Marian Rejewski - Knowledge

1243:, with or without constant points, corresponding to those positions. Cases with constant points were perforated. ach constant point had to be perforated as many as four times. When the sheets were superposed and moved in the proper sequence and the proper manner with respect to each other, in accordance with a defined program, the number of visible apertures gradually decreased. And, if a sufficient quantity of data was available, there finally remained a single aperture, probably corresponding to the right case, that is, to the solution. From the position of the aperture one could calculate the order of the rotors, the setting of their rings, and, by comparing the letters of the cipher keys with the letters in the machine, likewise permutation S; in other words, the entire cipher key. 525: 1978: 1162: 1921:, the dam began to burst. Still, many aspiring authors were not averse to filling gaps in their information with whole-cloth fabrications. Rejewski fought a gallant (if, into the 21st century, not entirely successful) fight to get the truth before the public. He published a number of papers on his cryptologic work and contributed generously to articles, books, and television programs. He was interviewed by scholars, journalists, and television crews from Poland, East Germany, the United States, Britain, Sweden, Belgium, the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, and Brazil. 404: 537: 1799: 1048:..."). However, in the military Enigma, the connections had instead been wired in alphabetical order: "ABCDEF..." This new wiring sequence foiled British cryptologists working on Enigma, who dismissed the "ABCDEF..." wiring as too obvious. Rejewski, perhaps guided by an intuition about a German fondness for order, simply guessed that the wiring was the normal alphabetic ordering. He later recalled that, after he had made this assumption, "from my pencil, as by magic, began to issue numbers designating the connections in rotor 1279: 622:, Germany. He did not complete the statistics course, because while home for the summer of 1930, he accepted an offer, from Professor Krygowski, of a mathematics teaching assistantship at Poznań University. He also began working part-time for the Cipher Bureau, which by then had set up an outpost at Poznań to decrypt intercepted German radio messages. Rejewski worked some twelve hours a week near the Mathematics Institute in an underground vault referred to puckishly as the "Black Chamber". 1892: 517: 667: 2200:, argue that Rejewski is more likely to have received these documents in mid-November, rather than on 9 or 10 December 1932. Rejewski, however, recalls: "I later... learned that... it was on 8 December, Bertrand had come to Warsaw and delivered this material. e describes it in his book here is a mistake and he gives the year 1931. But later I corresponded with him, and it turned out that it had been... the eighth of December, 1932." 188: 1056:

recalled: "Finding the in the third , and especially... in the , now presented no great difficulties. Likewise there were no difficulties with determining the correct torsion of the side walls with respect to each other, or the moments when the left and middle drums turned." By year's end 1932, the wirings of all three rotors and the reflector had been recovered. A sample message in an Enigma instruction manual, providing a

1009:, or a "cycle of 3". If there were enough messages on a given day, all the letters of the alphabet might be covered by a number of different cycles of various sizes. The cycles would be consistent for one day, and then would change to a different set of cycles the next day. Similar analysis could be done on the 2nd and 5th letters, and the 3rd and 6th, identifying the cycles in each case and the number of steps in each cycle. 1704: 206: 1616:, a unit tasked with locating enemy radio transmitters. Indeed, on 6 November a pickup truck equipped with a circular antenna arrived at the gate of the Château des Fouzes where the cryptologists were operating. The visitors, however, did not enter, and merely investigated nearby farms, badly frightening their occupants. Nonetheless, at Bertrand's suggestion French intelligence ordered the evacuation of 1102: 1403:

they had destroyed all sensitive documents and equipment and were down to a single very crowded truck. The vehicle was confiscated at the border by a Romanian officer, who separated the military from the civilian personnel. Taking advantage of the confusion, the three mathematicians ignored the Romanian's instructions. They anticipated that in an internment camp they might be identified by the

728: 832:, and encrypt the actual message. A receiving operator could reverse the process to recover first the message setting, then the message itself. The repetition of the message setting was apparently meant as an error check to detect garbles, but it had the unforeseen effect of greatly weakening the cipher. Due to the indicator's repetition of the message setting, Rejewski knew that, in the 1819: 1772:, they sent Rejewski's wife and children west, along with other Warsaw survivors; the family eventually found refuge with her parents in Bydgoszcz. Rejewski was discharged from the Polish Army in Britain on 15 November 1946. Six days later, he returned to Poland to be reunited with his wife and family. On his return, he was urged by his old Poznań University professor, 1145:

were 17,576 positions) had to be examined for each possible sequence of rotors (there were 6 possible sequences); therefore, the catalog comprised 105,456 entries. Preparation of the catalog took over a year, but when it was ready about 1935, it made obtaining daily keys a matter of 12–20 minutes. However, on 1 or 2 November 1937, the Germans replaced the

2053:(IEEE) honored Rejewski, Różycki, and Zygalski with its prestigious Milestone Award, which recognizes achievements that have changed the world. The award was given for "the first breaking of Enigma ciphers by the Polish Cipher Bureau, in 1932-1939." Their work was the foundation for British cipher-breaking efforts which helped end World War II. 1013:

cycles and the use of predictable indicators, Rejewski was able to deduce six permutations corresponding to the encipherment at six consecutive positions of the Enigma machine. These permutations could be described by six equations with various unknowns, representing the wiring within the entry drum, rotors, reflector, and plugboard.

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on chance. In 2005, mathematician John Lawrence claimed that it would have taken four years for this method to have had a reasonable likelihood of success. Rejewski had earlier written that "the conclusion is that the intelligence material furnished to us should be regarded as having been decisive to solution of the machine."

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independent of the number of plug connections. But the manufacture of these sheets, in our circumstances, was very time-consuming, so that by 15 December 1938, only one-third of the whole job had been done. he Germans' IV and V increased the labor of making the sheets tenfold , considerably exceeding our capacities."

33: 1381:(which solved German Army and Air Force Enigma ciphers), writes: "Hut 6 Ultra would never have gotten off the ground if we had not learned from the Poles, in the nick of time, the details both of the German military version of the commercial Enigma machine, and of the operating procedures that were in use." 779:, chief of French radio intelligence, enabled him to reconstruct the internal wirings of the machine's rotors and nonrotating reflector. "The solution", writes Kahn, "was Rejewski's own stunning achievement, one that elevates him to the pantheon of the greatest cryptanalysts of all time." Rejewski used a 2277:

was put in charge of the allocation of all scientists and mathematicians. Thanks to the Poles we got started quickly and recruited enough key people to see us through the crisis of May 1940. The success of this first round of recruits made it possible to go on recruiting for the expansion that lay

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later solved its keying ..." Still, this was marginally closer to the truth than many British and American best-seller accounts that would follow after 1974. Their authors were at a disadvantage: they did not know that the founder of Enigma decryption, Rejewski, was still alive and alert, and that it

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and we couldn't very well require Bertrand to keep on supplying us with the keys every month ... The situation had reversed itself: before, we'd had the keys but we hadn't had the machine—we solved the machine; now we had the machine but we didn't have the keys. We had to work out methods to find the

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There has been speculation as to whether the rotor wirings could have been solved without the documents supplied by French Intelligence. Rejewski recalled in 1980 that another way had been found that could have been used to solve the wirings, but that the method was "imperfect and tedious" and relied

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The Poles' gift of Enigma decryption to their Western allies, five weeks before the outbreak of World War II, came not a moment too soon. Knowledge that the cipher was crackable was a morale boost to Allied cryptologists. The British were able to manufacture at least two complete sets of perforated

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To decrypt Enigma messages, three pieces of information were needed: (1) a general understanding of how Enigma functioned; (2) the wiring of the rotors; and (3) the daily settings (the sequence and orientations of the rotors, and the plug connections on the plugboard). Rejewski had only the first at

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system was like using racehorses to pull wagons." On 10 October 1943, Rejewski and Zygalski were commissioned second lieutenants; on 1 January 1945 Rejewski, and presumably also Zygalski, were promoted to lieutenant. When Gustave Bertrand fled to England in June 1944, he and his wife were provided

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in their Enigma machines, which meant that the entire catalog had to be recalculated from scratch. Nonetheless, by January 1938 the Cipher Bureau's German section was reading a remarkable 75% of Enigma intercepts, and according to Rejewski, with a minimal increase in personnel this could have been

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The cyclometer comprised two sets of Enigma rotors, and was used to determine the length and number of cycles of the permutations that could be generated by the Enigma machine. Even with the cyclometer, preparing the catalog was a long and difficult task. Each position of the Enigma machine (there

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On 5 September 1939 the Cipher Bureau began preparations to evacuate key personnel and equipment from Warsaw. Soon a special evacuation train, the Echelon F, transported them eastward, then south. By the time the Cipher Bureau was ordered to cross the border into allied Romania on 17 September,

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Enigma operators also had a tendency to choose predictable letter combinations as indicators, such as girlfriends' initials or a pattern of keys that they saw on the Enigma keyboard. These became known to the allies as "Cillies" ("Sillies" misspelled). Using the data thus gained from the study of

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Two and a half weeks later, effective 1 January 1939, the Germans increased the number of plug connections to 7–10, which, writes Rejewski, "to a great degree, decreased the usefulness of the bombs." Zygalski's perforated ("Zygalski") sheets, writes Rejewski, "like the card-catalog method, was

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At this point, Rejewski ran into difficulties due to the large number of unknowns in the set of equations that he had developed. He would later comment in 1980 that it was still not known whether such a set of six equations was solvable without further data. But he was assisted by cryptographic

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Fairly thick paper sheets, lettered "a" through "z", were prepared for all twenty-six possible positions of rotor L and a square was drawn on each sheet, divided into 51 by 51 smaller squares. The sides, top, and bottom of each large square (it could as well be a rectangle) were lettered "a"

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Before receiving the French intelligence material, Rejewski had made a careful study of Enigma messages, particularly of the first six letters of messages intercepted on a single day. For security, each message was encrypted using different starting positions of the rotors, as selected by the

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The settings provided by French Intelligence covered two months that straddled a changeover period for the rotor ordering. A different rotor happened to be in the right-hand position for the second month, and so the wirings of two rotors could be recovered by the same method. Rejewski later

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to swap pairs of letters, and the encipherment varied from one key press to the next. For two operators to communicate, both Enigma machines had to be set up in the same way. The large number of possibilities for setting the rotors and the plugboard combined to form an astronomical number of

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and Zygalski sheets was complicated by yet another change to the Enigma machine on 15 December 1938. The Germans had supplied Enigma operators with an additional two rotors to supplement the original three, and this increased the complexity of decryption tenfold. Building ten times as many

1286:, "commemorat the work of Marian Rejewski, Jerzy Różycki, and Henryk Zygalski, mathematicians of the Polish intelligence service, in first breaking the Enigma code . Their work greatly assisted the Bletchley Park code breakers and contributed to the Allied victory in World War II." 651:

On 20 June 1934 Rejewski married Irena Maria Lewandowska, daughter of a prosperous dentist. The couple eventually had two children: a son, Andrzej (Andrew), born in 1936; and a daughter, Janina (Joan), born in 1939. Janina would later become a mathematician like her father.

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by the British and Americans—came chiefly from Enigma decrypts. While the exact contribution of Ultra intelligence to Allied victory is disputed, Kozaczuk and Straszak note that "it is widely believed that Ultra saved the world at least two years of war and possibly prevented

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they did not work on Enigma. Other sources indicate that they had, and Rejewski conceded that this was likely the case. Rejewski's correspondent concluded that "Rejewski either had forgotten or had not known that, e.g., Zygalski and Różycki had read Enigma after the fall of

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after only five days' illness. After his son's death, Rejewski did not want to part, even briefly, with his wife and daughter, so they lived in Bydgoszcz with his in-laws. He took a position in Bydgoszcz as director of the sales department at a cable-manufacturing company,

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concludes that substantial breaks into German Army and Air Force Enigma ciphers by the British would have occurred only after November 1941 at the earliest, after an Enigma machine and key lists had been captured, and similarly into Naval Enigma only after late 1942.

