922:
446:
shutting down the engine and activating the capsule's escape system. The abort system could not shut off the engine until at least 30 seconds after liftoff in order to prevent a malfunctioning launch vehicle from coming down on or near the pad; during the initial 30 seconds, only the Range Safety
Officer could terminate the flight. Review of flight data from the more than 60 Redstone and Jupiter C launches since 1953 was used to analyze the most likely failure modes of this launch vehicle family. In the interest of simplicity, the abort sensing system had to be kept as simple as possible and only monitor parameters that were vital to booster operation. An automatic abort could be triggered by any of the following conditions, all of which could be indicative of a catastrophic launch vehicle malfunction:
787:
818:
799:
489:.) The aft section held most of the Mercury-Redstone's electronics and instrumentation, including the guidance system, as well as the adapter for the Mercury capsule. In the military Redstone and the Jupiter-C first stage, when the rocket had burned out, its lower portion, containing the rocket engine and propellant tanks, would separate from the aft section and be discarded, and the aft section, with its guidance system, would direct the top half of the rocket during its unpowered ballistic flight. However, in the Mercury-Redstone, the aft section was permanently attached to the lower portion of the rocket. When the rocket had shut down, the Mercury capsule would separate from the aft section and would rely on its own guidance.
910:
850:
735:
862:
364:
29:
838:
898:
710:
874:
684:
474:
438:
886:
658:
3387:
1435:
548:
negating all of the hardware and flight test data from previous
Redstone and Jupiter-C launches. This created a series of disputes between Von Braun's team at ABMA and NASA, as the former preferred simply making the abort system as foolproof as possible so as to guarantee that the astronaut would be bailed out of a malfunctioning launch vehicle, while the latter favored maximum booster reliability to minimize the chance of aborts happening at all.
578:
damaged in the unsuccessful MR-1 launch and not reused, and another used for the MR-BD flight (the original schedule was for one uncrewed
Mercury-Redstone flight, one chimpanzee flight, and six crewed flights). Since Alan Shepard and Gus Grissom's flights were successful and since the Soviet Union had flown two orbital crewed space flights by the late summer of 1961, there was no need to continue with Redstone missions.
614:
636:
414:(DETA). This was a more powerful fuel than ethyl alcohol, but it was also more toxic, which could be hazardous for an astronaut in a launch pad emergency. Furthermore, hydyne had never been used with the new A-7 engine. The Mercury-Redstone designers rejected hydyne and returned to the standard ethyl alcohol fuel. The lengthened propellant tanks were thus also necessary in lieu of using more powerful fuel.
3399:
386:, which was a modified Redstone with lengthened tanks, could carry enough propellant to reach the desired trajectory. Therefore, this Jupiter-C first stage was used as the starting point for the Mercury-Redstone design. The Jupiter-C's engine, however, was being phased out by the Army, so to avoid potential complications such as parts shortages or design revisions, the Mercury-Redstone designers chose the
509:
4° for the
Redstone missile. Although this was below the 12° per second roll transient required to trigger an abort, the roll rate sensor was removed from the two crewed flights to reduce the chances of an accidental abort (the booster still retained the roll attitude angle sensor which would be triggered at 10°).
508:
The fuel prevalves were deleted from the
Mercury-Redstone in the interest of improved reliability, since if they closed during a launch, an abort condition could be triggered. On the three uncrewed flights, it was discovered that the Mercury-Redstone exhibited a roll transient of 8° per second versus
560:
The recovery system, at the top of the rocket, would have used two stages of parachutes. In the first stage, a single parachute, 17 feet (5.2 m) in diameter, would stabilize the rocket's fall and slow its descent. This parachute would then draw out a set of three main parachutes, each 67 feet
466:
Instant abort capability was important because certain failure modes such as loss of thrust upon liftoff (for example the third
Redstone test flight in May 1954) could result in an immediate catastrophic situation. Other failure modes such as deviation from the proper flight path or a drop in engine
577:
Two rockets, MR-4 and MR-6, were never flown. Although there had been rumors that NASA in the very beginning of
Project Mercury had intended to launch each astronaut on a suborbital mission before beginning orbital Atlas flights, they only purchased eight Mercury-Redstone boosters, one of which was
573:
Mercury-Redstone flights were designated with the prefix "MR-". Confusingly, the
Mercury-Redstone boosters used for these flights were designated in the same way, usually with different numbers. This designation can be seen on the rocket's tail end (usually visible in full resolution images, check
531:
The space between the pressurized instrument compartment and the capsule was originally intended to hold a parachute recovery system for the rocket, but it had been left empty after this system was abandoned. The three uncrewed
Mercury-Redstone flights exhibited high vibration levels and structural
445:
The
Mercury-Redstone's automatic in-flight abort sensing system solved this problem by monitoring the rocket's performance during flight. If it detected an anomaly which might threaten the astronaut, such as loss of flight control, engine thrust, or electrical power, it would automatically abort,
397:
During 1959, most of ABMA were preoccupied with the Saturn project, but those engineers who could find enough free time in their schedule were invited to work on man-rating the Jupiter-C. As a starting point, the most obvious step was getting rid of its staging capability as the Mercury-Redstone
547:
In total, some 800 modifications were made to the Redstone design in the process of adapting it for the Mercury program. The process of man-rating Redstone was so extensive that NASA quickly found themselves not using an off-the-shelf rocket, but what was in effect a completely new one and thus
519:
both experienced overacceleration in flight, the former due to a problem with an accelerometer, the latter due to a problem with the LOX regulator which oversupplied the engine with oxidizer and caused thrust termination to occur 1.2 seconds early. The ASIS system activated and the escape tower
564:
To determine the feasibility of this system, several tests were performed on full-sized Redstone, including water impact and flotation tests, and an exercise at sea in which a floating Redstone was picked up by a Navy recovery ship. All these tests showed recovery of the rocket to be workable.
