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opportunities to reproduce and are crucial to population maintenance. Species such as snappers and parrotfishes congregate in feeding or resting areas. Juveniles may congregate in nursery areas without adults. Such special areas may require only seasonal protections if at other times no vital activities are taking place. Such reserves must be spaced to allow focal species to journey among them. If the location of such special areas is unknown, or is too large to include in a reserve, management approaches such as seasonal capture and sales restrictions may provide some protection.
42:
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hundreds of kilometers as they mature to reach appropriate habitats (e.g., such as coral reef, mangrove and seagrass habitats) or to migrate to spawning areas. When adults and juveniles leave a marine reserve, they become vulnerable to fishing. However, larvae can generally leave a reserve without elevated risk because of their small size and limited fishery exposure. Effective networks account for the movement patterns of target species at each life cycle stage.
138:
variations in fishing pressure allow fractions as small as 10% or as large as 40% (to protect species such as sharks and some grouper that have lower reproductive output or slower maturation). Higher fractions of habitat protection may protect areas vulnerable to disturbances such as typhoons or climate change. 20â30% protection can achieve fisheries objectives in areas with controlled fishing pressure and is the minimum level of habitat protection recommended by
184:) have high conservation value where they harbor endemic species and/or unique assemblages. A location or population 20â30 km from its nearest neighbor generally qualifies as isolated in the absence of a persistent linking current. Their isolation (low connectivity) requires such areas to be largely self-replenishing. This leaves them less resilient to disturbance. Sustaining their marine species requires a higher fraction of living areas to be protected.
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for adopting short-term protections include allowing communities to stockpile resources for feasts or close areas for cultural reasons. Short-term/periodic reserves also may function as partial insurance by enhancing overall ecosystem resilience against catastrophes. Reopened reserves can be protected by management controls that limit the harvest to less than the increase achieved during closure, although at greatly reduced recovery rates.
956:
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88:"no-take MPAs,â which strictly forbid all extractive activities, such as fishing and kelp harvesting. As of 2007 less than 1% of the world's oceans had been set aside in marine reserves. Benefits include increases in the diversity, density, biomass, body size and reproductive potential of fishery and other species within their boundaries.
323:
to live on a reef. While these fish travel varying distances during their life history, their larvae have the potential to move tens to hundreds of km, more than the more sedentary adults and juveniles, which have home ranges of <1 m to a few km. Adults and juveniles of some species travel tens to
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Connectivity is the linking of local populations through the (voluntary) dispersal of individuals. Connected reserves are close enough to each other that larvae, juveniles or adults can cross from one to another as their behavior patterns dictate. Connectivity is a key factor in network design, since
208:
Long-term protection allows species with slower recovery rates to achieve and maintain ecosystem health and associated fishery benefits. Permanent protection protects these species over the long-term. Short-term protections do not allow slow-recovering species to reach or maintain stable populations.
212:
In some Coral
Triangle countries (e.g., Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands), short term protections are the most common form of traditional marine resource management. These protections can help address problems at lower trophic levels (e.g., herbivores) or allow spawning to succeed. Other reasons
120:
shifts and spawning migrations) vary among and within species, and are influenced by factors such as size, sex, behaviour, density, habitat characteristics, season, tide and time of day. For example, damselfishes, butterflyfishes and angelfishes travel <0.1â0.5 km, while some sharks and tuna
91:
As of 2010, scientists had studied more than 150 marine reserves in at least 61 countries and monitored biological changes inside the reserves. The number of species in each study ranged from 1 to 250 and the reserves ranged in size from 0.006 to 800 square kilometers (0.002 to 310 square miles). In
200:
that have smaller maximum sizes, faster growth and maturation rates and shorter life spans tend to recover more quickly than species having the opposite characteristics. For example, in the
Philippines, populations of planktivores (e.g., fusiliers) and some herbivores (e.g., parrotfishes) recovered
137:
Minimum sustainable population sizes have not been determined for most marine populations. Instead, fisheries ecologists use the fraction of unfished stock levels as a proxy. Meta-analyses suggest that maintaining populations above ~37% of those levels generally ensures stable populations, although
270:
Existing ecological guidelines for designing networks independently focus on achieving either fisheries, biodiversity or climate change objectives or combinations of fisheries and biodiversity or biodiversity and climate change. These three goals have different implications for network design. The
124:
