1022:. Towards the end of the Middle Ages, the wealthy increasingly sought to escape this regime of stern collectivism. When possible, rich hosts retired with their consorts to private chambers where the meal could be enjoyed in greater exclusivity and privacy. Being invited to a lord's chambers was a great privilege and could be used as a way to reward friends and allies and to awe subordinates. It allowed lords to distance themselves further from the household and to enjoy more luxurious treats while serving inferior food to the rest of the household that still dined in the great hall. At major occasions and banquets, however, the host and hostess generally dined in the great hall with the other diners. Although there are descriptions of dining etiquette on special occasions, less is known about the details of day-to-day meals of the elite or about the
2730:, and reached England by the 15th century. Hopped beer became very popular in the last decades of the Late Middle Ages. In England and the Low Countries, the per capita annual consumption was around 275 to 300 litres (60 to 66 imp gal; 73 to 79 US gal), and it was consumed with practically every meal: low alcohol-content beers for breakfast, and stronger ones later in the day. When perfected as an ingredient, hops could make beer keep for six months or more, and facilitated extensive exports. In Late Medieval England, the word beer came to mean a hopped beverage, whereas ale had to be unhopped. In turn, ale or beer was classified as "strong" or "small", the latter less intoxicating, regarded as a drink of temperate people, and suitable for consumption by children. As late as 1693,
1987:
532:. One was expected to remain in one's social class and to respect the authority of the ruling classes. Political power was displayed not just by rule, but also by displaying wealth. Refined nobles dined on fresh game seasoned with exotic spices, and displayed refined table manners. Rough laborers could make do with coarse barley bread, salt pork and beans and were not expected to display etiquette. Even dietary recommendations were different: the diet of the upper classes was considered to be as much a requirement of their refined physical constitution as a sign of economic reality. The digestive system of a lord was considered to be more refined than that of lower-class subordinates and therefore required finer foods.
1925:
3004:(the juice of unripe grapes or fruits) vinegar and the juices of various fruits, especially those with tart flavors, were almost universal and a hallmark of late medieval cooking. In combination with sweeteners and spices, it produced a distinctive "pungeant, fruity" flavor. Equally common, and used to complement the tanginess of these ingredients, were (sweet) almonds. They were used in a variety of ways: whole, shelled or unshelled, slivered, ground and, most importantly, processed into almond milk. This last type of non-dairy milk product is probably the single most common ingredient in late medieval cooking and blended the aroma of spices and sour liquids with a mild taste and creamy texture.
3235:
the often unfamiliar combination of flavors, the perceived lack of vegetables and a liberal use of spices. The heavy use of spices has been popular as an argument to support the claim that spices were employed to disguise the flavor of spoiled meat, a conclusion without support in historical fact and contemporary sources. Fresh meat could be procured throughout the year by those who could afford it. The preservation techniques available at the time, although crude by today's standards, were perfectly adequate. The astronomical cost and high prestige of spices, and thereby the reputation of the host, would have been effectively undone if wasted on cheap and poorly handled foods.
3558:
966:
2847:
2987:
3309:
prayers or how long it took to walk around a certain field. Professional cooks were taught their trade through apprenticeship and practical training, working their way up in the highly defined kitchen hierarchy. A medieval cook employed in a large household would most likely have been able to plan and produce a meal without the help of recipes or written instruction. Due to the generally good condition of surviving manuscripts it has been proposed by food historian
Terence Scully that they were records of household practices intended for the wealthy and literate master of a household, such as
1978:, made from by-products of the production of harder cheeses. Cheese was used in cooking for pies and soups, the latter being common fare in German-speaking areas. Butter, another important dairy product, was in popular use in the regions of Northern Europe that specialized in cattle production in the latter half of the Middle Ages, the Low Countries and Southern Scandinavia. While most other regions used oil or lard as cooking fats, butter was the dominant cooking medium in these areas. Its production also allowed for a lucrative butter export from the 12th century onward.
271:. Porridge, gruel, and later bread became the basic staple foods that made up the majority of calorie intake for most of the population. From the 8th to the 11th centuries, the proportion of various cereals in the diet rose from about a third to three-quarters. Dependence on wheat remained significant throughout the medieval era, and spread northward with the rise of Christianity. In colder climates, however, it was usually unaffordable for the majority population, and was associated with the higher classes. The centrality of bread in religious rituals such as the
1396:
314:
2167:
1777:
22:
1584:'s sermons from the early 13th century describe sellers of cooked meat as an outright health hazard. While the necessity of the cook's services was occasionally recognized and appreciated, they were often disparaged since they catered to the baser of bodily human needs rather than spiritual betterment. The stereotypical cook in art and literature was male, hot-tempered, prone to drunkenness, and often depicted guarding his stewpot from being pilfered by both humans and animals. In the early 15th century, the English monk
764:
physical labor, as well as sailors and soldiers, may have consumed 3,500 calories (15,000 kJ) or more per day. Intakes of aristocrats may have reached 4,000 to 5,000 calories (17,000 to 21,000 kJ) per day. Monks consumed 6,000 calories (25,000 kJ) per day on "normal" days, and 4,500 calories (19,000 kJ) per day when fasting. As a consequence of these excesses, obesity was common among upper classes. Monks, especially, frequently suffered from conditions that were more common among the obese, such as
1288:
386:
874:
8089:
3554:
2691:, had been used. Gruit had the same preserving properties as hops, though less reliable depending on what herbs were in it; as such, the end result was much more variable. Another flavoring method was to increase the alcohol content, but this was more expensive and lent the beer the undesired characteristic of being a quick and heavy intoxicant. Hops may have been widely used in England in the tenth century; they were grown in Austria by 1208 and in Finland by 1249, and possibly much earlier.
2449:
3391:
3257:
760:
those invited to the abbot's table from the reckoning. Overall, a monk at
Westminster Abbey in the late 15th century would have been allowed 2.25 pounds (1.02 kg) of bread per day; 5 eggs per day, except on Fridays and in Lent; 2 pounds (0.91 kg) of meat per day, four days per week (excluding Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday), except in Advent and Lent; and 2 pounds (0.91 kg) of fish per day, three days per week and every day during Advent and Lent.
2304:
8753:
8100:
8743:
8140:
1728:
672:
distinction was applied to red and white vinegar. Milk was moderately warm and moist, but the milk of different animals was often believed to differ. Egg yolks were considered to be warm and moist while the whites were cold and moist. Skilled cooks were expected to conform to the regimen of humoral medicine. Even if this limited the combinations of food they could prepare, there was still ample room for artistic variation by the chef.
8120:
1597:
1859:
main ingredient. The lack of recipes for many basic vegetable dishes, such as potages, has been interpreted not to mean that they were absent from the meals of the nobility, but rather that they were considered so basic that they did not require recording. Carrots were available in many variants during the Middle Ages: among them a tastier reddish-purple variety and a less prestigious green-yellow type. Various legumes, like
1123:
8763:
8130:
1538:
8110:
8077:
3377:
1560:
population could support a wide variety of food establishments that catered to various social groups. Many of the poor city dwellers had to live in cramped conditions without access to a kitchen or even a hearth, and many did not own the equipment for basic cooking. Food from vendors was in such cases the only option. Cookshops could either sell ready-made hot food, an early form of
419:. The choice of ingredients may have been limited, but that did not mean that meals were smaller. Neither were there any restrictions against (moderate) drinking or eating sweets. Banquets held on fish days could be splendid, and were popular occasions for serving illusion food that imitated meat, cheese, and eggs in various ingenious ways; fish could be moulded to look like
2718:, breweries in the fledgling medieval towns of northern Germany began to take over production. Though most of the breweries were small family businesses that employed at most eight to ten people, regular production allowed for investment in better equipment and increased experimentation with new recipes and brewing techniques. These operations later spread to the
2154:
products like milk and eggs. It was only after the Black Death had eradicated up to half of the
European population that meat became more common even for poorer people. The drastic reduction in many populated areas resulted in a labor shortage, meaning that wages dramatically increased. It also left vast areas of farmland untended, making it available for
2196:. Also included were the beaver, due to its scaly tail and considerable time spent in water, and barnacle geese, due to the belief that they developed underwater in the form of barnacles. Such foods were also considered appropriate for fast days, though the rather contrived classification of barnacle geese as fish was not universally accepted. The
2936:. Sugar, unlike today, was considered to be a type of spice due to its high cost and humoral qualities. Few dishes employed just one type of spice or herb, but rather a combination of several different ones. Even when a dish was dominated by a single flavor it was usually combined with another to produce a compound taste, for example parsley and
2242:. While large quantities of fish were eaten fresh, a large proportion was salted, dried, and, to a lesser extent, smoked. Stockfish, cod that was split down the middle, fixed to a pole and dried, was very common, though preparation could be time-consuming, and meant beating the dried fish with a mallet before soaking it in water. A wide range of
2472:, the type of grape and more importantly, the number of grape pressings. The first pressing was made into the finest and most expensive wines which were reserved for the upper classes. The second and third pressings were subsequently of lower quality and alcohol content. Common folk usually had to settle for a cheap
372:'s sacrifice for humanity. The intention was not to portray certain foods as unclean, but rather to teach a spiritual lesson in self-restraint through abstention. During particularly severe fast days, the number of daily meals was also reduced to one. Even if most people respected these restrictions and usually made
1439:. While an average peasant household often made do with firewood collected from the surrounding woodlands, the major kitchens of households had to cope with the logistics of daily providing at least two meals for several hundred people. Guidelines on how to prepare for a two-day banquet can be found in the cookbook
783:
boundaries. Geographical variation in eating was primarily the result of differences in climate, political administration, and local customs that varied across the continent. Though sweeping generalizations should be avoided, more or less distinct areas where certain foodstuffs dominated can be discerned. In the
3054:, from its first appearance in Europe, was viewed as much as a drug as a sweetener; its long-lived medieval reputation as an exotic luxury encouraged its appearance in elite contexts accompanying meats and other dishes that to modern taste are more naturally savoury. There were a wide variety of fritters,
3011:
products in water to get rid of excess salt. Salt was present during more elaborate or expensive meals. The richer the host, and the more prestigious the guest, the more elaborate would be the container in which it was served and the higher the quality and price of the salt. Wealthy guests were seated "
164:
it, innovations from international trade and foreign wars from the 12th century onward gradually disseminated through the upper middle class of medieval cities. Aside from economic unavailability of luxuries such as spices, decrees outlawed consumption of certain foods among certain social classes and
2891:
of pepper and 1,000 tons of the other common spices were imported into
Western Europe each year during the late Middle Ages. The value of these goods was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5 million people. While pepper was the most common spice, the most exclusive (though not
2490:
The aging of high-quality red wine required specialized knowledge as well as expensive storage and equipment, and resulted in an even more expensive end product. Judging from the advice given in many medieval documents on how to salvage wine that bore signs of going bad, preservation must have been a
1568:
to avoid having to carry their provisions with them. For the more affluent, there were many types of specialist that could supply various foods and condiments: cheesemongers, pie bakers, saucers, and waferers, for example. Well-off citizens who had the means to cook at home could on special occasions
2694:
Before hops became popular as an ingredient, it was difficult to preserve this beverage for any time, so it was mostly consumed fresh. It was unfiltered, and therefore cloudy, and likely had a lower alcohol content than the typical modern equivalent. Quantities of beer consumed by medieval residents
2513:
was not only popular among the affluent, but was also considered especially healthy by physicians. Wine was believed to act as a kind of vaporizer and conduit of other foodstuffs to every part of the body, and the addition of fragrant and exotic spices would make it even more wholesome. Spiced wines
2153:
Meats were more expensive than plant foods and could be up to four times as expensive as bread. Fish was up to 16 times as costly, and was expensive even for coastal populations. This meant that fasts could mean an especially meager diet for those who could not afford alternatives to meat and animal
1950:
or milk that was soured or watered down. Fresh milk was overall less common than other dairy products because of the lack of technology to keep it from spoiling. On occasion it was used in upper-class kitchens in stews, but it was difficult to keep fresh in bulk and almond milk was generally used in
1945:
was an important source of animal protein for those who could not afford meat. It would mostly come from cows, but milk from goats and sheep was also common. Plain fresh milk was not consumed by adults except the poor or sick, and was usually reserved for the very young or elderly. Poor adults would
1278:
in the Late Middle Ages developed significantly. New techniques, like the shortcrust pie and the clarification of jelly with egg whites began to appear in recipes in the late 14th century and recipes began to include detailed instructions instead of being mere memory aids to an already skilled cook.
685:
and, by the 15th century, it provided about 20% of the total. Even among the lay nobility of medieval
England, grain provided 65–70% of calories in the early 14th century, though a generous provision of meat and fish was included, and their consumption of meat increased in the aftermath of the Black
671:
The most ideal food was that which most closely matched the humour of human beings, i.e. moderately warm and moist. Food should preferably also be finely chopped, ground, pounded and strained to achieve a true mixture of all the ingredients. White wine was believed to be cooler than red and the same
535:
In the late Middle Ages, the increasing wealth of middle class merchants and traders meant that commoners began emulating the aristocracy. This threatened to break down some of the symbolic barriers between the nobility and the lower classes. The response came in two forms: literature warning of the
3308:
The recipes were often brief and did not give precise quantities. Cooking times and temperatures were seldom specified since accurate portable clocks were not available and since all cooking was done with fire. At best, cooking times could be specified as the time it took to say a certain number of
3234:
was, until around 1980, a somewhat neglected field of study. Misconceptions and outright errors were quite common among historians, and are still present in as a part of the popular view of the Middle Ages as a backward, primitive and barbaric era. Medieval cookery was described as revolting due to
3010:
was ubiquitous and indispensable in medieval cooking. Salting and drying was the most common form of food preservation and meant that fish and meat in particular were often heavily salted. Many medieval recipes specifically warn against oversalting and there were recommendations for soaking certain
2741:
By modern standards, the brewing process was relatively inefficient, but capable of producing quite strong alcohol when that was desired. A 1998 attempt to recreate medieval
English "strong ale" using recipes and techniques of the era (albeit with the use of modern yeast strains) yielded a strongly
2632:
The intoxicating effect of beer was believed to last longer than that of wine, but it was also admitted that it did not create the "false thirst" associated with wine. Though less prominent than in the north, beer was consumed in northern France and the
Italian mainland. Perhaps as a consequence of
2562:
While wine was the most common table beverage in much of Europe, this was not the case in the northern regions where grapes were not cultivated. Those who could afford it drank imported wine; even for nobility in these areas, however, it was common to drink beer or ale, particularly towards the end
1379:
cloth, since many medieval recipes called for food to be finely chopped, mashed, strained and seasoned either before or after cooking. This was based on a belief among physicians that the finer the consistency of food, the more effectively the body would absorb the nourishment. It also gave skilled
763:
The overall calorie intake is subject to some debate. One typical estimate is that an adult peasant male needed 2,900 calories (12,000 kJ) per day, and an adult female needed 2,150 calories (9,000 kJ). Both lower and higher estimates have been proposed. Those engaged in particularly heavy
730:
imperial gallon (1.1 L; 0.30 US gal) of beer; and uncertain quantities of bread and ale could have been consumed in between meals. The diet of the lord of the household differed somewhat from this structure, including less red meat, more high-quality wild game, fresh fish, fruit, and
554:
Medical science of the Middle Ages had a considerable influence on what was considered healthy and nutritious among the upper classes. One's lifestyle—including diet, exercise, appropriate social behavior, and approved medical remedies—was the way to good health, and all types of food were assigned
3304:
has been edited by
Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat. Though it is assumed that they describe real dishes, food scholars do not believe they were used as cookbooks might be today, as a step-by-step guide through the cooking procedure that could be kept at hand while preparing a dish. Few in a kitchen, at
1759:
by adding the cost of everything from firewood and salt to the baker's wife, house, and dog. Since bread was such a central part of the medieval diet, swindling by those who were trusted with supplying the precious commodity to the community was considered a serious offense. Bakers who were caught
1496:
also made it keep longer. Most of these methods had the advantage of shorter preparation times and of introducing new flavors. Smoking or salting meat of livestock butchered in autumn was a common household strategy to avoid having to feed more animals than necessary during the lean winter months.
1040:
were offered to guests so they could wash their hands, as cleanliness was emphasized. Social codes made it difficult for women to uphold the ideal of immaculate neatness and delicacy while enjoying a meal, so the wife of the host often dined in private with her entourage or ate very little at such
275:
meant that it enjoyed an especially high prestige among foodstuffs. Only olive oil and wine had a comparable value, but both remained quite exclusive outside the warmer grape- and olive-growing regions. The symbolic role of bread as both sustenance and substance is illustrated in a sermon given by
163:
of many foods very expensive (perishability made other foods untransportable). Because of this, the nobility's food was more prone to foreign influence than the cuisine of the poor; it was dependent on exotic spices and expensive imports. As each level of society attempted to imitate the one above
2319:
is often drunk with a meal in modern times, in the Middle Ages concerns over purity, medical recommendations, and its low prestige value made it less favored. As such, alcoholic beverages were preferred. They were seen as more nutritious and beneficial to digestion than water, with the invaluable
1858:
were common foodstuffs. Many of these were eaten daily by peasants and workers and were less prestigious than meat. Cookbooks, which appeared in the late Middle Ages and were intended mostly for those who could afford such luxuries, contained only a small number of recipes using vegetables as the
759:
did not apply, and where a large number of monks ate. Each monk would be regularly sent either to the misericord or to the refectory. When Pope
Benedict XII ruled that at least half of all monks should be required to eat in the refectory on any given day, monks responded by excluding the sick and
435:
The trend from the 13th century onward was toward a more legalistic interpretation of fasting. Nobles were careful not to eat meat on fast days, but still dined in style; fish replaced meat, often as imitation hams and bacon; almond milk replaced animal milk as an expensive non-dairy alternative;
3238:
The common method of grinding and mashing ingredients into pastes and the many potages and sauces has been used as an argument that most adults within the medieval nobility lost their teeth at an early age, and hence were forced to eat nothing but porridge, soup and ground-up meat. This has been
1794:
Fruits were popular and could be served fresh, dried, or preserved, and was a common ingredient in many cooked dishes. Since honey and sugar were both expensive, it was common to include many types of fruit in dishes that called for sweeteners of some sort. The fruits of choice in the south were
681:
though meat was highly valued by all, lower classes often could not afford it, nor were they allowed by the church to consume it every day. In
England in the 13th century, meat contributed a negligible portion of calories to a typical harvest worker's diet; however, its share increased after the
680:
The calorie content and structure of medieval diet varied over time, from region to region, and between classes. However, for most people, the diet tended to be high-carbohydrate, with most of the budget spent on, and the majority of calories provided by, cereals and alcohol (such as beer). Even
575:
be filled in an appropriate manner. Easily digestible foods would be consumed first, followed by gradually heavier dishes. If this regimen were not respected it was believed that heavy foods would sink to the bottom of the stomach, thus blocking the digestion duct, so that food would digest very
1604:
The period between 500 and 1300 saw a major change in diet that affected most of Europe. More intense agriculture on ever-increasing acreage resulted in a shift from animal products, like meat and dairy, to various grains and vegetables as the staple of the majority population. Before the 14th
1049:
where the lower ranked were expected to help the higher, the younger to assist the elder, and men to spare women the risk of sullying dress and reputation by having to handle food in an unwomanly fashion. Shared drinking cups were common even at lavish banquets for all but those who sat at the
431:
church officials took a hard-line approach, and discouraged any culinary refinement for the clergy, their Western counterparts were far more lenient. There was also no lack of grumbling about the rigours of fasting among the laity. During Lent, kings and schoolboys, commoners and nobility, all
1559:
lived in rural communities or isolated farms and households. The norm was self-sufficiency with only a small percentage of production being exported or sold in markets. Large towns were exceptions and required their surrounding hinterlands to support them with food and fuel. The dense urban
782:
The regional specialties that are a feature of early modern and contemporary cuisine were not in evidence in the sparser documentation that survives. Instead, medieval cuisine can be differentiated by the cereals and the oils that shaped dietary norms and crossed ethnic and, later, national
1743:
The importance of bread as a daily staple meant that bakers played a crucial role in any medieval community. Bread consumption was high in most of Western Europe by the 14th century. Estimates of bread consumption from different regions are fairly similar: around 1 to 1.5 kilograms (2.2 to
1517:). Another method was to seal the food by cooking it in honey, sugar, or fat, in which it was then stored. Microbial modification was also encouraged, however, by a number of methods; grains and fruits were turned into alcoholic drinks thus killing any pathogens, and milk was fermented and
2378:
have been found in medieval recipes, with or without alcoholic content. However, the honey-based drink became less common as a table beverage towards the end of the period and was eventually relegated to medicinal use. Mead has often been presented as the common drink of the
1156:
to have shared ownership of an oven to ensure that the bread baking essential to everyone was made communal rather than private. There were also portable ovens designed to be filled with food and then buried in hot coals, and even larger ones on wheels that were used to sell
857:, especially after the terrible mortality during the Black Death made them less scarce, were used in considerable quantities in the northern and northwestern regions, especially in the Low Countries. Almost universal in middle and upper class cooking all over Europe was the
380:
It is the nature of man to build the most complicated cage of rules and regulations in which to trap himself, and then, with equal ingenuity and zest, to bend his brain to the problem of wriggling triumphantly out again. Lent was a challenge; the game was to ferret out the
1077:
were used at the table, but most people were expected to bring their own, and only highly favoured guests would be given a personal knife. A knife was usually shared with at least one other dinner guest, unless one was of very high rank or well acquainted with the host.