500:
missile, was not as sophisticated or as precise as the ST-80, but it was accurate enough for the Mercury mission and its simplicity made it more reliable. A special instrument compartment was built in the "aft section" to hold the most important instrumentation and electronics, including the
467:
chamber pressure during ascent did not necessarily present an immediate risk to the astronaut's safety and he could either initiate a manual abort by pulling a lever in the capsule to activate the Launch Escape System or ground control could send a command to activate it.
428:
The most important change in making the Mercury-Redstone a suitable vehicle for an astronaut was the addition of an automatic in-flight abort sensing system. In an emergency where the rocket was about to suffer a catastrophic failure, an abort would activate the
556:
The Mercury-Redstone designers originally planned for the rocket to be recovered by parachute after its separation from the Mercury capsule. This was the first significant effort to develop a recoverable launch vehicle and the first to reach the testing phase.
433:
attached to the Mercury capsule, which would rapidly eject it from the booster. Either the astronaut or the ground controllers could initiate an abort manually, but some potential failures during flight might lead to disaster before an abort could be manually
417:
Use of alcohol created a problem with the Mercury-Redstone in that the graphite thrust vector vanes could be eroded due to the significantly longer burn time, hence NASA put out a requirement that the launch vehicles needed high-quality vanes.
798:
2117:
786:
401:
The standard Redstone was fueled with 25 percent water–75 percent ethyl alcohol with liquid oxygen (LOX) used as the oxidizer, essentially the same propellants as the V-2, but the Jupiter-C first stage had used
470:
The range safety system was modified slightly in that a three-second delay would take place between engine cutoff and missile destruct so as to give the escape tower enough time to pull the capsule away.
921:
481:
The most visible difference between the Jupiter-C first stage and the Mercury-Redstone was in the section just below the Mercury capsule and above the propellant tanks. This section was known as the
313:
Mercury flights from 1960–1961; culminating with the launch of the first, and 11 weeks later, the second American (and the second and third humans) in space. The four subsequent Mercury
817:
536:'s flight included 340 pounds of lead-infused plastic in the adapter section along with additional bracing and stiffeners. After Shepard still reported noticeable vibration during launch,
873:
2742:
505:
instrumentation, and the electrical power supplies. To reduce the chance of failure in this equipment, this compartment was cooled before launch and kept pressurized during flight.
2099:
382:
The standard military Redstone lacked sufficient thrust to lift a Mercury capsule into the ballistic suborbital trajectory needed for the project; however, the first stage of the
398:
would not utilize upper stages. Many of the more advanced Jupiter-C components were also removed for reliability reasons or because they were not necessary for Project Mercury.
2123:
2145:
540:'s booster included even more ballast. The Atlas booster used for orbital Mercury flights had also experienced this issue, but with more catastrophic results as
421:
Because Mercury-Redstone had larger propellant tanks than the Redstone missile, an additional nitrogen bottle was added for tank pressurization, and an extra
379:
ballistic missile for its sub-orbital flights as it was the oldest one in the US fleet, having been active since 1953 and had many successful test flights.
897:
2564:
885:
3272:
824:
155:
2256:
909:
3337:
3262:
2749:
544:
was destroyed in-flight due to structural failure caused by excessive flexing at the point where the booster mated with the capsule adapter.
2093:
2006:
3043:
3019:
2045:
1343:
2965:
2378:
849:
3053:
2972:
1386:
861:
462:
Loss of general electrical power (including power for the abort sensing system itself), which could indicate a catastrophic failure.
3048:
3357:
3090:
2234:
2229:
2935:
2373:
2105:
837:
3332:
3139:
2662:
3435:
2915:
2889:
2845:
496:
was replaced in the Mercury-Redstone with the simpler LEV-3 autopilot. The LEV-3, whose design dated back to the German
3149:
2051:
3005:
2925:
2559:
2023:
3352:
3300:
3058:
2645:
2554:
2261:
2244:
1999:
1885:
828:
159:
528:, was designed as an engineering test to correct these problems before the booster could be considered man-rated.
3440:
2519:
1880:
407:
3132:
3122:
2820:
2063:
879:
At Merritt Island, Florida, the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex has a Mercury-Redstone rocket on display.
3430:
3325:
2165:
2160:
1379:
391:
390:
A-7 engine used on the latest military Redstone. Hans Paul and William Davidson, propulsion engineers at the
1329:
2988:
2857:
2111:
2081:
804:
485:, a term which was inherited from the military Redstone. (The actual rear end of the rocket was called the
3342:
3289:
3252:
3211:
3105:
2810:
2790:
2705:
2529:
2268:
2214:
1992:
1957:
792:
Mercury-Redstone prior to test-firing in the Redstone Test Stand at Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama
565:
Further development was halted, however, due to lack of funding, so the parachute system was not tested.
3144:
3085:
2960:
2872:
2602:
2468:
352:
734:
492:
Other changes were made to improve the Mercury-Redstone's reliability. The standard Redstone's ST-80
3182:
3100:
3095:
2769:
2224:
2182:
689:
3425:
3295:
3219:
2493:
2069:
1434:
1372:
493:
329:
3127:
3064:
3039:
2884:
2737:
2672:
2383:
2344:
2303:
2204:
1875:
1815:
561:(20 m) across. The rocket would come down in the Atlantic Ocean, to be recovered by ship.