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There was another obstacle to overcome, however. The military Enigma had been modified from the commercial Enigma, of which Rejewski had had an actual example to study. In the commercial machine, the keys were connected to the entry drum in German keyboard order

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south of Warsaw. On 15 September 1938, the Germans introduced new rules for enciphering message keys (a new "indicator procedure"), making the Poles' earlier techniques obsolete. The Polish cryptanalysts rapidly responded with new techniques. One was Rejewski's

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based on the same cryptographic principle as Enigma, yet had never been subjected to rigorous security analysis. The two cryptologists created consternation by breaking the first message within a couple of hours; further messages were solved in a similar way.

1429:, introducing themselves as "friends of Bolek" (Bertrand's Polish code name) and asking to speak with a French military officer. A French Army colonel telephoned Paris and then issued instructions for the three Poles to be assisted in evacuating to Paris. 463:, the Poles shared their achievements with French and British counterparts who had made no progress, enabling Britain to begin reading German Enigma ciphers. The intelligence gained by the British from Enigma decrypts formed part of what they code-named 1837:

Rejewski had written a "Report of Cryptologic Work on the German Enigma Machine Cipher" in 1942. Before his 1967 retirement, he began writing his "Memoirs of My Work in the Cipher Bureau of Section II of the General Staff", which were purchased by the

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Enigma decryption, however, had become an exclusively British and American domain; the Polish mathematicians who had laid the foundations for Allied Enigma decryption were now excluded from making further contributions in this area. By that time, at

644:(German Navy). Progress was initially slow, but sped up after a test exchange—consisting of a six-group signal, followed by a four-group response—was intercepted. The cryptologists guessed correctly that the first signal was the question, "When was 1040:, included the Enigma settings for the months of September and October 1932. About 9 or 10 December 1932, the documents were given to Rejewski. They enabled him to reduce the number of unknowns and solve the wirings of the rotors and reflector. 2221:

The Navy had already changed its Enigma indicator procedure on 1 May 1937. For most other branches, the message key procedure changed on 15 September 1938. The SD net, which lagged behind the other services, changed procedure only on 1 July

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exploited the fact that the plugboard connections did not affect all the letters; therefore, when another change to German operating procedure occurred on 1 January 1939, increasing the number of plugboard connections, the usefulness of the

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In a letter of 1 August 1939, a few days after the Warsaw conference, Alfred Dillwyn Knox wrote his Polish hosts, in Polish: "My sincere thanks for your cooperation and patience. A.D. Knox", and below that, in French: "Enclosed: (a)

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ahead. Without assistance from the Poles, our recruitment of high-quality people would have been too little and too late." Welchman emphasizes that "Loss of continuity would, at all stages, have been very serious, if not disastrous."

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outside Paris) and the British at Bletchley Park had ultimately made of the Polish discoveries and inventions. For nearly three decades after the war, little was publicly known due to a ban imposed in 1945 by British Prime Minister

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The Poznań branch of the Cipher Bureau was disbanded in the summer of 1932. In Warsaw, on 1 September 1932, Rejewski, Zygalski, and Różycki joined the Cipher Bureau as civilian employees working at the General Staff building (the

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After 1 October 1936, German procedure changed, and the number of plugboard connections became variable, ranging between five and eight. As a result, the grill method became considerably less effective. However, a method using a

2170:, who had received it from the "Polish cryptographers", who Mahon says had done "nearly all the early work on German Naval Enigma handed over the details of their very considerable achievements just before the outbreak of war." 613:

On 1 March 1929, Rejewski graduated with a Master of Philosophy degree in mathematics. A few weeks after graduating, and without having completed the Cipher Bureau's cryptology course, he began the first year of a two-year

2240:—evidently emblematic of the cryptologic race that Knox had hoped to win using the little paper batons, and whose loss he was acknowledging. Knox may have used the paper batons to break the commercial Enigma during the 578:

In 1929, shortly before graduating from university, Rejewski began attending a secret cryptology course which opened on 15 January, organized for select German-speaking mathematics students by the Polish General Staff's

2273:'s subsequent "recruit enough high-quality people to take advantage of the opportunities that came our way." He writes of "the sheer piracy that we were able to employ in our recruiting until the spring of 1941, when 1373:, who worked at Bletchley Park, similarly assessed it as having "shortened the war by not less than two years and probably by four years". The availability of Ultra was due to the earlier Polish breaking of Enigma; 405: 1082:

After Rejewski had determined the wiring in the remaining rotors, he was joined in early 1933 by Różycki and Zygalski in devising methods and equipment to break Enigma ciphers routinely. Rejewski later recalled:

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A number of methods and devices had to be invented in response to continual improvements in German operating procedure and to the Enigma machine itself. The earliest method for reconstructing daily keys was the

448:, developed techniques and equipment for decrypting the Enigma ciphers, even as the Germans introduced modifications to their Enigma machines and encryption procedures. Rejewski's contributions included the 1290:

As it became clear that war was imminent and that Polish financial resources were insufficient to keep pace with the evolution of Enigma encryption (e.g., due to the prohibitive expense of an additional 54

1459:, the British asked that the Polish cryptologists be made available to them in Britain. Langer, however, took the position that they must remain where the Polish Army in exile was forming—on French soil. 1141:", a special-purpose device for creating a catalog of permutations. Once the catalog was complete, the permutation could be looked up in the catalog, yielding the Enigma rotor settings for that day. 836:

of the indicator, the first and fourth letters were the same, the second and fifth were the same, and the third and sixth were the same. These relations could be exploited to break into the cipher.

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operator. This message setting was three letters long. To convey it to the receiving operator, the sending operator began the message by sending the message setting in a disguised form—a six-letter

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One element of the key, the sequence of rotors in the machine, at first was changed quarterly; but from 1 January 1936 it was changed monthly; from 1 October 1936, daily; and later, during

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had informers. The mathematicians went to the nearest railroad station, exchanged money, bought tickets, and boarded the first train headed south. After a dozen or so hours, they reached

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After being robbed, Rejewski and Zygalski succeeded in reaching the Spanish side of the border, only to be arrested within hours by security police. They were sent first to a prison in

587:. The course was conducted off-campus at a military facility and, as Rejewski would discover in France in 1939, "was entirely and literally based" on a 1925 book by French colonel 1470:

with counterparts at Bletchley Park in England. For their mutual communications security, the Polish, French, and British cryptologic agencies used the Enigma machine itself.

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with a house in Boxmoor, a short walk from the Polish radio station and cryptology office, where it seems likely that his collaboration with Rejewski and Zygalski continued.

2005: 701:, a new standard German cipher machine that was coming into widespread use. In late October or early November 1932, the head of the Cipher Bureau's German section, Captain 2256:

writes: "ecrypts from the German Enigma were obtained regularly from the spring of 1940 they were confined for the next twelve months to an Enigma key used only in the

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An early Naval Enigma model (the "O Bar" machine) had been solved before 1931 by the Polish Cipher Bureau, but it did not have the plugboard of the later standard Enigma.

1299:"), the Polish General Staff and government decided to initiate their Western allies into the secrets of Enigma decryption. The Polish methods were revealed to French and 1004: 982: 960: 1780:, in western Poland. Rejewski could have looked forward to rapid advancement because of personnel shortages as a result of the war. However, he was still recovering from 1222:" ("Zygalski sheets"), which was independent of the number of plugboard connections. Rejewski describes the construction of the Zygalski mechanism and its manipulation: 1668:, avoiding German and Vichy patrols. Near midnight, close to the Spanish border, the guide pulled out a pistol and demanded that they hand over their remaining money. 1834:. He retired in 1967, and moved with his family back to Warsaw in 1969, to an apartment he had acquired 30 years earlier with financial help from his father-in-law. 4875: 1563:

ciphers, and also the Swiss version of the Enigma machine (which had no plugboard). Rejewski may have had little or no involvement in working on German Enigma at

2351:, vol. 6, no. 1, January 1982, the spurious story about "a Pole who was working in an Enigma factory in Germany" was finally retracted in a subsequent volume of 4860: 504:

After the war, Rejewski returned to Poland and his family. For two decades he remained silent about his prewar and wartime work so as to avoid the attention of

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shows how Rejewski could have adapted his method to solve for the second rotor, even if the settings lists had not straddled the quarterly changeover period.

2090:, an educational and scientific institution dedicated to the Polish mathematicians who broke the Enigma cipher, including Marian Rejewski, opened in Poznań. 4662: 697:

Before 1932, the Cipher Bureau had succeeded in solving an earlier Enigma machine that functioned without a plugboard, but had been unsuccessful with the

4175:. (The standard reference on the Polish part in the Enigma-decryption epic. This English-language book is substantially revised from the Polish-language 2606:

The exact opening date is pinpointed in a 29 January 1929 letter of appreciation to Professor Krygowski from the Chief of the Polish General Staff, Gen.

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The exact extent of the contribution of Ultra to Allied victory is debated. The typical view is that Ultra shortened the war; Supreme Allied Commander

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in November 1942, Rejewski and Zygalski escaped via Spain (and Spanish imprisonment), Portugal, and Gibraltar to Britain. There they enlisted in the

2420: 2450:"Najwyższe odznaczenie amerykańskiego wywiadu za złamanie kodów Enigmy" [Highest American Intelligence Award for Breaking Enigma Ciphers], 1636:, in the Italian-occupied zone. After coming under suspicion there, they had to flee again, moving or hiding constantly. Their trek took them to 1125:", based on the fact that the plugboard's connections exchanged only six pairs of letters, leaving fourteen letters unchanged. Next was Różycki's " 4312: 4482:(1984c), "Summary of Our Methods for Reconstructing Enigma and Reconstructing Daily Keys, and of German Efforts to Frustrate Those Methods", in 3833: 3990: 939:(see diagram). This was a "cycle of 4", since it took four jumps until it got back to the start letter. Another cycle on the same day might be 718: 1784:, which he had contracted in the Spanish prisons. Soon after his return to Poland, in the summer of 1947, his 11-year-old son Andrzej died of 1664:, near the Spanish border. On 29 January 1943, accompanied by a local guide, Rejewski, and Zygalski, bound for Spain, began a climb over the 4810: 1740: 839:

Rejewski studied these related pairs of letters. For example, if there were four messages that had the following indicators on the same day:

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had been devised around 1934 or 1935, and was independent of the number of plug connections. The catalog was constructed using Rejewski's "

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Soon after the outbreak of war, the Polish cryptologists were evacuated to France, where they continued breaking Enigma ciphers. After the

4825: 1207:, the main tool that would be used to break Enigma messages during World War II, would be named after, and likely inspired by, the Polish 4855: 2016: 1707:

Marian Rejewski, second lieutenant (signals), Polish Army in Britain, in late 1943 or in 1944, 11 or 12 years after he first broke Enigma

2027:; his daughter Janina accepted the award at his home town, Bydgoszcz, on 4 September 2012. Rejewski had been nominated for the Award by 1961:, died of a heart attack on 13 February 1980, aged 74, after returning home from a shopping trip. He was buried with military honors at 681:

device, equipped with a 26-letter keyboard and 26 lamps, corresponding to the letters of the alphabet. Inside was a set of wired drums (

4885: 2396: 2109: 2114: 1933: 1129:" method, which sometimes made it possible to determine which rotor was at the right-hand side of the Enigma machine on a given day. 4283:

Lawrence, John (October 2005b), "Factoring for the Plugboard – Was Rejewski's Proposed Solution for Breaking the Enigma Feasible?",

3789: 1036:, had obtained and passed on to the Polish Cipher Bureau. The documents, procured from a spy in the German Cryptographic Service, 805:, which was shared by all operators. The particular way that the indicator was constructed introduced a weakness into the cipher. 4393: 3754: 1513:

s international personnel—including fifteen Poles, and seven Spaniards who worked on Italian ciphers—in three planes to Algeria.

