Mariner 2 - Knowledge

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was also in agreement with Earth-based measurements. The limb darkening effect that the microwave radiometer detected was also present in the measurements by both channels of the infrared radiometer. The effect was only slightly present in the 10.4 μm channel but was more pronounced in the 8.4 μm channel. The 8.4 μm channel also showed a slight phase effect. The phase effect indicated that if a greenhouse effect existed, heat was transported in an efficient manner from the light side to the dark side of the planet. The 8.4 μm and 10.4 μm showed equal radiation temperatures, indicating that the limb darkening effect would appear to come from a cloud structure rather than the atmosphere. Thus, if the measured temperatures were actually cloud temperatures instead of surface temperatures, then these clouds would have to be quite thick.

1252:. It automatically turned on the gyros, and the cruise science experiments were automatically turned off. The exact cause is unknown as attitude sensors went back to normal before telemetry measurements could be sampled, but it may have been an Earth-sensor malfunction or a collision with a small unidentified object which temporarily caused the spacecraft to lose Sun lock. A similar experience happened on September 29 at 14:34 UTC. Again, all sensors went back to normal before it could be determined which axis had lost lock. By this date, the Earth sensor brightness indication had essentially gone to zero. This time, however, telemetry data indicated that the Earth-brightness measurement had increased to the nominal value for that point in the trajectory. 1223:

integrity of the stack. At T+189 seconds, the rolling stopped and the launch continued without incident. The rolling motion of the Atlas resulted in ground guidance losing its lock on the booster and preventing any backup commands from being sent to counteract the roll. The incident was traced to a loose electrical connection in the vernier feedback transducer, which was pushed back into place by the centrifugal force of the roll, which also by fortunate coincidence left the Atlas only a few degrees off from where it started and within the range of the Agena's horizontal sensor. As a consequence of this episode, GD/A implemented improved fabrication of wiring harnesses and checkout procedures.

993:. It was able to detect protons above 500 keV in energy and electrons above 35 keV. The length of the basic telemetry frame was 887.04 seconds. During each frame, the counting rate of the detector was sampled twice at intervals separated by 37 seconds. The first sampling was the number of counts during an interval of 9.60 seconds (known as the 'long gate'); the second was the number of counts during an interval of 0.827 seconds (known as the 'short gate'). The long gate accumulator overflowed on the 256th count and the short gate accumulator overflowed on the 65,536th count. The maximum counting rate of the tube was 50,000 per second. 1037:. Particle detectors were mounted halfway up the mast, along with the cosmic ray detector. The cosmic dust detector and solar plasma spectrometer were attached to the top edges of the spacecraft base. The microwave radiometer, the infrared radiometer and the radiometer reference horns were rigidly mounted to a 48 centimeters (19 in) diameter parabolic radiometer antenna mounted near the bottom of the mast. All instruments were operated throughout the cruise and encounter modes except the radiometers, which were only used in the immediate vicinity of Venus. 92: 1168: 394: 3698: 900: 1270: 1327: 29: 3692: 1068: 1335: 706: 549: 3704: 1240:

Initiation of the mid-course maneuver sequence was sent at 22:49:42 UTC and the roll-turn sequence started one hour later. The entire maneuver took approximately 34 minutes. As a result of the mid-course maneuver, the sensors lost their lock with the Sun and Earth. At 00:27:00 UTC the Sun re-acquisition began and at 00:34 UTC the Sun was reacquired. Earth re-acquisition started at 02:07:29 UTC and Earth was reacquired at 02:34 UTC.

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toward Venus in a 30-day period within this window, taking slightly differing paths such that they both arrived at the target planet within nine days of each other, between the December 8 and 16. Only Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 12 was available for the launching of Atlas-Agena rockets, and it took 24 days to ready an Atlas-Agena for launch. This meant that there was only a 27-day margin for error for a two-launch schedule.

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Johannesburg, South Africa, acquired the spacecraft about 31 minutes after launch. Solar panel extension was completed approximately 44 minutes after launch. The Sun lock acquired the Sun about 18 minutes later. The high-gain antenna was extended to its acquisition angle of 72°. The output of the solar panels was slightly above the predicted value.

1391:, and the cosmic dust density is much lower than the near-Earth region. Improved estimates of Venus' mass and the value of the Astronomical Unit were made. Also, research, which was later confirmed by Earth-based radar and other explorations, suggested that Venus rotates very slowly and in a direction opposite that of the Earth. 1343:

490 ± 11 K (216.9 ± 11.0 °C; 422.3 ± 19.8 °F) on the dark side, 595 ± 12 K near the terminator, and 511 ± 14 K on the light side. It was concluded that there is no significant difference in temperature across Venus. However, the results suggest a

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hemispheres, and in the region of the terminator. Measurements were performed simultaneously in two frequency bands of 13.5 mm and 19 mm. The total weight of the radiometer was 10 kilograms (22 lb). Its average power consumption was 4 watts and its peak power consumption 9 watts.

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commands and transmitting data. Once fully deployed in space, with its two solar panel "wings" extended, Mariner R was 12 ft (3.7 m) in height and 16.5 ft (5.0 m) across. The main body of the craft was hexagonal with six separate cases of electronic and electromechanical equipment:

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The launch window for Mariner, constrained both by the orbital relationship of Earth and Venus and the limitations of the Atlas Agena, was determined to fall in the 51-day period from July 22 through September 10. The Mariner flight plan was such that the two operational spacecraft would be launched

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The infrared radiometer showed that the 8.4 μm and 10.4 μm radiation temperatures were in agreement with radiation temperatures obtained from Earth-based measurements. There was no systematic difference between the temperatures measured on the light side and dark side of the planet, which

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On October 31, the output from one solar panel (with solar sail attached) deteriorated abruptly. It was diagnosed as a partial short circuit in the panel. As a precaution, the cruise science instruments were turned off. A week later, the panel resumed normal function, and cruise science instruments

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As all subsystems were performing normally, with the battery fully charged and the solar panels providing adequate power, the decision was made on August 29 to turn on cruise science experiments. On September 3, the Earth acquisition sequence was initiated, and Earth lock was established 29 minutes

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Launch Complex 12 at 06:53:14 UTC. The bug in the rocket’s software that resulted in the loss of Mariner 1 had not been identified at the time of the launch. In the event the bug caused no issues with the launch since it was in a section of code that was only used when the data-feed from the ground

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power to appropriate portions of the science subsystem, application of power to the radiometers and removal of power from the cruise experiments during radiometer calibration periods, and control of the speed and direction of the radiometer scans. The DCS sent signals to the SPS unit to perform the

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Two days after that launch, Mariner 2 and its booster (Atlas vehicle 179D) were rolled out to LC-12. The Atlas proved troublesome to prepare for launch, and multiple serious problems with the autopilot occurred, including a complete replacement of the servoamplifier after it had suffered component

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The microwave radiometer made three scans of Venus in 35 minutes on December 14, 1962, starting at 18:59 UTC. The first scan was made on the dark side, the second was near the terminator, and the third was located on the light side. The scans with the 19 mm band revealed peak temperatures of

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In addition to these scientific instruments, Mariner 2 had a data conditioning system (DCS) and a scientific power switching (SPS) unit. The DCS was a solid-state electronic system designed to gather information from the scientific instruments on board the spacecraft. It had four basic functions:

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mode of chopping between the main antenna, pointed at the target, and a reference horn pointed at cold space. It was used to determine the absolute temperature of Venus' surface and details concerning its atmosphere through its microwave-radiation characteristics, including the daylight and dark

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After encounter, cruise mode resumed. Spacecraft perihelion occurred on December 27 at a distance of 105,464,560 kilometers (65,532,640 mi). The last transmission from Mariner 2 was received on January 3, 1963, at 07:00 UTC, making the total time from launch to termination of the Mariner 2

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All three of the Mariner R spacecraft, including Mariner 2, weighed within 3 lb (1.4 kg) of the design weight of 447 lb (203 kg), 406 lb (184 kg) of which was devoted to non-experimental systems: maneuvering systems, fuel, and communications equipment for receiving

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Three Mariner R spacecraft were built: two for launching and one to run tests, which was also to be used as a spare. Aside from its scientific capabilities, Mariner also had to transmit data back to Earth from a distance of more than 26,000,000 mi (42,000,000 km), and to survive solar

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The Anton type 213 Geiger-Müller tube performed as expected. The average rate was 0.6 counts per second. Increases in its counting rate were larger and more frequent than for the two larger tubes, since it was more sensitive to particles of lower energy. It detected seven small solar bursts of

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atop the spacecraft would broadcast at times that the spacecraft was rolling or tumbling out of its proper orientation, to maintain contact with Earth; as an unfocused antenna, its signal would be much weaker than the primary. Mariner also mounted small antennas on each of the wings to receive

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Five minutes after liftoff, the Atlas and Agena-Mariner separated, followed by the first Agena burn and second Agena burn. The Agena-Mariner separation injected the Mariner 2 spacecraft into a geocentric escape hyperbola at 26 minutes 3 seconds after liftoff. The NASA NDIF tracking station at

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The flight proceeded normally up to the point of the Agena booster engine cutoff, at which point the V-2 vernier engine lost pitch and yaw control. The vernier started oscillating and banging against its stops, resulting in a rapid roll of the launch vehicle that came close to threatening the

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Due to the Atlas-Agena putting Mariner slightly off course, the spacecraft required a mid-course correction, consisting of a roll-turn sequence, followed by a pitch-turn sequence and finally a motor-burn sequence. Preparation commands were sent to the spacecraft at 21:30 UTC on September 4.

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to measure planetary and interplanetary magnetic fields. Three probes were incorporated in its sensors, so it could obtain three mutually orthogonal components of the field vector. Readings of these components were separated by 1.9 seconds. It had three analog outputs that had each two

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to measure the effective temperatures of small areas of Venus. The radiation that was received could originate from the planetary surface, clouds in the atmosphere, the atmosphere itself or a combination of these. The radiation was received in two spectral ranges: 8 to 9 μm (focused on

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observations from 1960. This also means that interplanetary space is rarely empty or field-free. The magnetometer could detect changes of about 4 γ on any of the axes, but no trends above 10 γ were detected near Venus, nor were fluctuations seen like those that appear at Earth's

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band. The total weight of the infrared radiometer, which was housed in a magnesium casting, was 1.3 kilograms (2.9 lb), and it required 2.4 watts of power. It was designed to measure radiation temperatures between approximately 200 and 500 K (−73 and 227 °C; −100 and

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radiation during September and October and 2 during November and December. The absence of a detectable magnetosphere was also confirmed by the tube; it detected no radiation belt at Venus similar to that of Earth. The count rate would have increased by 10, but no change was measured.

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termination. This means that Mariner 2 found no detectable magnetic field near Venus, although that did not necessarily mean that Venus had none. However, if Venus had a magnetic field, then it would have to be at least smaller than 1/10 the magnetic field of the Earth. In 1980,

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lunar explorer, already under development, was suggested. NASA accepted the proposal, and JPL began an 11-month crash program to develop "Mariner R" (so named because it was a Ranger derivative). Mariner 1 would be the first Mariner R to be launched followed by Mariner 2.