394:(ABMA), were assigned the task of modifying the A-7 to be safe and reliable for crewed flights.
3367:
3310:
2832:
2815:
2761:
2724:
2524:
2498:
2453:
2209:
1890:
1349:
3402:
3315:
3305:
3247:
3117:
3112:
2953:
2618:
2580:
2549:
2458:
2357:
2339:
2239:
363:
2945:
2448:
2333:
2251:
2219:
2155:
2150:
1967:
430:
65:
8:
3232:
3198:
2729:
2710:
2299:
2087:
1847:
1842:
1592:
1572:
671:
623:
525:
512:
230:
28:
3029:
2607:
2514:
2488:
2428:
2412:
2388:
1797:
1577:
1567:
1467:
1460:
722:
697:
645:
601:
516:
411:
376:
306:
33:
709:
2993:
2877:
2837:
2797:
2717:
2677:
2544:
2534:
2282:
1962:
1656:
422:
344:
340:
314:
3226:
2867:
2478:
2329:
2057:
2036:
1936:
1650:
1631:
1504:
1414:
808:
663:
521:
245:
37:
683:
3205:
3175:
2638:
2612:
2539:
2463:
2438:
2433:
2393:
2309:
1780:
1775:
1712:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1597:
1582:
1557:
1496:
1489:
1482:
1475:
1395:
618:
Empty capsule; launch abort; rocket shut down at liftoff due to electrical fault
541:
473:
437:
337:
322:
302:
3362:
3242:
2999:
2685:
2483:
2473:
2319:
2314:
2172:
1919:
1913:
1871:
1852:
657:
450:
Pitch, yaw, or roll angle deviating too far from the programmed flight profile,
355:
it, the structure and systems were modified to improve safety and reliability.
55:
1328:
Cassidy, J. L.; Johnson, R. I.; Leveye, J. C.; Miller, F. E. (December 1964).
3419:
3390:
3372:
3267:
3257:
3189:
3034:
2667:
2398:
2177:
1765:
1722:
1717:
1679:
1644:
1602:
1587:
1547:
1537:
270:
3237:
2804:
1744:
1728:
1696:
1639:
1562:
1542:
1532:
1522:
715:
533:
456:
Pressure in the engine's combustion chamber falling below a critical level,
891:
Mercury-Redstone at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 5 pad.
367:
Comparison of Mercury-Redstone (right) with Redstone missile and Jupiter-C
2199:
2075:
1832:
1701:
1552:
1424:
740:
537:
318:
310:
52:
49:
1342:
Swenson Jr., Loyd S.; Grimwood, James M.; Alexander, Charles C. (1966).
999:
903:
Mercury-Redstone rocket on display at Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX.
283:
2930:
2632:
2625:
2140:
1972:
1707:
1419:
387:
227:
811:(l) and center officials host MR-4 astronaut Gus Grissom (6th from l).
3347:
3320:
3168:
3080:
2940:
2909:
2902:
2699:
2597:
2351:
1527:
958:
956:
502:
383:
372:
348:
333:
1809:
1364:
953:
2862:
2852:
2755:
2194:
1803:
613:
635:
2896:
2827:
2324:
2189:
403:
524:, its chimpanzee passenger to high G loads. The third flight,
2920:
2693:
2657:
2652:
2443:
425:
tank for powering the turbopump due to the longer burn time.
1341:
2015:
1409:
298:
1327:
927:
Mercury Redstone at OTC Satellite Earth Station, Carnarvon
459:
Loss of electrical power for the flight control system, or
358:
497:
266:
1984:
551:
501:
guidance system, the abort and destruct systems, the
1886:Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 14
1881:Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 5
582:Mercury-Redstone booster and flight designations
3417:
1975:(non-NASA project inspired by Project Mercury)
2000:
1380:
1345:This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury
823:MR-3 prelaunch activities April 21, 1961 at
2379:Commercial Orbital Transportation Services
2007:
1993:
1387:
1373:
733:
708:
682:
656:
634:
612:
27:
3273:Hubble Space Telescope anniversary images
472:
453:Pitch or yaw angle changing too rapidly,
436:
362:
3358:NASA International Space Apps Challenge
359:Modifications from the Redstone missile
16:1960s American crewed suborbital rocket
3418:
2146:Administrator and Deputy Administrator
2936:Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite
1988:
1368:
3398:
915:Mercury-Redstone at Cosmo Isle Hakui
520:yanked the capsule away, subjecting
1394:
867:MR-4 launch July 21, 1961 (Grissom)
40:, a chimpanzee, on 31 January 1961.
13:
2052:National Aeronautics and Space Act
1433:
552:Proposed parachute recovery system
14:
3452:
3006:Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope
2560:Commercial Lunar Payload Services
843:MR-3 launch May 5, 1961 (Shepard)
807:Mercury-Redstone Project Manager
122:Payload to sub-orbital trajectory
3397:
3386:
3385:
3301:Apollo 15 postal covers incident
3059:Space Flight Operations Facility
2245:Operations and Checkout Building
920:
908:
896:
884:
872:
860:
848:
836:
816:
797:
785:
532:bending in the adapter area, so
305:, was the first American crewed
2520:Lunar Precursor Robotic Program
1306:
1294:
1282:
1270:
1258:
1246:
1234:
1222:
1210:
1198:
1186:
1174:
1162:
1150:
1138:
1126:
1114:
1102:
1090:
1078:
1066:
1054:
408:unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine
295:Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle
104:30,000 kg (66,000 lb)
22:Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle
1798:McDonnell Aircraft Corporation
1042:
1030:
1018:
1006:
992:
980:
968:
941:
1:
1321:
855:MR-4 booster erection at LC-5
392:Army Ballistic Missile Agency
240:350 kN (78,000 lbf)
130:1,800 kg (4,000 lb)
3338:Space program on U.S. stamps
3263:Gemini and Apollo medallions
3213:Solar System Family Portrait
2989:Joint Polar Satellite System
2858:Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter
2112:Vision for Space Exploration
2082:Space Exploration Initiative
1331:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1313:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1301:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1289:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1277:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1265:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1253:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1241:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1229:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1217:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1205:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1193:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1181:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1169:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1157:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1145:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1133:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1121:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1109:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1097:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1085:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1073:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1061:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1049:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1037:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1025:The Mercury-Redstone Project
1013:The Mercury-Redstone Project
987:The Mercury-Redstone Project
977:, p. 2-2, 3-1, 4-39 to 4-41.