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Without the Polish assistance, British cryptologists would, at the very least, have been considerably delayed in reading Enigma.

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was becoming dangerous, and plans for evacuation were drawn up. Vichy France was liable to be occupied by German troops, and

2011:, to Marian Rejewski and Henryk Zygalski. In July 2005 Rejewski's daughter, Janina Sylwestrzak, received on his behalf the 508:. In 1967 he broke his silence, providing Poland's Military Historical Institute his memoirs of work at the Cipher Bureau. 4905: 1827: 2324: 4334:

Polak, Wojciech (2005), "Marian Rejewski in the Sights of the Security Services", in Ciechanowski, Jan Stanisław (ed.),

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conspirators from 1904. On 12 August 1978 he received from a grateful Polish people the Officer's Cross of the Order of

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The Game of the Foxes: The Untold Story of German Espionage in the United States and Great Britain during World War II

3619: 4762: 4582: 1312: 739:. Rejewski exploited these cycles to deduce the Enigma rotor wiring in 1932, and to solve the daily message settings. 2511: 2038:

issued a series of four commemorative stamps, one of which pictured Rejewski and fellow mathematician-cryptologists

801:. The indicator was formed using the Enigma with its rotors set to a common global setting for that day, termed the 2079:

about the Poles' solution of the German Enigma cipher. Late 1980 also saw a Polish TV series with a similar theme,

1844: 855:, then by looking at the first and fourth letters of each set, he knew that certain pairs of letters were related. 460: 151: 1307:, south of Warsaw, on 25 July 1939. France was represented by Gustave Bertrand and Air Force cryptologist Captain 1077: 919:). If he had enough different messages to work with, he could build entire sequences of relationships: the letter 4865: 4227:

Lawrence, John (April 2004), "The Versatility of Rejewski's Method: Solving for the Wiring of the Second Rotor",

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Welchman emphasizes that the Poles' demonstration of the German Enigma's breakability was extremely important to

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First Rejewski tackled the problem of discovering the wiring of the rotors. To do this, according to historian

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Bloch, Gilbert; Deavours, C. A. (July 1987), "Enigma before Ultra: Polish Work and the French Contribution",

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In early July 1941, Rejewski and Zygalski were asked to try solving messages enciphered on the secret Polish

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On 17 January 1940 the Poles found the first Enigma key to be solved in France, one for 28 October 1939. The

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In 1937 Rejewski, along with the German section of the Cipher Bureau, transferred to a secret facility near

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configurations, and the settings were changed daily, so the machine code had to be "broken" anew each day.

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The Poles were split into groups of two and three. On 11 November 1942 Rejewski and Zygalski were sent to

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On 20 October 1939 the three Polish cryptologists resumed work on German ciphers at a joint French–Polish–

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were among the few who could keep up with the course while balancing the demands of their normal studies.

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The Codebreakers: The Comprehensive History of Secret Communication from Ancient Times to the Internet

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for a message. The operator would first set the Enigma's rotors to the ground setting, which might be

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Until 1974, the scant information published concerning Enigma decryption attracted little attention.

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Enigma: How the German Machine Cipher Was Broken, and How It Was Read by the Allies in World War Two

3998: 2001: 1527:

Some three months later, in September 1940, they returned to work covertly in unoccupied southern,

780: 2385:[Polish Order of the President of the Republic on 14 February 2000. On awarding orders.], 2064:. Each side bears the name of one of the three Polish mathematicians who broke the Enigma cipher. 989: 967: 945: 4870: 4750: 4635: 4535: 4509: 4483: 4206: 4183: 4151: 4127: 4108: 2012: 1865: 1791: 1679:. On 4 May 1943, after having spent over three months in Spanish prisons, on intervention by the 1332: 702: 160: 2020: 1624:" landings in North Africa. Three days later, on 12 November, the Germans occupied the chateau. 165: 2383:"Postanowienie Prezydenta Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 14 lutego 2000 r. o nadaniu orderów" 2099: 1945: 1769: 1161: 445: 363: 295: 243: 4804: 4139: 4120: 2329: 2305:

critiqued the stories that had been published in British and American best-seller books: in

1739:") system, which the two cryptologists had already worked on in France. British cryptologist 1353: 1323:, and Commander Humphrey Sandwith, head of the section that had developed and controlled the 1023: 426: 3972: 3959: 1773: 1756:, "very few even knew about the Polish contribution" because of the strict secrecy and the " 1295:

s and due to the Poles' difficulty in producing in timely fashion the full 60 series of 26 "

775:—in his attack on Enigma. These mathematical techniques, combined with material supplied by 584: 4845: 4840: 4820: 4562: 4448: 4155: 4081: 2659:

Information on Marian Rejewski's Master of Philosophy diploma, 1 March 1929, reproduced in

2382: 2137: 2133: 2087: 1941: 1807: 1596:—died in the sinking of a French passenger ship on 9 January 1942, as he was returning to 1581: 1494: 1437: 1361: 1327:'s intercept and direction-finding stations. The Polish hosts included Cipher Bureau chief 1300: 1184: 682: 541: 464: 441: 350: 268: 258: 248: 223: 4573:, edited by and with introduction by Stanisław Krasucki, illustrated with 36 photographs, 1440:, forty kilometers northeast of Paris, and housed in the Château de Vignolles (code-named 1064:

produced using a stated daily key and message key, helped clarify some remaining details.

709:

for a couple of hours per day; Rejewski was not to tell his colleagues what he was doing.

529: 8: 4060: 4039: 3910: 3783: 2104: 1884: 1716: 1320: 1304: 1172: 798: 744: 736: 645: 631: 494: 1239:

marked successive possible positions of rotors M and N , and each little square marked

4734: 4692: 4614: 4410: 4300: 4272: 4244: 4159: 2314: 2306: 2257: 2237: 2184: 2166:

cites, as his source for "most of the information I have collected about prewar days",

2039: 1982: 1912: 1880: 1672: 1593: 1316: 1126: 1122: 1109: 1088: 1037: 732: 607: 593: 536: 433: 253: 4359:(1980), "An Application of the Theory of Permutations in Breaking the Enigma Cipher", 3762: 1448: 1308: 1028: 4758: 4698: 4677: 4667: 4643: 4621: 4578: 4543: 4517: 4491: 4418: 4343: 4304: 4276: 4248: 4214: 4165: 4143:(Kozaczuk's Polish-language book that was later elaborated into the English-language 4068: 4047: 4026: 3976: 3943: 3922: 2319: 2241: 1950: 1861: 1798: 1728: 1414: 1219: 678: 556: 4414: 2341:

et al., vol. 1, 1979. (After Woytak published Rejewski's "Remarks on Appendix 1 to

4723: 4634:

Stripp, Alan (2004), "A British Cryptanalyst Salutes the Polish Cryptanalysts", in

4596: 4468: 4402: 4368: 4292: 4264: 4236: 4195: 4097: 3899: 3874: 2507: 2076: 1925: 1904: 1680: 1592:

The youngest of the three Polish mathematicians who had worked together since 1929—

1506: 1033: 776: 760: 748: 453: 4117:

Secret Battle: The Intelligence Services of Poland and the German Reich, 1922–1939

4019:

The Breaking of the Enigma Cipher: the Poznań Monument to the Polish Cryptologists

1924:

Rejewski maintained a lively correspondence with his wartime French host, General

1360:

Intelligence gained from solving high-level German ciphers—intelligence codenamed

580: 432:

Over the next nearly seven years, Rejewski and fellow mathematician-cryptologists

4711: 4688: 3935: 2512:"IEEE Milestone Dedication on the First Breaking of Enigma Code (Poland Section)" 2452: 2043: 1986: 1911:, substantial information about the origins of Ultra began to seep out; and with 1872: 1736: 1621: 1374: 1296: 1165: 787:

if and only if they have the same cycle structure—that mathematics professor and

784: 603: 482:

in North Africa; a few months later, they resumed work clandestinely in southern

437: 398: 273: 4789:] (in Polish), vol. XXXI/1, Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Polskiej Akademii Nauk 1545:. A radio-intelligence station was set up at the Château des Fouzes, code-named 1278: 1052:. Thus the connections in one rotor, the right-hand rotor, were finally known." 4746: 4566: 4085: 3710: 2607: 2387: 2302: 2270: 1753: 1712: 1661: 1456: 1283: 1227:

through "z" and then again "a" through "y". This was, as it were, a system of

793:

co-editor Cipher A. Deavours describes as "the theorem that won World War II".

706: 670: 475: 422: 280: 213: 137: 4727: 4681: 4600: 4472: 4296: 4268: 4240: 4199: 4101: 3903: 1447:

As late as 3–7 December 1939, when Lt. Col. Langer and French Air Force Capt.

1211:, though the cryptologic methods embodied in the two machines were different. 4834: 4657: 4452: 3964: 3954: 2478:[Milestone Award for Polish mathematicians for breaking the Enigma], 2338: 2253: 1958: 1785: 1724: 1687:. Leaving there on 21 July, they made it to Portugal; from there, aboard HMS 1585: 1370: 752: 414: 411: 122: 112: 70: 32: 4406: 4373: 2666: 1891: 1256:

s (60 would now be needed) was beyond the Cipher Bureau's ability—that many

4113:

Bitwa o tajemnice: Służby wywiadowcze Polski i Rzeszy Niemieckiej 1922–1939

3947: 2150: 1757: 1610:

s radio transmissions were increasingly at risk of detection by the German

1528: 1336: 1328: 1176: 816:

on that particular day, and then encrypt the message setting on the Enigma

768: 638: 627: 483: 418: 290: 126: 4714:(January 1986), "From Polish Bomba to British Bombe: the Birth of Ultra", 2882: 1806:

memorial unveiled on the centennial of Rejewski's birth. It resembles the

1404: 724:

his disposal, based on information already acquired by the Cipher Bureau.

619: 545: 516: 2347: 2167: 2035: 1850: 1559:

began operations on 1 October. Rejewski and his colleagues solved German

1485: 1476: 1467: 1240: 1113: 789: 772: 756: 285: 4815: 4044:

Seizing the Enigma: The Race to Break the German U-boat Codes, 1939–1943

2581:

Information on Marian Rejewski's military service record, reproduced in

2136:

called Ultra "decisive" to Allied victory. For a fuller discussion, see

1883:

went clandestinely to a secluded Polish castle on the eve of the war .

1425:. Told by the British to "come back in a few days", they next tried the 4434: 2274: 1811: 1781: 1692: 1645: 1612: 1560: 1502:

to confer about Enigma decryption with the three Polish cryptologists.

1324: 1228: 1138: 1105: 1061: 666: 263: 187: 2236:, (b) a souvenir from England." The souvenir was a scarf picturing a 2004:

posthumously awarded Poland's second-highest civilian decoration, the

1620:. The order was carried out on 9 November, the day after the Allied " 4574: 4339: 3918: 3913:(2005), "The Unknown Victors", in Ciechanowski, Jan Stanislaw (ed.), 1803: 1657: 1418: 1057: 833: 690: 560: 74: 4022: 2061: 2056:

A three-sided bronze monument was dedicated in 2007 in front of the

1818: 1260:

s would have cost fifteen times its entire annual equipment budget.