747:, each monk was given an allowance of 1 imperial gallon (4.5 L; 1.2 US gal) of beer per day. Meat of "four-footed animals" was prohibited altogether, year-round, for everyone but the very weak and the sick. This was circumvented in part by declaring that
570:
to be a process similar to cooking. The processing of food in the stomach was seen as a continuation of the preparation initiated by the cook. In order for the food to be properly "cooked" and for the nutrients to be properly absorbed, it was important that the
1915:
were not available to Europeans until after 1492, after European contact with the Americas. Even after their wider availability in Europe it often took considerable time (sometimes several centuries) for the new foodstuffs to be accepted by society at large.
1086:, and early on were limited to Italy. Even there it was not until the 14th century that the fork became common among Italians of all social classes. The change in attitudes can be illustrated by the reactions to the table manners of the Byzantine princess
2070:
both for their meat and fur. It is frequently and falsely claimed that they were of particular value for monasteries because newborn rabbits were allegedly declared fish (or at least not meat) by church officials, allowing them to be eaten during Lent.
1609:
was not as common among the lower classes, especially in the north where wheat was more difficult to grow. A bread-based diet became gradually more common during the 15th century and replaced warm intermediate meals that were porridge- or gruel-based.
3956:
1995 0851154301 page94 "Such a fireplace and such equipment afforded the medieval cook in some respects more control over what was happening to his food ... Depending on the size and weight of the meat, the cook chose a heavy or light spit of various
3247:
served at the high table. Banquet dishes were apart from mainstream of cuisine, and have been described as "the outcome of grand banquets serving political ambition rather than gastronomy; today as yesterday" by historian Maguelonne Toussant-Samat.
998:
As with almost every part of life at the time, a medieval meal was generally a communal affair. The entire household, including servants, would ideally dine together. To sneak off to enjoy private company was considered a haughty and inefficient
742:
in 1336, but (as mentioned above) monks were adept at "working around" these rules. Wine was restricted to about 10 imperial fluid ounces (280 mL; 9.6 US fl oz) per day, but there was no corresponding limit on beer, and, at
1380:
cooks the opportunity to elaborately shape the results. Fine-textured food was also associated with wealth; for example, finely milled flour was expensive, while the bread of commoners was typically brown and coarse. A typical procedure was
1957:
was far more important as a foodstuff, especially for common people, and it has been suggested that it was, during many periods, the chief supplier of animal protein among the lower classes. Many varieties of cheese eaten today, like Dutch
1322:
area began to evolve. The first step was to move the fireplaces towards the walls of the main hall, and later to build a separate building or wing that contained a dedicated kitchen area, often separated from the main building by a covered
917:
in the evening. The two-meal system remained consistent throughout the late Middle Ages. Smaller intermediate meals were common, but became a matter of social status, as those who did not have to perform manual labor could go without them.
1041:
feasts. She could then join dinner only after the potentially messy business of eating was done. Overall, fine dining was a predominantly male affair, and it was uncommon for anyone but the most honored of guests to bring his wife or her
432:
complained about being deprived of meat for the long, hard weeks of solemn contemplation of their sins. At Lent, owners of livestock were even warned to keep an eye out for hungry dogs frustrated by a "hard siege by Lent and fish bones".
1754:
of 1266 listed extensive tables where the size, weight, and price of a loaf of bread were regulated in relation to grain prices. The baker's profit margin stipulated in the tables was later increased through successful lobbying from the
1362:
could easily be swung away from the fire to keep them from burning or boiling over. Utensils were often held directly over the fire or placed into embers on tripods. To assist the cook there were also assorted knives, stirring spoons,
1313:
in the middle of the main living area, to make efficient use of the heat. This was the most common arrangement, even in wealthy households, for most of the Middle Ages, where the kitchen was combined with the dining hall. Towards the
2383:. This is partially true since mead bore great symbolic value at important occasions. When agreeing on treaties and other important affairs of state, mead was often presented as a ceremonial gift. It was also common at weddings and
2114:, and just about any other wild bird that could be captured. Swans and peafowl were domesticated to some extent, but were only eaten by the social elite, and more praised for their fine appearance as stunning entertainment dishes,
719:
imperial gallon (1.1 L; 0.30 US gal) of alcohol. On top of these quantities, some members of these households (usually, a minority) ate breakfast, which would not include any meat, but would probably include another
1014:: "forbid dinners and suppers out of hall, in secret and in private rooms, for from this arises waste and no honor to the lord and lady." He also recommended watching that the servants not make off with leftovers to make merry at
2830:. Towards the end of the Late Middle Ages, the consumption of spirits became so ingrained even among the general population that restrictions on sales and production began to appear in the late 15th century. In 1496, the city of
3281:
Cookbooks, or more specifically, recipe collections, compiled in the Middle Ages are among the most important historical sources for medieval cuisine. The first cookbooks began to appear towards the end of the 13th century. The
2262:
were seen as a desirable alternative to meat during fish days. Compared to meat, fish was much more expensive for inland populations, especially in Central Europe, and therefore not an option for most. Freshwater fish such as
694:
members of the household received a staggering 3.8 pounds (1.7 kg) of assorted meats in a typical meat meal in the autumn and 2.4 pounds (1.1 kg) in the winter, in addition to 0.9 pounds (0.41 kg) of bread and
2480:
from a second or even third pressing, meaning that it could be consumed in quite generous amounts without leading to heavy intoxication. For the poorest (or the most pious), watered-down vinegar (similar to Ancient Roman
3023:, precious metals or other fine materials, often intricately decorated. The rank of a diner also decided how finely ground and white the salt was. Salt for cooking, preservation or for use by common people was coarser;
2460:'s dietetics, it was considered hot and dry; however, these qualities were moderated when wine was watered down. Unlike water or beer, which were considered cold and moist, consumption of wine in moderation (especially
1174:
content, or at least when fat could be afforded. This was considered less of a problem in a time of back-breaking toil, famine, and a greater acceptance—even desirability—of plumpness; only the poor or sick, and devout
668:, as well as vegetables and nuts, including pears and chestnuts, both considered difficult to digest. It was popular, and recommended by medical expertise, to finish the meal with aged cheese and various digestives.
2887:, which made them extremely expensive, and gave them social cachet such that pepper, for example, was hoarded, traded and conspicuously donated in the manner of gold bullion. It has been estimated that around 1,000
363:
Both the Eastern and the Western churches ordained that feast should alternate with fast. In most of Europe, Fridays were fast days, and fasting was observed on various other days and periods, including Lent and
468:. Newly-assigned Catholic monastery officials sought to amend the problem of fast evasion not merely with moral condemnations, but by making sure that well-prepared non-meat dishes were available on fast days.
368:. Meat, and animal products such as milk, cheese, butter, and eggs, were not allowed, and at times also fish. The fast was intended to mortify the body and invigorate the soul, and also to remind the faster of
2595:
and the influx of Arabic texts) meant that beer was often disfavoured. For most medieval Europeans, it was a humble brew compared with common southern drinks and cooking ingredients, such as wine, lemons and
1879:
but also because they were associated with the coarse food of peasants. The importance of vegetables to the common people is illustrated by accounts from 16th century Germany stating that many peasants ate
3242:
The numerous descriptions of banquets from the later Middle Ages concentrated on the pageantry of the event rather than the minutiae of the food, which was not the same for most banqueters as those choice
2975:(1098–1179) as poor man's food. While locally grown herbs were less prestigious than spices, they were still used in upper-class food, but were then usually less prominent or included merely as coloring.
2971:. Many of these plants grew throughout all of Europe or were cultivated in gardens, and were a cheaper alternative to exotic spices. Mustard was particularly popular with meat dishes and was described by
1618:-growing regions in the south, while unleavened flatbread of barley, rye, or oats remained more common in northern and highland regions, and unleavened flatbread was also common as provisions for troops.
504:. The relationship between the classes was strictly hierarchical, with the nobility and clergy claiming worldly and spiritual overlordship over commoners. Within the nobility and clergy there were also a
1161:
in the streets of medieval towns. But for most people, almost all cooking was done in simple stewpots, since this was the most efficient use of firewood and did not waste precious cooking juices, making
3027:, or "bay salt", in particular, had more impurities, and was described in colors ranging from black to green. Expensive salt, on the other hand, looked like the standard commercial salt common today.
1327:. This way, the smoke, odors and bustle of the kitchen could be kept out of sight of guests, and the fire risk lessened. Few medieval kitchens survive as they were "notoriously ephemeral structures".
2434:, were popular in East Asia and the Muslim world during the Middle Ages. However, neither of these non-alcoholic social drinks were consumed in Europe before the late 16th and early 17th centuries.
1875:, especially among the lower classes. With the exception of peas, legumes were often viewed with some suspicion by the dietitians advising the upper class, partly because of their tendency to cause
1645:
remained a fairly expensive import for most of the Middle Ages and was grown in northern Italy only towards the end of the period. Wheat was common all over Europe and was considered to be the most
1476:
that cause decay. In warm climates this was mostly achieved by leaving food out in the sun, and in the cooler northern climates by exposure to strong winds (especially common for the preparation of
2703:
received a ration of 1 imperial gallon (4.5 L; 1.2 US gal) of beer per day. Polish peasants consumed up to 3 litres (0.66 imp gal; 0.79 US gal) of beer per day.
1472:, thereby prolonging the durability if not the flavor of almost any type of food from cereals to meats; the drying of food worked by drastically reducing the activity of various water-dependent
403:
While animal products were to be avoided during times of penance, pragmatic compromises often prevailed. The definition of "fish" was often extended to marine and semi-aquatic animals such as
709:
in 1469, gentle members received 2.1 pounds (0.95 kg) of meat per meal, and all others received 1.04 pounds (0.47 kg), and everyone was given 0.4 pounds (0.18 kg) of bread and
1990:
A 14th-century butcher shop. A large pig is being bled in preparation for slaughter. A whole pig carcass and cuts are hanging from a rack and various cuts are being prepared for a customer.
705:
imperial gallon (1.1 L; 0.30 US gal) of beer or possibly wine (and there would have been two meat meals per day, five days a week, except during Lent). In the household of
636:, a wine flavoured with fragrant spices, along with aged cheese. A meal would ideally begin with easily digestible fruit, such as apples. It would then be followed by vegetables such as
1572:
Urban cookshops that catered to workers or the destitute were regarded as unsavory and disreputable places by the well-to-do and professional cooks tended to have a bad reputation.
2770:, which feature in manuscripts from the ninth century onwards. Distillation was believed by medieval scholars to produce the essence of the liquid being purified, and the term
1700:
or dishes for the sick, if boiled in milk (or almond milk) and sweetened with sugar. Pies filled with meats, eggs, vegetables, or fruit were common throughout Europe, as were
436:
faux eggs made from almond milk were cooked in blown-out eggshells, flavoured and coloured with exclusive spices. In some cases, the lavishness of noble tables was outdone by
2900:
provided a yellow substitute, and touches of gilding at banquets supplied both the medieval love of ostentatious show and Galenic dietary lore: at the sumptuous banquet that
2324:
was consumed on a daily basis in most of France and all over the Western Mediterranean wherever grapes were cultivated. Further north it remained the preferred drink of the
1392:
an animal, grind up the meat and mix it with spices and other ingredients and then return it into its own skin, or mold it into the shape of a completely different animal.
628:, wine and sweetened fortified milk drinks. As the stomach had been opened, it should then be "closed" at the end of the meal with the help of a digestive, most commonly a
2062:
remained a rare and highly prized commodity. In England, they were deliberately introduced by the 13th century and their colonies were carefully protected. Further south,
2328:
and the nobility who could afford it, and far less common among peasants and workers. The drink of commoners in the northern parts of the continent was primarily beer or
1653:
that modern Europeans are most familiar with was reserved for the bread of the upper classes. As one descended the social ladder, bread became coarser, darker, and its
2188:
was the mainstay of many coastal populations. "Fish" to the medieval person was also a general name for anything not considered a proper land-living animal, including
1564:, or offer cooking services while the customers supplied some or all of the ingredients. Travelers, such as pilgrims en route to a holy site, made use of professional
2608:
meat generally received more positive attention in medical texts. Beer was just an acceptable alternative and was assigned various negative qualities. In 1256, the
3066:, almond milk and eggs in a pastry shell that could also include fruit and sometimes even bone marrow or fish. German-speaking areas had a particular fondness for
1716:. Grain, either as bread crumbs or flour, was also the most common thickener of soups and stews, alone or in combination with almond milk. By the Late Middle Ages
360:. Additionally, it was customary for all citizens to fast before taking the Eucharist. These fasts were occasionally for a full day and required total abstinence.
184:
be less refined, since it was believed there was a natural resemblance between one's way of life and one's food; hard manual labor required coarser, cheaper food.
2624:, it fills the stomach with bad fumes, and as a result anyone who drinks it along with wine becomes drunk quickly; but it does have the property of facilitating
8206:
456:. Since the sick were exempt from fasting, there often evolved the notion that fasting restrictions only applied to the main dining area, and many Benedictine
5027:
4784:
According to Paul Freedman, the idea is presented as a fact even by some modern scholars, despite the lack of any credible support; Freedman (2008), pages 3–4
555:
certain properties that affected a person's health. All foodstuffs were also classified on scales ranging from hot to cold and moist to dry, according to the
440:
monasteries, which served as many as sixteen courses during certain feast days. Exceptions from fasting were frequently made for very broadly defined groups.
8572:
1600:
A baker caught trying to cheat customers is punished by being dragged around the community on a sleigh with the offending loaf of bread tied around his neck.
5066:
Creighton, Oliver; Christie, Neil (2015). "The Archaeology of Wallingford Castle: a summary of the current state of knowledge". In Keats-Rohan, K. S. B.;
2810:
wrote that "t prolongs good health, dissipates superfluous humours, reanimates the heart and maintains youth." In the Late Middle Ages, the production of
2150:
explicitly prohibited the eating of barnacle geese during Lent, arguing that they lived and fed like ducks and so were of the same nature as other birds.
949:
consumption were considered immoral. The latter were especially associated with gambling, crude language, drunkenness, and lewd behavior. Minor meals and
376:
when they violated them, there were also numerous ways of circumventing them, a conflict of ideals and practice summarized by writer Bridget Ann Henisch:
8708:
2800:
in spirits. It would then be placed in the mouth of the stuffed, cooked and occasionally redressed animals, and lit just before presenting the creation.
4270:
3715:
3353:, citron leaves and "onions of Escalon" all appear in an eighth-century list of spices that the Carolingian cook should have at hand. It was written by
3050:
accompanied by aged cheese, and by the Late Middle Ages could also include fresh fruit covered in honey, sugar, or syrup and boiled-down fruit pastes.
2226:. The herring was of unprecedented significance to the economy of much of Northern Europe, and it was one of the most common commodities traded by the
1696:, a thick wheat porridge often boiled in a meat broth and seasoned with spices. Porridges were also made of every type of grain and could be served as
2497:
describes several methods for salvaging spoiling wine; making sure that the wine barrels are always topped up or adding a mixture of dried and boiled
5545:
1132:
5090:
4646:
Scully notes the importance of appearance to the medieval cook, who prized yellow foods achieved with saffron; Scully (1995), page 114. See also
1657:
content increased. In times of grain shortages or outright famine, grains could be supplemented with cheaper and less desirable substitutes like
1231:. This meant that food had to be "tempered" according to its nature by an appropriate combination of preparation and mixing certain ingredients,
8221:
2896:, used as much for its vivid yellow-red color as for its flavor, for according to the humours, yellow signified hot and dry, valued qualities;
1270:
pie did not appear in recipes until the 15th century. Before that the pastry was primarily used as a cooking container in a technique known as
2362:
which was especially popular in the north where both apples and pears were plentiful. Medieval drinks that have survived to this day include
2050:
or even illusion food such as giant eggs. Among the meats that today are rare or even considered inappropriate for human consumption are the
2034:
required less attention and cheaper feed. Domestic pigs often ran freely even in towns and could be fed on just about any organic waste, and
1346:, already existed, although they were often too expensive for poorer households. Other tools more specific to cooking over an open fire were
865:, which was used as a substitute in dishes that otherwise required eggs or milk, though the bitter variety of almonds came along much later.
8298:
926:
was still eaten by working men, and was tolerated for young children, women, the elderly and the sick. Because the church preached against
7803:
3266:
with recipes for "drepee", parboiled birds with almonds and fried onions, and the first part of a recipe for "mawmenee", a sweet stew of
3126:
recipe made with three kinds of cheese, eggs, beet greens, spinach, fennel fronds, and parsley. In northern France, a wide assortment of
2491:
widespread problem. Even if vinegar was a common ingredient, there was only so much of it that could be used. The 14th-century cookbook
953:
were common (although also disliked by the church), and working men commonly received an allowance from their employers in order to buy
7929:
4572:
4487:
B. M. S. Campbell, Mark Overton (1991), Land, labour, and livestock: historical studies in European agricultural productivity, page 167
2010:
was labor-intensive, requiring pastures and feed, and oxen and cows were much more valuable as draught animals and for producing milk.
1480:), or in warm ovens, cellars, attics, and at times even in living quarters. Subjecting food to a number of chemical processes such as
5865:
2683:
times, but was adopted gradually due to difficulties in establishing the appropriate proportions. Before the widespread use of hops,
922:
frowned on breaking the overnight fast too early, and members of the church and cultivated gentry avoided it. For practical reasons,
340:, and their calendars, had great influence on eating habits; consumption of meat was forbidden for a full third of the year for most
2038:
was a sought-after delicacy. Just about every part of the pig was eaten, including ears, snout, tail, tongue, and womb. Intestines,
1551:. The long meat hook in his left hand was one of the most common medieval cook's tools; from the Ellesmere manuscripts, about 1410.
811:. In the south, wine was the common drink for both rich and poor alike (though the commoner usually had to settle for cheap second-
580:
of the body and draw bad humours into the stomach. It was also of vital importance that food of differing properties not be mixed.