939:). These scales were automatically switched by the instrument. The field that the magnetometer observed was the super-position of a nearly constant spacecraft field and the interplanetary field. Thus, it effectively measured only the changes in the interplanetary field. 836:

with respect to the Sun (as the Moon is with respect to the Earth). No oxygen had been detected in Venus' atmosphere, suggesting that life as existed on Earth was not present. It had been determined that Venus' atmosphere contained at least 500 times as much

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The Mariner spacecraft would be able to verify this hypothesis by measuring the temperature of Venus close-up; at the same time, the spacecraft could determine if there was a significant disparity between night and daytime temperatures. An on-board

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rocket motor was mounted for course corrections. A nitrogen gas fueled stabilizing system of ten jet nozzles controlled by the onboard gyroscopes, Sun sensors, and Earth sensors, kept Mariner properly oriented to receive and transmit data to Earth.

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The first such opportunity of the Space Race occurred in late 1957, before either superpower had the technology to take advantage of it. The second opportunity, around June 1959, lay just within the edge of technological feasibility, and

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presented an appealing interplanetary spaceflight target. Every 19 months, Venus and the Earth reach relative positions in their orbits around the Sun such that a minimum of fuel is required to travel from one planet to the other via a

1054:, one of the Mariner R scientists, unsuccessfully fought for their inclusion, noting that not only might there be breaks in Venus' cloud layer, but "that cameras could also answer questions that we were way too dumb to even pose". 1041:

analog-to-digital conversion, digital-to-digital conversion, sampling and instrument-calibration timing, and planetary acquisition. The SPS unit was designed to perform the following three functions: control of the application of

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Not included on any of the Mariner R spacecraft was a camera for visual photos. With payload space at a premium, project scientists considered a camera an unneeded luxury, unable to return useful scientific results.

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were turned back on. The panel permanently failed on November 15, but Mariner 2 was close enough to the Sun that one panel could supply adequate power; thus, the cruise science experiments were left active.

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F. T. Barath; A. H. Barrett; et al. (February 1964). "Symposium on Radar and Radiometric Observations of Venus during the 1962 Conjunction: Mariner 2 Microwave Radiometer Experiment and Results".

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that determined Mariner's orientation in space. It also held the central computer and sequencer, the "brain" of the spacecraft that coordinated all of its activities pursuant to code in its

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Mariner 2 was the first spacecraft to successfully encounter another planet, passing as close as 34,773 kilometers (21,607 mi) to Venus after 110 days of flight on December 14, 1962.

1302:, tracking data and telemetry data. One particularly noteworthy piece of data gathered during the pioneering fly-by was the high temperature of the atmosphere, measured to be 500 5892: 4460: 969:(implemented through use of an Anton type 213 Geiger-Müller tube) to measure lower radiation (especially near Venus), also known as the Iowa detector, as it was provided by the 451:

booster. The Mariner 2 spacecraft was launched from Cape Canaveral on August 27, 1962, and passed as close as 34,773 kilometers (21,607 mi) to Venus on December 14, 1962.

4960: 4420: 2099: 1759: 1788: 973:. It was a miniature tube having a 1.2 mg/cm mica window about 0.3 centimeters (0.12 in) in diameter and weighing about 60 grams (2.1 oz). It detected soft 540:. As it flew by Venus on December 14, 1962, Mariner 2 scanned the planet with its pair of radiometers, revealing that Venus has cool clouds and an extremely hot surface. 5934: 860:

As the Mariner spacecraft would spend most of its journey to Venus in interplanetary space, the mission also offered an opportunity for long-term measurement of the

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Paul J. Coleman, Jr.; Leverett Davis, Jr.; et al. (December 7, 1962). "The Mission of Mariner II: Preliminary Observations - Interplanetary Magnetic Fields".

3326: 1885: 5701: 3185: 3128: 3046: 2957: 2449: 2226: 1621: 1584: 528:, which turned out to be scarcer than predicted. In addition, Mariner 2 detected high-energy charged particles coming from the Sun, including several brief 4778: 435:. The missions of the Mariner 1 and 2 spacecraft are sometimes known as the Mariner R missions. Original plans called for the probes to be launched on the 2783: 679:

would not be ready in time. JPL proposed to NASA that the mission might be accomplished with a lighter spacecraft using the less powerful but operational

636:(STL) intended to take advantage of it. A plan drafted January 1959 involved two spacecraft evolved from the first Pioneer probes, one to be launched via 6872: 5474: 5132: 6847: 6249: 4413: 4204: 216: 1820: 576:, both initiated ambitious space programs with the intent of demonstrating military, technological, and political dominance. The Soviets launched the 5622: 1922: 1551: 5371: 5317: 832:

observation that Venus rotated very slowly compared to the Earth, advancing the long-standing (but later disproven) hypothesis that the planet was

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Edward J. Smith; Leverett Davis, Jr.; et al. (March 8, 1963). "Mariner II: Preliminary Reports on Measurements of Venus - Magnetic Field".

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Due to the limited capacity of the Atlas Agena, only 18 kilograms (40 lb) of the spacecraft could be allocated to scientific experiments.

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F. T. Barath; A. H. Barrett; et al. (March 8, 1963). "Mariner II: Preliminary Reports on Measurements of Venus - Microwave Radiometers".

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existed to simulate the near-Venus solar environment, so the efficacy of these cooling techniques could not be tested until the live mission.

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S. C. Chase; L. D. Kaplan; G. Neugebauer (March 8, 1963). "Mariner II: Preliminary Reports on Measurements of Venus - Infrared Radiometer".

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second stage. As such, the design of the Mariner R vehicles was greatly simplified. Far less instrumentation was carried than on the Soviet

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L. A. Frank; J. A. Van Allen; H. K. Hills (March 8, 1963). "Mariner II: Preliminary Reports on Measurements of Venus - Charged Particles".

494:. These instruments were designed to measure the temperature distribution on the surface of Venus and to make basic measurements of Venus' 2671: 2200: 2163: 1087:

would be corrected by a mid-course burn of Mariner's onboard engines). Real-time radar tracking of the Mariner spacecraft while it was in

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President Kennedy is shown a model of Mariner 2 during a meeting with NASA officials after the successful completion of the mission, 1963

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J. A. Van Allen; L. A. Frank (December 7, 1962). "The Mission of Mariner II: Preliminary Observations - The Iowa Radiation Experiment".

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and suite of charged particle detectors could determine if Venus possessed an appreciable magnetic field and an analog to Earth's

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M. Neugebauer; C. W. Snyder (December 7, 1962). "The Mission of Mariner II: Preliminary Observations - Solar Plasma Experiment".

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with surface temperatures as high as 600 K (327 °C; 620 °F), but this had not yet been conclusively determined.

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probes of this period—for example, forgoing a TV camera—as the Atlas-Agena B had only half as much lift capacity as the Soviet

671:(JPL) in July 1960 to develop "Mariner A", a 1,250 lb (570 kg) spacecraft to be launched using the yet undeveloped 4964: 4783: 3111: 2763: 1739: 1685: 1510: 6862: 1438: 6211: 5342: 4356: 2666: 2195: 2158: 2637: 6800: 6793: 6730: 6621: 5337: 4874: 791:

Temperature control was both passive, involving insulated, and highly reflective components; and active, incorporating

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R. M. Goldstein; R. L. Carpenter (March 8, 1963). "Rotation of Venus: Period Estimated from Radar Measurements".

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At the time of the Mariner project's inception, few of Venus' characteristics were definitely known. Its opaque

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Charles P. Sonett (December 1963). "A Summary Review of the Scientific Findings of the Mariner Venus Mission".

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The primary mission was to receive communications from the spacecraft in the vicinity of Venus and to perform

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James B. Pollack; Carl Sagan (October 1967). "An Analysis of the Mariner 2 Microwave Observations of Venus".

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The magnetometer detected a persistent interplanetary magnetic field varying between 2 γ and 10 γ (

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provided optical tracking. Deep space support was provided by three tracking and communications stations at

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rocket carrying Mariner 1 veered off-course during its launch due to a defective signal from the Atlas and

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Moon probes.) No American missions were sent during the early 1961 opportunity. The Soviet Union launched

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With the Moon achieved, the superpowers turned their eyes to the planets. As the closest planet to Earth,

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Technical Memorandum No. 33-212: Tracking and Data Acquisition Support for the Mariner Venus 1962 Mission

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study of the ground. It was unknown whether there was water beneath the clouds, though a small amount of

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J. N. James (1965). "The Voyage of Mariner II". In Harlow Shapley; Samuel Rapport; Helen Wright (eds.).

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on February 12, 1961, and on May 19–20 became the first probe to fly by Venus; however, it had stopped

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parabolic antenna was also mounted on the underside of Mariner and kept pointed toward the Earth. An

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W. M. Alexander (December 7, 1962). "The Mission of Mariner II: Preliminary Results - Cosmic Dust".

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in the program equations of the ground-based guidance computer; the spacecraft was destroyed by the

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Payloads are separated by bullets ( · ), launches by pipes ( | ). Crewed flights are indicated in

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N. F. Ness; J. M. Wilcox (October 12, 1964). "Solar Origin of the Interplanetary Magnetic Field".

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to protect the case carrying the onboard computer. At the time the first Mariners were built, no

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as the Earth's. These comparatively high levels suggested that the planet might be subject to a

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of satellites consisted of three unsuccessful lunar attempts in 1958. In early 1959, the Soviet

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on February 1, 1958, by which point the Soviets had already launched the first orbiting animal,

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8.4 μm) and 10 to 10.8 μm (focused on 10.4 μm). The latter corresponding to the

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Missions are ordered by launch date. indicates failure en route or before any data returned.

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The Mariner probe consisted of a 100 cm (39.4 in) diameter hexagonal bus, to which

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to measure the spectrum of low-energy positively charged particles from the Sun, i.e. the

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to the 33.3 lb (15.1 kg) rechargeable 1000 watt silver-zinc storage battery.

592:. Earth's orbit having been reached, focus turned to being the first to the Moon. The 6611: 6601: 6586: 6045: 5694: 5022: 4968: 4919: 4798: 4791: 4135: 4024: 4019: 4014: 3428: 3403: 3375: 3350: 3244: 3219: 3107: 3031: 3019: 2994: 2897: 2759: 2725: 2700: 2610: 2585: 2560: 2535: 2504: 2479: 2390: 2365: 2342: 2317: 2095: 2002: 1735: 1691: 1681: 1646: 1516: 1506: 1219:

was interrupted and there were no such interruptions during the launch of Mariner 2.

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Hugh R. Anderson (January 4, 1963). "Mariner II: High-Energy-Radiation Experiment".

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were attached. The scientific instruments on board the Mariner spacecraft were: two

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and on a schedule maintained by an electronic clock tuned into equipment on Earth.