719:

Cryptanalysis of the Enigma § Rejewski's characteristics method

567:

Thoms. After completing secondary school, he studied mathematics at

2476:"Wyróżnienie Milestone dla polskich matematyków za złamanie Enigmy" 1937: 1855: 1777: 1665: 1653: 1649: 1397: 1345: 1236: 1232: 698: 327: 66: 4587:

Woytak, Richard A. (1982), "A Conversation with Marian Rejewski",

3835:

New centre dedicated to Polish Enigma codebreakers opens in Poznań

1826:

Between 1949 and 1958 Rejewski was repeatedly investigated by the

1703: 1537: 1720: 1641: 1574:

cipher machine, which was used for secure communications between

1045: 615: 553: 479: 421:

who in late 1932 reconstructed the sight-unseen German military

4255:

Lawrence, John (July 2005a), "A Study of Rejewski's Equations",

2671: 2669: 1552: 1474:

closed its Enigma-encrypted messages to Britain with an ironic "

2942: 2940: 2938: 2936: 2811: 2809: 2807: 2767: 2765: 2763: 2761: 2759: 2757: 1962: 1928:, and at the General's bidding he began translating Bertrand's 1822:

2005 Polish prepaid postcard, on centennial of Rejewski's birth

1719:

on 16 August 1943 and were posted to a Polish Army facility in

1684: 1676: 1637: 1571: 1542: 1452: 1409: 1366: 498: 97: 78: 4534:(1984e), "The Mathematical Solution of the Enigma Cipher", in 2887: 2885: 1339:, and the three cryptologists Rejewski, Różycki and Zygalski. 1194:

s were built and were ready for use by mid-November 1938. The

1101: 205: 4811:

How Mathematicians Helped Win WWII – National Security Agency

4015:

Złamanie szyfru Enigma. Poznański pomnik polskich kryptologów

2019:. On 1 August 2012 Marian Rejewski posthumously received the 1602: 1576: 1547: 1522: 1489: 1378: 1204: 478:

in June 1940, they and their support staff were evacuated to

332: 320: 315: 310: 305: 300: 2933: 2804: 2754: 1218:, a manual method was invented by Henryk Zygalski, that of " 808:

For example, suppose the operator chose the message setting

2028: 1879:

presented a garbled account of Ultra's origins: "Commander

1853:(who in early 1940 had visited the Polish cryptologists at 1633: 727: 552:

Marian Rejewski was born 16 August 1905 in Bromberg in the

170: 4508:(1984d), "How the Polish Mathematicians Broke Enigma", in 3726: 3724: 3722: 4577:, Poland, Związek Powstańców Warszawskich w Bydgoszczy , 4336:

Marian Rejewski, 1905–1980: Living with the Enigma Secret

4186:(July 1990), "A New Challenge for an Old Enigma-Buster", 3761:, Military Intelligence Corps Association, archived from 2732: 2730: 2728: 2726: 2724: 2722: 2720: 4025:: Wydawnictwo Poznańskiego Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Nauk, 3915:

Marian Rejewski 1905–1980, Living with the Enigma secret

3719: 583:

with the help of the Mathematics Institute's Professor

3879:

Enigma ou la plus grande énigme de la guerre 1939–1945

3367: 3365: 2717: 2473: 1888:

was reckless to fabricate stories out of whole cloth.

1421:, at the other end of Romania. There they went to the 1108:, devised in the mid-1930s by Rejewski to catalog the 4663:

X, Y & Z: The Real Story of How Enigma Was Broken

4164:, Frederick, MD: University Publications of America, 4013:

Jakóbczyk, Stanisław; Stokłosa, Janusz, eds. (2007),

2333:(1976); and in Appendix 1 of the official history of 1776:, to take a university mathematics post at Poznań or 1335:, the Bureau's General-Staff-Intelligence supervisor 992: 970: 948: 630:). Their first assignment was to solve a four-letter 602:(Cryptography Course). Rejewski and fellow students 4779:

Kubiatowski, Jerzy (1988), "Rejewski, Marian Adam",

1731:

hand ciphers. The ciphers were usually based on the

828:). The operator would then reposition the rotors at 4805:

The Breaking of Enigma by the Polish Mathematicians

3883:

Enigma: the Greatest Enigma of the War of 1939–1945

3362: 1849:, in Warsaw. Rejewski had often wondered what use 735:formed by the first and fourth letters of a set of 4749:(1984), "A Conversation with Marian Rejewski", in 4613: 3958: 3565: 3563: 1078:Polish Cipher Bureau § Successes and setbacks 998: 976: 954: 4386:"How Polish Mathematicians Deciphered the Enigma" 4012: 3809: 2611: 2179:Bertrand had obtained the material from a German 2051:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 1488:—principal designer of the British cryptological 16:Polish mathematician and cryptologist (1905–1980) 4832: 4642:, New York: Hippocrene Books, pp. 123–125, 4611: 4443: 4205: 3991:"The Influence of Ultra in the Second World War" 3969:Codebreakers: The Inside Story of Bletchley Park 3960:"The influence of Ultra in the Second World War" 3714: 3261: 3250: 3154: 2377: 2375: 1600:from a stint in Algeria. By summer 1942 work at 1505:On 24 June 1940, after Germany's victory in the 4876:Grand Crosses of the Order of Polonia Restituta 4821:Marian Rejewski and the First Break into Enigma 4088:(January 1982), "In Memoriam Marian Rejewski", 3560: 1087:Now we had the machine, but we didn't have the 689:) that scrambled the input. The machine used a 4080: 3995:University of Cambridge History Research Group 3820: 2594: 2569: 2415: 2413: 2260:and to two keys used by the German Air Force." 1830:, who suspected he was a former member of the 1675:, then on 24 March transferred to a prison at 497:and were put to work solving low-grade German 491:Vichy "Free Zone" was occupied by Nazi Germany 3889: 2372: 2197: 1303:intelligence representatives in a meeting at 371: 4733: 4694:The Hut Six Story: Breaking the Enigma Codes 4604:, and as Appendix B to Kozaczuk, Władysław, 4561:Rejewski, Marian, interview (transcribed by 4455:British Intelligence in the Second World War 3674: 3466: 3464: 2782: 2780: 2353:British Intelligence in the Second World War 2343:British Intelligence in the Second World War 2335:British Intelligence in the Second World War 1932:into Polish. In 1976, at the request of the 1695:in north London, arriving on 3 August 1943. 1182: 636: 4861:Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań alumni 4778: 3971:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 2410: 2067:Rejewski and colleagues were the heroes of 1743:suggests that "Setting them to work on the 410:; 16 August 1905 – 13 February 1980) was a 4342:: Bydgoszcz City Council, pp. 75–88, 3921:: Bydgoszcz City Council, pp. 15–18, 3909: 3863:The main source used for this article was 2545: 2445: 2443: 1369:from winning." The English historian Sir 1274:Polish Cipher Bureau § Gift to allies 467:and contributed—perhaps decisively—to the 378: 364: 4901:Polish military personnel of World War II 4640:Enigma: How the Poles Broke the Nazi Code 4530: 4504: 4478: 4438: 4372: 4282: 4254: 4211:Enigma: How the Poles Broke the Nazi Code 3627:Mars: Problematyka i Historia Wojskowości 3461: 3419: 3142: 3118: 3106: 3046: 3034: 3022: 2999: 2995: 2983: 2946: 2927: 2915: 2903: 2891: 2777: 2771: 2748: 2506: 2115:Timeline of Polish science and technology 1981:2007 monument to cryptologists Rejewski, 1071: 755:. Previous methods had largely exploited 648:born?" followed by the response, "1712." 425:, aided by limited documents obtained by 4710: 4687: 4666:, Gloustershire England: History Press, 4555: 4437:and Cipher A. Deavours; also appears as 4380: 4355: 4226: 4182: 4176: 4150: 4144: 4126: 4107: 3953: 3885:] (in French), Paris: Librairie Plon 3873: 3864: 3742: 3730: 3686: 3662: 3617: 3605: 3593: 3581: 3554: 3542: 3530: 3518: 3506: 3494: 3482: 3470: 3455: 3443: 3431: 3407: 3395: 3383: 3371: 3356: 3344: 3332: 3320: 3308: 3296: 3284: 3238: 3226: 3214: 3202: 3186: 3170: 3158: 3130: 3094: 3082: 3070: 3058: 2876: 2851: 2827: 2786: 2736: 2711: 2687: 2660: 2647: 2582: 2557: 2474:Polska Agencja Prasowa (5 August 2014), 2209: 1976: 1890: 1817: 1797: 1702: 1384: 1277: 1160: 1100: 824:(which might come out to something like 726: 665: 535: 523: 515: 3988: 3273: 2875:Cipher A. Deavours, in an afterword to 2440: 2025:Military Intelligence Corps Association 1711:Rejewski and Zygalski were inducted as 705:, tasked Rejewski to work alone on the 4833: 4745: 4656: 4633: 4586: 3934: 3842:from the original on 24 September 2021 3698: 3569: 3190: 3010: 2971: 2958: 2815: 2699: 2675: 2635: 2623: 2502: 2500: 1957:Rejewski, who had been suffering from 1768:After the Germans suppressed the 1944 4333: 4310: 3650: 2798: 2528:from the original on 27 February 2015 2469: 2467: 2163: 1436:radio-intelligence unit stationed at 712: 397: 4067:(2nd ed.), New York: Scribner, 4059: 4038: 3182: 2863: 2839: 2031:Allied Command Counterintelligence. 2000:On 21 July 2000, Poland's President 1934:Józef Piłsudski Institute of America 1840:Polish Military Historical Institute 1331:, the Bureau's German-Section chief 820:; that is, the operator would enter 571:'s Mathematics Institute, housed in 506:Poland's Soviet-dominated government 4620:, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 4314:The History of Hut Eight: 1939–1945 2497: 2486:from the original on 25 August 2016 2422:Untold Story of Enigma Code-Breaker 2301:In 1982, Polish-American historian 2110:Polish contribution to World War II 1691:, to Gibraltar; and then by air to 1683:the pair were released and sent to 1214:Around the same time as Rejewski's 1203:s was greatly reduced. The British 1153: 1022:documents that Section D of French 767:. Rejewski applied techniques from 13: 4856:20th-century Polish mathematicians 4772: 4716:Intelligence and National Security 4394:Annals of the History of Computing 3989:Hinsley, Harry (19 October 1993), 2464: 2183:(Cryptographic Service) employee, 2017:British Chief of the Defence Staff 1627: 1267: 461:outbreak of World War II in Europe 14: 4917: 4886:People from the Province of Posen 4798: 4554:. Covers much the same ground as 2399:from the original on 4 April 2015 1763: 1313:Government Code and Cypher School 1247:However, application of both the 655: 3826: 3814: 3803: 3776: 3747: 3736: 3713:, prefatory note (pp. 75–76) to 3704: 3692: 3680: 3668: 3656: 3644: 3611: 2295: 2153:, as often as every eight hours. 1828:Polish Office of Public Security 1096: 563:, Poland) to Józef and Matylda, 528:Rejewski studied mathematics at 204: 186: 31: 4616:Enigma: the Battle for the Code 4612:Sebag-Montefiore, Hugh (2000), 3856: 3792:from the original on 1 May 2008 3599: 3587: 3575: 3548: 3536: 3524: 3512: 3500: 3488: 3476: 3449: 3437: 3425: 3413: 3401: 3389: 3377: 3350: 3338: 3326: 3314: 3302: 3290: 3278: 3267: 3255: 3244: 3232: 3220: 3208: 3205:, illustration following p. 114 3196: 3176: 3164: 3148: 3136: 3124: 3112: 3100: 3088: 3076: 3064: 3052: 3040: 3028: 3016: 3004: 2989: 2977: 2964: 2952: 2921: 2909: 2897: 2869: 2857: 2845: 2833: 2821: 2792: 2742: 2705: 2693: 2681: 2653: 2641: 2629: 2617: 2600: 2588: 2575: 2281: 2263: 2247: 2225: 2215: 2203: 2190: 2173: 2156: 2143: 1832:Polish Armed Forces in the West 4786:Polish Biographical Dictionary 4213:, New York: Hippocrene Books, 3620:"Poznańskie początki "Enigmy"" 2563: 2551: 2539: 2126: 1972: 1016: 993: 971: 949: 1: 4851:20th-century Polish inventors 3810:Jakóbczyk & Stokłosa 2007 2612:Jakóbczyk & Stokłosa 2007 2519:The IEEE Region 10 Newsletter 2425:, 5 July 2005, archived from 2361: 2287:Rejewski later wrote that at 1492:, elaborated from the Polish 1484:In the first months of 1940, 511: 38: 3715:Rejewski & Kasparek 1982 3262:Kozaczuk & Straszak 2004 3155:Rejewski & Kasparek 1982 3097:, pp. 72–73, 80, 90, 94 2366: 2006:Grand Cross of the Order of 999:{\displaystyle \rightarrow } 977:{\displaystyle \rightarrow } 955:{\displaystyle \rightarrow } 673:, solved by Rejewski in 1932 427:French military intelligence 7: 4906:20th-century cryptographers 4781:Polski słownik biograficzny 4138:] (in Polish), Warsaw: 4119:] (in Polish), Warsaw: 3410:, pp. 113–114, 118–130 2198:Bloch & Deavours (1987) 2093: 2083:("The Secrets of Enigma"). 1907:'s 1973 publication of his 1644:, back to Nice, then on to 1389: 1377:, head of Bletchley Park's 783:—that two permutations are 662:Cryptanalysis of the Enigma 399:[ˈmarjanrɛˈjɛfskʲi] 10: 4922: 4791:Polish Academy of Sciences 4638:; Straszak, Jerzy (eds.), 4453:"Remarks on Appendix 1 to 4361:Applicationes Mathematicae 4311:Mahon, A. P. (June 1945), 4209:; Straszak, Jerzy (2004), 3942:, New York: Bantam Books, 3821:Kasparek & Woytak 1982 2595:Kasparek & Woytak 1982 2570:Kasparek & Woytak 1982 2460:(20): 6, 22 September 2012 1698: 1531:. Rejewski's cover was as 1520: 1395: 1271: 1075: 747:, he pioneered the use of 716: 677:The Enigma machine was an 659: 4728:10.1080/02684528608431842 4697:, New York: McGraw-Hill, 4601:10.1080/0161-118291856830 4473:10.1080/0161-118291856867 4297:10.1080/0161-110591893924 4269:10.1080/01611190508951300 4241:10.1080/0161-110491892836 4200:10.1080/0161-119091864913 4102:10.1080/0161-118291856740 3904:10.1080/0161-118791861947 3347:, pp. 84, 94, note 8 2395:(273), 14 February 2000, 1967:Powązki Military Cemetery 1897:Powązki Military Cemetery 765:letter-frequency analysis 540:Rejewski laid flowers on 199:The Enigma cipher machine 185: 180: 144: 132: 118: 108: 86: 48: 30: 23: 4046:, Houghton Mifflin Co., 2120: 1733:Doppelkassettenverfahren 1584:in London. Lacida was a 1516: 1509:, Gustave Bertrand flew 1405:Romanian security police 1343:sheets—they sent one to 1032:), under future General 450:cryptologic card catalog 4407:10.1109/MAHC.1981.10033 4374:10.4064/am-16-4-543-559 4136:In the Circle of Enigma 3967:; Stripp, Alan (eds.), 3157:, p. 80, cited in 2345:, by F. H. Hinsley" in 1319:, veteran cryptologist 935:, which was related to 931:, which was related to 927:, which was related to 707:German Enigma I machine 4866:Cipher Bureau (Poland) 4330:, 117 pp., PRO HW 25/2 2663:, opposite p. 128 2100:List of cryptographers 2002:Aleksander Kwaśniewski 1997: 1900: 1823: 1815: 1708: 1466:staff collaborated by 1434:(anti-fascist) Spanish 1407:, in which the German 1287: 1245: 1183: 1168: 1117: 1094: 1072:Solving daily settings 1060:and its corresponding 1000: 978: 956: 759:and the statistics of 740: 674: 637: 600:Cours de cryptographie 549: 533: 521: 469:defeat of Nazi Germany 459:Five weeks before the 4891:Polish cryptographers 4881:People from Bydgoszcz 4449:Kasparek, Christopher 4156:Kasparek, Christopher 4082:Kasparek, Christopher 3618:Łukomski, G. (2001), 3251:Sebag-Montefiore 2000 2330:A Man Called Intrepid 2049:On 5 August 2014 the 1980: 1915:'s 1974 best-seller, 1894: 1877:The Game of the Foxes 1821: 1801: 1706: 1385:In France and Britain 1354:Hugh Sebag-Montefiore 1281: 1224: 1164: 1104: 1085: 1024:military intelligence 1001: 979: 957: 730: 669: 660:Further information: 539: 527: 520:Rejewski's birthplace 519: 423:Enigma cipher machine 4896:Polish Army officers 4757:, pp. 229–240, 4563:Christopher Kasparek 4542:, pp. 272–291, 4516:, pp. 246–271, 4490:, pp. 241–245, 4433:; has afterwords by 3911:Brzezinski, Zbigniew 3311:, pp. 70–73, 79 2970:Marian Rejewski, in 2879:, pp. 229, 232. 