7065:
4194:
Hans J. Teuteberg, "Periods and Turning-Points in the History of European Diet: A Preliminary Outline of Problems and Methods" in
4061:
Hans J. Teuteberg, "Periods and Turning-Points in the History of European Diet: A Preliminary Outline of Problems and Methods" in
2792:
and cooking ingredient and for hand washing. Alcoholic distillates were also occasionally used to create dazzling, fire-breathing
6066:
5835:
4146:
Cabbage and other foodstuffs in common use by most German-speaking peoples are mentioned in Walther Ryff's dietary from 1549 and
1011:
687:
4302:
3315:
from the late 14th century. Over 70 collections of medieval recipes survive today, written in several major European languages.
2738:, while criticizing the apparently common practice among Englishmen of the time to give their children wine and strong alcohol.
2695:
of Europe, as recorded in contemporary literature, far exceed intakes in the modern world. For example, sailors in 16th-century
5095:. Translated by Thomas, Magdalena. revised and adapted by William Woys Weaver. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
3975:
Liane Plouvier, "La gastronomie dans les Pays-Bas méridionaux sous les ducs de Bourgogne: le témoignage des livres de cuisine"
3146:('parlor spices') and were taken as digestibles at the end of a meal to "close" the stomach. Like their Muslim counterparts in
819:
was the commoner's drink in the north and wine an expensive import. Citrus fruits (though not the kinds most common today) and
706:
304:
At the baptismal font you were kneaded into a single dough. In the oven of the Holy Ghost you were baked into God's true bread.
686:
Death as well. In one early-15th-century English aristocratic household for which detailed records are available (that of the
8176:
7883:
5860:
5519:
5484:
5465:
5419:
5243:
5159:
5138:
5079:
5056:
4312:
3051:
2905:
341:
1588:
articulated the beliefs of many of his contemporaries by proclaiming that "Hoot ffir and smoke makith many an angry cook."
990:
8133:
1449:. Chiquart recommends that the chief cook should have at hand at least 1,000 cartloads of "good, dry firewood" and a large
777:
4929:, which had been extinct for centuries, so may have included some purely literary items; Toussaint-Samat (2009), page 434.
2002:
that were no longer able to work were slaughtered but not particularly appetizing and therefore were less valued as meat.
484:
were often brutally enforced, food was an important marker of social status in a way that has no equivalent today in most
128:, a form of meat acquired from hunting, was common only on the nobility's tables. The most prevalent butcher's meats were
8632:
8607:
8547:
549:
1102:
servants and then eating the pieces with a golden fork shocked and upset the diners so much that there was a claim that
448:, workers and beggars, but not the poor as long as they had some sort of shelter. There are many accounts of members of
8723:
7501:
5616:
5392:
5350:
5119:
4555:
3332:
1114:
and referred to her as "... the Venetian Doge's wife, whose body, after her excessive delicacy, entirely rotted away."
1098:, and caused considerable dismay among upstanding Venetians. The princess' insistence on having her food cut up by her
4207:
Adamson (2004), pages 46–7; Johanna Maria van Winter, "The Low Countries in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries" in
3154:
introduced a wide variety of new sweets and desserts that eventually found their way to the rest of Europe. Just like
2410:
was not consumed by adults except the poor or sick, being reserved for the very young or elderly, and then usually as
1445:('On cookery') written in 1420 in part to compete with the court of Burgundy by Maistre Chiquart, master chef of Duke
540:
that put a cap on the lavishness of commoners' banquets. Animal parts were even assigned to different social classes.
8766:
8728:
8258:
7603:
5442:
5373:
5331:
5308:
5285:
5266:
5217:
5186:
5100:
5037:
5016:
4993:
4970:
4951:
4352:
3991:
Edited from the Ms. S 103 Bibliothèque Supersaxo, (in the Bibliothèque cantonale du Valais, Sion, by Terence Scully,
3042:, 'to clear a table', literally 'to un-serve', and originated during the Middle Ages. It would typically consist of
7893:
5693:
5681:
3415:
2200:
837:
was a ubiquitous ingredient in Mediterranean cultures, but remained an expensive import in the north where oils of
1724:
in the U.S.) and especially wafers, eaten for dessert, had become high-prestige foods and came in many varieties.
1468:
in the early 19th century. The most common and simplest method was to expose foodstuffs to heat or wind to remove
1223:
under the top crust. It was considered important to make sure that the dish agreed with contemporary standards of
8226:
5149:
2184:
Although less prestigious than other animal meats, and often seen as merely an alternative to meat on fast days,
1835:
were more common. Figs and dates were eaten all over Europe, but remained rather expensive imports in the north.
1464:
methods were basically the same as had been used since antiquity, and did not change much until the invention of
930:
and other weaknesses of the flesh, men tended to be ashamed of the weak practicality of breakfast. Lavish dinner
505:
2616:
But from whichever it is made, whether from oats, barley or wheat, it harms the head and the stomach, it causes
8592:
8532:
8504:
8263:
5952:
4843:
The manuscripts from which early books were printed rarely survive, as a scan of introductory materials in the
4633:, was only 5 million, and was a mere 3 million by 1450; see J.C Russel "Population in Europe 500–1500" in
3707:
1986:
1748:
to be organized were the bakers, and laws and regulations were passed to keep bread prices stable. The English
882:
2575:, beer was consumed on a daily basis by people of all social classes and age groups. By the mid-15th century,
1235:
and spices; fish was seen as being cold and moist, and best cooked in a way that heated and dried it, such as
1026:
of the common people and the destitute. However, it can be assumed there were no such extravagant luxuries as
8678:
8509:
7778:
7763:
6329:
4262:
3405:
3076:
in many forms was well-known in Italy and southern France by the 1340s, and is assumed to be of Arab origin.
2143:
1924:
1083:
2207:
wrote a very skeptical account of his reaction to being served barnacle goose at a fish-day dinner in 1456.
7783:
7669:
6215:
2743:
1756:
1569:
hire professionals when their own kitchen or staff could not handle the burden of hosting a major banquet.
2637:
and the travelling of nobles between France and England, one French variant described in the 14th century
8688:
7977:
7813:
7798:
7735:
7633:
7264:
1676:
One of the common constituents of a medieval meal, either as part of a banquet or as a small snack, were
1481:
1446:
144:, which required greater investment in land, was less common. A wide variety of freshwater and saltwater
5542:
8683:
8673:
8637:
8479:
8381:
7878:
7788:
7427:
7397:
6185:
2564:
2456:
Wine was commonly drunk and was also regarded as the most prestigious and healthy choice. According to
2388:
4629:
Adamson (2004), page 65. By comparison, the estimated population of Britain in 1340, right before the
3322:
also include many details of overseeing correct preparations in the kitchen. Towards the onset of the
965:
317:
Nuns dining in silence while listening to a Bible reading. The nuns use hand gestures to communicate.
8787:
8406:
8169:
7793:
7753:
7479:
7437:
7432:
7407:
6953:
5850:
5740:
2852:
1501:
tended to be heavily salted (5–10%) in order not to spoil. Vegetables, eggs, or fish were also often
1144:
did not appear until the 18th century, and cooks had to know how to cook directly over an open fire.
755:, were not meat. Secondly, Benedictine monasteries contained a room called the misericord, where the
5575:
4771:
Constance B. Hieatt, "Making Sense of Medieval Culinary Records: Much Done, But Much More to Do" in
4648:
The Appetite and the Eye: Visual aspects of food and its presentation within their historic context.
4523:
Though there are references to the use of hops in beer as early as 822 AD; EĂźlinger (2009), page 11.
3000:
Surviving medieval recipes frequently call for flavoring with a number of sour, tart liquids. Wine,
2776:('water of life') was used as a generic term for all kinds of distillates. The early use of various
8657:
8113:
7873:
7828:
7743:
7578:
7556:
7541:
7531:
7516:
7484:
7417:
7412:
7392:
6324:
5735:
5730:
5654:
2568:
1247:. In some recipe collections, alternative ingredients were assigned with more consideration to the
1239:
or oven baking, and seasoned with hot and dry spices; beef was dry and hot and should therefore be
1107:
886:
2746:
of 1.091 (corresponding to a potential alcohol content over 9%) and "pleasant, apple-like taste".
584:
8361:
8331:
7987:
7691:
7551:
7536:
7526:
7402:
7350:
7304:
6341:
5997:
5977:
5661:
1750:
1087:
337:
169:
5508:
3311:
3301:
2514:
were usually made by mixing an ordinary (red) wine with an assortment of spices such as ginger,
1148:
were used, but they were expensive to construct and existed only in fairly large households and
8718:
8474:
8248:
7808:
7659:
7546:
7459:
7090:
6272:
5992:
5840:
5770:
5760:
5713:
5676:
5671:
5609:
4844:
3500:
Bynum (1987), page 41; see also Scully (1995), pages 58–64 and Adamson (2004), page 72, 191–92.
2986:
2846:
2807:
2572:
2203:
examined barnacles and noted no evidence of any bird-like embryo in them, and the secretary of
1170:
the most common dishes. Overall, most evidence suggests that medieval dishes had a fairly high
1033:
Things were different for the wealthy. Before the meal and between courses, shallow basins and
756:
735:
5005:
8537:
8429:
8386:
7758:
7748:
7664:
7561:
7449:
7115:
7070:
6786:
6776:
6640:
6506:
6441:
6401:
6195:
5765:
5698:
4568:
4355:
3430:
2908:
in June 1473, the bread was gilded. Among the spices that have now fallen into obscurity are
2872:
1998:
were popular among those who could obtain it, most meat came from domestic animals. Domestic
1335:
1324:
461:
449:
6863:
6267:
5206:
1054:, as was the standard etiquette of breaking bread and carving meat for one's fellow diners.
8756:
8698:
8494:
8401:
8371:
8356:
8162:
7946:
7941:
7924:
7843:
7686:
7613:
7494:
7489:
7474:
7422:
7160:
7050:
6724:
6719:
6511:
5987:
5855:
5649:
4926:
3420:
3092:, apples, and plums. The English chefs also had a penchant for using flower petals such as
2863:
were among the most luxurious products available in the Middle Ages, the most common being
2548:. By the 14th century, bagged spice mixes could be bought ready-made from spice merchants.
1768:": a baker would give 13 for the price of 12, to be certain of not being known as a cheat.
1073:
or bare hands. In lower-class households it was common to eat food straight off the table.
1062:
563:
that dominated Western medical science from late Antiquity and throughout the Middle Ages.
489:
8:
8642:
8622:
8602:
8567:
8499:
8411:
8278:
8143:
7192:
7095:
7085:
7060:
6943:
6903:
6873:
6843:
6838:
6660:
6650:
6245:
6168:
6044:
5912:
5902:
5845:
5708:
5454:
4336:
3323:
3068:
2972:
2680:
2523:
2502:
1649:
of all grains, but was more prestigious and thus more expensive. The finely sifted white
1493:
1347:
1251:
nature than what a modern cook would consider to be similarity in taste. In a recipe for
969:
878:
264:
51:
8119:
5536:
3012:
2587:, accounted for 27% of all cereal acreage in England. However, the heavy influence from
1692:
could be soaked up and eaten. Another common sight at the medieval dinner table was the
1395:
1291:
Fowl roasting on a spit. A shallow basin collects the drippings to use in sauces or for
976:, enjoys a grand meal, sitting at the high table in front of the fireplace, served by a
8746:
8582:
8557:
8459:
8336:
8288:
8283:
8273:
8211:
7956:
7823:
7703:
7319:
7299:
7294:
7182:
7150:
7125:
7075:
7055:
7003:
6973:
6958:
6948:
6908:
6883:
6816:
6791:
6781:
6761:
6645:
6630:
6620:
6518:
6476:
6451:
6426:
6381:
6336:
6262:
6200:
6175:
5972:
5922:
5892:
5830:
5820:
5815:
5569:
5490:
5431:
5398:
5362:
5320:
5297:
5255:
5232:
5192:
5165:
4982:
4848:
4569:"Recreating Medieval English Ales (a recreation of late-13–14th unhopped English ales)"
4340:
3763:
3738:
3425:
3396:
3327:
3305:
those times, would have been able to read, and working texts have a low survival rate.
2992:
2909:
2403:, was known in Europe, but as with mead was mostly something prescribed by physicians.
2391:, mead had a status equivalent to that of imported luxuries, such as spices and wines.
2338:, as well as wines, of a multitude of fruits and berries had been known at least since
2197:
2176:
1934:
1786:
1764:
with less expensive ingredients could receive severe penalties. This gave rise to the "
1441:
1407:
The kitchen staff of huge noble or royal courts occasionally numbered in the hundreds:
1007:
1003:
in a world where people depended very much on each other. In the 13th century, English
946:
645:
277:
2979:
was used to flavor fish and chicken dishes, and its seeds were served as sugar-coated
8742:
8484:
8454:
8444:
8434:
8351:
8341:
8326:
8193:
8035:
7909:
7773:
7674:
7638:
7608:
7357:
7289:
7279:
7274:
7227:
7222:
7212:
7175:
7105:
7018:
6938:
6928:
6868:
6848:
6823:
6806:
6699:
6670:
6588:
6583:
6573:
6548:
6496:
6481:
6431:
6366:
6361:
6346:
6230:
6133:
6128:
6096:
6091:
6059:
6039:
6034:
6024:
6019:
5962:
5942:
5917:
5882:
5825:
5703:
5666:
5602:
5564:
5515:
5480:
5461:
5438:
5415:
5388:
5369:
5346:
5327:
5304:
5281:
5262:
5239:
5213:
5196:
5182:
5169:
5155:
5134:
5115:
5096:
5075:
5052:
5033:
5012:
4989:
4966:
4947:
4826:
4348:
4308:
3768:
2707:
2166:
2147:
1776:
1565:
1556:
1461:
1389:
1372:
1292:
1191:
1004:
744:
739:
485:
325:
65:
39:
5587:
4251:
All Things Medieval: An Encyclopedia of the Medieval World, Ruth A Johnston, page 19
1015:
8703:
8652:
8647:
8587:
8464:
8421:
8391:
8313:
8231:
8201:
8103:
8059:
8042:
7972:
7951:
7818:
7720:
7681:
7654:
7588:
7573:
7464:
7362:
7259:
7244:
7239:
7187:
7170:
7165:
7145:
7135:
7130:
6983:
6963:
6918:
6913:
6898:
6888:
6878:
6858:
6801:
6796:
6766:
6756:
6692:
6687:
6682:
6665:
6568:
6563:
6558:
6528:
6523:
6446:
6421:
6416:
6411:
6386:
6356:
6319:
6304:
6294:
6284:
6240:
6225:
6220:
6205:
6180:
6138:
6106:
6101:
6049:
6014:
6002:
5957:
5947:
5932:
5907:
5897:
5887:
5810:
5805:
5800:
5787:
5747:
5720:
5644:
5460:. Translated by Bell, Anthea (New Expanded ed.). Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.
5387:. California Studies in Food and Culture. Oakland: University of California Press.
3758:
3750:
3284:
3177:
2766:, but it was not practiced on a major scale in Europe until after the invention of
2727:
2715:
2649:
2227:
1581:
1573:
1547:
1542:
1400:
1315:
1153:
1061:
or in stew pots, and diners would take their share from the dishes and place it on
1058:
1027:
939:
481:
428:
352:(during the strictest fasting periods also fish), were generally prohibited during
188:
55:
47:
2780:, alcoholic or not, was varied, but it was primarily culinary or medicinal; grape
444:(about 1225–1274) believed dispensation should be provided for children, the old,
8713:
8627:
8597:
8321:
8238:
7863:
7853:
7833:
7725:
7598:
7568:
7387:
7367:
7314:
7269:
7254:
7249:
7197:
7155:
7120:
7080:
7045:
7008:
6998:
6993:
6988:
6893:
6853:
6833:
6811:
6751:
6736:
6731:
6677:
6635:
6625:
6615:
6610:
6595:
6501:
6471:
6391:
6351:
6289:
6277:
6252:
6210:
6163:
6148:
6116:
6111:
6086:
6081:
6076:
6071:
6054:
6029:
5982:
5967:
5927:
5877:
5639:
5553:
5549:
4147:
3410:
2815:
2634:
2557:
2443:
2204:
2138:
was believed to reproduce not by laying eggs like other birds, but by growing in
2127:
2063:
2011:
1701:
1611:
1287:
1042:
812:
333:
153:
133:
8123:
7623:
8617:
8562:
8516:
8469:
8449:
8293:
8216:
7982:
7919:
7888:
7848:
7618:
7521:
7469:
7454:
7377:
7372:
7309:
7207:
7140:
7110:
7100:
7033:
6978:
6968:
6923:
6828:
6771:
6741:
6714:
6709:
6704:
6578:
6543:
6533:
6486:
6436:
6396:
6376:
6371:
6314:
6299:
6257:
6235:
6158:
6121:
5795:
5755:
5725:
3921:
Barbara Santich, "The Evolution of Culinary Techniques in the Medieval Era" in
2755:
2734:
stated that the only drink he considered suitable for children of all ages was
2380:
2239:
2219:
2135:
2043:
1999:
1832:
1765:
1485:
1095:
1091:
873:
850:
441:
408:
320:
5007:
Holy Feast and Holy Fast: The Religious Significance of Food to Medieval Women
4154:('German Larder') from 1550; see Melitta Weiss Adamson, "Medieval Germany" in
4026:
Martha Carling, "Fast Food and Urban Living Standards in Medieval England" in
3754:
3336:("On honorable pleasure and health") and the physician Iodocus Willich edited
2879:, nutmeg, ginger, and cloves. They all had to be imported from plantations in
2468:
and brighten the mood. The quality of wine differed considerably according to
8781:
8376:
8015:
7936:
7868:
7768:
7593:
7583:
7511:
7382:
7284:
7217:
7202:
7038:
7028:
7023:
6933:
6655:
6605:
6600:
6538:
6491:
6309:
6190:
6153:
6143:
6007:
5937:
5870:
5782:
5688:
5227:
5067:
4830:
3362:
3318:
The repertory of housekeeping instructions laid down by manuscripts like the
3262:
3239:
demonstrated to be an unfounded theory by historians such as Terence Scully.
3097:
3077:
2948:
2916:
which almost entirely replaced pepper in late medieval north French cooking,
2901:
2519:
2448:
2189:
2123:
1959:
1804:
1473:
1436:
1364:
1297:
1141:
1023:
973:
800:
792:
784:
537:
393:
tails were of such a fish-like nature that they could be eaten on fast days;
349:
181:
173:
165:
5402:
2509:, even if the chemical processes were not understood at the time. Spiced or
1838:
While grains were the primary constituent of most meals, vegetables such as
8542:
8439:
8243:
8093:
8030:
7838:
7345:
7340:
7234:
7013:
6553:
6466:
6461:
6456:
6406:
5503:
5494:
3772:
3390:
3222:('Turkish hats'), fried, chilled pastry tubes with a sweet cheese filling.
2921:
2864:
2806:
in its alcoholic forms was highly praised by medieval physicians. In 1309,
2763:
2759:
2588:
2339:
2119:
2099:
2035:
1908:
1585:
1424:
1103:
977:
902:
577:
556:
437:
212:
145:
4039:
Margaret Murphy, "Feeding Medieval Cities: Some Historical Approaches" in
2784:
mixed with sugar and spices was prescribed for a variety of ailments, and
21:
8693:
8396:
8303:
8185:
8081:
7713:
7506:
6746:
4630:
3382:
3256:
3208:
3155:
3047:
3016:
2944:
2917:
2719:
2679:
That hops could be used for flavoring beer had been known at least since
2672:
2621:
2592:
2510:
2506:
2498:
2493:
2343:
2325:
2142:, and was hence considered acceptable food for fast and Lent. But at the
2067:
2039:
1995:
1971:
1892:
1887:
Common and often basic ingredients in many modern European cuisines like
1808:
1580:, is described as a sleazy purveyor of unpalatable food. French cardinal
1506:
1343:
981:
890:
862:
820:
796:
682:
345:
267:
since antiquity had been based on cereals, particularly various types of
252:
177:
160:
149:
125:
76:
first used in the 16th century, and much later for the wider population.
