10293:
10287:
10283:
10277:
10273:
10268:
10264:
10258:
10254:
10253:
10247:
10243:
10237:
10233:
10228:
10224:
10222:90-04-10633-2
10218:
10214:
10213:
10207:
10203:
10197:
10193:
10192:
10186:
10182:
10176:
10172:
10167:
10163:
10157:
10153:
10149:
10144:
10139:
10138:
10131:
10127:
10121:
10117:
10113:
10109:
10105:
10099:
10095:
10094:
10088:
10084:
10078:
10075:. Routledge.
10074:
10070:
10065:
10061:
10055:
10051:
10050:
10044:
10040:
10034:
10030:
10029:
10023:
10019:
10013:
10009:
10004:
10000:
9994:
9990:
9989:
9983:
9979:
9973:
9969:
9968:
9962:
9958:
9952:
9948:
9947:
9941:
9937:
9931:
9927:
9926:
9921:
9917:
9913:
9907:
9903:
9902:
9896:
9892:
9886:
9882:
9881:
9875:
9871:
9865:
9861:
9857:
9852:
9848:
9842:
9838:
9837:
9831:
9827:
9821:
9817:
9816:
9810:
9806:
9802:
9798:
9794:
9789:
9784:
9780:
9776:
9772:
9767:
9763:
9757:
9753:
9748:
9744:
9739:
9735:
9731:
9727:
9723:
9721:
9716:
9712:
9708:
9704:
9700:
9696:
9692:
9691:"Al-Baḥriyya"
9688:
9687:Ayalon, David
9684:
9680:
9674:
9670:
9666:
9661:
9657:
9651:
9647:
9646:
9640:
9636:
9630:
9626:
9622:
9617:
9616:
9605:
9600:
9594:, p. 13.
9593:
9588:
9581:
9576:
9574:
9572:
9564:
9559:
9557:
9555:
9553:
9551:
9549:
9542:, p. 94.
9541:
9536:
9534:
9532:
9530:
9522:
9517:
9510:
9505:
9499:, p. 76.
9498:
9493:
9487:, p. 97.
9486:
9485:Hathaway 2012
9481:
9479:
9477:
9475:
9459:
9458:Rawi Magazine
9455:
9449:
9442:
9437:
9430:
9425:
9419:, p. 17.
9418:
9417:Williams 2018
9413:
9407:, p. 34.
9406:
9405:Williams 2018
9401:
9394:
9389:
9383:, p. 79.
9382:
9377:
9371:, p. 31.
9370:
9369:Williams 2018
9365:
9358:
9353:
9346:
9345:Williams 2018
9341:
9335:, p. 30.
9334:
9333:Williams 2018
9329:
9322:
9317:
9310:
9305:
9299:, p. 70.
9298:
9293:
9291:
9283:
9282:Williams 2018
9278:
9271:
9266:
9264:
9256:
9251:
9244:
9239:
9232:
9227:
9221:, p. 99.
9220:
9215:
9213:
9211:
9204:, p. 97.
9203:
9198:
9196:
9194:
9185:
9181:
9174:
9167:
9162:
9155:
9150:
9143:
9138:
9131:
9126:
9120:, p. 24.
9119:
9114:
9112:
9105:, p. 33.
9104:
9099:
9093:, p. 32.
9092:
9087:
9081:, p. 40.
9080:
9075:
9069:, p. 39.
9068:
9063:
9055:
9051:
9047:
9045:9781108913805
9041:
9037:
9033:
9029:
9028:
9020:
9013:
9008:
9001:
8996:
8989:
8984:
8977:
8972:
8963:
8957:, p. 23.
8956:
8951:
8944:
8939:
8932:
8927:
8920:
8919:Levanoni 1995
8915:
8913:
8905:
8900:
8898:
8896:
8894:
8886:
8881:
8875:, p. 37.
8874:
8869:
8862:
8857:
8855:
8847:
8842:
8836:, p. 43.
8835:
8830:
8824:, p. 42.
8823:
8818:
8816:
8808:
8803:
8801:
8799:
8790:
8786:
8780:
8773:
8768:
8762:, p. 93.
8761:
8756:
8754:
8746:
8745:Levanoni 1995
8741:
8735:, p. 10.
8734:
8733:Levanoni 1995
8729:
8722:
8721:Levanoni 1995
8717:
8715:
8708:, p. 11.
8707:
8706:Levanoni 1995
8702:
8695:
8694:Levanoni 1995
8690:
8683:
8682:Levanoni 1995
8678:
8676:
8669:, p. 20.
8668:
8663:
8656:
8651:
8649:
8647:
8639:
8634:
8627:
8622:
8620:
8612:
8611:Levanoni 1995
8607:
8601:, p. 31.
8600:
8595:
8589:, p. 14.
8588:
8587:Levanoni 1995
8583:
8581:
8573:
8568:
8566:
8564:
8562:
8554:
8549:
8542:
8537:
8535:
8527:
8522:
8520:
8518:
8510:
8505:
8499:, p. 26.
8498:
8493:
8486:
8481:
8474:
8469:
8467:
8460:, p. 14.
8459:
8454:
8452:
8444:
8443:Levanoni 1995
8439:
8432:
8431:Levanoni 1995
8427:
8420:
8419:Levanoni 1995
8415:
8408:
8407:Levanoni 1995
8403:
8396:
8395:Levanoni 1995
8391:
8384:
8383:Levanoni 1995
8379:
8372:
8371:Levanoni 1995
8367:
8361:, p. 13.
8360:
8355:
8349:, p. 12.
8348:
8343:
8337:, p. 11.
8336:
8331:
8324:
8319:
8317:
8315:
8306:
8301:, p. 16.
8300:
8295:
8293:
8291:
8289:
8282:, p. 10.
8281:
8276:
8268:
8262:
8257:
8249:
8243:
8238:
8231:
8226:
8224:
8216:
8211:
8203:
8197:
8192:
8184:
8179:, p. 14.
8178:
8173:
8166:
8161:
8159:
8151:
8146:
8139:
8134:
8132:
8124:
8119:
8112:
8107:
8100:
8095:
8088:
8083:
8076:
8071:
8065:, p. 60.
8064:
8059:
8057:
8050:, p. 21.
8049:
8044:
8042:
8040:
8033:, p. 70.
8032:
8027:
8021:, p. 96.
8020:
8015:
8013:
8004:
7998:
7993:
7991:
7983:
7978:
7971:
7966:
7959:
7958:Hathaway 2019
7954:
7947:
7942:
7935:
7930:
7928:
7920:
7915:
7913:
7911:
7903:
7898:
7891:
7886:
7879:
7874:
7872:
7864:
7859:
7852:
7847:
7840:
7835:
7828:
7827:Grainger 2016
7823:
7817:, p. 82.