975:The Mercury-Redstone Project
963:The Mercury-Redstone Project
88:25.41 m (83.38 ft)
7:
3333:U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame
3290:We choose to go to the Moon
3253:Apollo 11 goodwill messages
2811:International Space Station
2791:Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter
2530:Great Observatories program
2374:International Space Station
2352:Roscosmos State Corporation
2269:Science Mission Directorate
2215:Manned Space Flight Network
1958:Manned Space Flight Network
580:
406:fuel, a blend of 60 %
250:215 s (2.11 km/s)
10:
3457:
3436:NASA space launch vehicles
3150:NASA cameras on spacecraft
2961:James Webb Space Telescope
2873:Solar Dynamics Observatory
2094:U.S. National Space Policy
1431:
1255:, p. 3-2, 4-5, 4-21, 4-41.
1147:, p. 5-3, 5-6, 5-17, 5-23.
1135:, p. 5-3, 5-6, 5-17, 5-19.
775:
568:
332:, it was derived from the
96:1.78 m (5.83 ft)
3381:
3281:
3158:
3073:
3018:
2981:
2780:
2590:
2577:
2507:
2421:
2411:
2366:
2292:
2281:
2225:Vehicle Assembly Building
2133:
2032:
2022:
1950:
1929:
1906:
1899:
1862:
1825:
1790:
1758:
1737:
1688:
1672:
1665:
1630:
1515:
1452:
1445:
1402:
280:
276:
262:
254:
244:
236:
222:
217:
213:
205:
197:
189:
181:
173:
165:
151:
143:
138:
134:
126:
121:
116:
108:
100:
92:
84:
79:
71:
61:
45:
26:
3296:Apollo 8 Genesis reading
3220:The Day the Earth Smiled
2555:Solar Terrestrial Probes
2014:
935:
494:inertial guidance system
206:Type of passengers/cargo
3353:Other primates in space
3065:Deep Space Atomic Clock
2885:Mars Science Laboratory
2673:Spitzer Space Telescope
2262:Lunar Sample Laboratory
2205:Launch Services Program
1876:Wallops Flight Facility
1816:North American Aviation
1438:Mercury program capsule
351:launch vehicle; but to
317:used the more powerful
160:Cape Canaveral, Florida
3441:Suborbital spaceflight
3368:National Astronaut Day
3311:The Astronaut Monument
3133:Space Shuttle missions
2833:Mars Exploration Rover
2816:Hubble Space Telescope
2725:Kepler space telescope
2525:Earth Observing System
2499:Mars Exploration Rover
2210:Mercury Control Center
1891:Mercury Control Center
1439:
1348:. NASA. Archived from
478:
442:
368:
330:Redstone rocket family
309:. It was used for six
3316:Lunar sample displays
3306:Space Mirror Memorial
3248:Voyager Golden Record
3140:United States rockets
2332: (with the
2240:Launch Control Center
1939:(rival in space race)
1437:
1195:, p. 4-39, 4-43, 9-7.
1087:, p. 5-10, 5-11, 9-4.
476:
440:
410:(UDMH) and 40 %
366:
3431:Rockets and missiles
2334:Soviet space program
2252:Johnson Space Center
2220:Kennedy Space Center
2183:spinoff technologies
1968:Astronaut Wives Club
1183:, p. 5-3, 5-6, 5-10.
1171:, p. 5-3, 5-6, 5-17.
1063:, p. 2-2, 3-2, 4-42.
688:Empty nonfunctional
431:launch escape system
66:Chrysler Corporation
3343:Apollo 17 Moon mice
3199:Pillars of Creation
3106:Space Shuttle crews
2584:(human and robotic)
2578:Individual featured
2161:Ranks and positions
1916:(successor program)
1818:(Little Joe rocket)
1207:, p. 4-5, 4-6, 9-6.
1111:, p. 5-1, 5-2, 9-4.
590:Rocket designation
587:Flight designation
583:
574:the table below).
526:Mercury-Redstone BD
513:Mercury-Redstone 1A
23:
3145:NASA cancellations
3040:Deep Space Network
3030:Near Earth Network
2515:Living With a Star
2489:Project Prometheus
2469:Planetary Observer
1865:and Control Center
1689:In order of flight
1440:
1291:, p. 6-33 to 6-39.