43:
5558:
2303:
1970:, were available and well known in late medieval times. There were also
1518:
831:
were available in the north, but were used rather sparingly in cooking.
313:
54:
that followed, when those changes helped lay the foundations for modern
8268:
8154:
5581:
3354:
3275:
3204:
3147:
3036:
2772:
2735:
2731:
2617:
2601:
2544:
2473:
2411:
2387:
parties, though in limited quantity due to its high price. In medieval
2351:
2223:
2103:
1896:
1881:
1876:
1864:
1807:(the sweet type was not introduced until several hundred years later),
1526:
1331:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1176:
1030:, luxurious spices or hand-washing in scented water in everyday meals.
950:
597:
452:
who flouted fasting restrictions through clever interpretations of the
196:
5092:
Food and Drink in Medieval Poland: Rediscovering a Cuisine of the Past
2591:
and Mediterranean culture on medical science (particularly due to the
2320:
bonus of being less prone to putrefaction due to the alcohol content.
632:, which during the Middle Ages consisted of lumps of spiced sugar, or
8577:
8346:
7914:
7335:
5179:
Food in Change: Eating Habits from the Middle Ages to the Present Day
3185:
3139:
2925:
2831:
2811:
2793:
2785:
2711:
2625:
2597:
2583:
known to be somewhat poorly suited for breadmaking but excellent for
2431:
2422:
products because of the lack of technology to keep it from spoiling.
2367:
2258:
were eaten by coastal and river-dwelling populations, and freshwater
2235:
2091:
2055:
2023:
1646:
1630:
1561:
1477:
1232:
1228:
1046:
923:
834:
828:
765:
734:
In monasteries, the basic structure of the diet was laid down by the
649:
567:
493:
465:
297:
289:
272:
236:
192:
117:
46:, which lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. During this period,
3349:
High-status exotic spices and rarities like ginger, pepper, cloves,
3343:
3274:
with cinnamon, ginger, cloves, dates and pine nuts and colored with
3172:
3043:
2796:(a type of entertainment dish after a course) by soaking a piece of
2534:
and sugar. These would be contained in small bags which were either
2464:) was, among other things, believed to aid digestion, generate good
1868:
1727:
1355:
1350:
of various sizes, and material for skewering anything from delicate
629:
488:. According to the ideological norm, society consisted of the three
8612:
8489:
8366:
8005:
4885:
4229:
Simon Varey, "Medieval and Renaissance Italy, A. The Peninsula" in
3271:
3231:
3131:
3101:
3073:
3072:: fried pastries and dough with various sweet and savory fillings.
3024:
3001:
2929:
2913:
2897:
2868:
2723:
2638:
2539:
2535:
2515:
2461:
2347:
2259:
2243:
2193:
2139:
2115:
2075:
2051:
2026:
was consumed in some parts of medieval Europe. Far more common was
1967:
1860:
1709:
1693:
1658:
1596:
1510:
1502:
1469:
1428:
1359:
1330:
Many basic variations of cooking utensils available today, such as
1302:
1248:
1244:
1224:
927:
919:
846:
633:
501:
423:
and fake eggs could be made by stuffing empty egg shells with fish
385:
200:
97:
3296:
have found a modern editor in Marianne Mulon, and a cookbook from
3055:
1673:, and a wide variety of more or less nutritious vegetable matter.
8253:
8010:
7708:
7628:
5625:
5385:
A history of cookbooks: from kitchen to page over seven centuries
4889:
3806:
Eszter Kisbán, "Food Habits in Change: The Example of Europe" in
3338:
3213:
3063:
3059:
2956:
2952:
2893:
2789:
2767:
2700:
2696:
2605:
2584:
2469:
2384:
2284:
2255:
2211:
2185:
2171:
2155:
2131:
2083:
2047:
1975:
1900:
1872:
1839:
1781:
1717:
1705:
1697:
1514:
1489:
1465:
1420:
1408:
1319:
1256:
1240:
1216:
1163:
1127:
1122:
1000:
931:
653:
641:
637:
613:
572:
445:
420:
373:
357:
216:
208:
137:
2477:
2307:
An abbey cellarer testing his wine. Illumination from a copy of
1358:. There were also cranes with adjustable hooks so that pots and
980:
and other servants. On the table to the Duke's left is a golden
583:
Before a meal, the stomach would preferably be "opened" with an
5299:
Living and Dying in England, 1100–1540: The Monastic Experience
5253:
Glick, Thomas; Livesey, Steven J.; Wallis, Faith, eds. (2005).
4880:
3739:"Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis in ancient clergymen"
3350:
3297:
3289:
3197:
3189:
3163:
3151:
3138:('departure from the table'). The ever-present candied ginger,
3127:
3123:
3105:
3089:
3081:
3020:
2980:
2968:
2960:
2937:
2884:
2827:
2797:
2777:
2662:
2580:
2576:
2527:
2427:
2311:
by Aldobrandino of Siena. British Library, Sloane 2435, f. 44v.
2288:
2251:
2247:
2231:
2059:
2007:
1954:
1929:
1904:
1888:
1855:
1851:
1812:
1800:
1744:
3.3 lb) of bread per person per day. Among the first town
1721:
1713:
1662:
1634:
1626:
1537:
1522:
1498:
1432:
1416:
1368:
1339:
1310:
1260:
1252:
1236:
1208:
1196:
1149:
1099:
1066:
914:
910:
894:
858:
842:
788:
691:
621:
609:
529:
525:
521:
497:
477:
416:
412:
390:
365:
232:
220:
109:
77:
73:
61:
4825:(in French). Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques.
4821:
Mulon, Marianne (1971). "Deux traités d'art culinaire médié".
4758:
Habeeb Saloum, "Medieval and Renaissance Italy: B. Sicily" in
4650:
Anne Wilson (ed.) Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. 1991.
2452:
A matron demonstrates how to properly treat and conserve wine.
2058:, occasionally mentioned in late medieval recipe collections.
1185:
was readily combined with meat, fish and eggs. The recipe for
536:
dangers of adapting a diet inappropriate for one's class, and
38:
includes foods, eating habits, and cooking methods of various
8020:
7442:
5514:. Medieval History and Archaeology. Oxford University Press.
4242:
The Rabbit and the Medieval East Anglian Economy, Mark Bailey
3587:
3585:
3267:
3080:
cookbooks are full of recipes for sweet and savory custards,
2976:
2933:
2876:
2860:
2781:
2684:
2653:
2609:
2531:
2483:
2465:
2457:
2419:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2359:
2355:
2335:
2316:
2292:
2280:
2276:
2111:
2095:
2087:
1912:
1847:
1843:
1820:
1816:
1796:
1761:
1745:
1732:
1689:
1666:
1650:
1615:
1606:
1505:
in tightly packed jars, containing brine and acidic liquids (
1412:
1376:
1371:. In wealthy households one of the most common tools was the
1351:
1200:
1182:
1111:
1074:
1070:
1037:
1034:
838:
824:
808:
804:
803:, the climate was generally too harsh for the cultivation of
752:
748:
657:
625:
617:
605:
601:
588:
560:
496:, that is, the working classes—by far the largest group; the
460:
would simply eat their fast day meals in what was called the
457:
453:
404:
369:
268:
248:
228:
224:
113:
105:
101:
93:
89:
8076:
5326:. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press.
4263:"Debunked: The Strange Tale of Pope Gregory and the Rabbits"
3376:
3365:
manuscript. Vinidarius's own dates may not be much earlier.
2612:
physician Aldobrandino described beer in the following way:
1082:
for eating were not in widespread usage in Europe until the
191:
set the standard among the nobility all over Europe. Common
16:
Foods, eating habits, and cooking methods of the Middle Ages
8054:
8025:
7698:
5594:
5257:
Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: an Encyclopedia
3093:
3085:
3007:
2964:
2880:
2714:, and on a smaller scale, in individual households. By the
2688:
2657:
2415:
2407:
2375:
2321:
2272:
2268:
2107:
2079:
2027:
2019:
2015:
2003:
1963:
1947:
1942:
1828:
1824:
1685:
1681:
1670:
1654:
1642:
1220:
1204:
1167:
1145:
1079:
1051:
1019:
854:
816:
665:
661:
648:, herbs, moist fruits, and light meats, such as chicken or
517:
513:
509:
353:
244:
240:
204:
141:
129:
121:
69:
3582:
596:, 'to open') that was preferably of a hot and dry nature:
8047:
5501:
3130:
and wafers was eaten with cheese and hypocras or a sweet
3122:("Parisian Household Book"), written in 1393, includes a
2888:
2423:
2371:
2329:
2264:
2215:
2031:
1677:
1638:
1622:
1212:
1171:
1158:
424:
85:
81:
5112:
Delizia! The epic history of the Italians and their food
3630:
3628:
2955:
were grown and used in cooking all over Europe, as were
2014:
were fairly common, especially in areas with a sizeable
1243:; pork was hot and moist and should therefore always be
199:
repertory typical of upper-class medieval food included
5278:
Preventing Alcohol Abuse: alcohol, culture, and control
5208:
The Fontana Economic History of Europe: The Middle Ages
4740:
Le MĂ©nagier de Paris, page218, "Pour Faire une Tourte."
4635:
The Fontana Economic History of Europe: The Middle Ages
4013:
Beth Marie Forrest, "Food storage and preservation" in
3977:
Publications du Centre Européen d'Etudes Bourguignonnes
1045:. The hierarchical nature of society was reinforced by
476:
Medieval society was highly stratified. In a time when
5412:
Histoire de la cuisine et de la gastronomie françaises
4963:
Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe: A Book of Essays
2826:'burnt wine') was commonplace, marking the origin of
2230:, a powerful north German alliance of trading guilds.
1140:
All types of cooking involved the direct use of fire.
120:
were important supplements for the lower orders while
3625:
3184:). From the south, the Arabs also brought the art of
2126:
had been domesticated but were not as popular as the
92:
was generally more expensive. These were consumed as
5234:
Out of the East: Spices and the Medieval Imagination
3906:
3372:
3207:
bowl with which it was shaped), made from marzipan,
5364:
A History of Business in Medieval Europe, 1200–1550
5343:
Revolution and Consumption in Late Medieval England
5151:
Handbook of Brewing: Processes, Technology, Markets
1110:, later interpreted her refined foreign manners as
889:, King of the Romans. Each diner has two knives, a
861:, which was in the ubiquitous and highly versatile
159:Slow and inefficient transports made long-distance
124:was more expensive and generally more prestigious.
25:Peasants sharing a simple meal of bread and drink;
5507:
5479:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
5453:
5430:
5361:
5319:
5296:
5254:
5252:
5231:
5205:
5049:La cucina medievale. Lessico, storia, preparazioni
5046:
5004:
4981:
4375:Melitta Weiss Adamson, "The Greco-Roman World" in
3192:and several examples of sweet cakes and pastries;
2676:, a spiced honey ale prepared much like hypocras.
2538:in wine or had liquid poured over them to produce
2210:Especially important was the fishing and trade in
853:were the most affordable alternatives. Butter and
5065:
5026:Carlin, Martha; Rosenthal, Joel T., eds. (1998).
1739:; from a book of hours manuscript from about 1500
909:In Europe, there were typically two meals a day:
427:and almond milk and cooking them in coals. While
8779:
5177:Fenton, Alexander; Kisbán, Eszter, eds. (1986).
2841:
2418:. Fresh milk was overall less common than other
1309:In most households, cooking was done on an open
187:A type of refined cooking that developed in the
156:being mainstays among the northern populations.
5072:Wallingford: The Castle and the Town in Context
5025:
4896:(W.F. Giles, "Onions and other edible Alliums"
3142:, aniseed and other spices were referred to as
1555:The majority of the European population before
5451:
4083:Scully (1995), page 3; Adamson (2004), page 51
3260:A page from a late-14th-century manuscript of
1090:in the late 11th century. She was the wife of
64:remained the most important staple during the
50:and cooking changed less than they did in the
8170:
5610:
3736:
3609:Terence Scully, "Tempering Medieval Food" in
3540:Melitta Weiss Adamson, "Medieval Germany" in
3527:Melitta Weiss Adamson, "Medieval Germany" in
3225:
1259:is said to work equally well, and in another
660:. After that came the "heavy" meats, such as
5510:Food in Medieval England: Diet and Nutrition
5176:
5133:. Continuum International Publishing Group.
5074:. BAR British Series. Oxford: Archaeopress.
5011:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
4912:A generic Roman term for a cookery book, as
3993:Du fait de cuisine par Maître Chiquart, 1420
3818:
3816:
3015:", while others sat "below the salt", where
2487:) would often be the only available choice.
2342:and were still consumed in the Middle Ages:
2074:A wide range of birds were eaten, including
823:were common around the Mediterranean. Dried
394:
389:During the Middle Ages it was believed that
26:
5477:Beer in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance
4339:"Topographica Hiberniae" (1187), quoted in
4330:
3478:
3476:
2006:was not as common as today because raising
1680:, pieces of bread with which a liquid like
1576:'s Hodge of Ware, the London cook from the
1130:from the first printed cookbook in German,
957:, small morsels to be eaten during breaks.
591:
8177:
8163:
5617:
5603:
5572:on medieval and early modern European food
5359:
4898:Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society
4307:. Books for Libraries Press. p. 119.
4294:
2990:Picking green grapes for making verjuice;
2660:. In England there were also the variants
2600:. Even comparatively exotic products like
1871:were also common and important sources of
223:. These, along with the widespread use of
5584:on feeding the poor in medieval Catalonia
5368:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5360:Hunt, Edwin S.; Murray, James H. (1999).
5088:
4944:Food in the Middle Ages: A Book of Essays
4543:Medieval Science, Technology and Medicine
4300:
4015:Medieval Science, Technology and Medicine
3943:Creighton & Christie (2015), page 13.
3813:
3802:
3800:
3762:
3112:, a 14th-century recipe collection, as a
2652:'good ale') and was made from barley and
2648:(most likely a direct borrowing from the
2238:could be found in markets as far away as
1735:with his assistant making bread rolls or
300:, you were like grain kept in the granary
8184:
5409:
5322:Fast and Feast: Food in Medieval Society
5280:. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group.
5226:
5147:
3544:, pages 160–59; Scully (1995), page 117.
3473:
3255:
2985:
2850:Harvesting pepper; French manuscript of
2845:
2818:-speaking regions. By the 13th century,
2447:
2302:
2165:
1985:
1923:
1775:
1771:
1726:
1595:
1536:
1394:
1286:
1189:, a fish pie from the recipe collection
1121:
964:
872:
384:
312:
231:, gave many dishes a sweet-sour flavor.
72:was introduced to Europe late, with the
20:
5382:
5317:
5203:
4979:
4960:
4941:
3448:
3446:
2666:, made from hot milk and cold ale, and
2628:and makes one's flesh white and smooth.
1760:tampering with weights or adulterating
1532:
28:Livre du roi Modus et de la reine Ratio
8780:
5502:Woolgar, Chris M.; Serjeantson, Dale;
5428:
5294:
5275:
5109:
4260:
3797:
3030:
2834:issued restrictions on the selling of
2814:started to pick up, especially in the
2501:seeds with the ash of dried and burnt
2374:and blackberry wine. Many variants of
1274:. Extant recipe collections show that
795:, the northern German-speaking areas,
751:, and various processed foods such as
8158:
7804:Historical North Indian and Pakistani
5598:
5474:
5433:The Art of Cookery in the Middle Ages
5340:
5181:. Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers.
5002:
4820:
3954:The Art of Cookery in the Middle Ages
2430:, both made from plants found in the
2158:and putting more meat on the market.
1126:A cook at the hearth with his ladle;
771:
8109:
5345:. Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer.
5238:. New Haven: Yale University Press.
5148:EĂźlinger, Hans Michael, ed. (2009).
5128:
4961:Adamson, Melitta Weiss, ed. (2002).
4942:Adamson, Melitta Weiss, ed. (1995).
4760:Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe
4377:Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe
4347:, 1928, reprinted in 2003, page 10.
4231:Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe
4209:Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe
4156:Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe
3542:Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe
3529:Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe
3443:
3116:with a cheese and egg yolk filling.
2892:the most obscure in its origin) was
1282:
778:Regional cuisines of medieval Europe
738:in the 7th century and tightened by
675:
471:
263:The cuisines of the cultures of the
8762:
8207:Decline of the Western Roman Empire
8129:
5452:Toussant-Samat, Maguelonne (2009).
5047:Carnevale Schianca, Enrico (2011).
4823:Bulletin Philologique et Historique
4575:from the original on 29 August 2019
3718:from the original on 3 October 2012
3708:"Bones reveal chubby monks aplenty"
3561:from the original on 1 October 2023
2161:
1399:A restored medieval kitchen inside
1117:
945:, "late supper") with considerable
566:Medieval scholars considered human
550:Medieval medicine of Western Europe
292:floor of the Lord and were threshed
211:in combination with spices such as
180:also dictated that the food of the
13:
8299:Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire
5029:Food and Eating in Medieval Europe
4773:Food and Eating in Medieval Europe
4611:Quoted in Scully (1995), page 162.
4556:Some Thoughts Concerning Education
4496:Quoted in Scully (1995), page 152.
4261:Gorman, James (14 February 2018).
4041:Food and Eating in Medieval Europe
4028:Food and Eating in Medieval Europe
3452:Hunt & Murray (1999), page 16.
3333:De honesta voluptate et valetudine
3035:The term "dessert" comes from the
2838:on Sundays and official holidays.
2505:of white wine were both effective
991:Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry
877:Banquet given in Paris in 1378 by
14:
8799:
8729:Historiography in the Middle Ages
5529:
5437:. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press.
5131:Everyday Life in Medieval England
5051:(in Italian). Florence: Olschki.
4988:. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
3326:, in 1474, the Vatican librarian
3158:, Sicily was once famous for its
2118:, than for their meat. As today,
1919:
464:(at those times) rather than the
344:. All animal products, including
8761:
8752:
8751:
8741:
8138:
8128:
8118:
8108:
8099:
8098:
8087:
8075:
4919:
4906:
4872:
4863:
4860:Scully (1995), pages 7–9, 24–25.
4854:
4837:
4814:
4805:
4796:
4787:
4778:
4765:
4752:
4743:
4734:
4725:
4716:
4707:
4698:
4689:
4680:
4671:
4668:Adamson (2004), pages 15–19, 28.
4662:
4653:
4640:
4623:
4614:
4605:
4596:
3876:Adamson (2004), pages 55–56, 96.
3416:Guild feasts in medieval England
3389:
3375:
2234:made from herring caught in the
1884:from three to four times a day.
524:and their subordinates, such as
258:
8227:Christianity in the Middle Ages
8222:Decline of Hellenistic religion
8139:
5341:Hicks, Michael A., ed. (2001).
5204:Cipolla, Carlo M., ed. (1972).
5032:. London: The Hambledon Press.
5003:Bynum, Caroline Walker (1987).
4980:Adamson, Melitta Weiss (2004).
4602:Scully (1995), page 162, 164–65
4587:
4561:
4548:
4541:Richard W. Unger, "Brewing" in
4535:
4526:
4517:
4508:
4499:
4490:
4481:
4472:
4463:
4454:
4445:
4436:
4427:
4418:
4409:
4400:
4391:
4382:
4369:
4360:
4345:Barnacles in Nature and in Myth
4321:
4285:
4273:from the original on 4 May 2022
4254:
4245:
4236:
4223:
4214:
4201:
4188:
4179:
4170:
4161:
4140:
4131:
4122:
4113:
4104:
4095:
4086:
4077:
4068:
4055:
4046:
4033:
4020:
4007:
3998:
3985:
3969:
3960:
3946:
3937:
3928:
3915:
3897:
3888:
3879:
3870:
3861:
3852:
3843:
3834:
3825:
3788:
3779:
3730:
3700:
3691:
3682:
3673:
3664:
3655:
3646:
3637:
3616:
3603:
3594:
3573:
3547:
3534:
2710:, beer was brewed primarily in
2042:, and stomach could be used as
1456:
284:This bread retells your history
8505:Crisis of the late Middle Ages
7794:Historical Indian subcontinent
4301:Lankester, Edwin Ray (1970) .