2789:, pp. 12, 19–21 2196:Some writers, after 2134:Dwight D. Eisenhower 2088:Enigma Cipher Centre 1895:Rejewski's grave in 1875:'s 1971 best-seller 1808:Alan Turing Memorial 1582:Polish General Staff 1438:Gretz-Armainvilliers 1112:structure of Enigma 990: 968: 946: 781:mathematical theorem 616:actuarial statistics 442:Polish General Staff 391:Marian Adam Rejewski 244:Polish Cipher Bureau 53:Marian Adam Rejewski 4751:Kozaczuk, Władysław 4735:Winterbotham, F. W. 4636:Kozaczuk, Władysław 4608:, pp. 229–240. 4536:Kozaczuk, Władysław 4510:Kozaczuk, Władysław 4484:Kozaczuk, Władysław 4207:Kozaczuk, Władysław 4184:Kozaczuk, Władysław 4152:Kozaczuk, Władysław 4128:Kozaczuk, Władysław 4109:Kozaczuk, Władysław 4021:] (in Polish), 3785:Znaczki z 2009 roku 3085:, pp. 242, 290 2429:on 18 November 2005 2013:War Medal 1939–1945 1717:Polish Armed Forces 1321:Alfred Dillwyn Knox 757:linguistic patterns 646:Frederick the Great 495:Polish Armed Forces 161:War Medal 1939–1945 3765:on 13 January 2015 3608:, pp. 207–208 3557:, pp. 207–209 3545:, pp. 205–206 3521:, pp. 151–154 3509:, pp. 150–151 3485:, pp. 148–150 3473:, pp. 137–141 3446:, pp. 134–135 3145:, pp. 242–245 3061:, pp. 225–226 3037:, pp. 284–287 3013:, pp. 234–235 2986:, pp. 258–259 2930:, pp. 254–255 2918:, pp. 251–254 2751:, pp. 247–251 2678:, pp. 230–231 2315:Anthony Cave Brown 2307:F. W. Winterbotham 2258:Norwegian campaign 2185:Hans-Thilo Schmidt 1998: 1940:correspondence of 1913:F. W. Winterbotham 1901: 1866:Władysław Kozaczuk 1864:. In a 1967 book 1824: 1816: 1774:Zdzisław Krygowski 1723:, cracking German 1709: 1333:Maksymilian Ciężki 1317:Alastair Denniston 1288: 1169: 1150:increased to 90%. 1118: 1038:Hans-Thilo Schmidt 996: 974: 952: 741: 713:Solving the wiring 703:Maksymilian Ciężki 675: 585:Zdzisław Krygowski 550: 534: 522: 4673:978-0-7509-8782-0 4649:978-0-7818-0941-2 4549:978-0-89093-547-7 4523:978-0-89093-547-7 4497:978-0-89093-547-7 4457:by F. H. Hinsley" 4424:on 4 October 2011 4349:978-83-7208-117-9 4220:978-0-7818-0941-2 4171:978-0-89093-547-7 4074:978-0-684-83130-5 4053:978-0-395-42739-2 4032:978-83-7063-527-5 3982:978-0-19-820327-8 3928:978-83-7208-117-9 3875:Bertrand, Gustave 3689:, pp. 125 ff 3675:Winterbotham 1974 3335:, pp. 84, 99 2585:, opposite p. 257 2510:(December 2014), 2508:Mazierska, Janina 2325:William Stevenson 2320:Bodyguard of Lies 2242:Spanish Civil War 2073:The Enigma Secret 2008:Polonia Restituta 1995:Poznań University 1951:Polonia Restituta 1936:, Rejewski broke 1862:Winston Churchill 1220:perforated sheets 679:electromechanical 569:Poznań University 557:Province of Posen 530:Poznań University 440:, working at the 388: 387: 194: 193: 154:Polonia Restituta 4913: 4816:Enigma documents 4794: 4793:, pp. 54–56 4768: 4742: 4741:, New York: Dell 4739:The Ultra Secret 4730: 4712:Welchman, Gordon 4707: 4689:Welchman, Gordon 4684: 4653: 4630: 4619: 4603: 4553: 4532:Rejewski, Marian 4527: 4506:Rejewski, Marian 4501: 4480:Rejewski, Marian 4475: 4451:(January 1982), 4445:Rejewski, Marian 4439:Rejewski (1984d) 4432: 4431: 4429: 4423: 4417:, archived from 4390: 4382:Rejewski, Marian 4377: 4376: 4357:Rejewski, Marian 4352: 4329: 4328: 4326: 4317:, archived from 4307: 4279: 4251: 4223: 4202: 4174: 4142: 4140:Książka i Wiedza 4123: 4121:Książka i Wiedza 4104: 4077: 4056: 4035: 4009: 4008: 4006: 3997:, archived from 3985: 3962: 3950: 3936:Farago, Ladislas 3931: 3917:(1st ed.), 3906: 3886: 3851: 3850: 3849: 3847: 3830: 3824: 3818: 3812: 3807: 3801: 3800: 3799: 3797: 3780: 3774: 3773: 3772: 3770: 3751: 3745: 3740: 3734: 3728: 3717: 3708: 3702: 3696: 3690: 3684: 3678: 3672: 3666: 3660: 3654: 3648: 3642: 3641: 3640: 3638: 3624: 3615: 3609: 3603: 3597: 3591: 3585: 3579: 3573: 3567: 3558: 3552: 3546: 3540: 3534: 3528: 3522: 3516: 3510: 3504: 3498: 3492: 3486: 3480: 3474: 3468: 3459: 3453: 3447: 3441: 3435: 3429: 3423: 3417: 3411: 3405: 3399: 3393: 3387: 3381: 3375: 3374:, pp. 96–98 3369: 3360: 3354: 3348: 3342: 3336: 3330: 3324: 3323:, pp. 81–82 3318: 3312: 3306: 3300: 3299:, pp. 98–99 3294: 3288: 3282: 3276: 3271: 3265: 3259: 3253: 3248: 3242: 3236: 3230: 3224: 3218: 3212: 3206: 3200: 3194: 3180: 3174: 3168: 3162: 3161:, p. 63, note 7. 3152: 3146: 3140: 3134: 3128: 3122: 3116: 3110: 3104: 3098: 3092: 3086: 3080: 3074: 3068: 3062: 3056: 3050: 3044: 3038: 3032: 3026: 3020: 3014: 3008: 3002: 2993: 2987: 2981: 2975: 2968: 2962: 2956: 2950: 2944: 2931: 2925: 2919: 2913: 2907: 2901: 2895: 2889: 2880: 2873: 2867: 2861: 2855: 2854:, pp. 16–17 2849: 2843: 2837: 2831: 2825: 2819: 2813: 2802: 2796: 2790: 2784: 2775: 2769: 2752: 2746: 2740: 2734: 2715: 2714:, pp. 10–11 2709: 2703: 2697: 2691: 2685: 2679: 2673: 2664: 2657: 2651: 2645: 2639: 2633: 2627: 2621: 2615: 2604: 2598: 2592: 2586: 2579: 2573: 2567: 2561: 2555: 2549: 2543: 2537: 2536: 2535: 2533: 2527: 2516: 2504: 2495: 2494: 2493: 2491: 2471: 2462: 2461: 2447: 2438: 2437: 2436: 2434: 2417: 2408: 2407: 2406: 2404: 2379: 2356: 2311:The Ultra Secret 2299: 2293: 2285: 2279: 2267: 2261: 2251: 2245: 2238:Derby horse race 2229: 2223: 2219: 2213: 2207: 2201: 2194: 2188: 2177: 2171: 2160: 2154: 2147: 2141: 2130: 2081:Tajemnice Enigmy 1946:Polish Socialist 1926:Gustave Bertrand 1918:The Ultra Secret 1905:Gustave Bertrand 1848: 1795:(Polish Cable). 1681:Polish Red Cross 1507:Battle of France 1188: 1034:Gustave Bertrand 1008: 1005: 1003: 1002: 997: 986: 983: 981: 980: 975: 964: 961: 959: 958: 953: 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 910: 906: 902: 898: 894: 890: 886: 882: 878: 874: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 850: 846: 842: 831: 827: 823: 815: 811: 777:Gustave Bertrand 771:—theorems about 761:natural-language 749:pure mathematics 642: 597: 454:cryptologic bomb 409: 408: 407: 401: 396: 380: 373: 366: 208: 196: 195: 190: 173:Milestone Award. 93: 90:13 February 1980 62: 60: 43: 40: 35: 21: 20: 4921: 4920: 4916: 4915: 4914: 4912: 4911: 4910: 4831: 4830: 4826:Plaque location 4801: 4775: 4773:Further reading 4765: 4747:Woytak, Richard 4705: 4674: 4650: 4628: 4571:Werble historii 4567:Woytak, Richard 4550: 4524: 4498: 4427: 4425: 4421: 4388: 4350: 4324: 4322: 4321:on 7 March 2016 4221: 4177:Kozaczuk (1979) 4172: 4145:Kozaczuk (1984) 4086:Woytak, Richard 4075: 4054: 4033: 4004: 4002: 4001:on 22 June 2011 3983: 3929: 3865:Kozaczuk (1984) 3859: 3854: 3845: 3843: 3832: 3831: 3827: 3819: 3815: 3808: 3804: 3795: 3793: 3782: 3781: 3777: 3768: 3766: 3753: 3752: 3748: 3741: 3737: 3729: 3720: 3709: 3705: 3697: 3693: 3685: 3681: 3673: 3669: 3661: 3657: 3649: 3645: 3636: 3634: 3622: 3616: 3612: 3604: 3600: 3592: 3588: 3580: 3576: 3568: 3561: 3553: 3549: 3541: 3537: 3529: 3525: 3517: 3513: 3505: 3501: 3493: 3489: 3481: 3477: 3469: 3462: 3454: 3450: 3442: 3438: 3430: 3426: 3418: 3414: 3406: 3402: 3394: 3390: 3382: 3378: 3370: 3363: 3355: 3351: 3343: 3339: 3331: 3327: 3319: 3315: 3307: 3303: 3295: 3291: 3283: 3279: 3272: 3268: 3260: 3256: 3249: 3245: 3237: 3233: 3225: 3221: 3213: 3209: 3201: 3197: 3181: 3177: 3169: 3165: 3153: 3149: 3141: 3137: 3133:, p. 63, note 6 3129: 3125: 3117: 3113: 3105: 3101: 3093: 3089: 3081: 3077: 3069: 3065: 3057: 3053: 3045: 3041: 3033: 3029: 3021: 3017: 3009: 3005: 2994: 2990: 2982: 2978: 2969: 2965: 2957: 2953: 2945: 2934: 2926: 2922: 2914: 2910: 2902: 2898: 2890: 2883: 2874: 2870: 2862: 2858: 2850: 2846: 2838: 2834: 2826: 2822: 2814: 2805: 2797: 2793: 2785: 2778: 2770: 2755: 2747: 2743: 2735: 2718: 2710: 2706: 2698: 2694: 2686: 2682: 2674: 2667: 2658: 2654: 2646: 2642: 2634: 2630: 2622: 2618: 2605: 2601: 2593: 2589: 2580: 2576: 2568: 2564: 2556: 2552: 2546:Brzezinski 2005 2544: 2540: 2531: 2529: 2525: 2514: 2505: 2498: 2489: 2487: 2472: 2465: 2453:Gwiazda Polarna 2449: 2448: 2441: 2432: 2430: 2419: 2418: 2411: 2402: 2400: 2381: 2380: 2373: 2369: 2364: 2359: 2300: 2296: 2286: 2282: 2268: 2264: 2252: 2248: 2230: 2226: 2220: 2216: 2210:Lawrence (2004) 2208: 2204: 2195: 2191: 2181:Chiffrierdienst 2178: 2174: 2161: 2157: 2148: 2144: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2096: 2058:Imperial Castle 2044:Henryk Zygalski 1991:Imperial Castle 1975: 1944:and his fellow 1942:Józef Piłsudski 1873:Ladislas Farago 1842: 1770:Warsaw Uprising 1766: 1745:Doppelkassetten 1701: 1673:La Seu d'Urgell 1630: 1628:Escaping France 1622:Operation Torch 1541:professor from 1525: 1519: 1449:Henri Braquenié 1423:British embassy 1400: 1394: 1387: 1375:Gordon Welchman 1309:Henri Braquenié 1297:Zygalski sheets 1276: 1270: 1268:Allies informed 1159: 1099: 1080: 1074: 1029:Deuxième Bureau 1019: 1006: 991: 988: 987: 984: 969: 966: 965: 962: 947: 944: 943: 940: 936: 932: 928: 924: 923:was related to 920: 916: 912: 908: 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 884: 883:was related to 880: 876: 875:was related to 872: 868: 867:was related to 864: 860: 859:was related to 856: 852: 848: 844: 840: 829: 825: 821: 813: 809: 721: 715: 664: 658: 604:Henryk Zygalski 591: 589:Marcel Givierge 514: 438:Henryk Zygalski 403: 402: 394: 384: 355: 337: 274:Zygalski sheets 234:Breaking Enigma 228: 176: 104: 95: 91: 82: 64: 58: 56: 55: 54: 44: 41: 26: 25:Marian Rejewski 17: 12: 11: 5: 4919: 4909: 4908: 4903: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4871:Enigma machine 4868: 4863: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4829: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4800: 4799:External links 4797: 4796: 4795: 4774: 4771: 4770: 4769: 4763: 4743: 4731: 4708: 4704:978-0070691803 4703: 4685: 4672: 4658:Turing, Dermot 4654: 4648: 4631: 4627:978-0297842514 4626: 4609: 4559: 4548: 4528: 4522: 4502: 4496: 4476: 4441: 4401:(3): 213–234, 4378: 4367:(4): 543–559, 4353: 4348: 4331: 4308: 4291:(4): 343–366, 4280: 4263:(3): 233–247, 