7816:
7815:Brummett 1994
7811:
7805:, p. 85.
7804:
7803:McCarthy 2014
7799:
7784:
7778:
7775:. McFarland.
7774:
7773:
7765:
7759:, p. 52.
7758:
7753:
7751:
7749:
7747:
7745:
7737:
7732:
7730:
7728:
7719:
7713:
7705:
7698:
7691:
7686:
7679:
7674:
7667:
7662:
7655:
7650:
7643:
7642:Brummett 1994
7638:
7632:, p. 50.
7631:
7626:
7624:
7608:
7604:
7598:
7591:
7586:
7579:
7574:
7568:, p. 49.
7567:
7562:
7560:
7558:
7556:
7554:
7552:
7544:
7539:
7532:
7527:
7521:, p. 47.
7520:
7515:
7507:
7506:
7499:
7492:
7487:
7480:
7475:
7468:
7463:
7456:
7451:
7445:, p. 42.
7444:
7439:
7432:
7427:
7425:
7423:
7407:
7403:
7397:
7390:
7385:
7378:
7373:
7367:, p. 45.
7366:
7361:
7359:
7357:
7355:
7353:
7351:
7349:
7347:
7345:
7337:
7332:
7330:
7328:
7321:, p. 93.
7320:
7315:
7308:
7303:
7297:, p. 46.
7296:
7291:
7289:
7281:
7276:
7274:
7267:, p. 44.
7266:
7261:
7254:
7253:Williams 2018
7249:
7247:
7239:
7234:
7215:
7214:
7207:
7201:, p. 43.
7200:
7195:
7188:
7183:
7176:
7171:
7164:
7159:
7153:, p. 41.
7152:
7147:
7145:
7143:
7141:
7133:
7128:
7122:, p. 40.
7121:
7116:
7109:
7104:
7097:
7092:
7086:, p. 38.
7085:
7080:
7073:
7068:
7061:
7056:
7049:
7044:
7042:
7034:
7029:
7027:
7025:
7023:
7021:
7019:
7012:, p. 39.
7011:
7006:
6999:
6994:
6987:
6986:Williams 2018
6982:
6975:
6970:
6968:
6960:
6955:
6953:
6945:
6940:
6933:
6928:
6921:
6916:
6909:
6904:
6897:
6892:
6885:
6880:
6873:
6868:
6862:, p. 15.
6861:
6860:McGregor 2006
6856:
6849:
6848:Bosworth 1996
6844:
6837:
6832:
6830:
6822:
6817:
6815:
6813:
6811:
6809:
6801:
6796:
6790:, p. 75.
6789:
6784:
6777:
6772:
6770:
6768:
6759:
6755:
6748:
6741:
6736:
6734:
6732:
6730:
6722:
6721:Levanoni 1995
6717:
6715:
6708:
6705:
6701:
6695:
6687:
6681:
6677:
6676:
6668:
6661:
6656:
6650:, p. 68.
6649:
6648:Haarmann 1998
6644:
6638:, p. 70.
6637:
6632:
6630:
6628:
6626:
6618:
6617:Levanoni 1995
6613:
6605:
6599:
6595:
6594:
6586:
6580:, p. 82.
6579:
6574:
6567:
6562:
6555:
6550:
6543:
6538:
6532:, p. 27.
6531:
6526:
6520:, p. 24.
6519:
6514:
6508:, p. 21.
6507:
6502:
6495:
6494:Levanoni 1995
6490:
6483:
6478:
6472:, p. 30.
6471:
6470:Levanoni 1995
6466:
6464:
6462:
6455:, p. 29.
6454:
6453:Levanoni 1995
6449:
6443:, p. 28.
6442:
6441:Levanoni 1995
6437:
6430:
6425:
6423:
6421:
6419:
6417:
6415:
6406:
6400:
6396:
6395:
6387:
6379:
6373:
6369:
6362:
6354:
6348:
6344:
6343:
6342:Arab painting
6335:
6327:
6321:
6317:
6316:
6315:Arab painting
6308:
6301:
6298:
6291:
6289:9789004113732
6285:
6281:
6280:
6272:
6265:
6260:
6256:
6250:
6244:, p. 38.
6243:
6238:
6232:, p. 34.
6231:
6226:
6219:
6218:Asbridge 2010
6214:
6208:, p. 32.
6207:
6206:Levanoni 1995
6202:
6200:
6192:
6187:
6185:
6183:
6175:
6170:
6163:
6158:
6151:
6146:
6139:
6134:
6127:
6122:
6115:
6114:Asbridge 2010
6110:
6104:, p. 84.
6103:
6098:
6091:
6090:Asbridge 2010
6086:
6084:
6076:
6075:Asbridge 2010
6071:
6064:
6059:
6052:
6047:
6045:
6038:, p. 52.
6037:
6032:
6025:
6020:
6018:
6009:
6005:
6002:(2): Fig. 6.
6001:
5997:
5990:
5983:
5976:
5975:Asbridge 2010
5971:
5969:
5961:
5960:Asbridge 2010
5956:
5949:
5948:Asbridge 2010
5944:
5938:, p. 98.
5937:
5936:Asbridge 2010
5932:
5926:, p. 97.
5925:
5924:Asbridge 2010
5920:
5914:, p. 73.
5913:
5908:
5902:, p. 95.
5901:
5900:Asbridge 2010
5896:
5889:
5888:Asbridge 2010
5884:
5882:
5880:
5878:
5869:
5865:
5861:
5857:
5850:
5843:
5837:, p. 91.
5836:
5831:
5825:, p. 90.
5824:
5819:
5817:
5810:, p. 72.
5809:
5804:
5802:
5795:, p. 89.
5794:
5789:
5787:
5780:, p. 80.
5779:
5778:Clifford 2013
5774:
5768:, p. 71.
5767:
5762:
5755:
5750:
5743:
5742:Clifford 2013
5738:
5732:, p. 70.
5731:
5726:
5724:
5716:
5715:Clifford 2013
5711:
5705:, p. 78.
5704:
5703:Clifford 2013
5699:
5697:
5690:, p. 77.
5689:
5688:Clifford 2013
5684:
5677:
5676:Clifford 2013
5672:
5666:, p. 69.
5665:
5660:
5658:
5650:
5649:Clifford 2013
5645:
5639:, p. 73.