3867:Henisch (1976), pages 185–186.
3858:Adamson (2004), pages 161–164.
3521:
3512:
3503:
3494:
3485:
3464:
3455:
2749:
2567:, the Low Countries, northern
1946:sometimes drink buttermilk or
883:Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor
1:
8679:Disability in the Middle Ages
8352:Rise of the Republic of Genoa
8284:Rise of the Venetian Republic
5318:Henisch, Bridget Ann (1976).
4935:
4713:Henisch (1976), pages 161–64.
4505:Scully (1995), pages 151–154.
4406:Scully (1995), pages 154–157.
3737:J. J. Verlaan (August 2007).
3600:Scully (1995), pages 126–135.
3591:Scully (1995), pages 135–136.
3406:Early modern European cuisine
3361:survive in an eighth-century
2871:(and the cheaper alternative
2842:Herbs, spices, and condiments
2822:(literally 'home-burnt' from
2722:in the 14th century, then to
2144:Fourth Council of the Lateran
308:
88:were eaten by the poor while
5624:
5414:(in French). Paris: Perrin.
4925:The list, however, includes
4916:is of American dictionaries.
4851:are rare collectibles today.
4704:Adamson (2004), pages 26–27.
4695:Scully (1995), pages 111–12.
4686:Adamson (2004), pages 11–15.
4620:Scully (1995), pages 163–64.
4593:Scully (1995), pages 158–59.
4478:Scully (1995), pages 147–51.
4469:Scully (1995), pages 143–44.
4460:Scully (1995), pages 140–42.
4451:Scully (1995), pages 138–39.
4433:Adamson (2004), pages 48–51.
4388:Adamson (2004), pages 45–39.
4366:Henisch (1976), pages 48–49.
4291:Adamson (2004), pages 33–35.
4220:Adamson (2004), pages 30–33.
4128:Adamson (2004), pages 19–24.
4052:Henisch (1976), pages 64–67.
3966:Adamson (2004), pages 57–62.
3934:Henisch (1976), pages 95–97.
3831:Henisch (1976), pages 24–25.
3518:Scully (1995), pages 190–92.
3461:Henisch (1976), pages 29–58.
3294:Tractatus de modo preparandi
3251:
3211:with sweetened ricotta, and
2366:from wild plums (modern-day
1621:The most common grains were
1263:could be replaced by pears.
960:
899:Banquet de Charles V le Sage
543:
7:
7978:List of historical cuisines
7814:History of alcoholic drinks
5831:Lowcountry (South Carolina)
5303:. Oxford University Press.
5295:Harvey, Barbara F. (1993).
4869:Notaker (2021), pages 49–66
4397:Adamson (2004), pages 48–51
4110:Scully (1995), pages 35–38.
3903:Scully (1995). pages 44–46.
3885:Dembinska (1999), page 143.
3579:Scully (1995), pages 41–46.
3368:
3288:, perhaps originating near
2134:equivalent of the pig. The
1541:The disreputable cook from
1018:, rather than giving it as
396:Livre des simples médecines
10:
8804:
8480:Rise of the Ottoman Empire
7265:Trinidadian and Tobagonian
5475:Unger, Richard W. (2007).
5410:Rambourg, Patrick (2010).
5129:Dyer, Christopher (2000).
4793:Scully (1995), pages 84–86
4415:Dembinska (1999), page 80.
4304:Diversions of a Naturalist
4074:Adamson (2004), pages 1–5.
3679:Harvey (1993), pages 64–65
3670:Harvey (1993), pages 38–41
3226:Historiography and sources
3104:flowers. An early form of
2824:gebrannter wein, brandwein
2555:
2441:
1591:
1195:, includes a mix of figs,
1057:Food was mostly served on
988:, in the shape of a ship;
775:
547:
108:by people of all classes.
8737:
8666:
8525:
8420:
8407:Mongol invasion of Europe
8312:
8192:
8070:
7998:
7965:
7902:
7734:
7647:
7328:
5781:
5632:
5563:, a medieval cookbook on
5089:Dembinska, Maria (1999).
4749:Adamson (2004), page 110.
4356:full text at Google Books
4327:Adamson (2004), page 164.
4167:Adamson (2004), chapter 1
4092:Adamson (2004), pages 1–5
3849:Adamson (2004), page 170.
3840:Adamson (2004), page 162.
3755:10.1007/s00586-007-0342-x
3643:Hicks (2001), pages 15–17
3150:, the Arab conquerors of
2853:The Travels of Marco Polo
2762:knew of the technique of
1614:bread was more common in
913:at mid-day and a lighter
7884:Scottish royal household
7829:History of vegetarianism
6067:Central African Republic
5429:Scully, Terence (1995).
5276:Hanson, David J (1995).
4731:Adamson (2004), page 97.
4722:Adamson (2004), page 89.
4442:Scully (1995), page 137.
4424:Scully (1995), page 157.
4185:Adamson (2004), page 45.
3894:Scully (1995), page 113.
3822:Henisch (1976), page 17.
3785:Scully (1995), page 218.
3509:Henisch (1976), page 46.
3491:Henisch (1976), page 40.
3482:Henisch (1976), page 43.
3470:Henisch (1976), page 41.
3437:
2395:, the fermented milk of
2298:
1994:While all forms of wild
1981:
1388:'to cram'), to skin and
1108:Cardinal Bishop of Ostia
1065:of stale bread, wood or
881:(second from right) for
868:
288:You were brought to the
8362:Investiture Controversy
8332:Second Bulgarian Empire
5383:Notaker, Henry (2017).
5261:. New York: Routledge.
5154:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
5070:; Roffe, David (eds.).
4965:. New York: Routledge.
4802:Scully (1995), page 174
4677:Scully (1995), page 86.
4659:Dickie (2008), page 63.
4176:Scully (1995), page 14.
4137:Scully (1995), page 71.
4101:Henisch (1976), page 77
4004:Scully (1995), page 96.
3923:Food in the Middle Ages
3912:Scully (1995), page 70.
3794:Scully (1995), page 83.
3652:Hicks (2001), page10–11
3634:Woolgar (2006), page 11
3611:Food in the Middle Ages
3230:Research into medieval
3180:) and almond clusters (
2563:of the Middle Ages. In
2551:
2437:
1751:Assize of Bread and Ale
235:were very popular as a
170:conspicuous consumption
8719:Post-classical history
8475:Fall of Constantinople
8382:Capet–Plantagenet feud
8249:First Bulgarian Empire
7809:History of agriculture
5590:on early-medieval diet
5539:about medieval cuisine
5424:. coll. tempus n° 359.
4984:Food in Medieval Times
4847:demonstrates, and old
4845:Loeb Classical Library
4811:Toussanit-Samat (2009)
3555:"Gale – Product Login"
3278:
3194:cassata alla Siciliana
3188:-making that produced
2997:
2940:or pepper and ginger.
2857:
2630:
2453:
2312:
2181:
1991:
1939:
1928:Preparing and serving
1791:
1757:London Baker's Company
1740:
1601:
1552:
1404:
1306:
1266:The completely edible
1152:. It was common for a
1137:
995:
906:
757:Rule of Saint Benedict
736:Rule of Saint Benedict
592:
400:
395:
383:
329:
306:
32:
27:
7779:Early modern European
7507:Indigenous Australian
7066:SĂŁo TomĂ© and PrĂncipe
5953:Bosnian-Herzegovinian
5548:20 April 2007 at the
5110:Dickie, John (2008).
4946:. New York: Garland.
4878:In modern botany the
4532:Hanson (1995), page 9
4514:Unger (2007), page 54
4119:Scully 1995, page 70.
3688:Dyer (1989), page 134
3661:Hicks (2001), page 18
3431:Pre-Columbian cuisine
3259:
2989:
2943:Common herbs such as
2849:
2808:Arnaldus of Villanova
2614:
2451:
2306:
2169:
1989:
1927:
1779:
1772:Fruits and vegetables
1730:
1599:
1540:
1447:Amadeus VIII of Savoy
1398:
1290:
1125:
968:
897:, bread and a plate (
876:
388:
378:
316:
282:
195:in the highly spiced
148:was also eaten, with
24:
8699:Medieval reenactment
8495:Renaissance Humanism
8402:Medieval Warm Period
8372:Republic of Florence
8186:European Middle Ages
7942:Molecular gastronomy
7874:Pre-contact Hawaiian
7784:Historical Argentine
7670:Mangalorean Catholic
5851:Pacific Northwestern
4903:: (1943) pp 193–200.
4888:in Palestine is the
4554:John Locke (1693), "
3697:Hicks (2001), page 8
3622:Dyer (2000), page 85
3421:Tudor food and drink
3357:, whose excerpts of
3312:Le MĂ©nagier de Paris
3120:Le MĂ©nagier de Paris
2856:, early 15th century
2742:alcoholic brew with
2642:Le Menagier de Paris
2064:domesticated rabbits
1533:Professional cooking
1521:into a multitude of
1219:) and pitted damson
885:(left), and his son
608:-coated spices like
490:estates of the realm
480:was commonplace and
319:The Life of Blessed
8412:Kingdom of Portugal
8279:Old Church Slavonic
8264:Anglo-Saxon England
7799:Historical Japanese
7634:Transylvanian Saxon
7502:Indigenous American
5456:The History of Food
5212:. London: Collins.
5114:. London: Sceptre.
4337:Giraldus Cambrensis
4152:Deutsche SpeiĂźkamer
3995:Vallesia, 40, 1985.
3324:early modern period
3203:, the term for the
3088:with strawberries,
3031:Sweets and desserts
2973:Hildegard of Bingen
2687:, a mix of various
2309:Li livres dou santé
2192:such as whales and
1712:, and many similar
1084:early modern period
1012:Countess of Lincoln
879:Charles V of France
559:theory proposed by
557:four bodily humours
486:developed countries
265:Mediterranean Basin
52:early modern period
8593:In popular culture
8558:Crusading movement
8430:Hundred Years' War
8289:Civitas Schinesghe
8274:Carolingian Empire
8259:Kingdom of Croatia
8212:Barbarian kingdoms
7879:Korean royal court
7824:History of seafood
7789:Historical Chinese
7764:Antebellum America
7604:Pennsylvania Dutch
6216:Equatorial Guinean
6186:Dominican Republic
5543:Medieval cookbooks
5537:Academic resources
4341:Edward Heron-Allen
4267:The New York Times
3426:Medieval household
3397:Middle Ages portal
3328:Bartolomeo Platina
3279:
3220:cappelli di turchi
3058:with sugar, sweet
2998:
2993:Tacuinum Sanitatis
2910:grains of paradise
2858:
2524:grains of paradise
2454:
2313:
2198:Holy Roman Emperor
2182:
2177:Tacuinum Sanitatis
1992:
1962:, Northern French
1940:
1935:Tacuinum Sanitatis
1792:
1787:Tacuinum Sanitatis
1741:
1602:
1553:
1442:Du fait de cuisine
1405:
1307:
1138:
1008:Robert Grosseteste
996:
947:alcoholic beverage
907:
905:, around 1455–60).
772:Regional variation
482:social hierarchies
401:
330:
251:, particularly as
33:
8775:
8774:
8684:Basic topics list
8485:Swiss mercenaries
8435:Wars of the Roses
8342:Kingdom of Poland
8327:Holy Roman Empire
8194:Early Middle Ages
8152:
8151:
7894:Thirteen Colonies
7754:Ancient Israelite
6954:Papua New Guinean
5752:Intercontinental
5578:on medieval bread
5565:Project Gutenberg
5560:The Forme of Cury
5521:978-0-19-956335-7
5486:978-0-8122-1999-9
5467:978-1-4051-8119-8
5421:978-2-262-03318-7
5245:978-0-300-11199-6
5161:978-3-527-31674-8
5140:978-1-85285-201-6
5081:978-1-4073-1418-1
5058:978-88-222-6073-4
4314:978-0-8369-1471-9
3320:MĂ©nagier de Paris
3302:Châlons-sur-Marne
3144:Ă©pices de chambre
2906:Eleanor of Naples
2708:Early Middle Ages
2148:Pope Innocent III
2018:industry, as was
1833:wild strawberries
1819:. Farther north,
1557:industrialization
1492:, conserving, or
1462:Food preservation
1283:Medieval kitchens
1192:The Forme of Cury
1088:Theodora Doukaina
1069:with the help of
1043:ladies-in-waiting
745:Westminster Abbey
740:Pope Benedict XII
676:Calorie structure
576:slowly and cause
472:Class constraints
338:Orthodox Churches
326:Pietro Lorenzetti
66:Early Middle Ages
56:European cuisines
40:European cultures
8795:
8788:Medieval cuisine
8765:
8764:
8755:
8754:
8745:
8704:Medieval studies
8548:Church and State
8422:Late Middle Ages
8314:High Middle Ages
8232:Christianization
8202:Migration Period
8179:
8172:
8165:
8156:
8155:
8142:
8141:
8132:
8131:
8122:
8112:
8111:
8102:
8101:
8094:Drink portal
8092:
8091:
8090:
8080:
8079:
8060:Meal preparation
7973:List of cuisines
7819:History of bread
7744:Ancient Egyptian
7721:Ritual slaughter
7579:Louisiana Creole
7517:Italian American
7336:African American
6325:Greek Macedonian
5619:
5612:
5605:
5596:
5595:
5525:
5513:
5498:
5471:
5459:
5448:
5436:
5425:
5406:
5379:
5367:
5356:
5337:
5325:
5314:
5302:
5291:
5272:
5260:
5249:
5237:
5223:
5211:
5200:
5173:
5144:
5125:
5106:
5085:
5062:
5043:
5022:
5010:
4999:
4987:
4976:
4957:
4930:
4923:
4917:
4910:
4904:
4876:
4870:
4867:
4861:
4858:
4852:
4849:children's books
4841:
4835:
4834:
4818:
4812:
4809:
4803:
4800:
4794:
4791:
4785:
4782:
4776:
4769:
4763:
4762:, pages 120–121.
4756:
4750:
4747:
4741:
4738:
4732:
4729:
4723:
4720:
4714:
4711:
4705:
4702:
4696:
4693:
4687:
4684:
4678:
4675:
4669:
4666:
4660:
4657:
4651:
4644:
4638:
4627:
4621:
4618:
4612:
4609:
4603:
4600:
4594:
4591:
4585:
4584:
4582:
4580:
4565:
4559:
4552:
4546:
4539:
4533:
4530:
4524:
4521:
4515:
4512:
4506:
4503:
4497:
4494:
4488:
4485:
4479:
4476:
4470:
4467:
4461:
4458:
4452:
4449:
4443:
4440:
4434:
4431:
4425:
4422:
4416:
4413:
4407:
4404:
4398:
4395:
4389:
4386:
4380:
4373:
4367:
4364:
4358:
4334:
4328:
4325:
4319:
4318:
4298:
4292:
4289:
4283:
4282:
4280:
4278:
4258:
4252:
4249:
4243:
4240:
4234:
4227:
4221:
4218:
4212:
4205:
4199:
4192:
4186:
4183:
4177:
4174:
4168:
4165:
4159:
4144:
4138:
4135:
4129:
4126:
4120:
4117:
4111:
4108:
4102:
4099:
4093:
4090:
4084:
4081:
4075:
4072:
4066:
4059:
4053:
4050:
4044:
4037:
4031:
4024:
4018:
4011:
4005:
4002:
3996:
3989:
3983:
3973:
3967:
3964:
3958:
3952:Terence Scully,
3950:
3944:
3941:
3935:
3932:
3926:
3919:
3913:
3910:
3904:
3901:
3895:
3892:
3886:
3883:
3877:
3874:
3868:
3865:
3859:
3856:
3850:
3847:
3841:
3838:
3832:
3829:
3823:
3820:
3811:
3804:
3795:
3792:
3786:
3783:
3777:
3776:
3766:
3734:
3728:
3727:
3725:
3723:
3714:. 15 July 2004.
3704:
3698:
3695:
3689:
3686:
3680:
3677:
3671:
3668:
3662:
3659:
3653:
3650:
3644:
3641:
3635:
3632:
3623:
3620:
3614:
3607:
3601:
3598:
3592:
3589:
3580:
3577:
3571:
3570:
3568:
3566:
3551:
3545:
3538:
3532:
3525:
3519:
3516:
3510:
3507:
3501:
3498:
3492:
3489:
3483:
3480:
3471:
3468:
3462:
3459:
3453:
3450:
3399:
3394:
3393:
3385:
3380:
3379:
3285:Liber de Coquina
3108:can be found in
2912:, a relative of
2744:original gravity
2716:High Middle Ages
2228:Hanseatic League
2162:Fish and seafood
1582:Jacques de Vitry
1578:Canterbury Tales
1574:Geoffrey Chaucer
1548:Canterbury Tales
1401:Verrucole Castle
1384:(from the Latin
1316:Late Middle Ages
1187:Tart de brymlent
1118:Food preparation
1028:multiple courses
729:
728:
724:
718:
717:
713:
704:
703:
699:
595:
398:
303:
295:
287:
189:Late Middle Ages
36:Medieval cuisine
30:
8803:
8802:
8798:
8797:
8796:
8794:
8793:
8792:
8778:
8777:
8776:
8771:
8733:
8714:Neo-medievalism
8662:
8598:Itinerant court
8521:
8416:
8337:Georgian Empire
8322:Norman Conquest
8308:
8254:Frankish Empire
8188:
8183:
8153:
8148:
8088:
8086:
8082:Food portal
8074:
8066:
7994:
7961:
7898:
7730:
7643:
7351:Arab-Indonesian
7324:
7305:Western Saharan
6777:Liechtensteiner
6342:Guinea-Bissauan
5978:Channel Islands
5866:Southwestern US
5786:
5777:
5628:
5623:
5593:
5588:Journal article
5554:British Library
5550:Wayback Machine
5532:
5522:
5506:, eds. (2006).
5487:
5468:
5445:
5422:
5395:
5376:
5353:
5334:
5311:
5288:
5269:
5246:
5220:
5189:
5162:
5141:
5122:
5103:
5082:
5059:
5040:
5019:
4996:
4973:
4954:
4938:
4933:
4924:
4920:
4911:
4907:
4894:A. ascalonensis
4877:
4873:
4868:
4864:
4859:
4855:
4842:
4838:
4819:
4815:
4810:
4806:
4801:
4797:
4792:
4788:
4783:
4779:
4770:
4766:
4757:
4753:
4748:
4744:
4739:
4735:
4730:
4726:
4721:
4717:
4712:
4708:
4703:
4699:
4694:
4690:
4685:
4681:
4676:
4672:
4667:
4663:
4658:
4654:
4645:
4641:
4628:
4624:
4619:
4615:
4610:
4606:
4601:
4597:
4592:
4588:
4578:
4576:
4567:
4566:
4562:
4553:
4549:
4540:
4536:
4531:
4527:
4522:
4518:
4513:
4509:
4504:
4500:
4495:
4491:
4486:
4482:
4477:
4473:
4468:
4464:
4459:
4455:
4450:
4446:
4441:
4437:
4432:
4428:
4423:
4419:
4414:
4410:
4405:
4401:
4396:
4392:
4387:
4383:
4374:
4370:
4365:
4361:
4335:
4331:
4326:
4322:
4315:
4299:
4295:
4290:
4286:
4276:
4274:
4259:
4255:
4250:
4246:
4241:
4237:
4228:
4224:
4219:
4215:
4206:
4202:
4193:
4189:
4184:
4180:
4175:
4171:
4166:
4162:
4148:Hieronymus Bock
4145:
4141:
4136:
4132:
4127:
4123:
4118:
4114:
4109:
4105:
4100:
4096:
4091:
4087:
4082:
4078:
4073:
4069:
4060:
4056:
4051:
4047:
4038:
4034:
4025:
4021:
4017:, pages 176–77.