4252: 4235:(2): 149–152, 4224: 4219: 4203: 4194:(3): 204–216, 4180: 4170: 4148: 4132:W kręgu Enigmy 4124: 4105: 4078: 4073: 4057: 4052: 4036: 4031: 4010: 3986: 3981: 3965:Hinsley, F. H. 3955:Hinsley, Harry 3951: 3932: 3927: 3907: 3898:(3): 142–155, 3887: 3870: 3869: 3858: 3855: 3853: 3852: 3825: 3813: 3802: 3775: 3746: 3735: 3718: 3711:Richard Woytak 3703: 3691: 3679: 3667: 3655: 3643: 3610: 3598: 3586: 3574: 3559: 3547: 3535: 3523: 3511: 3499: 3497:, pp. 150 3487: 3475: 3460: 3448: 3436: 3424: 3420:Rejewski 1984d 3412: 3400: 3388: 3376: 3361: 3349: 3337: 3325: 3313: 3301: 3289: 3277: 3266: 3254: 3243: 3231: 3219: 3207: 3195: 3189:, p. 59; 3185:, p. 79; 3175: 3163: 3147: 3143:Rejewski 1984c 3135: 3123: 3119:Rejewski 1984e 3111: 3107:Rejewski 1984e 3099: 3087: 3075: 3063: 3051: 3047:Rejewski 1984d 3039: 3035:Rejewski 1984e 3027: 3023:Rejewski 1984d 3015: 3003: 3000:Lawrence 2005b 2996:Lawrence 2005a 2988: 2984:Rejewski 1984d 2976: 2963: 2951: 2947:Rejewski 1984d 2932: 2928:Rejewski 1984d 2920: 2916:Rejewski 1984d 2908: 2904:Rejewski 1984d 2896: 2892:Rejewski 1984e 2881: 2868: 2856: 2844: 2832: 2820: 2803: 2791: 2776: 2772:Rejewski 1984c 2753: 2749:Rejewski 1984d 2741: 2716: 2704: 2692: 2690:, pp. 5–6 2680: 2665: 2652: 2640: 2628: 2616: 2608:Tadeusz Piskor 2599: 2587: 2574: 2562: 2560:, p. 7, note 6 2550: 2538: 2496: 2463: 2439: 2409: 2388:Monitor Polski 2370: 2368: 2365: 2363: 2360: 2358: 2357: 2303:Richard Woytak 2294: 2280: 2271:Bletchley Park 2262: 2246: 2224: 2214: 2202: 2189: 2172: 2155: 2142: 2124: 2122: 2119: 2118: 2117: 2112: 2107: 2102: 2095: 2092: 2077:thriller movie 2021:Knowlton Award 1974: 1971: 1765: 1764:Back in Poland 1762: 1754:Bletchley Park 1700: 1697: 1662:Ax-les-Thermes 1629: 1626: 1521:Main article: 1518: 1515: 1457:Bletchley Park 1427:French embassy 1396:Main article: 1393: 1388: 1386: 1383: 1311:; Britain, by 1284:Bletchley Park 1272:Main article: 1269: 1266: 1166:Zygalski sheet 1158: 1152: 1098: 1095: 1076:Main article: 1073: 1070: 1018: 1015: 995: 973: 951: 803:ground setting 717:Main article: 714: 711: 671:Enigma machine 657: 656:Enigma machine 654: 513: 510: 476:fall of France 386: 385: 383: 382: 375: 368: 360: 357: 356: 354: 353: 347: 344: 343: 339: 338: 336: 335: 330: 325: 324: 323: 318: 313: 308: 303: 298: 293: 288: 281:Bletchley Park 278: 277: 276: 271: 266: 261: 256: 251: 240: 237: 236: 230: 229: 227: 226: 220: 217: 216: 214:Enigma machine 210: 209: 201: 200: 192: 191: 183: 182: 178: 177: 175: 174: 168: 166:Knowlton Award 163: 158: 148: 146: 142: 141: 138:Enigma-machine 134: 133:Known for 130: 129: 120: 116: 115: 110: 106: 105: 96: 94:(aged 74) 88: 84: 83: 65: 63:16 August 1905 52: 50: 46: 45: 36: 28: 27: 24: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4918: 4907: 4904: 4902: 4899: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4838: 4836: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4806: 4803: 4802: 4792: 4788: 4787: 4782: 4777: 4776: 4766: 4764:0-89093-547-5 4760: 4756: 4752: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4732: 4729: 4725: 4722:(1): 71–110, 4721: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4706: 4700: 4696: 4695: 4690: 4686: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4669: 4665: 4664: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4632: 4629: 4623: 4618: 4617: 4610: 4607: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4584: 4583:83-902357-8-1 4580: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4557: 4556:Rejewski 1980 4551: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4519: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4456: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4440: 4436: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4396: 4395: 4387: 4384:(July 1981), 4383: 4379: 4375: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4351: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4332: 4320: 4316: 4315: 4309: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4286: 4281: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4253: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4225: 4222: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4178: 4173: 4167: 4163: 4162: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4146: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4076: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4055: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4034: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4011: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3987: 3984: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3961: 3956: 3952: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3930: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3871: 3868: 3866: 3861: 3860: 3841: 3837: 3836: 3829: 3822: 3817: 3811: 3806: 3791: 3787: 3786: 3779: 3764: 3760: 3759:MICAStore.com 3756: 3750: 3744: 3743:Kozaczuk 1990 3739: 3733:, p. 225 3732: 3731:Kozaczuk 1984 3727: 3725: 3723: 3716: 3712: 3707: 3701:, p. 674 3700: 3695: 3688: 3687:Kozaczuk 1967 3683: 3676: 3671: 3665:, p. 326 3664: 3663:Kozaczuk 1984 3659: 3652: 3647: 3632: 3629:(in Polish), 3628: 3621: 3614: 3607: 3606:Kozaczuk 1984 3602: 3596:, p. 220 3595: 3594:Kozaczuk 1984 3590: 3584:, p. 209 3583: 3582:Kozaczuk 1984 3578: 3572:, p. 124 3571: 3566: 3564: 3556: 3555:Kozaczuk 1984 3551: 3544: 3543:Kozaczuk 1984 3539: 3533:, p. 155 3532: 3531:Kozaczuk 1984 3527: 3520: 3519:Kozaczuk 1984 3515: 3508: 3507:Kozaczuk 1984 3503: 3496: 3495:Kozaczuk 1984 3491: 3484: 3483:Kozaczuk 1984 3479: 3472: 3471:Bertrand 1973 3467: 3465: 3458:, p. 128 3457: 3456:Kozaczuk 1984 3452: 3445: 3444:Kozaczuk 1984 3440: 3434:, p. 117 3433: 3432:Kozaczuk 1984 3428: 3422:, p. 270 3421: 3416: 3409: 3408:Kozaczuk 1984 3404: 3398:, p. 109 3397: 3396:Kozaczuk 1984 3392: 3385: 3384:Kozaczuk 1984 3380: 3373: 3372:Kozaczuk 1984 3368: 3366: 3358: 3357:Kozaczuk 1984 3353: 3346: 3345:Kozaczuk 1984 3341: 3334: 3333:Kozaczuk 1984 3329: 3322: 3321:Kozaczuk 1984 3317: 3310: 3309:Kozaczuk 1984 3305: 3298: 3297:Welchman 1986 3293: 3287:, p. 289 3286: 3285:Welchman 1982 3281: 3275: 3270: 3263: 3258: 3252: 3247: 3240: 3239:Hinsley 1993b 3235: 3228: 3227:Kozaczuk 1984 3223: 3216: 3215:Welchman 1986 3211: 3204: 3203:Kozaczuk 1984 3199: 3193:, p. 236 3192: 3188: 3187:Kozaczuk 1984 3184: 3179: 3172: 3171:Kozaczuk 1984 3167: 3160: 3159:Kozaczuk 1984 3156: 3151: 3144: 3139: 3132: 3131:Kozaczuk 1984 3127: 3121:, p. 289 3120: 3115: 3109:, p. 288 3108: 3103: 3096: 3095:Welchman 1986 3091: 3084: 3083:Kozaczuk 1984 3079: 3073:, p. 227 3072: 3071:Rejewski 1981 3067: 3060: 3059:Rejewski 1981 3055: 3049:, p. 265 3048: 3043: 3036: 3031: 3025:, p. 262 3024: 3019: 3012: 3007: 3001: 2997: 2992: 2985: 2980: 2974:, p. 233 2973: 2967: 2961:, p. 233 2960: 2955: 2949:, p. 258 2948: 2943: 2941: 2939: 2937: 2929: 2924: 2917: 2912: 2906:, p. 254 2905: 2900: 2894:, p. 274 2893: 2888: 2886: 2878: 2877:Rejewski 1981 2872: 2866:, p. 974 2865: 2860: 2853: 2852:Kozaczuk 1984 2848: 2841: 2836: 2829: 2828:Kozaczuk 1984 2824: 2818:, p. 232 2817: 2812: 2810: 2808: 2800: 2795: 2788: 2787:Kozaczuk 1984 2783: 2781: 2774:, p. 242 2773: 2768: 2766: 2764: 2762: 2760: 2758: 2750: 2745: 2739:, p. 226 2738: 2737:Kozaczuk 1984 2733: 2731: 2729: 2727: 2725: 2723: 2721: 2713: 2712:Kozaczuk 1984 2708: 2702:, p. 231 2701: 2696: 2689: 2688:Kozaczuk 1984 2684: 2677: 2672: 2670: 2662: 2661:Kozaczuk 1979 2656: 2649: 2648:Kozaczuk 1984 2644: 2638:, p. 238 2637: 2632: 2626:, p. 230 2625: 2620: 2614:, p. 44. 2613: 2609: 2603: 2596: 2591: 2584: 2583:Kozaczuk 1979 2578: 2571: 2566: 2559: 2558:Kozaczuk 1984 2554: 2547: 2542: 2524: 2520: 2513: 2509: 2503: 2501: 2485: 2482:(in Polish), 2481: 2477: 2470: 2468: 2459: 2456:(in Polish), 2455: 2454: 2446: 2444: 2428: 2424: 2423: 2416: 2414: 2398: 2394: 2391:(in Polish), 2390: 2389: 2384: 2378: 2376: 2371: 2354: 2350: 2349: 2344: 2340: 2339:F. H. Hinsley 2336: 2332: 2331: 2326: 2322: 2321: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2298: 2290: 2284: 2276: 2272: 2266: 2259: 2255: 2254:F. H. Hinsley 2250: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2234:petits batons 2228: 2218: 2211: 2206: 2199: 2193: 2186: 2182: 2176: 2169: 2165: 2159: 2152: 2146: 2139: 2135: 2129: 2125: 2116: 2113: 2111: 2108: 2106: 2105:List of Poles 2103: 2101: 2098: 2097: 2091: 2089: 2084: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2069:Sekret Enigmy 2065: 2063: 2059: 2054: 2052: 2047: 2045: 2041: 2040:Jerzy Różycki 2037: 2034:In 2009, the 2032: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2009: 2003: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1979: 1970: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1959:heart disease 1955: 1953: 1952: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1922: 1920: 1919: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1898: 1893: 1889: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1869: 1867: 1863: 1858: 1857: 1852: 1846: 1841: 1835: 1833: 1829: 1820: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1800: 1796: 1794: 1793: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1761: 1760:" principle. 