5638:
5637:Clifford 2013
5633:
5627:, p. 72.
5626:
5625:Clifford 2013
5621:
5615:, p. 71.
5614:
5613:Clifford 2013
5609:
5602:
5597:
5591:, p. 70.
5590:
5589:Clifford 2013
5585:
5578:
5573:
5571:
5569:
5562:, p. 69.
5561:
5560:Clifford 2013
5556:
5549:
5548:Clifford 2013
5544:
5537:
5536:Clifford 2013
5532:
5524:
5520:
5514:
5508:, p. 67.
5507:
5506:Clifford 2013
5502:
5495:
5490:
5484:, p. 94.
5483:
5478:
5476:
5469:, p. 65.
5468:
5467:Clifford 2013
5463:
5457:, p. 57.
5456:
5451:
5444:
5439:
5437:
5429:
5424:
5418:, p. 53.
5417:
5412:
5405:
5400:
5398:
5396:
5394:
5385:
5379:
5375:
5368:
5359:
5351:
5345:
5341:
5334:
5319:
5318:
5313:
5307:
5299:
5297:9780857715494
5293:
5289:
5282:
5274:
5270:
5266:
5262:
5259:(1): 97–107.
5258:
5254:
5250:
5243:
5235:
5231:
5224:
5218:, p. 72.
5217:
5212:
5206:, p. 69.
5205:
5200:
5194:
5188:
5184:
5170:
5167:
5165:
5162:
5160:
5157:
5155:
5152:
5151:
5144:
5134:
5131:
5127:
5123:
5118:
5116:
5107:
5103:
5099:
5095:
5091:
5087:
5085:
5081:
5070:
5066:
5061:
5060:caravanserais
5056:
5055:
5048:
5042:
5035:
5033:
5028:
5027:
5020:
5019:
5012:
5008:
5003:
5000:
4994:
4993:
4986:
4981:
4973:
4969:
4965:
4960:
4950:
4947:
4942:
4939:
4938:
4932:
4928:
4924:
4921:(kept at the
4920:
4914:
4912:
4911:Frontispieces
4908:
4903:
4897:
4895:
4889:
4887:
4882:
4878:
4874:
4870:
4866:
4859:
4855:
4851:
4847:
4843:
4838:
4823:
4819:
4813:
4806:
4804:
4800:
4796:
4792:
4786:
4784:
4780:
4774:
4769:
4765:
4761:
4753:
4749:
4745:
4736:
4732:
4728:
4725:
4716:
4704:
4695:
4692:
4686:
4680:
4674:
4668:
4662:
4656:
4653:
4647:
4641:
4635:
4629:
4623:
4622:
4616:
4611:
4604:
4602:
4596:
4589:
4585:
4579:
4573:
4567:
4561:
4555:
4549:
4544:
4541:holders (see
4539:
4535:
4531:
4530:Mount Lebanon
4526:
4520:
4513:
4507:
4501:
4495:
4485:
4479:
4476:
4470:
4464:
4459:
4454:
4449:
4444:
4438:
4437:
4430:
4429:
4422:
4420:
4416:
4412:
4407:
4397:
4393:
4389:
4385:
4381:
4377:
4368:
4365:
4359:
4353:
4347:
4341:
4335:
4313:
4312:ustadh al-dar
4307:
4301:
4298:
4292:
4286:
4280:
4274:
4268:
4262:
4257:
4252:
4243:
4238:
4234:
4231:
4225:
4218:
4215:
4209:
4203:
4196:
4188:
4184:
4183:Daniel Hopfer
4179:
4174:
4164:
4162:
4158:
4154:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4138:
4134:
4124:
4121:
4116:
4111:
4110:
4103:
4102:
4094:
4091:
4085:
4078:
4072:
4071:khushdashiyya
4066:
4060:
4059:khushdashiyya
4054:
4053:khushdashiyya
4048:
4047:khushdashiyya
4043:
4037:
4034:
4033:Friday prayer
4029:
4028:
4021:
4016:
4011:
4008:
4003:
3998:
3992:
3986:
3980:
3974:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3950:
3945:
3935:
3926:
3912:
3910:
3906:
3895:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3876:
3870:
3867:
3866:
3865:amir al-ʿarab
3859:
3853:
3848:
3847:Syrian Desert
3843:
3837:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3801:
3798:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3780:
3778:
3772:
3769:
3765:
3760:
3759:
3753:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3728:
3719:
3717:
3713:
3708:
3707:
3701:
3697:
3692:
3691:
3684:
3683:
3677:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3660:
3654:
3653:qadi al-qudah
3648:
3642:
3636:
3635:qadi al-qudah
3630:
3629:qadi al-qudah
3625:
3621:
3617:
3612:
3606:
3602:
3596:
3594:
3590:
3587:
3583:
3578:
3577:
3568:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3548:
3534:
3531:
3525:
3524:
3516:
3513:
3510:, namely the
3509:
3504:
3501:
3486:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3471:
3469:
3465:
3460:
3454:
3444:
3440:
3437:
3436:
3417:
3412:
3408:
3407:Ottoman Egypt
3398:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3382:
3380:
3375:
3371:
3365:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3350:
3346:
3340:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3316:
3314:
3310:
3309:Battle of Diu
3306:
3302:
3298:
3293:
3292:Vasco da Gama
3289:
3284:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3257:
3253:
3250:
3244:
3237:
3233:
3231:
3226:
3225:
3219:
3215:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3190:
3181:
3179:
3178:
3173:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3149:
3146:
3143:In 1489, the
3138:
3134:
3129:
3125:
3123:
3117:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3028:
3026:
3022:
3017:
3014:
3008:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2990:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2967:al-Aziz Yusuf
2960:
2955:
2946:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2927:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2900:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2883:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2857:
2853:
2844:
2835:
2831:
2826:
2824:
2814:
2807:
2798:
2794:
2787:
2773:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2750:
2748:
2744:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2728:
2722:
2716:
2706:
2701:
2697:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2678:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2662:
2661:al-Mansur Ali
2656:
2643:
2642:Catalan Atlas
2638:
2633:
2632:Burji Mamluks
2623:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2601:
2596:
2592:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2567:
2564:
2556:
2552:
2547:
2543:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2501:
2490:
2480:
2473:
2469:
2464:
2460:
2458:
2454:
2443:
2438:
2432:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2390:
2387:
2383:
2382:Mahmud Ghazan
2378:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2345:
2343:
2342:captured Acre
2339:
2331:
2326:
2322:
2320:
2316:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2285:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2231:
2228:
2223:
2221:
2217:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2164:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2149:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2128:
2127:Isma'ili Shia
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2091:
2087:
2084:in 1265, and
2083:
2076:
2071:
2067:
2065:
2060:
2059:
2052:
2044:
2040:
2035:
2030:
2019:
2018:Bahri Mamluks
2009:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1989:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1967:
1962:
1958:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1938:al-Mansur Ali
1934:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1919:
1917:
1912:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1894:Mongol Empire
1883:
1875:
1873:
1864:
1862:
1853:
1842:
1831:
1820:
1809:
1800:
1791:
1782:
1773:
1764:
1755:
1746:
1737:
1726:
1724:
1715:
1706:
1695:
1686:
1673:
1664:
1653:
1644:
1638:
1631:
1629:
1625:
1620:
1614:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1592:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1572:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1530:
1518:Rise to power
1515:
1512:
1506:
1505:
1495:
1491:
1486:
1482:
1473:
1468:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1442:Kipchak Turks
1439:
1435:
1424:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1392:
1391:
1385:
1381:
1375:
1371:
1360:
1350:
1347:
1341:
1335:
1329:
1324:
1323:Bahri Mamluks
1314:
1312:
1308:
1303:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1266:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1244:
1240:
1229:
1224:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1173:Mamluk Empire
1170:
1167:
1162:
1156:
1147:
1143:
1131:
1126:
1124:
1119:
1117:
1112:
1111:
1109:
1108:
1105:
1095:
1094:
1084:
1082:
1079:
1078:
1074:
1072:
1069:
1068:
1064:
1062:
1059:
1058:
1054:
1052:
1049:
1048:
1043:
1038:
1037:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1021:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1011:
1007:
1005:
1002:
1001:
997:
995:
994:Ottoman Egypt
992:
991:
985:
980:
979:
969:
967:
964:
963:
959:
957:
954:
953:
949:
947:
944:
943:
939:
937:
934:
933:
929:
927:
924:
923:
919:
917:
914:
913:
909:
907:
904:
903:
899:
897:
894:
893:
888:
883:
882:
872:
870:
867:
866:
862:
860:
857:
856:
852:
850:
847:
846:
842:
840:
837:
836:
828:
827:
817:
815:
812:
811:
807:
805:
802:
801:
797:
795:
792:
791:
787:
785:
782:
781:
777:
775:
772:
771:
767:
765:
762:
761:
757:
755:
752:
751:
747:
745:
742:
741:
736:
735:Ancient Egypt
731:
730:
720:
718:
715:
714:
709:
704:
703:
699:
695:
694:
691:
685:
684:
679:
674:
673:
653:
651:
648:
647:
644:
638:
635:
628:
627:
624:
621:
614:
613:
610:
607:
600:
599:
596:
593:
586:
585:
582:
579:
572:
571:
568:
565:
558:
557:
554:
551:
544:
543:
540:
537:
530:
529:
526:
525:
522:
519:
517:
514:
513:
509:
505:
501:
498:
492:
489:November 1382
488:
484:
480:
476:
470:
466:
463:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
434:
428:
425:
422:
416:
413:
410:
404:
400:
397:
391:
387:
383:
381:
377:
373:
369:
366:
360:
357:
354:
348:
345:
342:
336:
332:
329:
323:
319:
315:
313:
309:
306:
303:
300:
297:
293:
290:
287:
285:
281:
274:
271:
268:
265:
262:
259:
256:
253:
250:
246:
243:
242:
240:
236:
230:
227:
225:
222:
220:
217:
215:
212:
211:
209:
205:
202:
199:
195:
192:
188:
185:
181:
177:
171:
166:
162:
156:
150:
148:
147:Mamluk Sultan
144:
138:
126:
125:
124:Catalan Atlas
116:
109:
102:
97:
90:
83:
75:دولة الجراكسة
64:
57:
49:دولة الأتراك
40:
37:
33:
19:
12785:Coat of arms
12755:Architecture
12644:Christianity
12624:Prostitution
12570:Human rights
12529:Abaza family
12517:Universities
12482:Demographics
12435:Billionaires
12079:Constitution
12074:Conscription
12057:Governorates
11938:Halfaya Pass
11808:1954–present
11768:Constitution
11723:2010s Crisis
11635:World War II
11597:Urabi revolt
11545:
11514:Islamization
11448:31st Dynasty
11443:27th Dynasty
11337:
11319:
11280:
11267:
11250:
11236:
11208:
11204:
11191:
11187:
11168:
11145:
11126:
11105:
11084:
11060:
11039:
11019:
10996:
10977:
10952:
10948:
10925:
10904:
10884:
10856:
10845:
10824:
10804:
10785:
10762:
10742:
10721:
10701:
10681:
10660:
10640:
10616:
10595:
10574:
10553:
10532:
10522:
10512:
10491:
10470:
10449:
10429:
10401:
10381:
10374:
10338:
10315:
10291:
10271:
10251:
10231:
10211:
10190:
10170:
10151:
10136:
10115:
10092:
10072:
10048:
10027:
10007:
9987:
9966:
9945:
9924:
9900:
9879:
9859:
9835:
9814:
9778:
9774:
9751:
9742:
9725:
9718:
9668:
9644:
9624:
9613:Bibliography
9599:
9587:
9516:
9504:
9492:
9461:. Retrieved
9457:
9448:
9436:
9429:Sanders 2008
9424:
9412:
9400:
9388:
9376:
9364:
9352:
9340:
9328:
9316:
9304:
9277:
9250:
9238:
9226:
9183:
9173:
9161:
9149:
9137:
9125:
9098:
9086:
9074:
9062:
9026:
9019:
9007:
8995:
8983:
8971:
8962:
8950:
8938:
8926:
8880:
8868:
8841:
8829:
8788:
8779:
8767:
8740:
8728:
8723:, p. 9.
8701:
8689:
8684:, p. 8.