The review indicated that effective marine reserves are more than twice the size of the home range of focal/target species (in all directions). The presence of effective marine management outside the reserve may allow smaller reserves. Reserve size recommendations apply to the specific habitats of
154:
Many fish species congregate to facilitate spawning. Such congregations are spatially and temporally predictable and increase the species' vulnerability to overfishing. Species such as groupers and rabbitfishes travel long distances to congregate for days or weeks. Such gatherings are their only
87:
A marine reserve is a type of marine protected area (MPA). An MPA is a section of the ocean where a government has placed limits on human activity. A marine reserve is a marine protected area in which removing or destroying natural or cultural resources is prohibited, marine reserves may also be
241:
Local practices such as overfishing, blast fishing, trawling, coastal development and pollution threaten many marine habitats. These threats decrease ecosystem health and productivity and adversely affect focal and other species. Such practices can also decrease resilience. Some practices that
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The
Western and Central Pacific Ocean is the world's largest tuna fishery. Over half of the tuna consumed worldwide is taken from this area. Rampant overfishing is destroying this fishery; relatively healthy just a few years ago. Today, two key Pacific species, Bigeye and Yellowfin could face
621:
A growing body of scientific evidence that demonstrates what we at
Greenpeace have been saying for a long time: that the establishment of large-scale networks of marine reserves, urgently needed to protect marine species and their habitats, could be key to reversing global fisheries
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Maintaining diversity involves protecting all species. Generally this involves protecting adequate examples of each major habitat (e.g., each type of coral reef, mangrove and seagrass community). Resiliency to threats improves when multiple examples of each habitat are protected.
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Marine reserve whose boundaries are extensively fished benefit from compact shapes (e.g., squares or circles rather than elongated rectangles). Including whole ecological units (e.g., an offshore reef) can reduce exports where that is desired.
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migratory corridors and calving grounds are examples of other special areas that can be protected seasonally. Other types of special areas include isolated habitats that have unique assemblages and populations, habitats that are important for
312:
it allows a disturbed reserve to recover by recruiting individuals from other, potentially overpopulated, reserves. Effective networks spaced reserves at distances of <15 km from each other, with smaller reserves spaced more closely.
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Effective reserves included habitats that support the life history of focal species (e.g. home ranges, nursery grounds, migration corridors and spawning aggregations), and were located to accommodate movement patterns among them.
246:) can be mitigated by considering their impacts within broader management frameworks. Areas that are not threatened by such practices and that are adjacent to other unthreatening areas may be better choices for reserves.
104:
A review of studies of 34 families (210 species) of coral reef fishes demonstrates that the design of a marine reserve has important implications for its ability to protect habitat and focal species.
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5â10 years in marine reserves, while predators (e.g., groupers) took 20â40 years. Increased fishing pressure adversely affects recovery rates (e.g., Great
Barrier Reef and Papua New Guinea).
233:
refugia and can potentially better protect biodiversity than more fragile areas. They may also provide fishery benefits, since habitat loss from climate change is a major fishery threat.
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Coral reef fish species recovery rates (from e.g., overfishing) depend on their life history and factors such as ecological characteristics, fishing intensity and population size. In the
291:
Protecting areas that have already proven resilient to ecological changes and/or are relatively well-protected by other protocols are likely to better survive climate change as well.
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Reserves 0.5â1 km across export more adults and larvae to fished areas, potentially increasing recruitment and stock replenishment there. Such small reserves are common in the
1821:
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Green, Alison L.; Maypa, Aileen P.; Almany, Glenn R.; Rhodes, Kevin L.; Weeks, Rebecca; Abesamis, Rene A.; Gleason, Mary G.; Mumby, Peter J.; White, Alan T. (2014).
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262:. The size, spacing and location of reserves within a network must respect larval dispersal and movement patterns of species that are targeted for protection.
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is campaigning for the "doughnut holes" of the western pacific to be declared as marine reserves and for 40 percent of the world's oceans to be so protected.
225:(SST); areas with variable SSTs and carbonate chemistry and areas adjacent to undeveloped low-lying inland areas that coastal habitats can expand into as
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To address biodiversity or climate change, reserves 4â20 km across are recommended, because they protect larger populations of more species.