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sensitivity scales: ± 64 γ and ± 320 γ (1 γ = 1

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temperature measurements of the planet. A second objective was to measure the

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Technical Report No. 32-722: The Mariner II Microwave Radiometer Experiment

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was missed. The Thor-Able probe was repurposed as the deep space explorer

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Robotic Exploration of the Solar System Part I: The Golden Age 1957–1982

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to report successfully from a planetary encounter. The first successful

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On September 8 at 12:50 UTC, the spacecraft experienced a problem with

1084: 1051: 1026: 957: 913: 861: 719: 705: 641: 581: 569: 553: 548: 533: 513: 502: 495: 463: 417: 1119:, each separated on the globe by around 120° for continuous coverage. 6811: 6678: 6668: 6536: 6520: 6401: 6185: 5785: 5774: 5769: 5683: 5676: 5541: 5534: 5507: 5416: 5332: 5208: 5201: 5195: 5080: 4681: 4674: 4632: 4619: 4601: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4505: 4500: 4495: 4247: 4242: 4044: 4039: 4029: 4009: 3952: 3947: 3942: 3937: 3932: 3852: 3822: 3817: 3812: 3807: 3797: 3752: 3747: 3742: 3703: 3571: 3567: 3548: 3543: 3528: 3523: 3518: 3508: 3216: 2010: 1360: 817: 768: 752: 649: 637: 589: 577: 467: 432: 382: 377: 6830:. Payloads deployed from other spacecraft are denoted in (brackets). 4428: 2416: 2362: 2199:. McGraw Hill Publishing Company. February 5, 1962. pp. 57–61. 1067: 6760: 6673: 6631: 6606: 6576: 6570: 6563: 6547: 6515: 6463: 6434: 6407: 6395: 6390: 6370: 6365: 6328: 6322: 6294: 6109: 6102: 5971: 5627: 5190: 5010: 4735: 4668: 4656: 4490: 4485: 4480: 4194: 4093: 3927: 3922: 3917: 3896: 3891: 3886: 3881: 3792: 3776: 3737: 2937: 2290: 1146: 1100: 910: 657: 633: 565: 516:, a constant stream of charged particles flowing outwards from the 471: 3466: 2121: 1520: 6770: 6750: 6705: 6626: 6500: 6485: 6412: 6360: 6333: 6315: 6301: 5901: 5638: 5248: 5154: 5137: 5124: 5110: 5084: 4993: 4979: 4828: 4763: 4141: 2162:. McGraw Hill Publishing Company. June 12, 1961. pp. 52–57. 1303: 1298:

The data produced during the flight consisted of two categories—

6710: 6695: 6131: 5759: 5754: 5656: 5455: 5063: 5044: 4834: 4787: 4742: 4564: 4475: 4470: 4465: 4308: 3988: 3983: 3962: 3957: 3858: 3832: 3827: 3787: 1851:. Space Technology Laboratories. May 25, 1960. pp. 9, 17. 1756:"How do spacecraft use an orbit to move from planet to planet?" 1307: 1033:

The magnetometer was attached to the top of the mast below the

792: 697:

radiation twice as intense as that encountered in Earth orbit.

601: 597: 521: 444: 427:, it was a simplified version of the Block I spacecraft of the 3400: 2417:

S. C. Chase; L. D. Kaplan; G. Neugebauer (November 15, 1963).

1498:

Beyond Earth: A Chronicle of Deep Space Exploration, 1958–2016

6308: 5422: 5358: 4864: 3617: 2670:. McGraw Hill Publishing Company. July 30, 1962. p. 21. 1578:

Tracking Information Memorandum No. 332-15: Mariner R 1 and 2

1207: 1193: 974: 829: 644:. STL was unable to complete the probes before June, and the 608: 585: 409: 340: 301: 291: 49: 2786:(Report). California Institute of Technology. Archived from 864:

of charged particles and to map the variations in the Sun's

619: 5243: 4869: 4547: 2825: 2753: 2233: 2129: 2046: 1994: 1918: 1617: 1547: 1502: 1471: 1408:, another microwave radiometer used in the 2010s on Jupiter 828:

was uncertain, though JPL scientists had concluded through

737:

transmitter, and control systems for Mariner's experiments.

734: 421: 60: 3045:

Edward J. Smith; Leverett Davis, Jr.; et al. (1965).

2915: 2582: 1819:. Space Technology Laboratories. June 1, 1959. p. 2. 1501:. The NASA History series (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: 1376:

indeed showed that Venus has a small weak magnetic field.

4313: 2697: 1286:

mission 129 days. After passing Venus, Mariner 2 entered

1214:

At 1:53 AM EST on August 27, Mariner 2 was launched from

517: 6257: 1575: 1095:

would provide real-time radar tracking with stations at

872:

beyond the vicinity of Earth could be explored as well.

667:

For the summer 1962 launch opportunity, NASA contracted

1676:

Mitchell Sharpe (1989). "2". In Kenneth Gatland (ed.).

306:

1.000 AU (149,600,000 km; 93,000,000 mi)

296:

0.720 AU (107,700,000 km; 66,900,000 mi)

3269: 1005:

to measure the flux of cosmic dust particles in space.

3102:

Margaret G. Kivelson; Christopher T. Russell (1995).

1273:

Mariner 2's flyby in spatial relation to later probes

1175:

trajectory from August 27, 1962, to December 31, 1962

3450: 2693: 2691: 2689: 1383:

It was also shown that in interplanetary space, the

890:

of the crystal video type operating in the standard

600:

was the first probe to fly by the Moon, followed by

3394: 2071: 1787:. Space Technology Laboratories. January 14, 1959. 722:that regulated and transmitted power from the 9800 3126: 2659: 2188: 2151: 960:detector) to measure high-energy cosmic radiation. 748:data received by the experiments for transmission. 604:, the first artificial object to impact the Moon. 2867: 2686: 2578: 2576: 2574: 1387:streams continuously, confirming a prediction by 903:Labeled diagram of the infrared radiometer design 6839: 4429:Science instruments on satellites and spacecraft 3612: 3095: 2911: 2909: 2907: 2627: 2532: 2224: 1782:"A Development Plan for 2 Interplanetary Probes" 1734:. New York: Harper & Row. pp. 171–187. 1678:The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Space Technology 3347: 2630:"Mariner 2: First Spacecraft to Another Planet" 2310: 2308: 2306: 2304: 2302: 2300: 2264: 2262: 1876: 1675: 1494: 675:. By August 1961, it had become clear that the 2571: 2419:"The Mariner 2 Infrared Radiometer Experiment" 2412: 2410: 2408: 2406: 2404: 2358: 2356: 2183: 2181: 1608: 1583:(Report). California Institute of Technology. 6826:. Uncatalogued launch failures are listed in 6243: 4414: 3598: 3482: 3314: 2904: 1428: 718:Two of the cases comprised the power system: 16:First successful mission to Venus (1962–1963) 3308: 2987: 2985: 2955: 2781: 2297: 2259: 1576:N. A. Renzetti; E. Rechtin (June 15, 1962). 1150:The launch of Mariner 2, on August 27, 1962. 3263: 2652: 2528: 2526: 2401: 2353: 2178: 1729: 1725: 1669: 1243: 824:above them had been detected. The planet's 6873:Spacecraft launched by Atlas-Agena rockets 6250: 6236: 4421: 4407: 3605: 3591: 3489: 3475: 2749: 2747: 2661:"Venus Mission Fails: New Mariner Readied" 2621: 2472: 2470: 2144: 2033: 2031: 1980: 1978: 1976: 1974: 1972: 1970: 1968: 1966: 1964: 1962: 1960: 1870: 1846:"Project Thor Able-4 Final Mission Report" 1723: 1721: 1719: 1717: 1715: 1713: 1711: 1709: 1707: 1705: 1321: 981:inefficiently, and was previously used in 683:. A hybrid of Mariner A and JPL's Block 1 512:En route to Venus, Mariner 2 measured the 90: 6848:Derelict satellites in heliocentric orbit 3341: 3299: 3210: 2982: 2951: 2949: 2947: 2863: 2861: 2859: 2857: 2855: 2853: 2851: 2849: 2847: 2777: 2775: 2153:"Mariner to Scan Venus' Surface on Flyby" 2085: 1958: 1956: 1954: 1952: 1950: 1948: 1946: 1944: 1942: 1940: 1680:. New York: Orion Books. pp. 28–31. 1490: 1488: 802: 4700: 2812: 2810: 2808: 2523: 2220: 2218: 1987:Mariner-Venus 1962: Final Project Report 1748: 1333: 1325: 1268: 1166: 1153: 1145: 1066: 1008: 898: 704: 618: 547: 392: 3183: 2744: 2467: 2065: 2028: 1903: 1891:from the original on September 20, 2021 1858:from the original on September 20, 2021 1826:from the original on September 20, 2021 1794:from the original on September 20, 2021 1774: 1702: 1571: 1569: 1534: 1532: 1530: 1458: 1456: 1318:were also measured for the first time. 1264: 1062: 640:rocket, the other via the yet-untested 6840: 2944: 2844: 2832:from the original on December 17, 2019 2772: 2754:Paolo Ulivi; David M. Harland (2007). 2190:"Instruments Evolve for Mariner Probe" 1937: 1925:from the original on November 26, 2020 1806: 1639: 1495:Asif A. Siddiqi (September 20, 2018). 1485: 1234: 1079:Each Mariner would be launched into a 6231: 4402: 3586: 3470: 3177: 3120: 3038: 2805: 2628:Elizabeth Howell (December 3, 2012). 2215: 2114: 1441:from the original on October 24, 2019 1255: 1071:The communications station at Woomera 3329:from the original on August 11, 2018 2784:The Mariner 2 Data Processing System 2667:Aviation Week & Space Technology 2225:Douglas E. Jones (January 1, 1966). 2196:Aviation Week & Space Technology 2159:Aviation Week & Space Technology 2072:Nathaniel Scharping (July 7, 2020). 1602: 1566: 1527: 1453: 1424: 1422: 740:The fifth case held electronics for 6212:Venetia Burney Student Dust Counter 4357:List of artificial objects on Venus 3496: 1657:from the original on March 30, 2022 1554:from the original on April 15, 2019 1138:damage due to shorted transistors. 166:220 watts (at Venus encounter) 13: 3047:"Magnetic Measurements near Venus" 2674:from the original on June 12, 2021 2640:from the original on July 25, 2022 2166:from the original on July 25, 2022 2102:from the original on July 25, 2022 2053:from the original on April 1, 2022 1838: 1762:from the original on June 27, 2020 1627:from the original on June 26, 2008 1590:from the original on June 26, 2008 1338:A print-out of data from the flyby 1057: 509:and charged particle environment. 14: 6884: 3315:Kenneth Chang (August 10, 2018). 3129:"Survival of Thin Films in Space" 2455:from the original on May 25, 2010 2203:from the original on July 9, 2021 1884:. Space Technology Laboratories. 1879:"The Able Series of Space Probes" 1419: 1280: 763:At the rear of the spacecraft, a 751:The sixth case carried the three 520:, confirming the measurements by 3702: 3696: 3690: 3453: 3127:James A. Van Allen (July 1964). 1877:Adolph K. Thiel (May 20, 1960). 1216:Cape Canaveral Air Force Station 1122:On July 22, 1962, the two-stage 27: 6181:International Lunar Observatory 4992:(TRMM, Terra, Aura, Suomi NPP, 3136:Journal of Geophysical Research 3054:Journal of Geophysical Research 2722:10.1126/science.138.3545.1095-a 2426:Journal of Geophysical Research 1814:"Development Plan for Able 3-4" 1609:N. A. Renzetti (July 1, 1965). 807: 788:commands from ground stations. 623:Depiction of Mariner 2 in space 358:34,773 km (21,607 mi) 3106:. Cambridge University Press. 2958:Recent Physical Data for Venus 1013:Instrument for studying plasma 878: 408:), an American space probe to 102: 1: 6127:High Resolution Stereo Camera 4352:Observations and explorations 4253:NASA Uranus orbiter and probe 3372:10.1126/science.138.3545.1098 3104:Introduction to Space Physics 2607:10.1126/science.138.3545.1097 2501:10.1126/science.138.3545.1099 1412: 1330:Radiometric scanning of Venus 1314:). Various properties of the 691: 543: 507:interplanetary magnetic field 158:203.6 kilograms (449 lb) 116:4 months and 7 days 4288:Venus Orbiting Imaging Radar 3425:10.1126/science.139.3558.910 3241:10.1126/science.139.3558.905 3016:10.1126/science.139.3558.909 2758:. Springer. pp. 19–22. 2387:10.1126/science.139.3558.907 2339:10.1126/science.139.3558.908 1163:Mariner Atlas-Agena ignition 700: 572:, the United States and the 7: 6863:Spacecraft launched in 1962 5058:Radiation Budget Instrument 2782:D. B. Sparks (March 1963). 2557:10.1126/science.139.3549.42 1758:. Northwestern University. 1732:The New Treasury of Science 1406:Microwave Radiometer (Juno) 1394: 1358:), which agrees with prior 1091:and upon its departure the 634:Space Technology Laboratory 10: 6889: 5384:Infrared Space Observatory 3968:Pioneer Venus Small Probes 3677:Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer 3292:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.461 2956:L. D. Kaplan (June 1964). 2074:"Beyond the Twilight Zone" 1464:"Mariner 2 - NASA Science" 1293: 1117:Johannesburg, South Africa 524:in 1959. It also measured 6820: 6282: 6194: 6171: 6150: 6119: 6088: 6053: 6044: 5964: 5954: 5912: 5880: 5873: 5864: 5838: 5822: 5813: 5740: 5724: 5715: 5649: 5615: 5606: 5564: 5555: 5482: 5473: 5351: 5310: 5301: 5281: 5274: 5267: 5229: 5222: 5094: 4948: 4941: 4888: 4709: 4691: 4519: 4434: 4385: 4339: 4301: 4265: 4235: 4162: 4155: 4128: 4103: 4074: 4067: 3997: 3976: 3910: 3874: 3768: 3718: 3711: 3688: 3649: 3631: 3624: 3562: 3504: 2918:The Astrophysical Journal 2087:10.1146/knowable-070620-1 1401:List of missions to Venus 1141: 843:runaway greenhouse effect 669:Jet Propulsion Laboratory 366: 362: 354: 346: 338: 334: 330: 320: 310: 300: 290: 280: 272: 267: 263: 259: 243: 235: 230: 226: 222: 209: 199: 187:August 27, 1962, 06:53:14 183: 178: 174: 170: 162: 154: 144: 133: 128: 124: 120: 112: 99: 78: 70: 56: 45: 41: 26: 6207:Inertial Stellar Compass 5572:Raman Laser Spectrometer 3902:Pioneer Venus Multiprobe 3191:(Report). Archived from 2963:(Report). Archived from 2271:The Astronomical Journal 1244:Loss of attitude control 458:, instrument booms, and 412:, was the first robotic 6202:Deep Space Atomic Clock 5461:Venus Emissivity Mapper 4273:European Venus Explorer 3272:Physical Review Letters 3156:10.1029/JZ069i019p04170 3074:10.1029/JZ070i007p01571 2446:10.1029/jz068i022p06157 1322:Scientific observations 1035:omnidirectional antenna 868:. The concentration of 785:omnidirectional antenna 564:With the advent of the 6451:Balloon Subsatellite 1 2122:"Venus - NASA Science" 1339: 1331: 1274: 1211: 1171:Animation of Mariner 2 1164: 1151: 1093:Atlantic Missile Range 1072: 1046:latter two functions. 1014: 904: 803:Scientific instruments 729:Two more included the 710: 624: 614:Hohmann Transfer Orbit 561: 398: 191:1962-08-27UTC06:53:14Z 6868:Derelict space probes 6217:Plasma Wave Subsystem 5328:Multispectral Scanner 4652:Pioneer Venus Orbiter 4456:Pioneer Venus Orbiter 4082:Venus Orbiter Mission 3733:Pioneer Venus Orbiter 2870:Space Science Reviews 2818:"Mariner 2 - Gallery" 1653:. February 21, 2020. 1435:Jonathan's Space Page 1337: 1329: 1272: 1170: 1162: 1149: 1109:Goldstone, California 1070: 1012: 931:fluxgate magnetometer 902: 708: 622: 551: 431:and an exact copy of 396: 273:Reference system 129:Spacecraft properties 6266:Orbital launches in 5185:Mars Climate Orbiter 4827:RM-08 and MTVZA-OK ( 4266:Cancelled / concepts 2016:on December 20, 2021 1993:. Washington, D.C.: 1265:Encounter with Venus 1132:Range Safety Officer 1063:Prelude to Mariner 2 887:microwave radiometer 709:Diagram of Mariner 1 6142:Mars Orbiter Camera 3614:Spacecraft missions 3417:1963Sci...139..910G 3364:1962Sci...138.1098A 3358:(3545): 1098–1099. 