8662:
8633:
8606:
8594:
8548:
8504:
8492:
8480:
8438:
8426:
8414:
8402:
8390:
8378:
8366:
8354:
8342:
8330:
8275:
8256:
8237:
8210:
8191:
8172:
8145:
8118:
8106:
8094:
8082:
8070:
8026:
7977:
7965:
7953:
7941:
7897:
7885:
7858:
7846:
7834:
7822:
7810:
7798:
7786:. Retrieved
7771:
7764:
7703:
7697:
7685:
7673:
7661:
7649:
7637:
7610:. Retrieved
7606:
7597:
7585:
7573:
7538:
7526:
7514:
7504:
7498:
7486:
7474:
7462:
7450:
7438:
7409:. Retrieved
7405:
7396:
7384:
7372:
7314:
7302:
7260:
7233:
7221:. Retrieved
7212:
7206:
7194:
7182:
7170:
7158:
7127:
7115:
7103:
7091:
7079:
7067:
7055:
7005:
6993:
6981:
6939:
6927:
6915:
6903:
6891:
6879:
6872:Isichei 1997
6867:
6855:
6843:
6795:
6788:Fischel 1967
6783:
6757:
6747:
6694:
6674:
6667:
6655:
6643:
6612:
6592:
6585:
6573:
6561:
6549:
6537:
6525:
6513:
6501:
6489:
6477:
6448:
6436:
6393:
6386:
6367:
6361:
6341:
6334:
6314:
6307:
6296:
6293:
6278:
6271:
6262:
6258:
6249:
6237:
6225:
6213:
6169:
6157:
6145:
6133:
6121:
6109:
6097:
6070:
6058:
6036:Nicolle 2014
6031:
5999:
5995:
5982:
5955:
5943:
5931:
5919:
5907:
5895:
5859:
5855:
5842:
5835:Cummins 2011
5830:
5823:Cummins 2011
5793:Cummins 2011
5773:
5761:
5749:
5737:
5710:
5683:
5671:
5644:
5632:
5620:
5608:
5596:
5584:
5555:
5543:
5531:
5522:
5513:
5501:
5489:
5482:Cummins 2011
5462:
5450:
5430:, p. 4.
5428:Nicolle 2014
5423:
5411:
5406:, p. 8.
5373:
5367:
5358:
5339:
5333:
5321:. Retrieved
5315:
5306:
5287:
5281:
5256:
5252:
5242:
5233:
5223:
5216:Fischel 1967
5211:
5199:
5187:
5126:fleur-de-lis
5119:
5111:
5076:
5041:sabil-kuttab
5036:
5004:
4976:
4953:Architecture
4943:
4915:
4898:
4890:
4862:
4854:French Kings
4807:
4787:
4781:, Genoa and
4757:
4751:
4733:
4729:
4719:
4657:
4606:
4591:
4490:
4457:
4423:
4401:
4383:
4379:
4302:
4247:
4241:
4219:
4195:Awlad al-nas
4191:
4153:al-Mustansir
4141:al-Musta'sim
4130:
4101:amir al-hajj
4095:
4038:
4012:
3969:
3947:
3944:frontispiece
3942:Illuminated
3901:
3891:
3871:
3822:
3807:
3781:
3773:
3752:Pact of Umar
3748:
3712:Ibn Taymiyya
3664:
3597:
3589:Shia Muslims
3571:
3530:awlad al-nas
3517:
3505:
3497:
3483:Muhammad Ali
3472:
3453:awlad al-nas
3449:
3429:
3383:
3366:
3343:
3313:Salman Ra'is
3288:Indian Ocean
3285:
3262:
3249:awlad al-nas
3238:
3234:
3211:
3197:
3175:
3161:Ala al-Dawla
3150:
3142:
3118:
3102:
3068:
3050:
3018:
2991:
2964:
2928:
2901:
2884:
2861:
2827:
2820:
2770:Qara Qoyunlu
2751:
2710:
2690:Burji regime
2679:
2658:
2618:perform the
2605:
2584:awlad al-nas
2573:. The emirs
2560:
2486:
2477:
2426:
2406:
2379:
2346:
2335:
2288:such as the
2286:
2263:
2224:
2168:
2160:
2156:
2079:
2064:Golden Horde
2048:
1990:
1971:
1965:
1935:
1920:
1907:
1871:
1860:
1825:
1722:
1671:GOLDEN HORDE
1593:
1573:
1563:)-based son
1532:
1499:
1489:
1446:Central Asia
1416:Ayyubid rule
1377:
1320:
1304:
1225:
1221:Burji period
1213:Bahri period
1172:
1168:
1165:
1141:
1139:
1085:1953–present
984:Early modern
965:
863:30 BC–641 AD
798:1550–1069 BC
788:1650–1550 BC
778:2055–1650 BC
768:2181–2055 BC
758:2686–2181 BC
748:3150–2686 BC
721:6000–3000 BC
521:Succeeded by
520:
515:
485:rule begins
436:Tuman Bay II
394:• 1250
331:Al-Mustansir
326:• 1261
302:stratocratic
267:Christianity
229:Oghuz Turkic
140:
122:
36:
12949:WikiProject
12710:Scientology
12580:LGBT rights
12502:Law schools
12286:Lighthouses
12229:Agriculture
11958:Mount Sinai
11918:Earthquakes
11718:Mubarak era
11689:Six-Day War
11679:Suez Crisis
11674:Land reform
11421:Prehistoric
11291:Gaston Wiet
11233:Abu al-Fida
10371:Pellat, Ch.
9715:Pellat, Ch.
9707:Schacht, J.