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migrate over thousands of kilometres. Larval dispersal distances tend to be <5â15 km, and self-recruitment to new habitat is common.
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focal species, not the overall size. For example, coral reef species require coral reef habitats rather than open ocean or seagrass beds.
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Russ, G. R.; Alcala, A. C. (2004). "Marine reserves: long-term protection is required for full recovery of predatory fish species".
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Some habitats and species are better prepared environmental changes or extremes. These include coral communities that handle high
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most important are reserve size and protection duration (permanent, long term, short term, or periodic closures).
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534:"Larval dispersal and movement patterns of coral reef fishes, and implications for marine reserve network design"
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Given a strong, consistent current, siting marine reserves upstream increases downstream populations.
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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
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2014, the World Parks
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Halpern, B.; Warner, R. (2002). "Marine reserves have rapid and lasting effects".
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493:"World Parks Congress recommends target of 30% no-take MPA coverage worldwide"
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Most coastal fish species have a bipartite life cycle where larvae are
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As of April 2008 no high seas marine reserves had been established.
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Greenpeace is calling for a global network of Marine reserves
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577:"The Pacific Commons -- first high seas marine reserve?"
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439:White, A. T.; Green, A. L. (2014). "Introduction".
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19:For the United States Marine Corps Reserve, see
1832:International Seafood Sustainability Foundation
1458:United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
874:International Union for Conservation of Nature
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750:
637:
254:Networks of marine reserves can support both
1608:List of commercially important fish species
1453:Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing
242:originate beyond reserve boundaries (e.g.,
180:Isolated populations (e.g. those on remote
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1580:Regional fishery management organisation
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81:Cape Rodney-Okakari Point Marine Reserve
71:
725:Waitt Foundation Marine Protected Areas
593:collapse unless urgent action is taken.
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303:, where they benefited some fisheries.
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1937:
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343:, but there is some overlap in usage.
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1638:Future of Marine Animal Populations
1515:Fishery Resources Monitoring System
1505:Monitoring control and surveillance
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335:Marine reserves are distinct from
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1966:
1837:Sea Shepherd Conservation Society
1570:National Marine Fisheries Service
1565:European Fisheries Control Agency
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331:Other protected marine categories
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107:
1483:
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1046:Population dynamics of fisheries
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954:
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929:
773:Marine protected areas by nation
652:10.1046/j.1461-0248.2002.00326.x
475:"The Science of Marine Reserves"
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116:Movement patterns (home ranges,
83:(Leigh, Warkworth, New Zealand).
40:
1767:Aquaculture Stewardship Council
1623:Environmental impact of fishing
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1741:U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
1101:Otolith microchemical analysis
780:List of marine protected areas
598:
569:
485:
467:
382:
77:Te HÄwere-a-Maki / Goat Island
1:
1736:European Environmental Agency
1726:Grey nurse shark conservation
1633:Destructive fishing practices
1131:Pop-up satellite archival tag
375:
216:
16:Type of marine protected area
1716:Marine conservation activism
1166:Climate change and fisheries
610:Greenpeace Australia Pacific
581:Greenpeace Australia Pacific
453:10.1080/08920753.2014.877758
294:
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229:rise. Such areas constitute
7:
706:"Marine Reserves Factsheet"
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319:before settling out of the
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132:
10:
1971:
1762:Marine Stewardship Council
1555:EU Common Fisheries Policy
879:World Wide Fund for Nature
172:and highly diverse areas.
96:of each habitat globally.