3284:1964PhRvL..13..461N 3233:1963Sci...139..905F 3148:1964JGR....69.4170V 3083:on February 8, 2010 3066:1965JGR....70.1571S 3008:1963Sci...139..909S 2930:1967ApJ...150..327P 2882:1963SSRv....2..751S 2714:1962Sci...138.1095N 2708:(3545): 1095–1097. 2599:1962Sci...138.1097V 2593:(3545): 1097–1098. 2549:1963Sci...139...42A 2493:1962Sci...138.1099C 2487:(3545): 1099–1100. 2438:1963JGR....68.6157C 2379:1963Sci...139..907C 2331:1963Sci...139..908B 2283:1964AJ.....69...49B 2043:nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov 1915:nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov 1544:nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov 1429:Jonathan McDowell. 1235:Mid-course maneuver 1105:Palomar Observatory 953:Geiger-Müller tubes 526:interplanetary dust 292:Perihelion altitude 71:Harvard designation 23: 6120:Imagers/telescopes 5268:Spectrophotometers 4367:Manned Venus flyby 3657:Parker Solar Probe 3566:Previous mission: 3461:Spaceflight portal 3322:The New York Times 2890:10.1007/BF00208814 1340: 1332: 1288:heliocentric orbit 1275: 1256:Solar panel output 1212: 1165: 1152: 1113:Woomera, Australia 1073: 1015: 971:University of Iowa 947:ionization chamber 905: 711: 625: 562: 466:(one each for the 406:Mariner-Venus 1962 399: 268:Orbital parameters 204:Atlas LV-3 Agena-B 21: 6858:Missions to Venus 6835: 6834: 6612:Venera 2MV-2 No.1 6602:Venera 2MV-1 No.2 6587:Venera 2MV-1 No.1 6225: 6224: 6162:Rosalind Franklin 6084: 6083: 6080: 6079: 6071:Rosalind Franklin 6046:Mass spectrometer 6040: 6039: 5976:Rosalind Franklin 5950: 5949: 5860: 5859: 5856: 5855: 5809: 5808: 5717:Triaxial fluxgate 5602: 5601: 5598: 5597: 5576:Rosalind Franklin 5551: 5550: 5475:UV-visible (UVVS) 5469: 5468: 5365:Rosalind Franklin 5303:Visible-IR (VIRS) 5297: 5296: 5263: 5262: 5259: 5258: 5218: 5217: 4937: 4936: 4749:DMSP 5D-2/F13-F15 4396: 4395: 4302:Program overviews 4261: 4260: 4156:Proposed missions 4151: 4150: 4136:Venus Life Finder 4063: 4062: 3686: 3685: 3580: 3579: 3411:(3558): 910–911. 3227:(3558): 905–907. 3113:978-0-521-45714-9 3002:(3558): 909–910. 2828:. March 6, 2015. 2765:978-0-387-49326-8 2432:(22): 6157–6169. 2373:(3558): 907–908. 2325:(3558): 908–909. 2078:Knowable Magazine 1741:978-0-060-13835-6 1687:978-0-517-57427-0 1512:978-1-626-83042-4 1160: 967:particle detector 956:(also known as a 556:projected on the 536:from outside the 391: 390: 302:Aphelion altitude 36:engineering model 6880: 6271: 6270: 6269: 6252: 6245: 6238: 6229: 6228: 6063:(Europa Clipper) 6051: 6050: 6012:(on ExoMars TGO) 5962: 5961: 5956:Neutral particle 5878: 5877: 5871: 5870: 5820: 5819: 5722: 5721: 5708:(Europa Clipper) 5613: 5612: 5562: 5561: 5480: 5479: 5308: 5307: 5279: 5278: 5272: 5271: 5227: 5226: 5223:Ultraviolet (UV) 4946: 4945: 4942:Infrared-visible 4707: 4706: 4698: 4697: 4423: 4416: 4409: 4400: 4399: 4362:List of missions 4278:Inspiration Mars 4160: 4159: 4072: 4071: 4068:Planned missions 4005:Tyazhely Sputnik 3716: 3715: 3706: 3700: 3694: 3629: 3628: 3607: 3600: 3593: 3584: 3583: 3491: 3484: 3477: 3468: 3467: 3463: 3458: 3457: 3456: 3445: 3444: 3398: 3392: 3391: 3345: 3339: 3338: 3336: 3334: 3312: 3306: 3305: 3303: 3301:2060/19650019810 3267: 3261: 3260: 3214: 3208: 3207: 3205: 3203: 3197: 3190: 3181: 3175: 3174: 3172: 3170: 3164: 3158:. Archived from 3133: 3124: 3118: 3117: 3099: 3093: 3092: 3090: 3088: 3082: 3076:. Archived from 3051: 3042: 3036: 3035: 2989: 2980: 2979: 2977: 2975: 2969: 2962: 2953: 2942: 2941: 2913: 2902: 2901: 2865: 2842: 2841: 2839: 2837: 2814: 2803: 2802: 2800: 2798: 2793:on June 16, 2011 2792: 2779: 2770: 2769: 2751: 2742: 2741: 2695: 2684: 2683: 2681: 2679: 2663: 2656: 2650: 2649: 2647: 2645: 2625: 2619: 2618: 2580: 2569: 2568: 2530: 2521: 2520: 2474: 2465: 2464: 2462: 2460: 2454: 2423: 2414: 2399: 2398: 2360: 2351: 2350: 2312: 2295: 2294: 2266: 2257: 2256: 2254: 2252: 2246: 2240:. Archived from 2231: 2222: 2213: 2212: 2210: 2208: 2192: 2185: 2176: 2175: 2173: 2171: 2155: 2148: 2142: 2141: 2139: 2137: 2132:. August 9, 2021 2126:science.nasa.gov 2118: 2112: 2111: 2109: 2107: 2089: 2069: 2063: 2062: 2060: 2058: 2035: 2026: 2025: 2023: 2021: 2015: 2009:. Archived from 1992: 1982: 1935: 1934: 1932: 1930: 1907: 1901: 1900: 1898: 1896: 1890: 1883: 1874: 1868: 1867: 1865: 1863: 1857: 1850: 1842: 1836: 1835: 1833: 1831: 1825: 1818: 1810: 1804: 1803: 1801: 1799: 1793: 1786: 1778: 1772: 1771: 1769: 1767: 1752: 1746: 1745: 1727: 1700: 1699: 1673: 1667: 1666: 1664: 1662: 1647:"The Space Race" 1643: 1637: 1636: 1634: 1632: 1626: 1615: 1606: 1600: 1599: 1597: 1595: 1589: 1582: 1573: 1564: 1563: 1561: 1559: 1536: 1525: 1524: 1492: 1483: 1482: 1480: 1478: 1468:science.nasa.gov 1460: 1451: 1450: 1448: 1446: 1426: 1250:attitude control 1210: 1205: 1196: 1191: 1182: 1181: Mariner 2 1180: 1174: 1161: 977:efficiently and 664:on February 26. 488:charged particle 482:sensor, a solar 474:portions of the 350:14 December 1962 347:Closest approach 326:14 December 1962 254: 252: 194: 192: 179:Start of mission 113:Mission duration 104: 95: 94: 88: 74:1962 Alpha Rho 1 31: 24: 20: 6888: 6887: 6883: 6882: 6881: 6879: 6878: 6877: 6853:Mariner program 6838: 6837: 6836: 6831: 6816: 6716:Mars 2MV-3 No.1 6684:Mars 2MV-4 No.1 6658:Mercury-Atlas 8 6446:Mercury-Atlas 7 6340:Mercury-Atlas 6 6278: 6277: 6267: 6265: 6264: 6262: 6256: 6226: 6221: 6190: 6173: 6167: 6146: 6115: 6076: 6036: 5946: 5908: 5866: 5852: 5847:Cassini–Huygens 5834: 5805: 5749:Cassini–Huygens 5736: 5711: 5645: 5594: 5547: 5495:Mariner 6 and 7 5465: 5411:Mariner 6 and 7 5347: 5293: 5275:Long wavelength 5255: 5214: 5143:Mariner 6 and 7 5090: 5019:MESSR and VTIR 4933: 4903:Electra (radio) 4897:Cassini-Huygens 4884: 4687: 4537:Cassini–Huygens 4515: 4443:Cassini–Huygens 4430: 4427: 4397: 4392: 4381: 4335: 4297: 4257: 4231: 4147: 4124: 4099: 4059: 3998:Failed launches 3993: 3972: 3906: 3870: 3846:Cassini–Huygens 3764: 3707: 3701: 3695: 3682: 3645: 3625:Active missions 3620: 3611: 3581: 3576: 3570:—Next mission: 3558: 3500: 3498:Mariner program 3495: 3459: 3454: 3452: 3449: 3448: 3399: 3395: 3346: 3342: 3332: 3330: 3313: 3309: 3278:(15): 461–464. 3268: 3264: 3215: 3211: 3201: 3199: 3198:on May 24, 2010 3195: 3188: 3182: 3178: 3168: 3166: 3165:on May 14, 2010 3162: 3131: 3125: 3121: 3114: 3100: 3096: 3086: 3084: 3080: 3049: 3043: 3039: 2990: 2983: 2973: 2971: 2970:on May 23, 2010 2967: 2960: 2954: 2945: 2914: 2905: 2866: 2845: 2835: 2833: 2816: 2815: 2806: 2796: 2794: 2790: 2780: 2773: 2766: 2752: 2745: 2696: 2687: 2677: 2675: 2658: 2657: 2653: 2643: 2641: 2626: 2622: 2581: 2572: 2543:(3549): 42–45. 2531: 2524: 2475: 2468: 2458: 2456: 2452: 2421: 2415: 2402: 2361: 2354: 2313: 2298: 2267: 2260: 2250: 2248: 2247:on May 23, 2010 2244: 2229: 2223: 2216: 2206: 2204: 2187: 2186: 2179: 2169: 2167: 2150: 2149: 2145: 2135: 2133: 2120: 2119: 2115: 2105: 2103: 2070: 2066: 2056: 2054: 2037: 2036: 2029: 2019: 2017: 2013: 1990: 1984: 1983: 1938: 1928: 1926: 1909: 1908: 1904: 1894: 1892: 1888: 1881: 1875: 1871: 1861: 1859: 1855: 1848: 1844: 1843: 1839: 1829: 1827: 1823: 1816: 1812: 1811: 1807: 1797: 1795: 1791: 1784: 1780: 1779: 1775: 1765: 1763: 1754: 1753: 1749: 1742: 1728: 1703: 1688: 1674: 1670: 1660: 1658: 1651:www.history.com 1645: 1644: 1640: 1630: 1628: 1624: 1613: 1607: 1603: 1593: 1591: 1587: 1580: 1574: 1567: 1557: 1555: 1538: 1537: 1528: 1513: 1493: 1486: 1476: 1474: 1462: 1461: 1454: 1444: 1442: 1427: 1420: 1415: 1397: 1324: 1296: 1283: 1267: 1258: 1246: 1237: 1203: 1202: 1189: 1188: 1178: 1177: 1176: 1172: 1154: 1144: 1065: 1060: 1058:Mission profile 881: 855:Van Allen Belts 810: 805: 703: 694: 594:Pioneer program 568:, the two then- 546: 425:Mariner program 387: 386: 380: 373: 370:Mariner program 250: 248: 247:January 3, 1963 190: 188: 134:Spacecraft type 89: 84: 37: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6886: 6876: 6875: 6870: 6865: 6860: 6855: 6850: 6833: 6832: 6821: 6818: 6817: 6815: 6814: 6809: 6804: 6797: 6790: 6783: 6778: 6773: 6768: 6763: 6758: 6753: 6748: 6743: 6738: 6733: 6728: 6723: 6718: 6713: 6708: 6703: 6698: 6693: 6686: 6681: 6676: 6671: 6666: 6661: 6654: 6649: 6644: 6639: 6634: 6629: 6624: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6604: 6599: 6594: 6589: 6584: 6579: 6574: 6567: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6545: 6540: 6533: 6528: 6523: 6518: 6513: 6508: 6503: 6498: 6493: 6488: 6483: 6478: 6471: 6466: 6461: 6454: 6442: 6437: 6432: 6425: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6398: 6393: 6388: 6383: 6378: 6373: 6368: 6363: 6358: 6353: 6348: 6343: 6336: 6331: 6326: 6319: 6312: 6305: 6298: 6291: 6283: 6280: 6279: 6273: 6258: 6255: 6254: 6247: 6240: 6232: 6223: 6222: 6220: 6219: 6214: 6209: 6204: 6198: 6196: 6192: 6191: 6189: 6188: 6183: 6177: 6175: 6169: 6168: 6166: 6165: 6154: 6152: 6148: 6147: 6145: 6144: 6139: 6134: 6129: 6123: 6121: 6117: 6116: 6114: 6113: 6106: 6099: 6092: 6090: 6086: 6085: 6082: 6081: 6078: 6077: 6075: 6074: 6064: 6057: 6055: 6054:Interplanetary 6048: 6042: 6041: 6038: 6037: 6035: 6034: 6027: 6020: 6013: 6007: 5997: 5988: 5979: 5968: 5966: 5965:Interplanetary 5959: 5952: 5951: 5948: 5947: 5945: 5944: 