9563:Nickel 1972
9521:Nickel 1972
9166:Varlik 2015
9154:Christ 2012
9142:Christ 2012
9103:Christ 2012
9091:Christ 2012
9079:Islahi 1988
9067:Islahi 1988
8885:Salibi 1967
8834:Islahi 1988
8822:Islahi 1988
8772:Binbaş 2014
8760:Popper 1955
8075:Rabbat 2001
8063:Rabbat 2001
8048:Powell 2012
8019:Winter 1998
7060:Garcin 1998
7033:Garcin 1998
6974:Garcin 1998
6959:Garcin 1998
6944:Garcin 1998
6932:Garcin 1998
6920:Garcin 1998
6908:Garcin 1998
6836:Garcin 1998
6242:Amitai 2006
6230:Amitai 2006
6162:Rabbat 1995
6063:Welsby 2002
5494:Ayalon 1960
5323:13 November
5234:Turcologica
5204:Rabbat 2001
5098:Amir Qawsun
5094:Mosque lamp
5080:Bohemund VI
4946:glassmaking
4902:illuminated
4760:Middle Ages
4750:(d. 1206),
4711: 1500
4698:Agriculture
4601:grain trade
4417:and copper
4297:amir majlis
4267:amir jandar
3905:paramountcy
3884:Lower Egypt
3777:persecution
3730:Mamluk-era
3667:Shadhiliyya
3424: 1550
3395:Bab Zuwayla
3354:janissaries
3168: 1483
3131:A shirt of
2834:al-Musta'in
2579:Sirghitmish
2474:(1318–1335)
2442:al-Mustakfi
2315:Circassians
2173:kingdom of
1974:Hulagu Khan
1890: 1300
1452:and taught
1450:Sunni Islam
814:Late Period
808:1069–664 BC
794:New Kingdom
754:Old Kingdom
687:History of
516:Preceded by
477:overthrows
299:Semi-feudal
245:Sunni Islam
132: 1375
12974:Categories
12861:Newspapers
12851:Mass media
12703:Synagogues
12671:Irreligion
12619:Literature
12614:Liberalism
12553:Healthcare
12455:Corruption
12138:Parliament
12069:Corruption
12064:Civil Code
12007:Suez Canal
11965:Nile Delta
11850:Alexandria
11820:Population
11815:Parliament
11783:Healthcare
11664:Nasser era
11438:Achaemenid
11413:Chronology
11244:Al-Maqrizi
11205:Al-Qanṭara
10380:Volume VI:
9592:Petry 2022
9130:Petry 1981
9118:Stilt 2011
8955:Stilt 2011
8667:Stilt 2011
8655:Stilt 2011
8626:Stilt 2011
8599:Stilt 2011
8553:Petry 1998
8497:James 1983
8458:Stilt 2011
8359:Teule 2013
8347:Teule 2013
8335:Teule 2013
8323:Stilt 2011
8299:Britannica
8280:Teule 2013
8261:Britannica
8242:Britannica
8230:Stilt 2011
8196:Britannica
8177:Britannica
8099:Yosef 2012
8087:Yosef 2012
8031:Petry 1981
7997:Britannica
7757:Petry 2022
7736:Petry 2022
7654:Paine 2015
7630:Petry 2022
7566:Petry 2022
7543:Petry 2022
7531:Petry 2022
7519:Petry 2022
7491:Petry 1993
7479:Muslu 2014
7467:Petry 1993
7443:Petry 2022
7431:Fuess 2022
7365:Petry 2022
7336:Muslu 2014
7307:Petry 2022
7295:Petry 2022
7280:Petry 2022
7265:Petry 2022
7238:Petry 2022
7223:22 January
7199:Petry 2022
7187:Petry 2022
7175:Petry 2022
7151:Petry 2022
7132:Petry 2022
7120:Petry 2022
7108:Petry 2022
7096:Petry 2022
7084:Petry 2022
7048:Petry 2022
7010:Petry 2022
6660:Petry 1998
6542:Drory 2006
6530:Drory 2006
6518:Drory 2006
6506:Drory 2006
5577:Irwin 1986
5416:Petry 2022
5404:Yosef 2013
5180:References
4927:arabesques
4907:scrollwork
4835:See also:
4809:treasury (
4285:amir akhur
4002:Abu'l Fida
3898:Government
3888:Banu Hilal
3554:copied by
3405:See also:
3281:Portuguese
3153:Bayezid II
2766:Aq Qoyunlu
2747:Nile Delta
2375:Baybars II
2321:regiment.
2284:fortress.
2238:See also:
2211:Qasr Ibrim
1931:Alexandria
1684:GREAT KHAN
1547:al-Mansura
1527:See also:
1384:manumitted
1368:See also:
1217:Circassian
843:332–310 BC
818:664–332 BC
467:2 May 1250
344:Al-Hakim I
295:Government
284:Demonym(s)
275:(minority)
269:(minority)
263:(minority)
257:(minority)
255:Shia Islam
224:Circassian
163:map, 1413)
12856:Magazines
12846:Egyptians
12681:Ahmadiyya
12592:Languages
12558:Hospitals
12492:Education
12359:Transport
12318:Aswan Dam
12246:Companies
12187:Terrorism
12153:President
12116:Massacres
12106:Judiciary
12084:Elections
11953:Mountains
11882:Geography
11860:Port Said
11803:1939–1954
11798:1928–1938
11753:Anarchism
11696:Sadat era
11640:Sultanate
11587:Khedivate
11487:Christian
11455:Ptolemaic
11341:. Brill.
11328:1873-9830
11087:. Brill.
10908:. Brill.
10887:. Brill.
10557:. Brill.
10536:. Brill.
10359:"Mamlūks"
9970:. Brill.
9797:0732-2992
9734:495469456
9724:Volume I:
9711:Lewis, B.
9054:248169243
8638:Holt 2005
8572:Holt 2005
8541:Holt 2005
8526:Holt 2005
8509:Holt 2005
8473:Holt 2005
8215:King 1999
7982:Clot 2009
7934:Clot 2009
7919:Holt 1991
7902:Clot 2009
7890:Clot 2009
7878:Clot 2009
7863:Clot 2009
7851:Clot 2009
7839:Clot 2009
7788:22 August
7712:cite book
7678:Clot 2009
7666:Clot 2009
7590:Clot 2009
7578:Clot 2009
7455:Clot 2009
7389:Clot 2009
7377:Clot 2009
7163:Clot 2009
7072:Clot 2009
6998:Clot 2009
6884:Heng 2018
6821:Holt 1986
6800:Holt 1986
6776:Holt 1986
6554:Holt 1986
5273:0035-869X
5154:Furusiyya
5011:hypostyle
4783:Barcelona
4748:Al-Jazarī
4543:Buhturids
4469:muhtasibs
4448:al-Fustat
4413:, silver
4388:Al-Jazari
4273:khazindar
4256:majordomo
4145:caliphate
4120:wafidiyya
3954:Al-Busiri
3732:astrolabe
3700:Badawiyya
3696:Rifa'iyya
3485:in 1811.
3362:Khayr Bak
3218:Tuman Bay
3003:Mehmed II
2977:from the
2453:al-Wathiq
2254:Crusaders
2181:areas of
2165:headgear.
2162:kallawtah
2130:Assassins
2101:from the
2051:Ilkhanate
1993:Palestine
1829:SULTANATE
1762:BYZANTIUM
1704:SULTANATE
1693:ILKHANATE
1412:Ikhshidid
1288:Cyrenaica
1201:conquered
1155:romanized
1075:1922–1953
1065:1914–1922
1055:1882–1922
1028:1867–1914
1018:1805–1953
1008:1798–1801
998:1517–1867
970:1250–1517
960:1171–1250
853:310–30 BC
462:Turanshah
238:Religion
187:Sultanate
99:1250–1517
12929:Category
12893:Olympics
12829:Football
12661:Hinduism
12629:Religion
12536:Feminism
12524:Families
12487:Diaspora
12450:Censuses
12440:Cannabis
12425:Abortion
12369:Airports
12364:Airlines
12340:Internet
12143:Passport
12121:Military
12094:Missions
12041:Politics
12022:Wildlife
11746:By topic
11659:Republic
11494:Sassanid
11318:(eds.).