4012:
4008:
4003:
3999:
3990:
3986:
3974:
3970:
3965:
3961:
3951:
3947:
3942:
3938:
3933:
3929:
3920:
3916:
3911:
3907:
3902:
3898:
3893:
3889:
3884:
3880:
3875:
3871:
3866:
3862:
3857:
3853:
3848:
3844:
3839:
3835:
3830:
3826:
3821:
3814:
3805:
3798:
3793:
3789:
3784:
3780:
3735:
3731:
3721:
3719:
3706:
3705:
3701:
3696:
3692:
3687:
3683:
3678:
3674:
3669:
3665:
3660:
3656:
3651:
3647:
3642:
3638:
3633:
3626:
3621:
3617:
3608:
3604:
3599:
3595:
3590:
3583:
3578:
3574:
3564:
3562:
3553:
3552:
3548:
3539:
3535:
3531:, pages 155–59.
3526:
3522:
3517:
3513:
3508:
3504:
3499:
3495:
3490:
3486:
3481:
3474:
3469:
3465:
3460:
3456:
3451:
3444:
3440:
3435:
3411:Guillaume Tirel
3395:
3388:
3381:
3374:
3371:
3254:
3228:
3033:
2902:Cardinal Riario
2844:
2752:
2635:Norman Conquest
2622:ruins the teeth
2560:
2558:History of beer
2554:
2446:
2444:History of wine
2440:
2340:Roman antiquity
2301:
2205:Leo of Rozmital
2164:
2068:bred and raised
2012:Lamb and mutton
2000:working animals
1984:
1922:
1774:
1594:
1535:
1459:
1435:, and numerous
1285:
1120:
963:
934:and late-night
871:
780:
774:
726:
722:
721:
715:
711:
710:
701:
697:
696:
688:Earl of Warwick
678:
616:, and seeds of
552:
546:
506:number of ranks
474:
450:monastic orders
311:
301:
296:While awaiting
293:
285:
261:
17:
12:
11:
5:
8801:
8791:
8790:
8773:
8772:
8770:
8769:
8759:
8749:
8738:
8735:
8734:
8732:
8731:
8726:
8721:
8716:
8711:
8709:Misconceptions
8706:
8701:
8696:
8691:
8686:
8681:
8676:
8670:
8668:
8664:
8663:
8661:
8660:
8655:
8650:
8645:
8640:
8635:
8630:
8625:
8620:
8615:
8610:
8605:
8600:
8595:
8590:
8585:
8580:
8575:
8570:
8565:
8560:
8555:
8550:
8545:
8540:
8535:
8529:
8527:
8523:
8522:
8520:
8519:
8517:Little Ice Age
8514:
8513:
8512:
8502:
8497:
8492:
8487:
8482:
8477:
8472:
8470:Western Schism
8467:
8462:
8457:
8452:
8447:
8442:
8437:
8432:
8426:
8424:
8418:
8417:
8415:
8414:
8409:
8404:
8399:
8394:
8389:
8384:
8379:
8374:
8369:
8364:
8359:
8354:
8349:
8344:
8339:
8334:
8329:
8324:
8318:
8316:
8310:
8309:
8307:
8306:
8301:
8296:
8291:
8286:
8281:
8276:
8271:
8266:
8261:
8256:
8251:
8246:
8241:
8236:
8235:
8234:
8224:
8219:
8217:Late antiquity
8214:
8209:
8204:
8198:
8196:
8190:
8189:
8182:
8181:
8174:
8167:
8159:
8150:
8149:
8147:
8146:
8136:
8126:
8116:
8106:
8096:
8084:
8071:
8068:
8067:
8065:
8064:
8063:
8062:
8052:
8051:
8050:
8040:
8039:
8038:
8033:
8023:
8018:
8013:
8008:
8002:
8000:
7996:
7995:
7993:
7992:
7991:
7990:
7983:Lists of foods
7980:
7975:
7969:
7967:
7963:
7962:
7960:
7959:
7954:
7949:
7944:
7939:
7934:
7933:
7932:
7927:
7917:
7912:
7906:
7904:
7900:
7899:
7897:
7896:
7891:
7886:
7881:
7876:
7871:
7866:
7861:
7856:
7851:
7846:
7841:
7836:
7831:
7826:
7821:
7816:
7811:
7806:
7801:
7796:
7791:
7786:
7781:
7776:
7771:
7766:
7761:
7756:
7751:
7746:
7740:
7738:
7732:
7731:
7729:
7728:
7723:
7718:
7717:
7716:
7706:
7701:
7696:
7695:
7694:
7684:
7679:
7678:
7677:
7672:
7667:
7657:
7651:
7649:
7645:
7644:
7642:
7641:
7636:
7631:
7626:
7621:
7616:
7611:
7606:
7601:
7596:
7591:
7586:
7581:
7576:
7571:
7566:
7565:
7564:
7559:
7554:
7549:
7544:
7539:
7534:
7529:
7519:
7514:
7509:
7504:
7499:
7498:
7497:
7492:
7487:
7482:
7477:
7467:
7462:
7460:Greek-American
7457:
7452:
7447:
7446:
7445:
7440:
7435:
7430:
7425:
7420:
7415:
7410:
7405:
7400:
7395:
7385:
7380:
7375:
7370:
7365:
7360:
7355:
7354:
7353:
7343:
7338:
7332:
7330:
7326:
7325:
7323:
7322:
7317:
7312:
7307:
7302:
7297:
7292:
7287:
7282:
7277:
7272:
7267:
7262:
7257:
7252:
7247:
7242:
7237:
7232:
7231:
7230:
7220:
7215:
7210:
7205:
7200:
7195:
7190:
7185:
7180:
7179:
7178:
7173:
7168:
7163:
7158:
7153:
7148:
7143:
7138:
7133:
7128:
7118:
7113:
7108:
7103:
7098:
7093:
7091:Sierra Leonean
7088:
7083:
7078:
7073:
7068:
7063:
7058:
7053:
7048:
7043:
7042:
7041:
7036:
7031:
7026:
7021:
7016:
7011:
7006:
7001:
6996:
6986:
6981:
6976:
6971:
6966:
6961:
6956:
6951:
6946:
6941:
6936:
6931:
6926:
6921:
6916:
6911:
6906:
6901:
6896:
6891:
6886:
6881:
6876:
6871:
6866:
6861:
6856:
6851:
6846:
6841:
6836:
6831:
6826:
6821:
6820:
6819:
6814:
6804:
6799:
6794:
6789:
6784:
6779:
6774:
6769:
6764:
6759:
6754:
6749:
6744:
6739:
6734:
6729:
6728:
6727:
6722:
6712:
6707:
6702:
6697:
6696:
6695:
6685:
6680:
6675:
6674:
6673:
6668:
6663:
6658:
6653:
6648:
6643:
6638:
6633:
6628:
6623:
6613:
6608:
6603:
6598:
6593:
6592:
6591:
6586:
6581:
6576:
6571:
6566:
6561:
6556:
6551:
6546:
6541:
6536:
6531:
6526:
6516:
6515:
6514:
6509:
6504:
6499:
6494:
6489:
6484:
6479:
6474:
6469:
6464:
6459:
6454:
6449:
6444:
6439:
6434:
6429:
6424:
6419:
6414:
6409:
6404:
6399:
6394:
6389:
6384:
6379:
6369:
6364:
6359:
6354:
6349:
6344:
6339:
6334:
6333:
6332:
6327:
6322:
6317:
6307:
6302:
6297:
6292:
6287:
6282:
6281:
6280:
6275:
6273:French Guianan
6270:
6265:
6255:
6250:
6249:
6248:
6238:
6233:
6228:
6223:
6218:
6213:
6208:
6203:
6198:
6193:
6188:
6183:
6178:
6173:
6172:
6171:
6166:
6156:
6151:
6146:
6141:
6136:
6131:
6126:
6125:
6124:
6119:
6114:
6109:
6104:
6099:
6094:
6089:
6079:
6074:
6069:
6064:
6063:
6062:
6057:
6047:
6042:
6037:
6032:
6027:
6022:
6017:
6012:
6011:
6010:
6005:
6000:
5995:
5993:Northern Irish
5990:
5985:
5980:
5975:
5965:
5960:
5955:
5950:
5945:
5940:
5935:
5930:
5925:
5920:
5915:
5910:
5905:
5900:
5895:
5890:
5885:
5880:
5875:
5874:
5873:
5868:
5863:
5858:
5853:
5848:
5843:
5838:
5833:
5828:
5823:
5818:
5808:
5803:
5798:
5792:
5790:
5779:
5778:
5776:
5775:
5774:
5773:
5771:Middle Eastern
5768:
5763:
5761:Latin American
5758:
5750:
5745:
5744:
5743:
5738:
5733:
5728:
5718:
5717:
5716:
5711:
5706:
5701:
5696:
5686:
5685:
5684:
5679:
5674:
5669:
5659:
5658:
5657:
5652:
5647:
5636:
5634:
5630:
5629:
5622:
5621:
5614:
5607:
5599:
5592:
5591:
5585:
5579:
5573:
5567:
5556:
5540:
5533:
5531:
5530:External links
5528:
5527:
5526:
5520:
5499:
5485:
5472:
5466:
5449:
5443:
5426:
5420:
5407:
5394:978-0520294004
5393:
5380:
5374:
5357:
5352:978-0851158327
5351:
5338:
5332:
5315:
5309:
5292:
5286:
5273:
5267:
5250:
5244:
5228:Freedman, Paul
5224:
5218:
5201:
5187:
5174:
5160:
5145:
5139:
5126:
5121:978-0340896419
5120:
5107:
5101:
5086:
5080:
5068:Christie, Neil
5063:
5057:
5044:
5038:
5023:
5017:
5000:
4994:
4977:
4971:
4958:
4952:
4937:
4934:
4932:
4931:
4918:
4905:
4871:
4862:
4853:
4836:
4813:
4804:
4795:
4786:
4777:
4764:
4751:
4742:
4733:
4724:
4715:
4706:
4697:
4688:
4679:
4670:
4661:
4652:
4639:
4622:
4613:
4604:
4595:
4586:
4560:
4547:
4545:, pages 102–3.
4534:
4525:
4516:
4507:
4498:
4489:
4480:
4471:
4462:
4453:
4444:
4435:
4426:
4417:
4408:
4399:
4390:
4381:
4368:
4359:
4329:
4320:
4313:
4293:
4284:
4253:
4244:
4235:
4222:
4213:
4200:
4196:Food in Change
4187:
4178:
4169:
4160:
4139:
4130:
4121:
4112:
4103:
4094:
4085:
4076:
4067:
4065:, pages 16–18.
4063:Food in Change
4054:
4045:
4043:, pages 40–41.
4032:
4030:, pages 27–51.
4019:
4006:
3997:
3984:
3968:
3959:
3945:
3936:
3927:
3925:, pages 61–81.
3914:
3905:
3896:
3887:
3878:
3869:
3860:
3851:
3842:
3833:
3824:
3812:
3808:Food in Change
3796:
3787:
3778:
3749:(8): 1129–35.
3729:
3699:
3690:
3681:
3672:
3663:
3654:
3645:
3636:
3624:
3615:
3602:
3593:
3581:
3572:
3546:
3533:
3520:
3511:
3502:
3493:
3484:
3472:
3463:
3454:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3402:
3401:
3400:
3386:
3370:
3367:
3253:
3250:
3227:
3224:
3216:alla Siciliana
3136:issue de table
3084:, sauces, and
3032:
3029:
3013:above the salt
2843:
2840:
2788:was used as a
2756:ancient Greeks
2751:
2748:
2656:, but without
2556:Main article:
2553:
2550:
2442:Main article:
2439:
2436:
2300:
2297:
2240:Constantinople
2190:marine mammals
2180:, 15th century
2163:
2160:
2136:barnacle goose
2066:were commonly
1983:
1980:
1938:, 14th century
1921:
1920:Dairy products
1918:
1805:bitter oranges
1790:, 15th century
1773:
1770:
1593:
1590:
1534:
1531:
1474:microorganisms
1458:
1455:
1284:
1281:
1142:Kitchen stoves
1133:Kuchenmaistrey
1119:
1116:
1096:Doge of Venice
1092:Domenico Selvo
962:
959:
870:
867:
776:Main article:
773:
770:
707:Henry Stafford
677:
674:
548:Main article:
545:
542:
538:sumptuary laws
473:
470:
442:Thomas Aquinas
409:barnacle geese
350:dairy products
321:Saint Humility
310:
307:
260:
257:
166:sumptuary laws
31:, 14th century
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8800:
8789:
8786:
8785:
8783:
8768:
8760:
8758:
8750:
8748:
8744:
8740:
8739:
8736:
8730:
8727:
8725:
8722:
8720:
8717:
8715:
8712:
8710:
8707:
8705:
8702:
8700:
8697:
8695:
8692:
8690:
8687:
8685:
8682:
8680:
8677:
8675:
8672:
8671:
8669:
8665:
8659:
8656:
8654:
8651:
8649:
8646:
8644:
8641:
8639:
8636:
8634:
8631:
8629:
8626:
8624:
8621:
8619:
8616:
8614:
8611:
8609:
8606:
8604:
8601:
8599:
8596:
8594:
8591:
8589:
8586:
8584:
8581:
8579:
8576:
8574:
8571:
8569:
8566:
8564:
8561:
8559:
8556:
8554:
8551:
8549:
8546:
8544:
8541:
8539:
8536:
8534:
8531:
8530:
8528:
8524:
8518:
8515:
8511:
8508:
8507:
8506:
8503:
8501:
8498:
8496:
8493:
8491:
8488:
8486:
8483:
8481:
8478:
8476:
8473:
8471:
8468:
8466:
8463:
8461:
8458:
8456:
8453:
8451:
8448:
8446:
8443:
8441:
8438:
8436:
8433:
8431:
8428:
8427:
8425:
8423:
8419:
8413:
8410:
8408:
8405:
8403:
8400:
8398:
8395:
8393:
8390:
8388:
8385:
8383:
8380:
8378:
8377:Scholasticism
8375:
8373:
8370:
8368:
8365:
8363:
8360:
8358:
8355:
8353:
8350:
8348:
8345:
8343:
8340:
8338:
8335:
8333:
8330:
8328:
8325:
8323:
8320:
8319:
8317:
8315:
8311:
8305:
8302:
8300:
8297:
8295:
8292:
8290:
8287:
8285:
8282:
8280:
8277:
8275:
8272:
8270:
8267:
8265:
8262:
8260:
8257:
8255:
8252:
8250:
8247:
8245:
8242:
8240:
8239:Rise of Islam
8237:
8233:
8230:
8229:
8228:
8225:
8223:
8220:
8218:
8215:
8213:
8210:
8208:
8205:
8203:
8200:
8199:
8197:
8195:
8191:
8187:
8180:
8175:
8173:
8168:
8166:
8161:
8160:
8157:
8145:
8137:
8135:
8127:
8125:
8121:
8117:
8115:
8107:
8105:
8097:
8095:
8085:
8083:
8078:
8073:
8072:
8069:
8061:
8058:
8057:
8056:
8053:
8049:
8046:
8045:
8044:
8041:
8037:
8034:
8032:
8029:
8028:
8027:
8024:
8022:
8019:
8017:
8016:Culinary arts
8014:
8012:
8009:
8007:
8004:
8003:
8001:
7997:
7989:
7986:
7985:
7984:
7981:
7979:
7976:
7974:
7971:
7970:
7968:
7964:
7958:
7955:
7953:
7950:
7948:
7945:
7943:
7940:
7938:
7935:
7931:
7928:
7926:
7923:
7922:
7921:
7918:
7916:
7913:
7911:
7908:
7907:
7905:
7901:
7895:
7892:
7890:
7887:
7885:
7882:
7880:
7877:
7875:
7872:
7870:
7867:
7865:
7862:
7860:
7857:
7855:
7852:
7850:
7847:
7845:
7842:
7840:
7837:
7835:
7832:
7830:
7827:
7825:
7822:
7820:
7817:
7815:
7812:
7810:
7807:
7805:
7802:
7800:
7797:
7795:
7792:
7790:
7787:
7785:
7782:
7780:
7777:
7775:
7772:
7770:
7767:
7765:
7762:
7760:
7759:Ancient Roman
7757:
7755:
7752:
7750:
7749:Ancient Greek
7747:
7745:
7742:
7741:
7739:
7737:
7733:
7727:
7724:
7722:
7719:
7715:
7712:
7711:
7710:
7707:
7705:
7702:
7700:
7697:
7693:
7690:
7689:
7688:
7685:
7683:
7680:
7676:
7673:
7671:
7668:
7666:
7665:Goan Catholic
7663:
7662:
7661:
7658:
7656:
7653:
7652:
7650:
7646:
7640:
7637:
7635:
7632:
7630:
7627:
7625:
7622:
7620:
7617:
7615:
7612:
7610:
7607:
7605:
7602:
7600:
7597:
7595:
7592:
7590:
7587:
7585:
7582:
7580:
7577:
7575:
7572:
7570:
7567:
7563:
7560:
7558:
7555:
7553:
7550:
7548:
7545:
7543:
7540:
7538:
7535:
7533:
7530:
7528:
7525:
7524:
7523:
7520:
7518:
7515:
7513:
7510:
7508:
7505:
7503:
7500:
7496:
7493:
7491:
7488:
7486:
7483:
7481:
7478:
7476:
7473:
7472:
7471:
7468:
7466:
7463:
7461:
7458:
7456:
7453:
7451:
7450:Crimean Tatar
7448:
7444:
7441:
7439:
7436:
7434:
7431:
7429:
7426:
7424:
7421:
7419:
7416:
7414:
7411:
7409:
7406:
7404:
7401:
7399:
7396:
7394:
7391:
7390:
7389:
7386:
7384:
7381:
7379:
7376:
7374:
7371:
7369:
7366:
7364:
7361:
7359:
7356:
7352:
7349:
7348:
7347:
7344:
7342:
7339:
7337:
7334:
7333:
7331:
7327:
7321:
7318:
7316:
7313:
7311:
7308:
7306:
7303:
7301:
7298:
7296:
7293:
7291:
7288:
7286:
7283:
7281:
7278:
7276:
7273:
7271:
7268:
7266:
7263:
7261:
7258:
7256:
7253:
7251:
7248:
7246:
7243:
7241:
7238:
7236:
7233:
7229:
7226:
7225:
7224:
7221:
7219:
7216:
7214:
7211:
7209:
7206:
7204:
7201:
7199:
7196:
7194:
7191:
7189:
7186:
7184:
7181:
7177:
7174:
7172:
7169:
7167:
7164:
7162:
7159:
7157:
7154:
7152:
7149:
7147:
7144:
7142:
7139:
7137:
7134:
7132:
7129:
7127:
7124:
7123:
7122:
7119:
7117:
7116:South African
7114:
7112:
7109:
7107:
7104:
7102:
7099:
7097:
7094:
7092:
7089:
7087:
7084:
7082:
7079:
7077:
7074:
7072:
7071:Saudi Arabian
7069:
7067:
7064:
7062:
7059:
7057:
7054:
7052:
7049:
7047:
7044:
7040:
7037:
7035:
7032:
7030:
7027:
7025:
7022:
7020:
7017:
7015:
7012:
7010:
7007:
7005:
7002:
7000:
6997:
6995:
6992:
6991:
6990:
6987:
6985:
6982:
6980:
6977:
6975:
6972:
6970:
6967:
6965:
6962:
6960:
6957:
6955:
6952:
6950:
6947:
6945:
6942:
6940:
6937:
6935:
6932:
6930:
6927:
6925:
6922:
6920:
6917:
6915:
6912:
6910:
6907:
6905:
6902:
6900:
6897:
6895:
6892:
6890:
6887:
6885:
6882:
6880:
6877:
6875:
6872:
6870:
6867:
6865:
6862:
6860:
6857:
6855:
6852:
6850:
6847:
6845:
6842:
6840:
6837:
6835:
6832:
6830:
6827:
6825:
6822:
6818:
6815:
6813:
6810:
6809:
6808:
6805:
6803:
6800:
6798:
6795:
6793:
6790:
6788:
6787:Luxembourgish
6785:
6783:
6780:
6778:
6775:
6773:
6770:
6768:
6765:
6763:
6760:
6758:
6755:
6753:
6750:
6748:
6745:
6743:
6740:
6738:
6735:
6733:
6730:
6726:
6723:
6721:
6718:
6717:
6716:
6713:
6711:
6708:
6706:
6703:
6701:
6698:
6694:
6691:
6690:
6689:
6686:
6684:
6681:
6679:
6676:
6672:
6669:
6667:
6664:
6662:
6659:
6657:
6654:
6652:
6649:
6647:
6644:
6642:
6639:
6637:
6634:
6632:
6629:
6627:
6624:
6622:
6619:
6618:
6617:
6614:
6612:
6609:
6607:
6604:
6602:
6599:
6597:
6594:
6590:
6587:
6585:
6582:
6580:
6577:
6575:
6572:
6570:
6567:
6565:
6562:
6560:
6557:
6555:
6552:
6550:
6547:
6545:
6542:
6540:
6537:
6535:
6532:
6530:
6527:
6525:
6522:
6521:
6520:
6517:
6513:
6510:
6508:
6507:Uttar Pradesh
6505:
6503:
6500:
6498:
6495:
6493:
6490:
6488:
6485:
6483:
6480:
6478:
6475:
6473:
6470:
6468:
6465:
6463:
6460:
6458:
6455:
6453:
6450:
6448:
6445:
6443:
6442:Maharashtrian
6440:
6438:
6435:
6433:
6430:
6428:
6425:
6423:
6420:
6418:
6415:
6413:
6410:
6408:
6405:
6403:
6402:Chhattisgarhi
6400:
6398:
6395:
6393:
6390:
6388:
6385:
6383:
6380:
6378:
6375:
6374:
6373:
6370:
6368:
6365:
6363:
6360:
6358:
6355:
6353:
6350:
6348:
6345:
6343:
6340:
6338:
6335:
6331:
6328:
6326:
6323:
6321:
6318:
6316:
6313:
6312:
6311:
6308:
6306:
6303:
6301:
6298:
6296:
6293:
6291:
6288:
6286:
6283:
6279:
6276:
6274:
6271:
6269:
6266:
6264:
6261:
6260:
6259:
6256:
6254:
6251:
6247:
6244:
6243:
6242:
6239:
6237:
6234:
6232:
6229:
6227:
6224:
6222:
6219:
6217:
6214:
6212:
6209:
6207:
6204:
6202:
6199:
6197:
6196:East Timorese
6194:
6192:
6189:
6187:
6184:
6182:
6179:
6177:
6174:
6170:
6167:
6165:
6162:
6161:
6160:
6157:
6155:
6152:
6150:
6147:
6145:
6142:
6140:
6137:
6135:
6132:
6130:
6127:
6123:
6120:
6118:
6115:
6113:
6110:
6108:
6105:
6103:
6100:
6098:
6095:
6093:
6090:
6088:
6085:
6084:
6083:
6080:
6078:
6075:
6073:
6070:
6068:
6065:
6061:
6058:
6056:
6053:
6052:
6051:
6048:
6046:
6043:
6041:
6038:
6036:
6033:
6031:
6028:
6026:
6023:
6021:
6018:
6016:
6013:
6009:
6006:
6004:
6001:
5999:
5996:
5994:
5991:
5989:
5986:
5984:
5981:
5979:
5976:
5974:
5971:
5970:
5969:
5966:
5964:
5961:
5959:
5956:
5954:
5951:
5949:
5946:
5944:
5941:
5939:
5936:
5934:
5931:
5929:
5926:
5924:
5921:
5919:
5916:
5914:
5911:
5909:
5906:
5904:
5901:
5899:
5896:
5894:
5891:
5889:
5886:
5884:
5881:
5879:
5876:
5872:
5869:
5867:
5864:
5862:
5859:
5857:
5854:
5852:
5849:
5847:
5844:
5842:
5839:
5837:
5836:Midwestern US
5834:
5832:
5829:
5827:
5824:
5822:
5819:
5817:
5814:
5813:
5812:
5809:
5807:
5804:
5802:
5799:
5797:
5794:
5793:
5791:
5789:
5784:
5780:
5772:
5769:
5767:
5766:Mediterranean
5764:
5762:
5759:
5757:
5754:
5753:
5751:
5749:
5746:
5742:
5739:
5737:
5734:
5732:
5729:
5727:
5724:
5723:
5722:
5719:
5715:
5712:
5710:
5707:
5705:
5702:
5700:
5697:
5695:
5692:
5691:
5690:
5687:
5683:
5680:
5678:
5675:
5673:
5670:
5668:
5665:
5664:
5663:
5660:
5656:
5653:
5651:
5648:
5646:
5643:
5642:
5641:
5638:
5637:
5635:
5631:
5627:
5620:
5615:
5613:
5608:
5606:
5601:
5600:
5597:
5589:
5586:
5583:
5580:
5577:
5574:
5571:
5568:
5566:
5562:
5561:
5557:
5555:
5551:
5547:
5544:
5541:
5538:
5535:
5534:
5523:
5517:
5512:
5511:
5505:
5504:Waldron, Tony
5500:
5496:
5492:
5488:
5482:
5478:
5473:
5469:
5463:
5458:
5457:
5450:
5446:
5444:0-85115-611-8
5440:
5435:
5434:
5427:
5423:
5417:
5413:
5408:
5404:
5400:
5396:
5390:
5386:
5381:
5377:
5375:0-521-49923-2
5371:
5366:
5365:
5358:
5354:
5348:
5344:
5339:
5335:
5333:0-271-01230-7
5329:
5324:
5323:
5316:
5312:
5310:0-19-820161-3
5306:
5301:
5300:
5293:
5289:
5287:0-275-94926-5
5283:
5279:
5274:
5270:
5268:0-415-96930-1
5264:
5259:
5258:
5251:
5247:
5241:
5236:
5235:
5229:
5225:
5221:
5219:0-00-632841-5
5215:
5210:
5209:
5202:
5198:
5194:
5190:
5188:0-85976-145-2
5184:
5180:
5175:
5171:
5167:
5163:
5157:
5153:
5152:
5146:
5142:
5136:
5132:
5127:
5123:
5117:
5113:
5108:
5104:
5102:0-8122-3224-0
5098:
5094:
5093:
5087:
5083:
5077:
5073:
5069:
5064:
5060:
5054:
5050:
5045:
5041:
5039:1-85285-148-1
5035:
5031:
5030:
5024:
5020:
5018:0-520-05722-8
5014:
5009:
5008:
5001:
4997:
4995:0-313-32147-7
4991:
4986:
4985:
4978:
4974:
4972:0-415-92994-6
4968:
4964:
4959:
4955:
4953:0-85976-145-2
4949:
4945:
4940:
4939:
4928:
4922:
4915:
4909:
4902:
4899:
4895:
4891:
4887:
4883:
4882:
4875:
4866:
4857:
4850:
4846:
4840:
4832:
4828:
4824:
4817:
4808:
4799:
4790:
4781:
4775:, pages 101–2
4774:
4768:
4761:
4755:
4746:
4737:
4728:
4719:
4710:
4701:
4692:
4683:
4674:
4665:
4656:
4649:
4643:
4636:
4632:
4626:
4617:
4608:
4599:
4590:
4574:
4570:
4564:
4557:
4551:
4544:
4538:
4529:
4520:
4511:
4502:
4493:
4484:
4475:
4466:
4457:
4448:
4439:
4430:
4421:
4412:
4403:
4394:
4385:
4378:
4372:
4363:
4357:
4354:
4353:0-7661-5755-5
4350:
4346:
4342:
4338:
4333:
4324:
4316:
4310:
4306:
4305:
4297:
4288:
4272:
4268:
4264:
4257:
4248:
4239:
4232:
4226:
4217:
4210:
4204:
4197:
4191:
4182:
4173:
4164:
4157:
4153:
4149:
4143:
4134:
4125:
4116:
4107:
4098:
4089:
4080:
4071:
4064:
4058:
4049:
4042:
4036:
4029:
4023:
4016:
4010:
4001:
3994:
3988:
3981:
3978:
3972:
3963:
3955:
3949:
3940:
3931:
3924:
3918:
3909:
3900:
3891:
3882:
3873:
3864:
3855:
3846:
3837:
3828:
3819:
3817:
3809:
3803:
3801:
3791:
3782:
3774:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3756:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3733:
3717:
3713:
3709:
3703:
3694:
3685:
3676:
3667:
3658:
3649:
3640:
3631:
3629:
3619:
3612:
3606:
3597:
3588:
3586:
3576:
3560:
3556:
3550:
3543:
3537:
3530:
3524:
3515:
3506:
3497:
3488:
3479:
3477:
3467:
3458:
3449:
3447:
3442:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3403:
3398:
3392:
3387:
3384:
3378:
3373:
3366:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3347:
3345:
3341:
3340:
3335:
3334:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3316:
3314:
3313:
3306:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3286:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3264:
3263:Forme of Cury
3258:
3249:
3246:
3240:
3236:
3233:
3223:
3221:
3218:, originally
3217:
3215:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3174:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3115:
3111:
3110:Forme of Cury
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3070:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3038:
3028:
3026:
3022:
3019:were made of
3018:
3014:
3009:
3005:
3003:
2995:
2994:
2988:
2984:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2941:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2855:
2854:
2848:
2839:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2774:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2747:
2745:
2739:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2704:
2702:
2698:
2692:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2677:
2675:
2674:
2669:
2665:
2664:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2640:
2636:
2629:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2613:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2571:, Poland and
2570:
2566:
2559:
2549:
2547:
2546:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2495:
2488:
2486:
2485:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2450:
2445:
2435:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2404:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2318:
2310:
2305:
2296:
2295:were common.
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2208:
2206:
2202:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2179:
2178:
2174:in a stream;
2173:
2168:
2159:
2157:
2151:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2072:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2032:domestic pigs
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1988:
1979:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1956:
1952:
1949:
1944:
1937:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1917:
1914:
1910:
1909:chili peppers
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1885:
1883:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1836:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1789:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1769:
1767:
1766:baker's dozen
1763:
1758:
1753:
1752:
1747:
1738:
1734:
1729:
1725:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1674:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1619:
1617:
1613:
1608:
1598:
1589:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1570:
1567:
1563:
1558:
1550:
1549:
1544:
1539:
1530:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1454:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1443:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1427:, page boys,
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1402:
1397:
1393:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1328:
1326:
1321:
1317:
1312:
1304:
1300:
1299:
1298:The Decameron
1294:
1289:
1280:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1264:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1193:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1179:, were thin.
1178:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1160:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1135:
1134:
1129:
1124:
1115:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1055:
1053:
1048:
1044:
1039:
1036:
1031:
1029:
1025:
1024:table manners
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1006:
1002:
994:, about 1410.
993:
992:
987:
983:
979:
975:
974:Duke of Berry
971:
967:
958:
956:
952:
948:
944:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
916:
912:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
880:
875:
866:
864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
830:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
793:Low Countries
790:
786:
785:British Isles
779:
769:
767:
761:
758:
754:
750:
746:
741:
737:
732:
708:
693:
689:
684:
673:
669:
667:
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
599:
594:
590:
586:
581:
579:
574:
569:
564:
562:
558:
551:
541:
539:
533:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
508:ranging from
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
469:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
433:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
399:, about 1480.
397:
392:
387:
382:
377:
375:
371:
367:
361:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
327:
323:
322:
315:
305:
299:
291:
281:
279:
274:
270:
266:
259:Dietary norms
256:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
185:
183:
182:working class
179:
175:
174:nouveau riche
171:
167:
162:
157:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
29:
23:
19:
8552:
8538:Architecture
8510:Great Famine
8500:Universities
8440:Hussite Wars
8357:Great Schism
8244:Papal States
7947:Note by Note
7925:New American
7858:
7614:Pontic Greek
7495:South Indian
7490:North Indian
7161:Extremaduran
7051:Saint Lucian
6725:South Korean
6720:North Korean
6584:Palembangese
6512:Uttarakhandi
5998:Saint Helena
5988:Gibraltarian
5856:Puerto Rican
5582:Book chapter
5559:
5509:
5476:
5455:
5432:
5411:
5403:j.ctt1rv6298
5384:
5363:
5342:
5321:
5298:
5277:
5256:
5233:
5207:
5178:
5150:
5130:
5111:
5091:
5071:
5048:
5028:
5006:
4983:
4962:
4943:
4921:
4913:
4908:
4900:
4897:
4893:
4879:
4874:
4865:
4856:
4839:
4822:
4816:
4807:
4798:
4789:
4780:
4772:
4767:
4759:
4754:
4745:
4736:
4727:
4718:
4709:
4700:
4691:
4682:
4673:
4664:
4655:
4647:
4642:
4634:
4625:
4616:
4607:
4598:
4589:
4577:. Retrieved
4563:
4550:
4542:
4537:
4528:
4519:
4510:
4501:
4492:
4483:
4474:
4465:
4456:
4447:
4438:
4429:
4420:
4411:
4402:
4393:
4384:
4376:
4371:
4362:
4344:
4332:
4323:
4303:
4296:
4287:
4275:. Retrieved
4266:
4256:
4247:
4238:
4230:
4225:
4216:
4208:
4203:
4195:
4190:
4181:
4172:
4163:
4155:
4151:
4142:
4133:
4124:
4115:
4106:
4097:
4088:
4079:
4070:
4062:
4057:
4048:
4040:
4035:
4027:
4022:
4014:
4009:
4000:
3992:
3987:
3979:
3976:
3971:
3962:
3953:
3948:
3939:
3930:
3922:
3917:
3908:
3899:
3890:
3881:
3872:
3863:
3854:
3845:
3836:
3827:
3810:, pages 2–4.
3807:
3790:
3781:
3746:
3742:
3732:
3720:. Retrieved
3712:The Guardian
3711:
3702:
3693:
3684:
3675:
3666:
3657:
3648:
3639:
3618:
3613:, pages 7–12
3610:
3605:
3596:
3575:
3563:. Retrieved
3549:
3541:
3536:
3528:
3523:
3514:
3505:
3496:
3487:
3466:
3457:
3358:
3348:
3337:
3331:
3319:
3317:
3310:
3307:
3293:
3283:
3280:
3261:
3244:
3241:
3237:
3229:
3219:
3212:
3200:
3193:
3181:
3171:
3167:
3159:
3143:
3135:
3119:
3118:
3114:Torte de Bry
3113:
3109:
3078:Anglo-Norman
3067:
3039:
3034:
3017:salt cellars
3006:
2999:
2991:
2942:
2865:black pepper
2859:
2851:
2835:
2823:
2819:
2803:
2802:
2771:
2764:distillation
2753:
2740:
2705:
2693:
2678:
2671:
2667:
2661:
2645:
2641:
2631:
2615:
2561:
2543:
2507:bactericides
2492:
2489:
2482:
2455:
2405:
2370:), mulberry
2363:
2334:
2314:
2308:
2209:
2201:Frederick II
2183:
2175:
2170:Fishing for
2152:
2073:
2036:suckling pig
1993:
1972:whey cheeses
1966:and Italian
1953:
1941:
1933:
1893:kidney beans
1886:
1837:
1809:pomegranates
1793:
1785:
1749:
1742:
1736:
1688:, broth, or
1675:
1620:
1603:
1586:John Lydgate
1577:
1571:
1554:
1546:
1460:
1457:Preservation
1450:
1440:
1415:, sauciers,
1406:
1385:
1381:
1344:waffle irons
1329:
1308:
1296:
1265:
1190:
1186:
1181:
1139:
1131:
1104:Peter Damian
1056:
1032:
1016:rere-suppers
1010:advised the
997:
989:
985:
954:
942:
935:
908:
903:Jean Fouquet
898:
833:
821:pomegranates
815:wine) while
781:
762:
733:
679:
670:
582:
578:putrefaction
565:
553:
534:
475:
434:
402:
379:
362:
331:
318:
283:
262:
213:black pepper
186:
178:Social norms
158:
136:, and other
60:
35:
34:
18:
8767:WikiProject
8694:Medievalism
8533:Agriculture
8397:Manorialism
8392:Communalism
8387:Monasticism
8304:Reconquista
8294:Kievan Rus'
8134:WikiProject
7714:Kosher food
7096:Singaporean
7086:Seychellois
7061:Sammarinese
6944:Palestinian
6904:New Zealand
6874:Montenegrin
6844:Mauritanian
6839:Marshallese
6651:Piedmontese
6579:Minangkabau
6549:Gorontalese
6330:Heptanesean
6246:Kapampangan
6169:Greenlandic
6045:Cameroonian
5913:Bangladeshi
5903:Azerbaijani
5861:Southern US
5846:New Mexican
5841:New English
5816:Californian
5633:Continental
5576:Information
5495:j.ctt3fj2zx
4631:Black Death
4211:, page 198.
4158:, page 163.
3743:Eur Spine J
3722:17 December
3383:Food portal
3209:sponge cake
3156:Montpellier
3048:mulled wine
2918:long pepper
2904:offered to
2778:distillates
2750:Distillates
2720:Netherlands
2712:monasteries
2681:Carolingian
2644:was called
2593:Reconquista
2573:Scandinavia
2511:mulled wine
2499:white grape
2494:Le Viandier
2344:pomegranate
2326:bourgeoisie
1951:its place.
1780:Harvesting
1507:lemon juice
1332:frying pans
1318:a separate
1207:with fish (
982:salt cellar
943:rèire-sopar
891:salt cellar
863:almond milk
797:Scandinavia
787:, northern
683:Black Death
598:confections
438:Benedictine
415:, and even
253:almond milk
44:Middle Ages
42:during the
8689:Land terms
8643:Technology
8623:Philosophy
8603:Literature
8568:Demography
8269:Viking Age
7957:Vegetarian
7736:Historical
7480:Indonesian
7428:Indonesian
7398:Australian
7320:Zimbabwean
7300:Vietnamese
7295:Venezuelan
7183:Sri Lankan
7151:Cantabrian
7126:Andalusian
7076:Senegalese
7056:Salvadoran
7004:Circassian
6974:Portuguese
6959:Paraguayan
6949:Panamanian
6909:Nicaraguan
6884:Mozambican
6864:Monégasque
6817:Sarawakian
6792:Macedonian
6782:Lithuanian
6646:Neapolitan
6519:Indonesian
6477:Rajasthani
6452:Meghalayan
6427:Jharkhandi
6382:Arunachali
6337:Guatemalan
6268:La RĂ©union
6201:Ecuadorian
6176:Djiboutian
5923:Belarusian
5893:Australian
5821:Floribbean
4936:References
4637:, page 36.
4379:, page 11.
4233:, page 89.
4198:, page 18.
3355:Vinidarius
3292:, and the
3276:sandalwood
3205:terracotta
3037:Old French
2804:Aqua vitae
2773:aqua vitae
2736:small beer
2732:John Locke
2618:bad breath
2602:camel milk
2412:buttermilk
2352:blackberry
2246:including
2224:Baltic Sea
1882:sauerkraut
1877:flatulence
1869:field peas
1865:fava beans
1647:nutritious
1527:buttermilk
1494:fermenting
1411:, bakers,
1276:gastronomy
1272:huff paste
1268:shortcrust
1233:condiments
1052:high table
936:reresopers
887:Wenceslaus
600:made from
500:, and the
462:misericord
381:loopholes.