5937: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5916: 5914: 5913:Interplanetary 5910: 5909: 5907: 5906: 5905: 5904: 5890: 5884: 5882: 5875: 5868: 5862: 5861: 5858: 5857: 5854: 5853: 5851: 5850: 5842: 5840: 5839:Interplanetary 5836: 5835: 5833: 5832: 5826: 5824: 5817: 5811: 5810: 5807: 5806: 5804: 5803: 5796: 5789: 5782: 5777: 5772: 5767: 5762: 5757: 5752: 5744: 5742: 5741:Interplanetary 5738: 5737: 5735: 5734: 5728: 5726: 5719: 5713: 5712: 5710: 5709: 5699: 5687: 5680: 5673: 5666: 5659: 5653: 5651: 5650:Interplanetary 5647: 5646: 5644: 5643: 5642: 5641: 5631: 5625: 5619: 5617: 5610: 5604: 5603: 5600: 5599: 5596: 5595: 5593: 5592: 5579: 5568: 5566: 5565:Interplanetary 5559: 5553: 5552: 5549: 5548: 5546: 5545: 5538: 5531: 5526: 5521: 5516: 5511: 5504: 5497: 5492: 5486: 5484: 5483:Interplanetary 5477: 5471: 5470: 5467: 5466: 5464: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5440:Europa Clipper 5425: 5420: 5413: 5408: 5403: 5397: 5386: 5381: 5380: 5379: 5374: 5361: 5355: 5353: 5352:Interplanetary 5349: 5348: 5346: 5345: 5340: 5335: 5330: 5325: 5320: 5314: 5312: 5305: 5299: 5298: 5295: 5294: 5292: 5291: 5285: 5283: 5282:Interplanetary 5276: 5269: 5265: 5264: 5261: 5260: 5257: 5256: 5254: 5253: 5252: 5251: 5241: 5233: 5231: 5224: 5220: 5219: 5216: 5215: 5213: 5212: 5205: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5181: 5174: 5167: 5162: 5157: 5152: 5145: 5140: 5135: 5129: 5128: 5118: 5108: 5098: 5096: 5095:Interplanetary 5092: 5091: 5089: 5088: 5074: 5067: 5060: 5055: 5048: 5041: 5035: 5030: 5029: 5028: 5025: 5017: 5014: 5007: 5002: 4997: 4987: 4982: 4977: 4972: 4958: 4952: 4950: 4943: 4939: 4938: 4935: 4934: 4932: 4931: 4924: 4912: 4905: 4900: 4892: 4890: 4889:Interplanetary 4886: 4885: 4883: 4882: 4877: 4872: 4867: 4862: 4857: 4852: 4847: 4842: 4837: 4832: 4825: 4820: 4819: 4818: 4815: 4809: 4802: 4795: 4781: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4739: 4732: 4726: 4719: 4713: 4711: 4704: 4695: 4689: 4688: 4686: 4685: 4678: 4671: 4666: 4659: 4654: 4649: 4642: 4635: 4630: 4623: 4616: 4609: 4604: 4599: 4594: 4589: 4584: 4579: 4574: 4567: 4562: 4557: 4550: 4548:ExoMars lander 4545: 4540: 4533: 4525: 4523: 4517: 4516: 4514: 4513: 4508: 4503: 4498: 4493: 4488: 4483: 4478: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4458: 4453: 4446: 4438: 4436: 4432: 4431: 4426: 4425: 4418: 4411: 4403: 4394: 4393: 4391: 4390: 4386: 4383: 4382: 4380: 4379: 4374: 4369: 4364: 4359: 4354: 4349: 4343: 4341: 4337: 4336: 4334: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4317: 4316: 4305: 4303: 4299: 4298: 4296: 4295: 4290: 4285: 4280: 4275: 4269: 4267: 4263: 4262: 4259: 4258: 4256: 4255: 4250: 4245: 4239: 4237: 4233: 4232: 4230: 4229: 4222: 4217: 4212: 4207: 4202: 4197: 4192: 4187: 4182: 4177: 4172: 4166: 4164: 4163:Venus missions 4157: 4153: 4152: 4149: 4148: 4146: 4145: 4139: 4132: 4130: 4129:Descent probes 4126: 4125: 4123: 4122: 4116: 4107: 4105: 4101: 4100: 4098: 4097: 4091: 4085: 4078: 4076: 4069: 4065: 4064: 4061: 4060: 4058: 4057: 4052: 4047: 4042: 4037: 4032: 4027: 4022: 4017: 4012: 4007: 4001: 3999: 3995: 3994: 3992: 3991: 3986: 3980: 3978: 3977:Balloon probes 3974: 3973: 3971: 3970: 3965: 3960: 3955: 3950: 3945: 3940: 3935: 3930: 3925: 3920: 3914: 3912: 3908: 3907: 3905: 3904: 3899: 3894: 3889: 3884: 3878: 3876: 3875:Descent probes 3872: 3871: 3869: 3868: 3861: 3856: 3849: 3842: 3835: 3830: 3825: 3820: 3815: 3810: 3805: 3800: 3795: 3790: 3785: 3780: 3772: 3770: 3766: 3765: 3763: 3762: 3755: 3750: 3745: 3740: 3735: 3730: 3722: 3720: 3713: 3709: 3708: 3689: 3687: 3684: 3683: 3681: 3680: 3674: 3668: 3660: 3653: 3651: 3647: 3646: 3644: 3643: 3635: 3633: 3626: 3622: 3621: 3610: 3609: 3602: 3595: 3587: 3578: 3577: 3575: 3574: 3563: 3560: 3559: 3557: 3556: 3551: 3546: 3541: 3536: 3531: 3526: 3521: 3516: 3511: 3505: 3502: 3501: 3494: 3493: 3486: 3479: 3471: 3465: 3464: 3447: 3446: 3407:. New Series. 3393: 3354:. New Series. 3340: 3307: 3262: 3223:. New Series. 3209: 3176: 3119: 3112: 3094: 3037: 2998:. New Series. 2981: 2943: 2938:10.1086/149334 2903: 2876:(6): 751–777. 2843: 2804: 2791:(fee required) 2771: 2764: 2743: 2704:. New Series. 2685: 2651: 2620: 2589:. New Series. 2570: 2539:. New Series. 2522: 2483:. New Series. 2466: 2400: 2369:. New Series. 2352: 2321:. New Series. 2296: 2291:10.1086/109227 2258: 2214: 2177: 2143: 2113: 2064: 2027: 1936: 1902: 1869: 1837: 1805: 1773: 1747: 1740: 1701: 1686: 1668: 1638: 1601: 1565: 1526: 1523:. SP2018-4041. 1511: 1484: 1452: 1417: 1416: 1414: 1411: 1410: 1409: 1403: 1396: 1393: 1367:magnetospheric 1345:limb darkening 1323: 1320: 1295: 1292: 1282: 1281:Post encounter 1279: 1266: 1263: 1257: 1254: 1245: 1242: 1236: 1233: 1143: 1140: 1064: 1061: 1059: 1056: 1031: 1030: 1007: 1006: 995: 994: 962: 961: 941: 940: 925: 924: 920:carbon dioxide 908:A two-channel 897: 896: 884:A two-channel 880: 877: 839:carbon dioxide 834:tidally locked 809: 806: 804: 801: 765:monopropellant 761: 760: 749: 738: 731:radio receiver 727: 702: 699: 693: 690: 630:U.S. Air Force 558:ecliptic plane 545: 542: 490:sensor, and a 480:micrometeorite 429:Ranger program 389: 388: 381: 375: 374: 367: 364: 363: 360: 359: 356: 352: 351: 348: 344: 343: 336: 335: 332: 331: 328: 327: 324: 318: 317: 314: 308: 307: 304: 298: 297: 294: 288: 287: 284: 278: 277: 274: 270: 269: 265: 264: 261: 260: 257: 256: 245: 241: 240: 239:Decommissioned 237: 233: 232: 231:End of mission 228: 227: 224: 223: 220: 219: 214:Cape Canaveral 211: 207: 206: 201: 197: 196: 185: 181: 180: 176: 175: 172: 171: 168: 167: 164: 160: 159: 156: 152: 151: 146: 142: 141: 135: 131: 130: 126: 125: 122: 121: 118: 117: 114: 110: 109: 106: 97: 96: 82: 76: 75: 72: 68: 67: 58: 54: 53: 47: 43: 42: 39: 38: 32: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6885: 6874: 6871: 6869: 6866: 6864: 6861: 6859: 6856: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6846: 6845: 6843: 6829: 6825: 6819: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6805: 6803: 6802: 6798: 6796: 6795: 6791: 6789: 6788: 6784: 6782: 6779: 6777: 6774: 6772: 6769: 6767: 6764: 6762: 6759: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6749: 6747: 6744: 6742: 6739: 6737: 6734: 6732: 6729: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6719: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6697: 6694: 6692: 6691: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6677: 6675: 6672: 6670: 6667: 6665: 6662: 6660: 6659: 6655: 6653: 6650: 6648: 6645: 6643: 6640: 6638: 6635: 6633: 6630: 6628: 6625: 6623: 6620: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6603: 6600: 6598: 6595: 6593: 6590: 6588: 6585: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6573: 6572: 6568: 6566: 6565: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6538: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6527: 6524: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6514: 6512: 6509: 6507: 6504: 6502: 6499: 6497: 6494: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6476: 6472: 6470: 6467: 6465: 6462: 6460: 6459: 6455: 6452: 6448: 6447: 6443: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6430: 6426: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6403: 6399: 6397: 6394: 6392: 6389: 6387: 6384: 6382: 6381:Westford Drag 6379: 6377: 6374: 6372: 6369: 6367: 6364: 6362: 6359: 6357: 6354: 6352: 6351:Discoverer 38 6349: 6347: 6344: 6342: 6341: 6337: 6335: 6332: 6330: 6327: 6325: 6324: 6320: 6318: 6317: 6313: 6311: 6310: 6306: 6304: 6303: 6299: 6297: 6296: 6292: 6290: 6289: 6288:Discoverer 37 6285: 6284: 6281: 6276: 6272: 6261: 6253: 6248: 6246: 6241: 6239: 6234: 6233: 6230: 6218: 6215: 6213: 6210: 6208: 6205: 6203: 6200: 6199: 6197: 6193: 6187: 6184: 6182: 6179: 6178: 6176: 6170: 6163: 6159: 6156: 6155: 6153: 6149: 6143: 6140: 6138: 6135: 6133: 6130: 6128: 6125: 6124: 6122: 6118: 6112: 6111: 6107: 6105: 6104: 6100: 6097: 6094: 6093: 6091: 6087: 6072: 6068: 6065: 6062: 6059: 6058: 6056: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6043: 6033: 6032: 6028: 6025: 6021: 6019: 6018: 6014: 6011: 6008: 6005: 6001: 5998: 5995: 5994: 5993:Venus Express 5990:ASPERA-4 (on 5989: 5986: 5985: 5981:ASPERA-3 (on 5980: 5977: 5973: 5970: 5969: 5967: 5963: 5960: 5957: 5953: 5943: 5942: 5938: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5917: 5915: 5911: 5903: 5900: 5899: 5898: 5894: 5891: 5889: 5886: 5885: 5883: 5879: 5876: 5874:Ion detectors 5872: 5869: 5863: 5849: 5848: 5844: 5843: 5841: 5837: 5831: 5828: 5827: 5825: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5812: 5802: 5801: 5800:Venus Express 5797: 5795: 5794: 5790: 5788: 5787: 5783: 5781: 5778: 5776: 5773: 5771: 5768: 5766: 5763: 5761: 5758: 5756: 5753: 5751: 5750: 5746: 5745: 5743: 5739: 5733: 5730: 5729: 5727: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5714: 5707: 5703: 5700: 5697: 5696: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5685: 5681: 5679: 5678: 5674: 5672: 5671: 5667: 5665: 5664: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5654: 5652: 5648: 5640: 5637: 5636: 5635: 5632: 5629: 5626: 5624: 5621: 5620: 5618: 5614: 5611: 5609: 5605: 5590: 5588: 5583: 5580: 5577: 5573: 5570: 5569: 5567: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5554: 5544: 5543: 5539: 5537: 5536: 5532: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5522: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5509: 5505: 5503: 5502: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5491: 