11287:Ibn Iyas
10382:Mahk–Mid
10373:(eds.).
9922:(1996).
9805:27811138
9775:Muqarnas
9717:(eds.).
9689:(1960).
5148:See also
5115:heraldic
5032:Minarets
5026:muqarnas
4980:madrasas
4865:enameled
4475:muhtasib
4458:muhtasib
4453:muhtasib
4443:muhtasib
4436:muhtasib
4398:in 1354.
4157:al-Hakim
4020:al-malik
3892:de facto
3880:Sharqiya
3784:Maronite
3768:poll tax
3586:Ismai'li
3537:Religion
3494:Language
3335:al-Ghuri
3265:Ismail I
3240:Corps' (
2920:Lusignan
2894:port of
2732:Damanhur
2423:descent.
2319:Burjiyya
2220:al-Abwab
2185:and the
2146:Anatolia
2142:Elbistan
2001:Nazareth
1986:Damascus
1807:MARINIDS
1660:CHAGATAI
1604:al-Karak
1576:Bahriyya
1539:Damietta
1472:al-Kamil
1292:Anatolia
1183:and the
1081:Republic
950:969–1171
678:a series
676:Part of
12959:Commons
12878:Museums
12822:regions
12790:Cuisine
12775:Castles
12747:Culture
12717:Smoking
12698:Judaism
12686:Mosques
12565:Housing
12512:Schools
12418:General
12407:Society
12347:Tourism
12276:Fishing
12234:Banking
12218:Economy
11943:Islands
11933:Geology
11928:Fossils
11913:Deserts
11908:Climate
11898:Borders
11844:By city
11830:Saladin
11778:Genetic
11758:Capital
11645:Kingdom
11560:Ottoman
11426:Ancient
11401:History
10969:4055631
10949:Arabica
10883:(ed.).
10428:(ed.).
9463:10 June
7607:Qantara
5130:shields
5122:charges
4937:thuluth
4886:minbars
4871:glass,
4826:Culture
4803:bullion
4713:–1550.
4691:iqtaʿat
4679:iqtaʿat
4578:iqta'at
4572:iqtaʿat
4554:iqtaʿat
4500:Iqtaʿat
4415:dirhams
4371:Economy
4364:ustadar
4355:s. The
4352:ustadar
4334:ustadar
4320:
4306:ustadar
4279:dawadar
4251:ustadar
4224:iqtaʿat
3958:Qaitbay
3875:iqtaʿat
3858:iqtaʿat
3852:iqtaʿat
3842:iqtaʿat
3836:iqtaʿat
3830:iqtaʿat
3818:Bahrayn
3810:Al Fadl
3682:ziyarat
3620:Hanbali
3601:Shafi'i
3489:Society
3468:Georgia
3379:Bahnasa
3345:Selim I
3339:Selim I
3224:dawadar
3122:Erzurum
3114:Zamantı
3097:al-Aqsa
3079:Qaitbay
3047:Qaitbay
3037:Qaitbay
3013:iqta'at
2989:coins.
2987:debased
2912:Genoese
2908:Catalan
2880:Barsbay
2799:(right)
2743:Hawwara
2727:niyabat
2718:(sing.
2715:niyabat
2682:Malatya
2575:Shaykhu
2470:in the
2437:iqta'at
2431:iqta'at
2413:Kipchak
2370:iqtaʿat
2266:Qalawun
2260:in 1289
2258:Qalawun
2240:Qalawun
2205:in the
2179:Red Sea
2175:Makuria
2115:Antioch
2043:Baybars
2029:Baybars
2003:at the
1997:Kitbuqa
1950:Jericho
1789:ENGLAND
1771:MUSCOVY
1753:BEYLIKS
1713:YADAVAS
1662:KHANATE
1580:Baybars
1569:Kurdish
1504:iqtaʿat
1423:Saladin
1408:Tulunid
1364:Origins
1353:History
1311:Barsbay
1280:Makuria
1254:Qalawun
1250:Mongols
1243:Baybars
1203:by the
1189:mamluks
1171:or the
1157::
940:935–969
930:868–905
920:750–935
910:661–750
900:641–661
873:619–629
609:Makuria
495:•
473:•
447:History
424:Baybars
401:(first)
333:(first)
273:Judaism
261:Alawite
197:Capital
145:of the
12939:Portal
12780:Cinema
12634:Baháʼí
12548:Health
12296:Mining
12266:Energy
11990:Rivers
11903:Cities
11825:Postal
11606:Modern
11551:Mamluk
11509:Fustat
11499:Muslim
11431:topics
11389:topics
11345:
11326:
11289:, and
11260:
11175:
11152:
11133:
11114:
11091:
11068:
11047:
11026:
11003:
10984:
10967:
10933:
10912:
10891:
10864:
10832:
10811:
10792:
10769:
10750:
10729:
10708:
10689:
10668:
10647:
10624:
10603:
10582:
10561:
10540:
10499:
10478:
10457:
10436:
10409:
10388:
10369:&
10346:
10322:
10299:
10278:
10259:
10238:
10219:
10198:
10177:
10158:
10122:
10100:
10079:
10056:
10035:
10014:
9995:
9974:
9953:
9932:
9908:
9887:
9866:
9843:
9822:
9803:
9795:
9758:
9732:
9713:&
9675:
9652:
9631:
9052:
9042:
7779:
7612:13 May
7411:12 May
7219:. 2004
6704:UNESCO
6682:
6600:
6401:
6374:
6349:
6322:
6297:hiyasa
6286:
5380:
5346:
5294:
5271:
5102:blazon
5065:wikala
5054:kuttab
4985:zawiya
4923:Louvre
4873:inlaid
4869:gilded
4858:Louvre
4799:ducats
4793:, and
4779:Venice
4768:Ceylon
4667:kharaj
4637:. The
4621:feddan
4487:system
4411:dinars
4133:caliph
4090:qarani
4084:qarani
4077:nuwwab
4065:ustadh
4027:khutba
4007:nuwwab
3997:nuwwab
3758:dhimmi
3736:Coptic
3706:zawiya
3676:hadith
3672:Qur'an
3659:madhab
3647:madhab
3641:madhab
3624:Hanafi
3616:Maliki
3611:madhab
3605:madhab
3576:madhab
3564:UNESCO
3552:Qur'an
3500:Arabic
3464:Bosnia