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18:
1916:Glossary of fishery terms
1911:Index of fishing articles
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1850:
1749:
1693:
1628:Fishing down the food web
1603:Maximum sustainable yield
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1161:Match/mismatch hypothesis
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260:biodiversity conservation
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49:This article needs to be
1802:Save Our Seas Foundation
1535:Individual fishing quota
1510:Vessel monitoring system
1156:Hydrographic containment
1448:Exclusive economic zone
1126:GIS and aquatic science
1081:Standard weight in fish
223:sea surface temperature
1677:Turtle excluder device
1350:Shoaling and schooling
936:Marine protected areas
766:Marine protected areas
84:
1701:Marine protected area
1575:Regional fishery body
1201:Census of Marine Life
1096:Catch per unit effort
912:Marine protected area
370:Marine protected area
75:
28:Marine protected area
21:Marine Forces Reserve
1540:Minimum landing size
1500:Fisheries management
1475:MagnusonâStevens Act
1470:Fisheries Convention
1221:Fisheries scientists
256:fisheries management
176:Isolated populations
1950:Marine conservation
1817:Defying Ocean's End
1721:Salmon conservation
1711:Marine conservation
1651:The End of the Line
1644:The Sunken Billions
1613:Sustainable seafood
1598:Sustainable fishery
1211:Fisheries databases
1141:Age class structure
1111:Fisheries acoustics
900:Marine biodiversity
865:marine conservation
347:Open ocean reserves
196:, species at lower
1906:Outline of fishing
1525:Fisheries observer
1176:Aquatic ecosystems
541:Biological Reviews
441:Coastal Management
341:marine sanctuaries
85:
1932:
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1888:Threatened sharks
1787:Ocean Conservancy
1772:Friend of the Sea
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1310:Lobster fisheries
1255:Diversity of fish
1051:Shifting baseline
1020:Fisheries science
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708:. Waitt Institute
606:"Marine reserves"
554:10.1111/brv.12155
391:"Marine reserves"
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1868:Marine pollution
1672:Cetacean bycatch
1667:Incidental catch
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502:. December 2014
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389:Ben Halpern.
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150:Special areas
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61:December 2014
52:
47:
38:
37:
33:
29:
22:
1705:
1694:Conservation
1682:
1649:
1642:
1425:conservation
1380:Algal blooms
1365:Water column
1280:Pelagic fish
1260:Coastal fish
1206:OSTM/Jason-2
1181:Bioeconomics
1116:Acoustic tag
1086:Fish counter
947:
934:Categories:
895:Biodiversity
810:South Africa
710:. Retrieved
666:
660:
643:
639:
620:
614:. Retrieved
600:
591:
585:. Retrieved
571:
544:
540:
504:. Retrieved
499:
487:
479:the original
469:
447:(2): 81â86.
444:
440:
384:
350:
337:marine parks
334:
326:
314:
310:
307:Connectivity
298:
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136:
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111:
103:
90:
86:
58:
50:
1618:Overfishing
1530:Catch share
1360:Marine snow
1345:Sardine run
1330:Fish screen
1325:Fish ladder
1275:Forage fish
730:MPAtlas.org
365:Marine park
118:ontogenetic
32:Marine park
1939:Categories
1842:Greenpeace
1550:Slot limit
1493:Management
1417:management
1385:Dead zones
1340:Salmon run
1320:Eel ladder
1216:Institutes
1056:Fish stock
852:Washington
837:California
712:2015-06-08
616:2008-04-27
587:2008-04-27
376:References
353:Greenpeace
227:sea levels
217:Resilience
157:Sea turtle
26:See also:
1812:WorldFish
1777:SeaChoice
1390:Fish kill
1370:Upwelling
1335:Migration
1242:fisheries
1036:Fisheries
785:Australia
662:Oecologia
506:4 January
461:218577067
295:Fisheries
275:Diversity
1822:HERMIONE
1750:Advocacy
1662:Discards
1196:FishBase
1186:EconMult
1136:EcoSCOPE
820:Scotland
691:21789514
683:14716555
622:decline.
563:25423947
500:MPA News
359:See also
321:plankton
250:Networks
188:Recovery
165:cetacean
133:Habitats
1858:CalCOFI
1827:PROFISH
1757:FishAct
1657:Bycatch
1191:Ecopath
1106:Biomass
1038:science
1006:Fishery
949:Commons
888:Related
789:Canada
317:pelagic
51:updated
1797:Oceana
1560:EU MLS
847:Oregon
842:Hawaii
832:Alaska
689:
681:
612:. 2007
583:. 2007
561:
459:
339:, and
266:Design
244:runoff
182:atolls
161:dugong
100:Design
805:Italy
798:NMCAs
687:S2CID
537:(PDF)
496:(PDF)
457:S2CID
1685:case
1423:and
1240:Wild
1022:and
793:MPAs
679:PMID
559:PMID
508:2015
258:and
203:<
144:WCPA
140:IUCN
30:and
1436:Law
671:doi
667:138
648:doi
549:doi
449:doi
201:in
94:30%
79:in
1941::
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545:90
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516:^
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451::
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142:-
63:)
59:(
53:.
23:.
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