1759: 1755: 1749: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1705: 1696: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1669: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1625: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1614: 1609: 1605: 1604: 1599: 1595: 1594:Jerzy Różycki 1590: 1587: 1586:rotor machine 1583: 1579: 1578: 1573: 1568: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1549: 1544: 1540: 1539: 1534: 1533:Pierre Ranaud 1530: 1524: 1514: 1512: 1508: 1503: 1501: 1498:—would visit 1497: 1496: 1491: 1487: 1482: 1480: 1478: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1460: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1445: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1430: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1411: 1406: 1399: 1392: 1382: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1371:Harry Hinsley 1368: 1363: 1358: 1355: 1350: 1348: 1347: 1340: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1285: 1282:2002 plaque, 1280: 1275: 1265: 1261: 1259: 1255: 1250: 1244: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1231:in which the 1230: 1223: 1221: 1217: 1212: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1187: 1186: 1178: 1174: 1167: 1163: 1156: 1151: 1148: 1142: 1140: 1136: 1130: 1128: 1124: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1097:Early methods 1093: 1090: 1084: 1079: 1069: 1065: 1063: 1059: 1053: 1051: 1047: 1041: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1030: 1025: 1014: 1010: 837: 835: 819: 806: 804: 800: 794: 792: 791: 786: 782: 778: 774: 770: 766: 762: 758: 754: 753:cryptanalysis 750: 746: 738: 734: 729: 725: 720: 710: 708: 704: 700: 695: 692: 688: 684: 680: 672: 668: 663: 653: 649: 647: 643: 641: 640: 633: 629: 623: 621: 617: 611: 609: 608:Jerzy Różycki 605: 601: 595: 590: 586: 582: 581:Cipher Bureau 576: 574: 573:Poznań Castle 570: 566: 562: 558: 555: 547: 543: 538: 531: 526: 518: 509: 507: 502: 500: 496: 492: 487: 485: 481: 477: 472: 470: 466: 462: 457: 455: 451: 447: 446:Cipher Bureau 443: 439: 435: 434:Jerzy Różycki 430: 428: 424: 420: 416: 415:mathematician 413: 406: 400: 392: 381: 376: 374: 369: 367: 362: 361: 359: 358: 352: 349: 348: 346: 345: 341: 340: 334: 331: 329: 326: 322: 319: 317: 314: 312: 309: 307: 304: 302: 299: 297: 294: 292: 289: 287: 284: 283: 282: 279: 275: 272: 270: 267: 265: 262: 260: 257: 255: 252: 250: 247: 246: 245: 242: 241: 239: 238: 235: 232: 231: 225: 224:Enigma rotors 222: 221: 219: 218: 215: 212: 211: 207: 203: 202: 198: 197: 189: 184: 179: 172: 169: 167: 164: 162: 159: 157: 156:, Grand Cross 155: 150: 149: 147: 143: 139: 135: 131: 128: 124: 123:Mathematician 121: 119:Occupation(s) 117: 114: 111: 107: 103: 99: 89: 85: 80: 76: 72: 71:German Empire 68: 51: 47: 34: 29: 22: 19: 4807:by Tony Sale 4784: 4780: 4767:, Appendix B 4754: 4738: 4719: 4715: 4693: 4661: 4652:, Appendix E 4639: 4615: 4605: 4592: 4588: 4570: 4552:, Appendix E 4539: 4531: 4526:, Appendix D 4513: 4505: 4500:, Appendix C 4487: 4479: 4467:(1): 75–83, 4464: 4460: 4454: 4444: 4426:, retrieved 4419:the original 4398: 4392: 4381: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4335: 4323:, retrieved 4319:the original 4313: 4288: 4284: 4260: 4256: 4232: 4228: 4210: 4191: 4187: 4160: 4135: 4131: 4116: 4112: 4096:(1): 19–25, 4093: 4089: 4064: 4043: 4018: 4014: 4003:, retrieved 3999:the original 3994: 3968: 3939: 3914: 3895: 3891: 3882: 3878: 3862: 3857:Bibliography 3846:25 September 3844:, retrieved 3834: 3828: 3823:, p. 24 3816: 3805: 3794:, retrieved 3784: 3778: 3767:, retrieved 3763:the original 3758: 3749: 3738: 3706: 3694: 3682: 3677:, p. 15 3670: 3658: 3653:, p. 78 3646: 3635:, retrieved 3630: 3626: 3613: 3601: 3589: 3577: 3550: 3538: 3526: 3514: 3502: 3490: 3478: 3451: 3439: 3427: 3415: 3403: 3391: 3386:, p. 82 3379: 3359:, p. 87 3352: 3340: 3328: 3316: 3304: 3292: 3280: 3274:Hinsley 1993 3269: 3264:, p. 74 3257: 3246: 3234: 3229:, p. 84 3222: 3217:, p. 97 3210: 3198: 3178: 3173:, p. 59 3166: 3150: 3138: 3126: 3114: 3102: 3090: 3078: 3066: 3054: 3042: 3030: 3018: 3006: 2991: 2979: 2966: 2954: 2923: 2911: 2899: 2871: 2859: 2847: 2842:, p. 64 2835: 2830:, p. 12 2823: 2801:, p. 12 2794: 2744: 2707: 2695: 2683: 2655: 2643: 2631: 2619: 2602: 2597:, p. 20 2590: 2577: 2572:, p. 19 2565: 2553: 2548:, p. 18 2541: 2530:, retrieved 2518: 2488:, retrieved 2479: 2457: 2451: 2431:, retrieved 2427:the original 2421: 2401:, retrieved 2392: 2386: 2352: 2346: 2342: 2334: 2328: 2318: 2310: 2297: 2288: 2283: 2265: 2249: 2233: 2227: 2217: 2205: 2192: 2180: 2175: 2164:Mahon (1945) 2158: 2151:World War II 2145: 2128: 2086:In 2021 the 2085: 2080: 2072: 2068: 2066: 2055: 2048: 2033: 2023:of the U.S. 2007: 1999: 1956: 1949: 1929: 1923: 1916: 1908: 1902: 1876: 1870: 1854: 1836: 1825: 1792:Kabel Polski 1790: 1767: 1758:need-to-know 1750: 1744: 1732: 1710: 1688: 1670: 1631: 1617: 1611: 1607: 1601: 1597: 1591: 1575: 1569: 1564: 1556: 1546: 1536: 1532: 1529:Vichy France 1526: 1510: 1504: 1499: 1493: 1483: 1475: 1471: 1463: 1461: 1446: 1441: 1431: 1408: 1401: 1390: 1359: 1351: 1344: 1341: 1337:Stefan Mayer 1329:Gwido Langer 1292: 1289: 1262: 1257: 1253: 1248: 1246: 1241:permutations 1225: 1215: 1213: 1208: 1200: 1195: 1191: 1181: 1177:Kabaty Woods 1170: 1154: 1143: 1135:card catalog 1131: 1119: 1114:permutations 1086: 1081: 1066: 1054: 1049: 1042: 1027: 1020: 1011: 838: 817: 807: 802: 795: 788: 773:permutations 769:group theory 742: 722: 696: 676: 650: 639:Kriegsmarine 635: 634:used by the 628:Saxon Palace 624: 612: 599: 577: 564: 551: 503: 488: 484:Vichy France 473: 458: 431: 419:cryptologist 390: 389: 153: 136:Solving the 127:cryptologist 92:(1980-02-13) 18: 4846:1980 deaths 4841:1905 births 4589:Cryptologia 4461:Cryptologia 4325:12 February 4285:Cryptologia 4257:Cryptologia 4229:Cryptologia 4188:Cryptologia 4090:Cryptologia 4061:Kahn, David 4040:Kahn, David 3892:Cryptologia 3796:25 February 3699:Farago 1971 3570:Stripp 2004 3241:, p. 2 3191:Woytak 1984 3011:Woytak 1984 2972:Woytak 1984 2959:Woytak 1984 2816:Woytak 1984 2700:Woytak 1984 2676:Woytak 1984 2650:, p. 4 2636:Woytak 1984 2624:Woytak 1984 2403:27 February 2348:Cryptologia 2323:(1975); in 2313:(1974); in 2168:Alan Turing 2036:Polish Post 1973:Recognition 1851:Alan Turing 1843: [ 1741:Alan Stripp 1486:Alan Turing 1477:Heil Hitler 1468:teleprinter 1229:coordinates 1092:daily keys. 1017:French help 790:Cryptologia 592: [ 291:Herivel tip 286:Banburismus 109:Nationality 42: 1932 4835:Categories 4682:1029570490 4435:I. J. Good 4428:7 February 4005:5 February 3769:5 February 3651:Polak 2005 2799:Mahon 1945 2532:1 February 2362:References 2275:C. P. Snow 1938:enciphered 1885:Dilly Knox 1812:Manchester 1782:rheumatism 1693:RAF Hendon 1646:Marseilles 1613:Funkabwehr 1325:Royal Navy 1157:and sheets 1139:cyclometer 1106:Cyclometer 1062:ciphertext 745:David Kahn 737:indicators 618:course at 544:'s grave ( 512:Early life 489:After the 264:Cyclometer 59:1905-08-16 37:Rejewski, 4595:: 50–60, 4575:Bydgoszcz 4340:Bydgoszcz 4305:205486402 4277:205487467 4249:205486319 3957:(1993b), 3919:Bydgoszcz 3183:Kahn 1991 2864:Kahn 1996 2840:Kahn 1991 2433:9 January 2367:Citations 2015:from the 1881:Denniston 1804:Bydgoszcz 1735:("double 1715:into the 1658:Perpignan 1561:telegraph 1419:Bucharest 1237:ordinates 1233:abscissas 1147:reflector 1058:plaintext 994:→ 972:→ 950:→ 834:plaintext 799:indicator 785:conjugate 691:plugboard 687:reflector 620:Göttingen 561:Bydgoszcz 546:Göttingen 181:Signature 152:Order of 75:Bydgoszcz 4737:(1974), 4691:(1982), 4660:(2018), 4569:(1999), 4415:15748167 4154:(1984), 4130:(1979), 4111:(1967), 4063:(1996), 4042:(1991), 3938:(1971), 3877:(1973), 3840:archived 3790:archived 3755:"Awards" 2523:archived 2484:archived 2480:Newsweek 2397:archived 2292:France". 2094:See also 1987:Zygalski 1899:, Warsaw 1856:PC Bruno 1778:Szczecin 1737:Playfair 1713:privates 1689:Scottish 1666:Pyrenees 1654:Narbonne 1650:Toulouse 1580:and the 1464:PC Bruno 1451:visited 1442:PC Bruno 1398:PC Bruno 1391:PC Bruno 1346:PC Bruno 911:), and ( 699:Enigma I 554:Prussian 452:and the 328:PC Bruno 67:Bromberg 4753:(ed.), 4538:(ed.), 4512:(ed.), 4486:(ed.), 4158:(ed.), 3948:2371136 3633:: 49–68 2521:: 2–4, 2490:23 July 1989:before 1983:Różycki 1721:Boxmoor 1699:Britain 1642:Antibes 1551:, near 1301:British 1175:in the 1046:QWERTZU 499:ciphers 480:Algeria 395:Polish: 342:Related 249:Doubles 4761: 4755:Enigma 4701: 4680: 4670: 4646: 4624: 4606:Enigma 4581: 4546: 4540:Enigma 4520: 4514:Enigma 4494: 4488:Enigma 4413: 4346: 4303: 4275: 4247: 4217: 4168: 4071: 4050: 4029: 4023:Poznań 3979: 3946: 3925: 3637:24 May 2062:Poznań 1985:, and 1963:Warsaw 1930:Enigma 1909:Enigma 1685:Madrid 1677:Lerida 1660:, and 1638:Cannes 1608:Cadix' 1572:Lacida 1543:Nantes 1511:Bruno' 1453:London 1410:Abwehr 1367:Hitler 1315:chief 879:, and 853:TFREII 849:ETULZR 845:LIFBAB 841:BJGTDN 826:QZKBLX 822:KYGKYG 763:texts— 685:and a 683:rotors 412:Polish 145:Awards 140:cipher 113:Polish 102:Poland 98:Warsaw 79:Poland 4783:[ 4565:) in 4422:(PDF) 4411:S2CID 4389:(PDF) 4301:S2CID 4273:S2CID 4245:S2CID 4134:[ 4115:[ 4017:[ 3963:, in 3881:[ 3623:(PDF) 2526:(PDF) 2515:(PDF) 2337:, by 2289:Cadix 2222:1939. 2138:Ultra 2121:Notes 2075:), a 1903:With 1847:] 1802:2005 1786:polio 1618:Cadix 1603:Cadix 1598:Cadix 1577:Cadix 1565:Cadix 1557:Cadix 1548:Cadix 1538:lycée 1523:Cadix 1517:Cadix 1500:Bruno 1495:bomba 1490:Bombe 1472:Bruno 1379:Hut 6 1362:Ultra 1293:bomba 1258:bomba 1254:bomba 1249:bomba 1216:bomba 1209:bomba 1205:bombe 1201:bomba 1196:bomba 1192:bomba 1185:bomba 1155:Bomba 1127:clock 1123:grill 1110:cycle 1026:(the 818:twice 733:cycle 596:] 559:(now 542:Gauss 465:Ultra 351:Ultra 333:Cadix 321:Hut 8 316:Hut 6 311:Hut 4 306:Hut 3 301:Bombe 269:Bomba 259:Clock 254:Grill 73:(now 4759:ISBN 4699:ISBN 4678:OCLC 4668:ISBN 4644:ISBN 4622:ISBN 4579:ISBN 4544:ISBN 4518:ISBN 4492:ISBN 4430:2015 4344:ISBN 4327:2019 4215:ISBN 4166:ISBN 4069:ISBN 4048:ISBN 4027:ISBN 4007:2015 3977:ISBN 3944:OCLC 3923:ISBN 3848:2021 3798:2019 3771:2015 3639:2024 2534:2015 2492:2016 2435:2006 2405:2015 2042:and 2029:NATO 1727:and 1634:Nice 1553:Uzès 1535:, a 1455:and 1413:and 1305:Pyry 1235:and 1173:Pyry 1089:keys 903:), ( 895:), ( 632:code 606:and 436:and 417:and 296:Crib 171:IEEE 125:and 87:Died 49:Born 4724:doi 4597:doi 4469:doi 4403:doi 4369:doi 4293:doi 4265:doi 4237:doi 4196:doi 4098:doi 3900:doi 2458:103 2327:'s 2317:'s 2309:'s 2060:in 1965:'s 1810:in 1555:. 1444:). 887:: ( 830:KYG 814:GBL 810:KYG 751:in 565:née 486:. 444:'s 429:. 4837:: 4718:, 4676:, 4591:, 4463:, 4459:, 4447:; 4409:, 4397:, 4391:, 4365:16 4363:, 4338:, 4299:, 4289:29 4287:, 4271:, 4261:29 4259:, 4243:, 4233:28 4231:, 4192:14 4190:, 4147:.) 4092:, 4084:; 3993:, 3975:, 3896:11 3894:, 3838:, 3788:, 3757:, 3721:^ 3631:10 3625:, 3562:^ 3463:^ 3364:^ 2998:; 2935:^ 2884:^ 2806:^ 2779:^ 2756:^ 2719:^ 2668:^ 2610:. 2517:, 2499:^ 2466:^ 2442:^ 2412:^ 2393:13 2374:^ 2355:.) 2046:. 1993:, 1969:. 1954:. 1845:pl 1729:SD 1725:SS 1656:, 1652:, 1648:, 1640:, 1567:. 1481:" 1415:SD 1044:(" 871:, 863:, 851:, 847:, 843:, 731:A 598:, 594:fr 575:. 548:). 501:. 471:. 456:. 100:, 77:, 69:, 39:c. 4726:: 4720:1 4599:: 4593:6 4558:. 4471:: 4465:6 4405:: 4399:3 4371:: 4295:: 4267:: 4239:: 4198:: 4100:: 4094:6 3973:2 3902:: 3867:. 2244:. 2187:. 2140:. 2071:( 1814:. 1479:! 1121:" 1116:. 1050:N 1007:A 985:W 963:F 941:A 937:B 933:L 929:E 925:T 921:B 917:E 915:, 913:T 909:L 907:, 905:E 901:B 899:, 897:L 893:T 891:, 889:B 885:E 881:T 877:L 873:E 869:B 865:L 861:T 857:B 532:. 393:( 379:e 372:t 365:v 81:) 61:) 57:(

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Index