3459:ustadh
3372:. The
2975:Rhodes
2931:Edessa
2922:king,
2892:Yemeni
2888:Jeddah
2764:, the
2740:Berber
2721:niyaba
2665:Barquq
2655:Barquq
2519:Qawsun
2498:) and
2421:Mongol
2419:) and
2417:Turkic
2353:Mongol
2306:Hebron
2296:, the
2294:Medina
2282:Marqab
2270:Seljuk
2199:Aydhab
2183:Suakin
2171:Nubian
2138:Masyaf
1982:Aleppo
1954:Mongol
1827:MAMLUK
1818:EMPIRE
1780:FRANCE
1723:Tungus
1682:OF THE
1680:EMPIRE
1462:Arabia
1454:Arabic
1420:sultan
1390:ghulam
1382:was a
1380:mamluk
1307:Barquq
1263:) and
1246:routed
1209:Turkic
1193:sultan
1181:Levant
1179:, the
1166:Mamluk
1146:Arabic
680:on the
475:Barquq
450:
438:(last)
384:
380:Sultan
370:(last)
316:
312:Caliph
289:Mamluk
214:Arabic
183:Status
82:Arabic
78:
56:Arabic
52:
12883:Music
12866:Radio
12807:Films
12737:Women
12691:Niqāb
12676:Islam
12460:Crime
12301:Mines
12017:Wadis
11975:Oases
11948:Lakes
11893:Biota
11855:Cairo
11773:Copts
11582:Nahda
11472:Roman
11387:Egypt
10965:JSTOR
10879:. In
10424:. In
10361:. In
9801:JSTOR
9693:. In
9050:S2CID
7217:(PDF)
5992:(PDF)
5852:(PDF)
5175:Notes
5047:sabil
5018:ablaq
4992:sabil
4881:China
4818:iqtaʿ
4791:India
4773:iqtaʿ
4764:Genoa
4724:iqtaʿ
4685:iqtaʿ
4673:iqtaʿ
4661:iqtaʿ
4646:iqtaʿ
4634:iqtaʿ
4595:iqtaʿ
4584:iqtaʿ
4566:Iqtaʿ
4560:iqtaʿ
4548:halqa
4538:iqtaʿ
4534:Druze
4525:iqtaʿ
4519:iqtaʿ
4512:iqtaʿ
4506:iqtaʿ
4494:iqtaʿ
4484:Iqtaʿ
4428:hisba
4419:fulus
4406:iqtaʿ
4396:Cairo
4261:hajib
4230:iqtaʿ
4214:halqa
4208:halqa
4202:halqa
4109:Kiswa
3991:na'ib
3985:na'ib
3909:Cairo
3825:Salar
3764:jizya
3734:with
3716:Sunna
3690:dhikr
3523:nisba
3303:. It
3230:Sibay
3137:plate
3106:Ahmad
3083:ulema
3055:Cairo
2924:Janus
2870:Tatar
2813:Timur
2793:Timur
2762:Timur
2754:Sivas
2736:Asyut
2616:Mecca
2361:Greek
2195:Barqa
2191:Hejaz
2111:Jaffa
2107:Ramla
2086:Halba
2082:Arsuf
2058:barid
1902:India
1872:SUNDA
1849:KAMA-
1798:SPAIN
1744:KHMER
1735:SAING
1733:MYIN-
1702:DELHI
1624:Aybak
1613:iqtaʿ
1511:iqtaʿ
1467:na'ib
1444:from
1400:Egypt
1396:Syria
1300:emirs
1284:Nubia
1239:Qutuz
1185:Hejaz
1177:Egypt
1169:Egypt
986:Egypt
689:Egypt
483:Burji
412:Aybak
249:state
201:Cairo
12817:list
12812:Flag
12800:Wine
12795:Beer
12475:Rape
12170:list
12158:list
11995:Nile
11788:Jews
11343:ISBN
11324:ISSN
11258:ISBN
11173:ISBN
11150:ISBN
11131:ISBN
11112:ISBN
11089:ISBN
11066:ISBN
11045:ISBN
11024:ISBN
11001:ISBN
10982:ISBN
10931:ISBN
10910:ISBN
10889:ISBN
10862:ISBN
10830:ISBN
10809:ISBN
10790:ISBN
10767:ISBN
10748:ISBN
10727:ISBN
10706:ISBN
10687:ISBN
10666:ISBN
10645:ISBN
10622:ISBN
10601:ISBN
10580:ISBN
10559:ISBN
10538:ISBN
10497:ISBN
10476:ISBN
10455:ISBN
10434:ISBN
10407:ISBN
10386:ISBN
10344:ISBN
10320:ISBN
10297:ISBN
10276:ISBN
10257:ISBN
10236:ISBN
10217:ISBN
10196:ISBN
10175:ISBN
10156:ISBN
10120:ISBN
10098:ISBN
10077:ISBN
10054:ISBN
10033:ISBN
10012:ISBN
9993:ISBN
9972:ISBN
9951:ISBN
9930:ISBN
9906:ISBN
9885:ISBN
9864:ISBN
9841:ISBN
9820:ISBN
9793:ISSN
9756:ISBN
9730:OCLC
9673:ISBN
9650:ISBN
9629:ISBN
9465:2021
9040:ISBN
8305:help
8267:help
8248:help
8202:help
8183:help
8003:help
7790:2016
7777:ISBN
7718:link
7614:2023
7413:2023
7225:2024
6680:ISBN
6598:ISBN
6399:ISBN
6372:ISBN
6347:ISBN
6320:ISBN
6284:ISBN
5378:ISBN
5344:ISBN
5325:2015
5292:ISBN
5269:ISSN
5050:and
4999:waqf
4931:polo
4867:and
4801:and
4652:rawk
4640:rawk
4628:waqf
4610:rawk
4592:The
4491:The
4463:qadi
4317:lit.
4303:The
4042:coup
3786:and
3698:and
3674:and
3622:and
3582:Sufi
3475:beys
3466:and
3435:azab
3409:and
3387:Giza
3273:Iran
3135:and
3133:mail
2935:Amid
2910:and
2896:Aden
2768:and
2734:and
2620:Hajj
2577:and
2549:The
2457:qadi
2280:the
2248:The
2216:Adur
2090:Arqa
2088:and
1984:and
1976:had
1923:Gaza
1861:BALI
1851:KURA
1840:RYEO
1816:MALI
1651:1300
1438:emir
1410:and
1398:and
1378:The
1372:and
1317:Name
1248:the
1241:and
1140:The
159:(by
11213:doi
10957:doi
9783:doi
9726:A–B
9032:doi
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6264:AD.
6004:doi
5864:doi
5261:doi
5096:of
4988:s,
4831:Art
4394:in
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3952:by
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3095:at
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