739:Carried astronaut
714:Carried astronaut
581:
517:Mercury-Redstone 2
479:
443:
412:diethylenetriamine
369:
315:human spaceflights
209:Mercury spacecraft
34:Mercury-Redstone 2
21:
3413:
3412:
3326:stolen or missing
3123:uncrewed missions
3101:Apollo astronauts
3096:Gemini astronauts
3014:
3013:
2798:2001 Mars Odyssey
2573:
2572:
2449:Mars Surveyor '98
2407:
2406:
2350: (with
2283:Human spaceflight
2277:
2276:
2235:Launch Complex 48
2230:Launch Complex 39
1982:
1981:
1963:Mercury spacesuit
1946:
1945:
1812:(Redstone rocket)
1754:
1753:
1626:
1625:
770:
769:
631:19 December 1960
609:21 November 1960
423:hydrogen peroxide
341:ballistic missile
291:
290:
72:Country of origin
3448:
3401:
3400:
3389:
3388:
3227:Fallen Astronaut
2868:Van Allen Probes
2588:
2587:
2494:Mars Exploration
2419:
2418:
2290:
2289:
2058:Space Task Group
2030:
2029:
2009:
2002:
1995:
1986:
1985:
1904:
1903:
1900:Related programs
1771:Mercury-Redstone
1670:
1669:
1450:
1449:
1415:Space Task Group
1389:
1382:
1375:
1366:
1365:
1361:
1359:
1357:
1352:on June 17, 2010
1338:
1336:
1316:
1310:
1304:
1298:
1292:
1286:
1280:
1279:, p. 6-29, 6-30.
1274:
1268:
1267:, p. 6-22, 6-23.
1262:
1256:
1250:
1244:
1238:
1232:
1226:
1220:
1214:
1208:
1202:
1196:
1190:
1184:
1178:
1172:
1166:
1160:
1154:
1148:
1142:
1136:
1130:
1124:
1118:
1112:
1106:
1100:
1094:
1088:
1082:
1076:
1070:
1064:
1058:
1052:
1046:
1040:
1034:
1028:
1022:
1016:
1010:
1004:
1003:
996:
990:
984:
978:
972:
966:
960:
951:
945:
924:
912:
900:
888:
876:
864:
852:
840:
820:
809:Joachim Kuettner
801:
789:
737:
712:
686:
660:
653:31 January 1961
638:
616:
584:
328:A member of the
284:edit on Wikidata
246:Specific impulse
193:21 November 1960
156:Launch Complex 5
36:launch carrying
31:
24:
20:
3456:
3455:
3451:
3450:
3449:
3447:
3446:
3445:
3426:Project Mercury
3416:
3415:
3414:
3409:
3377:
3277:
3268:Mission patches
3243:Pioneer plaques
3206:Mystic Mountain
3183:Family Portrait
3176:The Blue Marble
3160:
3154:
3128:Apollo missions
3069:
3021:
3010:
2977:
2782:
2776:
2613:Mercury-Atlas 6
2583:
2579:
2569:
2503:
2439:Mariner Mark II
2403:
2384:Commercial Crew
2362:
2285:
2273:
2257:Mission Control
2156:Astronaut Corps
2151:Chief Scientist
2129:
2034:
2018:
2013:
1983:
1978:
1942:
1925:
1922:(lunar program)
1895:
1864:
1858:
1821:
1786:
1781:Mercury-Jupiter
1750:
1733:
1713:Scott Carpenter
1684:
1661:
1632:Flown non-human
1622:
1511:
1441:
1429:
1398:
1396:Project Mercury
1393:
1355:
1353:
1334:
1324:
1319:
1311:
1307:
1299:
1295:
1287:
1283:
1275:
1271:
1263:
1259:
1251:
1247:
1243:, p. 4-5, 4-41.
1239:
1235:
1227:
1223:
1219:, p. 3-2, 4-40.
1215:
1211:
1203:
1199:
1191:
1187:
1179:
1175:
1167:
1163:
1155:
1151:
1143:
1139:
1131:
1127:
1123:, p. 3-5, 5-10.
1119:
1115:
1107:
1103:
1095:
1091:
1083:
1079:
1071:
1067:
1059:
1055:
1047:
1043:
1035:
1031:
1027:, p. 3-2, 4-42.
1023:
1019:
1011:
1007:
998:
997:
993:
989:, p. 4-41, 9-5.
985:
981:
973:
969:
961:
954:
946:
942:
938:
933:
932:
931:
928:
925:
916:
913:
904:
901:
892:
889:
880:
877:
868:
865:
856:
853:
844:
841:
832:
821:
812:
802:
793:
790:
778:
772:
738:
713:
687:
666:, a chimpanzee
661:
639:
617:
571:
554:
542:Mercury-Atlas 1
371:NASA chose the
361:
347:of the related
323:low Earth orbit
303:Project Mercury
297:, designed for
287:
41:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3454:
3444:
3443:
3438:
3433:
3428:
3411:
3410:
3408:
3407:
3395:
3382:
3379:
3378:
3376:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3363:Astronauts Day
3360:
3355:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3329:
3328:
3323:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3285:
3283:
3279:
3278:
3276:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3223:
3216:
3209:
3202:
3195:
3194:
3193:
3179:
3172:
3164:
3162:
3156:
3155:
3153:
3152:
3147:
3142:
3137:
3136:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3115:
3110:
3109:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3077:
3075:
3071:
3070:
3068:
3067:
3062:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3037:
3032:
3026:
3024:
3022:and navigation
3020:Communications
3016:
3015:
3012:
3011:
3009:
3008:
3003:
3000:Europa Clipper
2996:
2991:
2985:
2983:
2979:
2978:
2976:
2975:
2970:
2969:
2968:
2958:
2957:
2956:
2951:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2906:
2899:
2894:
2893:
2892:
2882:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2849:
2848:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2801:
2794:
2786:
2784:
2778:
2777:
2775:
2774:
2773:
2772:
2759:
2752:
2747:
2746:
2745:
2740:
2727:
2722:
2715:
2708:
2703:
2696:
2691:
2683:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2649:
2648:
2636:
2629:
2622:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2594:
2592:
2585:
2575:
2574:
2571:
2570:
2568:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2511:
2509:
2505:
2504:
2502:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2454:New Millennium
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2425:
2423:
2416:
2409:
2408:
2405:
2404:
2402:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2370:
2368:
2364:
2363:
2361:
2360:
2355:
2342:
2337:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2296:
2294:
2287:
2279:
2278:
2275:
2274:
2272:
2271:
2266:
2265:
2264:
2259:
2249:
2248:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2186:
2185:
2175:
2170:
2169:
2168:
2163:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2137:
2135:
2131:
2130:
2128:
2127:
2121:
2115:
2109:
2103:
2097:
2091:
2085:
2079:
2073:
2067:
2061:
2055:
2049:
2042:
2040:
2027:
2020:
2019:
2012:
2011:
2004:
1997:
1989:
1980:
1979:
1977:
1976:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1954:
1952:
1948:
1947:
1944:
1943:
1941:
1940:
1933:
1931:
1927:
1926:
1924:
1923:
1917:
1910:
1908:
1901:
1897:
1896:
1894:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1872:Wallops Island
1868:
1866:
1860:
1859:
1857:
1856:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1829:
1827:
1823:
1822:
1820:
1819:
1813:
1807:
1806:(Atlas rocket)
1801:
1794:
1792:
1788:
1787:
1785:
1784:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1762:
1760:
1756:
1755:
1752:
1751:
1749:
1748:
1741:
1739:
1735:
1734:
1732:
1731:
1725:
1720:
1715:
1710:
1704:
1699:
1692:
1690:
1686:
1685:
1683:
1682:
1676:
1674:
1667:
1663:
1662:
1660:
1659:
1653:
1647:
1642:
1636:
1634:
1628:
1627:
1624:
1623:
1621:
1620:
1615:
1610:
1605:
1600:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1580:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1560:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1535:
1530:
1525:
1519:
1517:
1513:
1512:
1510:
1509:
1501:
1494:
1487:
1480:
1472:
1469:Liberty Bell 7
1465:
1456:
1454:
1447:
1443:
1442:
1432:
1430:
1428:
1427:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1406:
1404:
1400:
1399:
1392:
1391:
1384:
1377:
1369:
1363:
1362:
1339:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1317:
1315:, p. 6-3, 8-1.
1305:
1293:
1281:
1269:
1257:
1245:
1233:
1231:, p. 3-2, 9-7.
1221:
1209:
1197:
1185:
1173:
1161:
1159:, p. 5-3, 5-6.
1149:
1137:
1125:
1113:
1101:
1099:, p. 5-2, 9-4.
1089:
1077:
1075:, p. 3-2, 9-3.
1065:
1053:
1041:
1029:
1017:
1005:
991:
979:
967:
965:, p. 2-2, 3-1.
952:
948:This New Ocean
939:
937:
934:
930:
929:
926:
919:
917:
914:
907:
905:
902:
895:
893:
890:
883:
881:
878:
871:
869:
866:
859:
857:
854:
847:
845:
842:
835:
833:
829:Cape Canaveral
822:
815:
813:
803:
796:
794:
791:
784:
781:
780:
779:
777:
774:
768:
767:
765:
763:
760:
756:
755:
753:
751:
748:
744:
743:
731:
728:
725:
719:
718:
706:
703:
700:
694:
693:
680:
679:24 March 1961
677:
674:
668:
667:
654:
651:
648:
642:
641:
640:Empty capsule
632:
629:
626:
620:
619:
610:
607:
604:
598:
597:
594:
591:
588:
570:
567:
553:
550:
477:Schematic view
464:
463:
460:
457:
454:
451:
360:
357:
289:
288:
281:
278:
277:
274:
273:
264:
260:
259:
256:
252:
251:
248:
242:
241:
238:
237:Maximum thrust
234:
233:
224:
220:
219:
215:
214:
211:
210:
207:
203:
202:
199:
195:
194:
191:
187:
186:
183:
179:
178:
175:
171:
170:
167:
166:Total launches
163:
162:
153:
149:
148:
145:
141:
140:
139:Launch history
136:
135:
132:
131:
128:
124:
123:
119:
118:
114:
113:
110:
106:
105:
102:
98:
97:
94:
90:
89:
86:
82:
81:
77:
76:
73:
69:
68:
63:
59:
58:
56:launch vehicle
47:
43:
42:
32:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3453:
3442:
3439:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3423:
3421:
3406:
3405:
3396:
3394:
3393:
3384:
3383:
3380:
3374:
3373:Nikon NASA F4
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3318:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3291:
3287:
3286:
3284:
3280:
3274:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3258:NASA insignia
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3238:Lunar plaques
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3228:
3224:
3222:
3221:
3217:
3215:
3214:
3210:
3208:
3207:
3203:
3201:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3191:
3190:Pale Blue Dot
3187:
3186:
3185:
3184:
3180:
3178:
3177:
3173:
3171:
3170:
3166:
3165:
3163:
3157:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3120:
3119:
3118:NASA missions
3116:
3114:
3113:NASA aircraft
3111:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3083:
3082:
3079:
3078:
3076:
3072:
3066:
3063:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3041:
3038:
3036:
3035:Space Network
3033:
3031:
3028:
3027:
3025:
3023:
3017:
3007:
3004:
3002:
3001:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2986:
2984:
2980:
2974:
2971:
2967:
2964:
2963:
2962:
2959:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2948:
2944:
2943:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2911:
2907:
2905:
2904:
2900:
2898:
2895:
2891:
2888:
2887:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2880:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2847:
2844:
2843:
2842:
2840:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2823:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2806:
2802:
2800:
2799:
2795:
2793:
2792:
2788:
2787:
2785:
2779:
2771:
2768:
2767:
2766:
2764:
2760:
2758:
2757:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2735:
2734:
2732:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2720:
2716:
2714:
2713:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2701:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2688:
2684:
2682:
2680:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2668:Space Shuttle
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2647:
2644:
2643:
2642:
2641:
2637:
2635:
2634:
2630:
2628:
2627:
2623:
2621:
2620:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2595:
2593:
2589:
2586:
2582:
2576:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2550:New Frontiers
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2512:
2510:
2506:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2459:Lunar Orbiter
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2426:
2424:
2420:
2417:
2414:
2410:
2400:
2399:Lunar Gateway
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2371:
2369:
2365:
2359:
2358:Constellation
2356:
2353:
2349:
2348:
2343:
2341:
2340:Space Shuttle
2338:
2335:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2305:
2301:
2298:
2297:
2295:
2291:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2270:
2267:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2254:
2253:
2250:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2222:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2184:
2181:
2180:
2179:
2178:NASA research
2176:
2174:
2171:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2158:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2132:
2125:
2122:
2119:
2116:
2113:
2110:
2107:
2104:
2101:
2098:
2095:
2092:
2089:
2086:
2083:
2080:
2077:
2074:
2071:
2068:
2065:
2062:
2059:
2056:
2053:
2050:
2047:
2044:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2031:
2028:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2010:
2005:
2003:
1998:
1996:
1991:
1990:
1987:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1955:
1953:
1949:
1938:
1935:
1934:
1932:
1928:
1921:
1918:
1915:
1912:
1911:
1909:
1905:
1902:
1898:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1873:
1870:
1869:
1867:
1861:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1843:Blue Scout II
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1830:
1828:
1824:
1817:
1814:
1811:
1808:
1805:
1802:
1799:
1796:
1795:
1793:
1789:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1776:Mercury-Scout
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1766:Mercury-Atlas
1764:
1763:
1761:
1757:
1746:
1743:
1742:
1740:
1736:
1730:
1727:Did not fly:
1726:
1724:
1723:Gordon Cooper
1721:
1719:
1718:Wally Schirra
1716:
1714:
1711:
1709:
1706:Earth orbit:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1694:
1693:
1691:
1687:
1681:
1680:Mercury Seven
1678:
1677:
1675:
1671:
1668:
1664:
1658:
1655:Earth orbit:
1654:
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1648:
1646:
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1629:
1619:
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1474:Earth orbit:
1473:
1471:
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1177:
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1129:
1122:
1117:
1110:
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1086:
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1062:
1057:
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1038:
1033:
1026:
1021:
1014:
1009:
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983:
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730:21 July 1961
729:
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579:
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499:
495:
490:
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484:
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468:
461:
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452:
449:
448:
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441:Exploded view
439:
435:
432:
426:
424:
419:
415:
413:
409:
405:
399:
395:
393:
389:
385:
380:
378:
377:liquid-fueled
374:
365:
356:
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350:
346:
342:
339:
335:
331:
326:
324:
320:
319:Atlas booster
316:
312:
308:
307:space booster
304:
300:
296:
285:
279:
275:
272:
271:ethyl alcohol
268:
265:
261:
257:
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137:
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129:
125:
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111:
107:
103:
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91:
87:
83:
78:
75:United States
74:
70:
67:
64:
60:
57:
54:
51:
48:
44:
39:
35:
30:
25:
19:
3403:
3391:
3225:
3218:
3212:
3204:
3197:
3188:
3181:
3174:
3167:
2998:
2947:Perseverance
2946:
2908:
2901:
2878:
2838:
2821:
2805:New Horizons
2803:
2796:
2789:
2762:
2754:
2730:
2718:
2711:
2698:
2686:
2678:
2639:
2631:
2624:
2617:
2346:
2330:Apollo–Soyuz
1863:Launch sites
1837:
1800:(spacecraft)
1770:
1747:(space suit)
1745:Navy Mark IV
1729:Deke Slayton
1697:Alan Shepard
1563:Little Joe 5
1523:Little Joe 1
1506:Freedom 7 II
1505:
1497:
1490:
1483:
1477:Friendship 7
1476:
1468:
1461:
1425:Space flight
1354:. Retrieved
1350:the original
1344:
1330:
1312:
1308:
1300:
1296:
1288:
1284:
1276:
1272:
1264:
1260:
1252:
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1240:
1236:
1228:
1224:
1216:
1212:
1204:
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1192:
1188:
1180:
1176:
1168:
1164:
1156:
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1144:
1140:
1132:
1128:
1120:
1116:
1108:
1104:
1096:
1092:
1084:
1080:
1072:
1068:
1060:
1056:
1048:
1044:
1036:
1032:
1024:
1020:
1012:
1008:
994:
986:
982:
974:
970:
962:
947:
943:
771:
716:Alan Shepard
593:Launch date
576:
572:
563:
559:
555:
546:
534:Alan Shepard
530:
511:
507:
491:
487:tail section
486:
482:
480:
469:
465:
444:
427:
420:
416:
400:
396:
381:
375:'s Redstone
370:
327:
294:
292:
218:Single stage
201:21 July 1961
190:First flight
152:Launch sites
62:Manufacturer
18:
3233:Deep fields
3161:and artwork
3159:NASA images
2731:Opportunity
2200:NASA Social
2026:and history
1791:Contractors
1759:Subprograms
1702:Gus Grissom
1553:Beach Abort
1503:Cancelled:
741:Gus Grissom
705:5 May 1961
690:boilerplate
538:Gus Grissom
483:aft section
345:first stage
311:sub-orbital
198:Last flight
174:Success(es)
53:sub-orbital
50:Human-rated
3420:Categories
3321:Moon rocks
3081:Astronauts
3074:NASA lists
2931:OSIRIS-REx
2765:helicopter
2633:Pioneer 11
2626:Pioneer 10
2429:Hitchhiker
2304:suborbital
2141:Space Race
1973:Mercury 13
1855:(proposed)
1848:Little Joe
1783:(canceled)
1708:John Glenn
1695:Suborbit:
1666:Astronauts
1649:Suborbit:
1459:Suborbit:
1420:Space race
1322:References
1303:, p. 6-23.