5488: 5487: 5485: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5472: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5441: 5437: 5433: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5418: 5414: 5412: 5409: 5407: 5404: 5401: 5398: 5395: 5391: 5387: 5385: 5382: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5370: 5369: 5368: 5366: 5362: 5360: 5357: 5356: 5354: 5350: 5344: 5341: 5339: 5336: 5334: 5331: 5329: 5326: 5324: 5321: 5319: 5316: 5315: 5313: 5309: 5306: 5304: 5300: 5290: 5287: 5286: 5284: 5280: 5277: 5273: 5270: 5266: 5250: 5247: 5246: 5245: 5242: 5239: 5235: 5234: 5232: 5228: 5225: 5221: 5211: 5210: 5206: 5204: 5203: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5186: 5182: 5180: 5179: 5175: 5173: 5172: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5161: 5158: 5156: 5153: 5151: 5150: 5146: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5119: 5116: 5112: 5109: 5106: 5105: 5100: 5099: 5097: 5093: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5075: 5072: 5068: 5065: 5061: 5059: 5056: 5053: 5049: 5046: 5042: 5040:(Terra, Aqua) 5039: 5036: 5034: 5031: 5026: 5024: 5021: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5012: 5008: 5006: 5003: 5001: 4998: 4995: 4991: 4988: 4986: 4983: 4981: 4978: 4976: 4973: 4970: 4966: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4953: 4951: 4947: 4944: 4940: 4930: 4929: 4925: 4922: 4921: 4916: 4913: 4911: 4910: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4899: 4898: 4894: 4893: 4891: 4887: 4881: 4878: 4876: 4873: 4871: 4868: 4866: 4863: 4861: 4858: 4856: 4853: 4851: 4848: 4846: 4843: 4841: 4838: 4836: 4833: 4830: 4826: 4824: 4821: 4816: 4813: 4812: 4810: 4807: 4803: 4800: 4796: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4782: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4772: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4754:DMSP 5D-2/F16 4752: 4750: 4747: 4744: 4740: 4737: 4733: 4730: 4727: 4724: 4720: 4718: 4715: 4714: 4712: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4699: 4696: 4694: 4690: 4684: 4683: 4679: 4677: 4676: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4664: 4663:Venus Express 4660: 4658: 4655: 4653: 4650: 4648: 4647: 4643: 4641: 4640: 4636: 4634: 4631: 4629: 4628: 4624: 4622: 4621: 4617: 4615: 4614: 4610: 4608: 4605: 4603: 4600: 4598: 4595: 4593: 4590: 4588: 4585: 4583: 4580: 4578: 4575: 4573: 4572: 4568: 4566: 4563: 4561: 4558: 4556: 4555: 4551: 4549: 4546: 4544: 4541: 4539: 4538: 4534: 4532: 4531: 4527: 4526: 4524: 4522: 4521:Radio science 4518: 4512: 4509: 4507: 4504: 4502: 4499: 4497: 4494: 4492: 4489: 4487: 4484: 4482: 4479: 4477: 4474: 4472: 4469: 4467: 4464: 4462: 4459: 4457: 4454: 4452: 4451: 4447: 4445: 4444: 4440: 4439: 4437: 4433: 4424: 4419: 4417: 4412: 4410: 4405: 4404: 4401: 4388: 4387: 4384: 4378: 4375: 4373: 4370: 4368: 4365: 4363: 4360: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4350: 4348: 4345: 4344: 4342: 4338: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4326:Pioneer Venus 4324: 4322: 4319: 4315: 4312: 4311: 4310: 4307: 4306: 4304: 4300: 4294: 4291: 4289: 4286: 4284: 4281: 4279: 4276: 4274: 4271: 4270: 4268: 4264: 4254: 4251: 4249: 4246: 4244: 4241: 4240: 4238: 4234: 4228: 4227: 4223: 4221: 4218: 4216: 4213: 4211: 4208: 4206: 4203: 4201: 4198: 4196: 4193: 4191: 4188: 4186: 4183: 4181: 4178: 4176: 4173: 4171: 4168: 4167: 4165: 4161: 4158: 4154: 4143: 4140: 4137: 4134: 4133: 4131: 4127: 4120: 4117: 4114: 4113: 4109: 4108: 4106: 4102: 4095: 4092: 4089: 4086: 4083: 4080: 4079: 4077: 4073: 4070: 4066: 4056: 4053: 4051: 4048: 4046: 4043: 4041: 4038: 4036: 4033: 4031: 4028: 4026: 4023: 4021: 4018: 4016: 4013: 4011: 4008: 4006: 4003: 4002: 4000: 3996: 3990: 3987: 3985: 3982: 3981: 3979: 3975: 3969: 3966: 3964: 3961: 3959: 3956: 3954: 3951: 3949: 3946: 3944: 3941: 3939: 3936: 3934: 3931: 3929: 3926: 3924: 3921: 3919: 3916: 3915: 3913: 3909: 3903: 3900: 3898: 3895: 3893: 3890: 3888: 3885: 3883: 3880: 3879: 3877: 3873: 3867: 3866: 3862: 3860: 3857: 3855: 3854: 3850: 3848: 3847: 3843: 3841: 3840: 3836: 3834: 3831: 3829: 3826: 3824: 3821: 3819: 3816: 3814: 3811: 3809: 3806: 3804: 3801: 3799: 3796: 3794: 3791: 3789: 3786: 3784: 3781: 3779: 3778: 3774: 3773: 3771: 3767: 3761: 3760: 3759:Venus Express 3756: 3754: 3751: 3749: 3746: 3744: 3741: 3739: 3736: 3734: 3731: 3729: 3728: 3724: 3723: 3721: 3717: 3714: 3712:Past missions 3710: 3705: 3699: 3693: 3678: 3675: 3672: 3671:Solar Orbiter 3669: 3666: 3665: 3661: 3658: 3655: 3654: 3652: 3648: 3642: 3641: 3637: 3636: 3634: 3630: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3608: 3603: 3601: 3596: 3594: 3589: 3588: 3585: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3564: 3561: 3555: 3552: 3550: 3547: 3545: 3542: 3540: 3537: 3535: 3532: 3530: 3527: 3525: 3522: 3520: 3517: 3515: 3512: 3510: 3507: 3506: 3503: 3499: 3492: 3487: 3485: 3480: 3478: 3473: 3472: 3469: 3462: 3451: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3405: 3397: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3352: 3344: 3328: 3324: 3323: 3318: 3311: 3302: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3266: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3221: 3213: 3194: 3187: 3184:J. N. James. 3180: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3130: 3123: 3115: 3109: 3105: 3098: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3048: 3041: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2996: 2988: 2986: 2966: 2959: 2952: 2950: 2948: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2912: 2910: 2908: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2864: 2862: 2860: 2858: 2856: 2854: 2852: 2850: 2848: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2813: 2811: 2809: 2789: 2785: 2778: 2776: 2767: 2761: 2757: 2750: 2748: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2702: 2694: 2692: 2690: 2673: 2669: 2668: 2662: 2655: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2624: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2587: 2579: 2577: 2575: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2537: 2529: 2527: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2481: 2473: 2471: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2420: 2413: 2411: 2409: 2407: 2405: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2367: 2359: 2357: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2319: 2311: 2309: 2307: 2305: 2303: 2301: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2265: 2263: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2228: 2221: 2219: 2202: 2198: 2197: 2191: 2184: 2182: 2165: 2161: 2160: 2154: 2147: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2117: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2088: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2068: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2034: 2032: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1989: 1988: 1981: 1979: 1977: 1975: 1973: 1971: 1969: 1967: 1965: 1963: 1961: 1959: 1957: 1955: 1953: 1951: 1949: 1947: 1945: 1943: 1941: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1906: 1887: 1880: 1873: 1854: 1847: 1841: 1822: 1815: 1809: 1790: 1783: 1777: 1761: 1757: 1751: 1743: 1737: 1733: 1726: 1724: 1722: 1720: 1718: 1716: 1714: 1712: 1710: 1708: 1706: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1683: 1679: 1672: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1642: 1623: 1619: 1612: 1605: 1586: 1579: 1572: 1570: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1535: 1533: 1531: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1499: 1491: 1489: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1459: 1457: 1445:September 12, 1440: 1436: 1432: 1425: 1423: 1418: 1407: 1404: 1402: 1399: 1398: 1392: 1390: 1389:Eugene Parker 1386: 1381: 1377: 1375: 1374: 1368: 1363: 1362: 1357: 1352: 1348: 1346: 1336: 1328: 1319: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1291: 1289: 1278: 1271: 1262: 1253: 1251: 1241: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1217: 1209: 1200: 1195: 1186: 1169: 1148: 1139: 1135: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1120: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1089:parking orbit 1086: 1082: 1081:parking orbit 1077: 1069: 1055: 1053: 1047: 1044: 1038: 1036: 1028: 1024: 1023: 1020:solar plasma 1017: 1016: 1011: 1004: 1002: 997: 996: 992: 988: 984: 980: 976: 972: 968: 964: 963: 959: 955: 954: 950:with matched 949: 948: 943: 942: 938: 933: 932: 928:A three-axis 927: 926: 923:440 °F). 