342:Christians
309:The Church
197:sweet-sour
193:seasonings
172:among the
118:vegetables
8674:Dark Ages
8583:Household
8578:Hastilude
8347:Feudalism
8036:sociology
7915:Fast food
7910:Classique
7774:Byzantine
7675:Mennonite
7660:Christian
7648:Religious
7609:Peranakan
7557:Sephardic
7542:Ethiopian
7532:Ashkenazi
7485:Malaysian
7438:Pakistani
7433:Malaysian
7408:Cambodian
7358:Aromanian
7290:Vanuatuan
7280:Uruguayan
7275:Ukrainian
7228:Zanzibari
7223:Tanzanian
7213:Taiwanese
7176:Valencian
7171:Manchegan
7106:Slovenian
7019:Mordovian
6939:Pakistani
6929:Norwegian
6869:Mongolian
6849:Mauritian
6824:Maldivian
6807:Malaysian
6700:Jordanian
6661:Sardinian
6621:Abruzzese
6589:Sundanese
6574:Minahasan
6497:Telangana
6482:Sikkimese
6432:Karnataka
6367:Icelandic
6362:Hungarian
6231:Ethiopian
6181:Dominican
6134:Congolese
6129:Colombian
6097:Hong Kong
6092:Cantonese
6060:Québécois
6040:Cambodian
6035:Burundian
6025:Burkinabé
6020:Bulgarian
5973:Anguillia
5963:Brazilian
5943:Bhutanese
5918:Barbadian
5883:Argentine
5704:Levantine
5694:Caucasian
5667:Caribbean
5570:Resources
5197:160758319
5170:106720072
4831:0775-955X
4579:29 August
4558:", §16–19
3957:lengths."
3346:in 1563.
3300:found at
3252:Cookbooks
3186:ice cream
3140:coriander
3040:desservir
2926:spikenard
2832:Nuremberg
2820:Hausbrand
2812:moonshine
2794:entremets
2786:rosewater
2663:poset ale
2626:urination
2598:olive oil
2432:Old World
2385:baptismal
2368:slivovitz
2236:North Sea
2194:porpoises
2140:barnacles
2116:entremets
2092:partridge
2076:pheasants
2056:porcupine
2024:Goat meat
1861:chickpeas
1710:doughnuts
1702:turnovers
1659:chestnuts
1631:buckwheat
1605:century,
1562:fast food
1478:stockfish
1453:of coal.
1437:scullions
1429:milkmaids
1417:larderers
1403:, Tuscany
1360:cauldrons
1354:to whole
1229:dietetics
1154:community
1063:trenchers
1047:etiquette
961:Etiquette
955:nuncheons
924:breakfast
920:Moralists
835:Olive oil
766:arthritis
568:digestion
544:Dietetics
494:commoners
466:refectory
429:Byzantine
298:catechism
290:threshing
278:Augustine
273:Eucharist
237:thickener
8782:Category
8757:Category
8724:Timeline
8613:Minstrel
8608:Medicine
8490:Chivalry
8445:Burgundy
8367:Crusades
8124:Cookbook
8104:Category
8006:Cookbook
7988:Prepared
7952:Nouvelle
7930:Eurasian
7859:Medieval
7655:Buddhist
7589:Ossetian
7574:Livonian
7552:Moroccan
7537:Bukharan
7527:American
7465:Hazaragi
7443:Peruvian
7418:Filipino
7413:Canadian
7393:American
7363:Assyrian
7260:Tuvaluan
7245:Tunisian
7240:Togolese
7188:Sudanese
7166:Galician
7146:Canarian
7136:Balearic
7131:Asturian
6984:Romanian
6964:Peruvian
6919:Nigerian
6899:Nepalese
6889:Namibian
6879:Moroccan
6859:Moldovan
6802:Malawian
6797:Malagasy
6767:Liberian
6757:Lebanese
6693:Okinawan
6688:Japanese
6683:Jamaican
6671:Venetian
6666:Sicilian
6641:Lucanian
6631:Ligurian
6569:Makassar
6564:Madurese
6559:Javanese
6529:Balinese
6524:Acehnese
6447:Manipuri
6422:Kashmiri
6417:Haryanvi
6412:Gujarati
6387:Assamese
6357:Honduran
6320:Epirotic
6305:Ghanaian
6295:Georgian
6285:Gabonese
6263:Corsican
6241:Filipino
6226:Estonian
6221:Eritrean
6206:Egyptian
6139:Croatian
6122:Xinjiang
6107:Shandong
6102:Macanese
6050:Canadian
6015:Bruneian
6003:Scottish
5958:Botswana
5948:Bolivian
5938:Beninese
5933:Belizean
5908:Bahraini
5898:Austrian
5888:Armenian
5826:Hawaiian
5811:American
5806:Algerian
5801:Albanian
5788:regional
5783:National
5748:Oceanian
5721:European
5662:Americas
5626:Cuisines
5546:Archived
5230:(2008).
4927:silphium
4573:Archived
4271:Archived
3773:17390155
3716:Archived
3559:Archived
3369:See also
3272:pheasant
3232:foodways
3182:confetti
3090:cherries
3074:Marzipan
3064:darioles
3060:custards
3025:sea salt
3002:verjuice
2930:galangal
2914:cardamom
2898:turmeric
2869:cinnamon
2768:alembics
2724:Flanders
2639:cookbook
2540:hypocras
2516:cardamom
2462:red wine
2364:prunellé
2348:mulberry
2260:crayfish
2256:scallops
2244:mollusks
2222:and the
2220:Atlantic
2172:lampreys
2146:(1215),
2052:hedgehog
1968:Parmesan
1905:tomatoes
1889:potatoes
1840:cabbages
1737:manchets
1718:biscuits
1714:pastries
1706:fritters
1698:desserts
1694:frumenty
1661:, dried
1612:Leavened
1511:verjuice
1470:moisture
1421:butchers
1413:waferers
1409:pantlers
1303:Flanders
1225:medicine
1177:ascetics
1150:bakeries
932:banquets
928:gluttony
813:pressing
799:and the
654:pottages
650:goat kid
646:purslane
634:hypocras
585:apéritif
502:nobility
446:pilgrims
334:Catholic
201:verjuice
168:limited
98:porridge
8667:Related
8653:Warfare
8648:Theatre
8638:Slavery
8633:Science
8588:Hunting
8553:Cuisine
8526:Culture
8465:Castile
8460:England
8144:Outline
8114:Commons
8031:history
8011:Cooking
7999:Related
7869:Peasant
7864:Ottoman
7834:Hittite
7709:Kashrut
7692:Chinese
7687:Islamic
7599:Pashtun
7569:Kurdish
7547:Mizrahi
7475:English
7403:British
7388:Chinese
7368:Balochi
7315:Zambian
7270:Ugandan
7255:Turkmen
7250:Turkish
7198:Swedish
7156:Catalan
7121:Spanish
7081:Serbian
7046:Rwandan
7009:Cossack
6999:Chechen
6994:Bashkir
6989:Russian
6894:Nauruan
6854:Mexican
6834:Maltese
6812:Sabahan
6762:Lesotho
6752:Latvian
6737:Kuwaiti
6732:Kosovan
6678:Ivorian
6636:Lombard
6626:Apulian
6616:Italian
6611:Israeli
6596:Iranian
6502:Tripuri
6472:Punjabi
6392:Bengali
6352:Haitian
6347:Guinean
6290:Gambian
6278:Occitan
6253:Finnish
6211:Emirati
6164:Faroese
6149:Cypriot
6117:Tibetan
6112:Sichuan
6087:Beijing
6082:Chinese
6077:Chilean
6072:Chadian
6055:Acadian
6030:Burmese
5983:English
5968:British
5928:Belgian
5878:Angolan
5736:Eastern
5731:Central
5699:Central
5640:African
5552:at the
4914:Webster
4890:shallot
4886:Ascalon
3982:(2007).
3764:2200769
3359:Apicius
3339:Apicius
3214:cannoli
3178:Spanish
3168:torrone
3166:candy (
3160:comfits
3132:malmsey
3128:waffles
3098:violets
3082:potages
3069:krapfen
3044:dragées
2981:comfits
2957:caraway
2953:parsley
2949:mustard
2894:saffron
2836:aquavit
2790:perfume
2728:Brabant
2706:In the
2701:Denmark
2697:England
2673:braggot
2650:English
2610:Sienese
2606:gazelle
2585:brewing
2569:Germany
2565:England
2536:steeped
2470:vintage
2354:wines,
2285:lamprey
2252:mussels
2248:oysters
2232:Kippers
2218:in the
2212:herring
2186:seafood
2156:pasture
2132:poultry
2128:chicken
2112:finches
2104:pigeons
2084:peafowl
2060:Rabbits
2048:sausage
2044:casings
2040:bladder
1976:ricotta
1974:, like
1901:vanilla
1873:protein
1856:carrots
1813:quinces
1801:citrons
1782:cabbage
1722:cookies
1663:legumes
1592:Cereals
1543:Chaucer
1523:cheeses
1519:curdled
1515:vinegar
1503:pickled
1490:brining
1486:salting
1482:smoking
1466:canning
1451:barnful
1433:butlers
1425:carvers
1382:farcing
1369:graters
1340:kettles
1320:kitchen
1305:, 1432.
1293:basting
1261:turnips
1257:cabbage
1249:humoral
1245:roasted
1217:haddock
1197:raisins
1164:potages
1128:woodcut
1001:egotism
940:Occitan
851:filbert
725:⁄
714:⁄
700:⁄
652:, with
642:lettuce
638:cabbage
614:caraway
593:aperire
573:stomach
530:priests
526:squires
522:bishops
421:venison
417:beavers
413:puffins
374:penance
328:, 1341.
233:Almonds
217:saffron
209:vinegar
154:herring
138:poultry
134:chicken
62:Cereals
8747:Portal
8628:Poetry
8455:France
7920:Fusion
7903:Styles
7889:Soviet
7854:Mughal
7849:Muisca
7639:Yup'ik
7629:Tejano
7619:Romani
7562:Syrian
7522:Jewish
7470:Indian
7455:Gagauz
7423:Indian
7378:Buryat
7373:Berber
7329:Ethnic
7310:Yemeni
7208:Syrian
7141:Basque
7111:Somali
7101:Slovak
7034:Udmurt
6979:Qatari
6969:Polish
6924:Niuean
6829:Malian
6772:Libyan
6742:Kyrgyz
6715:Korean
6710:Kenyan
6705:Kazakh
6544:Betawi
6534:Banjar
6487:Sindhi
6437:Kerala
6397:Bihari
6377:Andhra
6372:Indian
6315:Cretan
6300:German
6258:French
6236:Fijian
6159:Danish
5796:Afghan
5756:Global
5726:Balkan
5518:
5493:
5483:
5464:
5441:
5418:
5401:
5391:
5372:
5349:
5330:
5307:
5284:
5265:
5242:
5216:
5195:
5185:
5168:
5158:
5137:
5118:
5099:
5078:
5055:
5036:
5015:
4992:
4969:
4950:
4881:Allium
4829:
4351:
4311:
3771:
3761:
3363:uncial
3351:sesame
3344:ZĂĽrich
3330:wrote
3298:Assisi
3290:Naples
3201:qas'ah
3198:Arabic
3196:(from
3190:sorbet
3173:turrĂłn
3164:nougat
3152:Sicily
3124:quiche
3106:quiche
3100:, and
3056:crĂŞpes
3021:pewter
2996:, 1474
2969:fennel
2967:, and
2951:, and
2938:cloves
2932:, and
2885:Africa
2873:cassia
2861:Spices
2828:brandy
2816:German
2798:cotton
2760:Romans
2668:brakot
2646:godale
2581:cereal
2577:barley
2532:cloves
2528:nutmeg
2520:pepper
2428:coffee
2406:Plain
2401:camels
2389:Poland
2358:, and
2336:Juices
2315:While
2291:, and
2289:salmon
2254:, and
2130:, the
2100:cranes
2096:storks
2008:cattle
1955:Cheese
1930:cheese
1911:, and
1867:, and
1854:, and
1852:garlic
1848:onions
1831:, and
1821:apples
1817:grapes
1815:, and
1797:lemons
1746:guilds
1667:acorns
1637:, and
1635:millet
1627:barley
1499:Butter
1386:farcio
1373:mortar
1365:ladles
1352:quails
1342:, and
1325:arcade
1311:hearth
1253:quince
1241:boiled
1237:frying
1209:salmon
1203:, and
1201:apples
1136:, 1485
1100:eunuch
1094:, the
1075:Knives
1071:spoons
1067:pewter
1059:plates
1038:towels
1005:bishop
978:carver
951:snacks
938:(from
915:supper
911:dinner
895:napkin
859:almond
849:, and
843:walnut
809:olives
805:grapes
801:Baltic
791:, the
789:France
731:wine.
692:gentle
658:broths
630:dragée
622:fennel
610:ginger
587:(from
498:clergy
478:famine
458:friars
405:whales
391:beaver
370:Christ
366:Advent
302:
294:
286:
276:Saint
249:sauces
247:, and
221:ginger
219:, and
207:, and
116:, and
114:fruits
110:Cheese
104:, and
84:, and
78:Barley
74:potato
8658:Women
8618:Music
8573:Domes
8563:Dance
8450:Milan
8021:Drink
7966:Lists
7937:Haute
7844:Mayan
7769:Aztec
7682:Hindu
7594:Parsi
7584:Malay
7512:Inuit
7383:Cajun
7285:Uzbek
7218:Tajik
7203:Swiss
7193:Swazi
7039:Yamal
7029:Tatar
7024:Sakha
6934:Omani
6914:Niger
6656:Roman
6606:Irish
6601:Iraqi
6539:Batak
6492:Tamil
6310:Greek
6191:Dutch
6154:Czech
6144:Cuban
6008:Welsh
5871:Texan
5709:South
5689:Asian
5677:South
5672:North
5645:North
5491:JSTOR
5399:JSTOR
5193:S2CID
5166:S2CID
4277:3 May
3565:9 May
3438:Notes
3268:capon
3170:, or
3148:Spain
3102:elder
3094:roses
3086:tarts
3052:Sugar
2977:Anise
2934:cubeb
2877:cumin
2782:syrup
2689:herbs
2685:gruit
2654:spelt
2545:claré
2484:posca
2474:white
2466:blood
2458:Galen
2420:dairy
2397:mares
2393:Kumis
2381:Slavs
2360:cider
2356:perry
2317:water
2299:Drink
2293:trout
2281:perch
2277:bream
2124:geese
2120:ducks
2108:larks
2088:quail
2080:swans
2030:, as
1982:Meats
1913:maize
1897:cacao
1844:chard
1829:plums
1825:pears
1762:dough
1733:baker
1690:sauce
1671:ferns
1651:flour
1616:wheat
1607:bread
1566:cooks
1513:, or
1390:dress
1377:sieve
1348:spits
1255:pie,
1221:plums
1215:, or
1205:pears
1183:Fruit
1168:stews
1146:Ovens
1112:pride
1080:Forks
1035:linen
984:, or
901:, by
869:Meals
847:hazel
839:poppy
829:dates
753:bacon
749:offal
626:cumin
624:, or
618:anise
606:sugar
604:- or
602:honey
589:Latin
561:Galen
518:dukes
514:popes
510:kings
454:Bible
269:wheat
245:stews
241:soups
229:sugar
225:honey
161:trade
106:pasta
102:gruel
94:bread
90:wheat
48:diets
8055:Meal
8043:Diet
8026:Food
7839:Inca
7726:Sikh
7704:Jain
7699:Ital
7624:Sámi
7346:Arab
7341:Ainu
7235:Thai
7014:Komi
6554:Indo
6467:Odia
6462:Naga
6457:Mizo
6407:Goan
5741:list
5714:list
5682:list
5655:list
5650:West
5516:ISBN
5481:ISBN
5462:ISBN
5439:ISBN
5416:ISBN
5389:ISBN
5370:ISBN
5347:ISBN
5328:ISBN
5305:ISBN
5282:ISBN
5263:ISBN
5240:ISBN
5214:ISBN
5183:ISBN
5156:ISBN
5135:ISBN
5116:ISBN
5097:ISBN
5076:ISBN
5053:ISBN
5034:ISBN
5013:ISBN
4990:ISBN
4967:ISBN
4948:ISBN
4827:ISSN
4581:2019
4349:ISBN
4309:ISBN
4279:2022
3769:PMID
3724:2016
3567:2023
3245:mets
3062:and
3046:and
3008:Salt
2965:dill
2961:mint
2945:sage
2922:mace
2889:tons
2883:and
2881:Asia
2758:and
2754:The
2726:and
2699:and
2658:hops
2633:the
2620:and
2604:and
2589:Arab
2579:, a
2552:Beer
2542:and
2503:lees
2478:rosé
2438:Wine
2426:and
2416:whey
2408:milk
2376:mead
2350:and
2322:Wine
2273:carp
2269:pike
2214:and
2122:and
2054:and
2046:for
2028:pork
2020:veal
2016:wool
2004:Beef
1996:game
1964:Brie
1960:Edam
1948:whey
1943:Milk
1686:soup
1682:wine
1678:sops
1655:bran
1643:Rice
1639:oats
1375:and
1367:and
1356:oxen
1336:pots
1227:and
1166:and
1159:pies
1020:alms
970:John
893:, a
855:lard
827:and
825:figs
817:beer
807:and
666:beef
664:and
662:pork
656:and
528:and
512:and
358:fast
356:and
354:Lent
348:and
346:eggs
336:and
332:The
205:wine
152:and
146:fish
142:Beef
130:pork
126:Game
122:meat
82:oats
70:rice
8543:Art
8048:Fat
6747:Lao
5785:and
4884:of
4150:'s
3759:PMC
3751:doi
3342:in
3270:or
3176:in
3134:as
2875:),
2670:or
2476:or
2424:Tea
2414:or
2399:or
2372:gin
2330:ale
2265:eel
2216:cod
1623:rye
1545:'s
1525:or
1213:cod
1172:fat
986:nef
690:),
516:to
425:roe
324:by
239:in
227:or
150:cod
86:rye
68:as
8784::
5489:.
5397:.
5191:.
5164:.
4901:68
4892:,
4571:.
4343:,
4269:.
4265:.
3980:47
3815:^
3799:^
3767:.
3757:.
3747:16
3745:.
3741:.
3710:.
3627:^
3584:^
3557:.
3475:^
3445:^
3162:,
3096:,
2983:.
2963:,
2959:,
2947:,
2928:,
2924:,
2920:,
2867:,
2530:,
2526:,
2522:,
2518:,
2346:,
2332:.
2287:,
2283:,
2279:,
2275:,
2271:,
2267:,
2250:,
2110:,
2106:,
2102:,
2098:,
2094:,
2090:,
2086:,
2082:,
2078:,
2022:.
1932:;
1907:,
1903:,
1899:,
1895:,
1891:,
1863:,
1850:,
1846:,
1842:,
1827:,
1823:,
1811:,
1803:,
1799:,
1784:;
1731:A
1708:,
1704:,
1684:,
1669:,
1665:,
1641:.
1633:,
1629:,
1625:,
1529:.
1509:,
1488:,
1484:,
1431:,
1423:,
1419:,
1338:,
1334:,
1301:,
1295:;
1211:,
1199:,
1106:,
972:,
845:,
841:,
768:.
644:,
640:,
620:,
612:,
520:,
492::
411:,
407:,
280::
255:.
243:,
215:,
203:,
176:.
140:.
132:,
112:,
100:,
96:,
80:,
58:.
8178:e
8171:t
8164:v
5618:e
5611:t
5604:v
5524:.
5497:.
5470:.
5447:.
5405:.
5378:.
5355:.
5336:.
5313:.
5290:.
5271:.
5248:.
5222:.
5199:.
5172:.
5143:.
5124:.
5105:.
5084:.
5061:.
5042:.
5021:.
4998:.
4975:.
4956:.
4833:.
4583:.
4317:.
4281:.
3775:.
3753::
3726:.
3569:.
1720:(
727:4
723:1
716:4
712:1
702:4
698:1
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.