1051:, p. 4-42.
759:(unflown)
747:(unflown)
434:triggered.
388:Rocketdyne
353:human-rate
263:Propellant
228:Rocketdyne
223:Powered by
182:Failure(s)
3348:Moon tree
3169:Earthrise
3044:Goldstone
2941:Mars 2020
2910:Voyager 2
2903:Voyager 1
2839:Curiosity
2783:operating
2781:Currently
2763:Ingenuity
2700:MESSENGER
2679:Sojourner
2608:Mercury 3
2598:Apollo 11
2545:Discovery
2535:Explorers
2124:Augustine
2088:Augustine
1738:Equipment
1528:Big Joe 1
1462:Freedom 7
1356:April 18,
1039:, p. 9-6.
1015:, p. 2-2.
950:, p. 122.
831:, Florida
596:Comments
503:telemetry
384:Jupiter-C
373:U.S. Army
349:Jupiter-C
334:U.S. Army
321:to enter
255:Burn time
117:Capacity
3392:Category
3054:Canberra
2966:timeline
2954:timeline
2890:timeline
2846:timeline
2743:observed
2738:timeline
2706:Aquarius
2646:timeline
2619:Magellan
2581:missions
2479:Surveyor
2415:programs
2345:Shuttle–
2286:programs
2118:Aldridge
2037:creation
1838:Redstone
1810:Chrysler
1645:Miss Sam
1516:Uncrewed
1484:Aurora 7
1446:Missions
692:capsule
662:Carried
343:and the
338:Redstone
93:Diameter
46:Function
3404:Commons
3282:Related
3091:by year
3086:by name
2863:GOES 15
2853:GOES 14
2770:flights
2756:InSight
2712:Cassini
2640:Galileo
2565:SIMPLEx
2540:Voyager
2508:Current
2464:Pioneer
2434:Mariner
2413:Robotic
2394:Artemis
2367:Current
2310:Mercury
2302: (
2195:NASA TV
2134:General
2033:History
1951:Related
1853:Jupiter
1826:Rockets
1804:Convair
1673:General
1498:Faith 7
1491:Sigma 7
1403:General
1337:. NASA.
776:Gallery
569:Flights
258:143.5 s
147:Retired
3049:Madrid
2982:Future
2897:NuSTAR
2828:THEMIS
2750:RHESSI
2687:Spirit
2484:Viking
2474:Ranger
2325:Skylab
2320:Apollo
2315:Gemini
2173:Budget
2126:(2009)
2120:(2004)
2114:(2004)
2108:(2003)
2102:(2002)
2100:CFUSAI
2096:(1996)
2090:(1990)
2084:(1989)
2078:(1987)
2072:(1986)
2070:Rogers
2066:(1986)
2060:(1958)
2054:(1958)
2048:(1915)
2024:Policy
1937:Vostok
1930:Soviet
1920:Apollo
1914:Gemini
1453:Crewed
404:hydyne
144:Status
109:Stages
85:Height
2994:NISAR
2949:rover
2921:MAVEN
2841:rover
2822:Swift
2733:rover
2694:LADEE
2689:rover
2681:rover
2658:GRAIL
2653:GALEX
2444:MESUR
2389:Orion
2190:NASA+
2166:Chief
2064:Paine
1833:Atlas
1603:LJ-5B
1593:MR-BD
1588:LJ-5A
1573:MR-1A
1548:LJ-1B
1538:LJ-1A
1335:(PDF)
1000:"V-2"
936:Notes
762:MR-6
750:MR-4
727:MR-8
702:MR-7
676:MR-5
672:MR-BD
650:MR-2
628:MR-3
624:MR-1A
606:MR-1
282:[
2973:PACE
2916:WISE
2879:Juno
2719:Dawn
2663:WMAP
2603:COBE
2591:Past
2422:Past
2300:X-15
2293:Past
2106:CAIB
2076:Ride
2046:NACA
2016:NASA
1657:Enos
1618:MA-5
1613:MS-1
1608:MA-4
1598:MA-3
1583:MA-2
1578:MR-2
1568:MR-1
1558:MA-1
1543:LJ-2
1533:LJ-6
1410:NASA
1358:2009
825:LC-5
805:MSFC
723:MR-4
698:MR-3
646:MR-2
602:MR-1
515:and
299:NASA
293:The
127:Mass
101:Mass
80:Size
2926:MMS
2347:Mir
1651:Ham
1640:Sam
664:Ham
522:Ham
498:V-2
336:'s
301:'s
267:LOX
231:A-7
38:Ham
3422::
1907:US
1874:/
955:^
827:,
325:.
226:1
158:,
3292:"
3288:"
3061:)
3042:(
2354:)
2336:)
2306:)
2039:)
2035:(
2008:e
2001:t
1994:v
1388:e
1381:t
1374:v
1360:.
1002:.
286:]
269:/
185:1
177:5
169:6
112:1
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
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