921: 916: 915: 912: 907: 906: 901: 893: 889: 888: 883: 882: 876: 873: 871: 867: 866:magnetosphere 863: 858: 856: 852: 846: 844: 840: 835: 831: 827: 826:rotation rate 823: 819: 815: 800: 798: 794: 789: 786: 782: 777: 774: 770: 766: 758: 754: 750: 747: 743: 739: 736: 732: 728: 725: 721: 717: 716: 715: 707: 698: 689: 686: 682: 678: 674: 673:Atlas-Centaur 670: 665: 663: 659: 655: 654:Pioneer Atlas 651: 647: 646:launch window 643: 639: 635: 631: 621: 617: 615: 610: 605: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 579: 575: 571: 567: 559: 555: 550: 541: 539: 535: 532:, as well as 531: 527: 523: 519: 515: 510: 508: 504: 499: 497: 493: 489: 485: 481: 477: 473: 469: 465: 461: 457: 452: 450: 446: 442: 438: 437:Atlas-Centaur 434: 430: 426: 423: 419: 415: 411: 407: 403: 395: 385: → 384: 379: 376:← 372: 371: 365: 361: 357: 353: 349: 345: 342: 337: 333: 329: 325: 323: 319: 315: 313: 309: 305: 303: 299: 295: 293: 289: 285: 283: 279: 275: 271: 266: 262: 258: 246: 242: 238: 234: 229: 225: 221: 218: 215: 212: 208: 205: 202: 198: 186: 182: 177: 173: 169: 165: 161: 157: 153: 150: 147: 143: 139: 136: 132: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 105: 98: 93: 87: 83: 81: 77: 73: 69: 66: 62: 59: 55: 51: 48: 44: 40: 35: 30: 25: 19: 6827: 6823: 6807:Transit 5A-1 6799: 6792: 6785: 6688: 6656: 6591: 6569: 6562: 6535: 6475:Zenit-2 No.3 6473: 6456: 6444: 6427: 6400: 6338: 6321: 6314: 6307: 6300: 6293: 6286: 6172:Astronomical 6161: 6158:MicrOmega-IR 6108: 6101: 6098:(on InSight) 6089:Seismometers 6070: 6029: 6023: 6015: 6003: 5991: 5984:Mars Express 5982: 5975: 5939: 5929: 5845: 5815:Helium vapor 5798: 5791: 5784: 5764: 5747: 5693: 5682: 5675: 5668: 5661: 5608:Magnetometer 5587:Perseverance 5586: 5575: 5540: 5533: 5506: 5499: 5415: 5393: 5389: 5364: 5207: 5200: 5176: 5169: 5147: 5104:Schiaparelli 5102: 5101:COMARS+ (on 5016:Kanopus-V-IK 4926: 4918: 4908: 4907: 4895: 4680: 4673: 4661: 4644: 4637: 4625: 4618: 4613:Mars Express 4611: 4576: 4569: 4552: 4535: 4528: 4448: 4441: 4372:Terraforming 4347:Colonization 4224: 4119:MBR Explorer 4110: 3863: 3851: 3844: 3837: 3782: 3775: 3757: 3725: 3662: 3638: 3513: 3408: 3402: 3396: 3355: 3349: 3343: 3333:February 11, 3331:. 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Retrieved 1434: 1431:"Launch Log" 1382: 1378: 1371: 1359: 1353: 1349: 1341: 1299: 1297: 1284: 1276: 1259: 1247: 1238: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1213: 1198: 1184: 1136: 1121: 1078: 1074: 1048: 1039: 1032: 1022:spectrometer 1019: 999: 966: 951: 945: 929: 909: 885: 874: 859: 851:magnetometer 847: 811: 797:test chamber 790: 779:The primary 778: 762: 757:memory banks 733:, the three- 712: 695: 666: 662:transmitting 626: 606: 574:Soviet Union 563: 538:Solar System 530:solar flares 511: 500: 492:magnetometer 456:solar panels 453: 405: 401: 400: 368: 282:Eccentricity 276:Heliocentric 244:Last contact 145:Manufacturer 46:Mission type 33: 18: 6781:Explorer 16 6766:Calsphere 1 6701:Explorer 15 6652:Explorer 14 6174:instruments 6151:Microscopes 4817:Meteor-M2-1 4806:Meteor-3M-1 4144:(2031–2032) 3664:BepiColombo 3060:(7): 1571. 2924:: 327–344. 2797:January 28, 2207:January 28, 2039:"Mariner 1" 1631:January 24, 1594:January 24, 1540:"Mariner 2" 1310:; 932 1124:Atlas-Agena 1001:cosmic dust 991:Explorer 14 987:Explorer 12 979:ultraviolet 879:Instruments 870:cosmic dust 822:water vapor 767:(anhydrous 724:solar cells 681:Atlas-Agena 632:contractor 570:superpowers 552:Mariner II 534:cosmic rays 503:radiometric 464:radiometers 414:space probe 210:Launch site 184:Launch date 155:Launch mass 6842:Categories 6637:Alouette 1 5881:Near-Earth 5823:Near-Earth 5793:Pioneer 11 5725:Near-Earth 5663:Pioneer 10 5616:Near-Earth 5501:Mariner 10 5311:Near-Earth 5230:Near-Earth 5183:PMIRR (on 5171:Pioneer 10 5149:Mariner 10 5071:Sentinel-3 4949:Near-Earth 4840:Sentinel-3 4811:MTVZA-GYa 4774:Kanopus-ST 4723:Sentinel-6 4710:Near-Earth 4693:Radiometer 4543:Europa-UVS 4035:3MV-1 No.2 4025:2MV-2 No.1 4020:2MV-1 No.2 4015:2MV-1 No.1 3679:(en route) 3673:(en route) 3667:(en route) 3659:(en route) 3554:Mariner 10 3186:Mariner II 2232:(Report). 2136:August 26, 2106:August 26, 1929:August 15, 1911:"Venera 1" 1616:(Report). 1521:2017059404 1413:References 1385:solar wind 1373:Pioneer 12 1316:solar wind 1306:(773 1085:trajectory 1052:Carl Sagan 1027:solar wind 958:cosmic ray 914:radiometer 862:solar wind 818:telescopic 816:precluded 814:atmosphere 808:Background 753:gyroscopes 742:digitizing 720:switchgear 692:Spacecraft 642:Atlas-Able 582:Explorer 1 554:trajectory 544:Background 514:solar wind 496:atmosphere 486:sensor, a 418:spacecraft 251:1963-01-04 6824:underline 6812:Kosmos 12 6756:NRL PL121 6746:NRL PL120 6679:Kosmos 11 6669:Kosmos 10 6592:Mariner 2 6537:Mariner 1 6521:Telstar 1 6402:Solrad 4B 6186:MoonLIGHT 6024:Mariner 2 6004:Curiosity 5930:Mariner 2 5867:detectors 5786:MESSENGER 5765:Mariner 2 5677:Voyager 1 5535:Voyager 1 5508:MESSENGER 5417:MESSENGER 5402:(on Juno) 5390:Voyager 1 5333:SCIAMACHY 5202:Voyager 1 5165:2M No.522 5160:2M No.521 5081:Suomi NPP 4909:Mariner 2 4814:Meteor-M2 4801:, MOS-1b) 4702:Microwave 4675:Voyager 1 4633:Pioneer 7 4620:MESSENGER 4577:Mariner 2 4248:Laplace-P 4243:Mercury-P 4112:Dragonfly 4040:Kosmos 27 4030:Kosmos 21 4010:Mariner 1 3853:MESSENGER 3808:Venera 11 3798:Mariner 5 3783:Mariner 2 3572:Mariner 3 3568:Mariner 1 3549:Mariner 9 3544:Mariner 8 3539:Mariner 7 3534:Mariner 6 3529:Mariner 5 3524:Mariner 4 3519:Mariner 3 3514:Mariner 2 3509:Mariner 1 3032:220082267 2898:119555288 2634:Space.com 2096:225793830 1361:Pioneer 5 1356:nanotesla 1097:Ascension 937:nanotesla 781:high-gain 769:hydrazine 701:Structure 650:Pioneer 5 638:Thor-Able 590:Sputnik 2 578:Sputnik 1 468:microwave 433:Mariner 1 402:Mariner 2 383:Mariner 3 378:Mariner 1 339:Flyby of 195: UTC 86:1962-041A 80:COSPAR ID 34:Mariner 2 22:Mariner 2 6776:FTV-1136 6761:Surcal 2 6741:FTV-1155 6736:FTV-1135 6726:FTV-2405 6721:FTV-1136 6690:1MS No.2 6674:Ranger 5 6664:FTV-1134 6647:FTV-1154 6632:Kosmos 9 6617:FTV-1133 6607:FTV-1132 6597:FTV-1153 6582:FTV-2502 6577:Kosmos 8 6571:Vostok 4 6564:Vostok 3 6558:FTV-2404 6553:FTV-1152 6548:Kosmos 7 6543:FTV-1131 6531:FTV-1130 6526:FTV-2403 6516:Kosmos 6 6511:FTV-1151 6506:FTV-1129 6496:FTV-2312 6491:FTV-2402 6481:FTV-1127 6469:FTV-1128 6464:Kosmos 5 6458:FTV-3501 6440:FTV-3501 6435:FTV-1126 6423:FTV-1125 6418:FTV-2401 6408:Kosmos 4 6396:Kosmos 3 6391:Ranger 4 6386:FTV-1142 6371:Kosmos 2 6366:Kosmos 1 6346:FTV-2301 6329:Ranger 3 6323:Surcal 1 6295:SOLRAD 4 6103:Viking 1 6022:SPS (on 5972:ADRON-RM 5958:detector 5925:ASPERA-4 5920:ASPERA-3 5865:Particle 5628:QuakeSat 5428:E-THEMIS 5191:Venera 9 5033:Meteor-2 5011:ADEOS II 4823:Nimbus 7 4769:GPM Core 4736:ADEOS II 4669:Venera 9 4657:Sakigake 4571:Magellan 4530:Akatsuki 4481:Venera 4 4450:Magellan 4283:TMK-Mavr 4195:Venera-D 4094:EnVision 4075:Orbiters 3918:Venera 7 3882:Venera 3 3793:Venera 2 3777:Venera 1 3738:Venera 9 3727:Magellan 3719:Orbiters 3640:Akatsuki 3632:Orbiters 3441:21133097 3433:17743054 3388:41032782 3380:17772966 3327:Archived 3257:44822394 3249:17743050 3024:17743053 2830:Archived 2822:nasa.gov 2738:24287222 2730:17772963 2678:June 12, 2672:Archived 2644:June 11, 2638:Archived 2615:17772965 2565:17752023 2517:19708490 2509:17772967 2450:Archived 2395:17743051 2347:17743052 2201:Archived 2170:June 11, 2164:Archived 2100:Archived 2057:June 11, 2051:Archived 2020:July 25, 2001:. 1965. 1923:Archived 1895:July 25, 1886:Archived 1862:July 25, 1853:Archived 1830:July 25, 1821:Archived 1798:July 25, 1789:Archived 1766:June 11, 1760:Archived 1696:19520816 1661:July 25, 1655:Archived 1622:Archived 1585:Archived 1552:Archived 1439:Archived 1395:See also 1103:, while 1101:Pretoria 1003:detector 911:infrared 658:Venera 1 566:Cold War 476:spectrum 472:infrared 460:antennas 355:Distance 316:292 days 255:7:00 UTC 236:Disposal 57:Operator 6828:italics 6787:Midas 6 6771:Relay 1 6751:Injun 3 6706:ANNA 1B 6627:TIROS-6 6501:TIROS-5 6486:OSCAR 2 6429:ANNA 1A 6413:Ariel 1 6376:Midas 5 6361:Samos 6 6334:TIROS-4 6316:Injun 2 6302:LOFTI 2 6031:Ulysses 5941:Ulysses 5902:Proba-2 5888:DEMETER 5639:Proba-2 5630:1 and 2 5582:SHERLOC 5372:MA-MISS 5249:Proba-2 5155:Mars 96 5138:Luna 13 5125:InSight 5111:Diviner 5085:NOAA-21 5069:SLSTR ( 4994:NOAA-20 4985:AVNIR-2 4928:Rosetta 4880:Zond-PP 4829:Sich-1M 4804:MTVZA ( 4764:Envisat 4743:Shizuku 4741:AMSR2 ( 4721:AMR-C ( 4560:InSight 4554:Galileo 4340:Related 4321:Mariner 4142:DAVINCI 4088:VERITAS 3911:Landers 3865:Shin-en 3839:Galileo 3413:Bibcode 3404:Science 3360:Bibcode 3351:Science 3280:Bibcode 3229:Bibcode 3220:Science 3144:Bibcode 3062:Bibcode 3004:Bibcode 2995:Science 2926:Bibcode 2878:Bibcode 2710:Bibcode 2701:Science 2595:Bibcode 2586:Science 2545:Bibcode 2536:Science 2489:Bibcode 2480:Science 2434:Bibcode 2375:Bibcode 2366:Science 2327:Bibcode 2318:Science 2279:Bibcode 2007:2552152 1294:Results 1231:later. 983:Injun 1 793:louvers 677:Centaur 441:Agena B 420:in the 286:0.16278 249: ( 189: ( 140:Block I 101:SATCAT 6711:Mars 1 6696:STARAD 6275:1963 → 6260:← 1961 6164:rover) 6132:HiRISE 6073:rover) 6061:MASPEX 6017:Nozomi 5978:rover) 5760:Magsat 5755:FIELDS 5702:ICEMAG 5657:FIELDS 5578:rover) 5524:SPICAV 5519:SPICAM 5456:SPICAV 5451:SPICAM 5388:IRIS ( 5238:EURECA 5064:GCOM-C 5062:SGLI ( 5052:EURECA 5045:JERS-1 4835:Seasat 4788:MOPITT 4734:AMSR ( 4731:(AQUA) 4729:AMSR-E 4627:Nozomi 4565:Kaguya 4511:WISDOM 4476:MARSIS 4471:SHARAD 4466:SELENE 4461:REASON 4309:Venera 4236:Flybys 4226:Zephyr 4205:VISAGE 4138:(2025) 4121:(2028) 4115:(2028) 4104:Flybys 4096:(2031) 4090:(2031) 4084:(2028) 3984:Vega 1 3958:Vega 1 3859:IKAROS 3828:Vega 1 3788:Zond 1 3769:Flybys 3650:Flybys 3439: 3431: 3386: 3378: 3255: 3247: 3110: 3030: 3022: 2896: 2762: 2736: 2728: 2613: 2563: 2515: 2507: 2393: 2345: 2094: 2005: 1738: 1694: 1684: 1519: 1509: 1206: 1204: 1199:· 1197: 1192: 1190: 1185:· 1183: 1179: 1173:'s 1142:Launch 1115:, and 975:x-rays 771:) 225 746:analog 685:Ranger 602:Luna 2 598:Luna 1 522:Luna 1 484:plasma 445:Venera 312:Period 200:Rocket 138:Ranger 6801:ERS-4 6794:ERS-3 6731:ERS-1 6622:ERS-2 6356:OSO-1 6309:SECOR 6137:LORRI 6010:FREND 5830:Swarm 5732:Swarm 5589:rover 5557:Raman 5514:NOMAD 5490:Alice 5446:Ralph 5423:MERIS 5400:JIRAM 5367:rover 5359:AKARI 5236:ORI 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