2085:
1720:
77:
179:
36:
1134:
241:
3419:
then to Proto-West-Germanic, then to Old and Middle and Modern
English, shedding bits from the ends of words at every step of the way. There is in Modern English next to nothing left of the elaborate inflectional and derivational apparatus of PIE or of Proto-Germanic because of the successive ablation of the phonemes making up these suffixes.
2779:, say, reflected differently. In Proto-Western-Romance, the ancestor of French, Iberian, Italian north of the Spezia-Rimini line, etc., however, things happened differently: Latin /a ā/ merged totally, as in Sardo, but the other vowels all behaved differently. Upon losing the feature of length, Latin /ī ū/ merged with nothing, but the
1386:"(walking) stick, cane". To sum up: there are the same number of structure points as before, /p t k b d g/, but there are more cases of /p t k/ than before and fewer of /b d g/, and there is a gap in the distribution of /b d g/ (they are never found in word-final position or before a compound boundary).
3045:
Note 1: unlike the French example, there is no chance of recovering the historical source of the alternations in
English between /s θ f/ and /z ð v/ merely through inspection of the modern forms. The conditioning factor (original location of the voiced alternants between vowels, for example) is quite
1009:
occurred only in that environment. However, when */e/, */o/, */a/ later fell together as Proto-Indo-Iranian */a/ (and */ē/ */ō/ */ā/ likewise fell together as */ā/), the result was that the allophonic palatal and velar stops now contrasted in identical environments: */ka/ and /ča/, /ga/ and /ǰa/, and
2920:
Note 1: the nasalization of a vowel before a nasal is found very widely in the world's languages, but is not at all universal. In modern French, for example, vowels before a nasal are oral. That they used to be nasalized, like the vowels before lost nasals, is indicated by certain phonetic changes
2774:
The evolution of
Romance shows a systematic collection of unconditioned mergers in connection with the loss of Latin vowel length. Latin had ten vowels, five long and five short (i, ī; e, ē; a, ā; and so on). In the variety of Romance underlying Sardo and some other dialects of the islands, the ten
837:
in a language. In other words, a language develops a new system of oppositions among its phonemes. Old contrasts may disappear, new ones may emerge, or they may simply be rearranged. Sound change may be an impetus for changes in the phonological structures of a language (and likewise, phonological
3418:
The ends of words often have sound laws that apply there only, and many such special developments consist of the loss of a segment. The early history and prehistory of
English has seen several waves of loss of elements, vowels and consonants alike, from the ends of words, first in Proto-Germanic,
2863:
A simple example is the rise of the contrast between nasal and oral vowels in French. A full account of this history is complicated by the subsequent changes in the phonetics of the nasal vowels, but the development can be compendiously illustrated via the present-day French phonemes /a/ and /ã/:
2744:. There is no way to tell by inspection whether a modern /i ay/ goes back to a rounded or an unrounded vowel. The change is not even reflected in modern spelling since it took place too early to be captured in Middle English Spelling conventions. Of course, current spellings like
1417:, such as a voiceless stop in word-final position, one cannot tell which of two possibilities was the original sound. The choice is resolved if the corresponding segment can be found in a non-neutralizing position, as when a suffix follows. Accordingly, a non-inflected form like
2859:
arises when allophones of a phoneme cease being in complementary distribution and are therefore necessarily independent structure points, i.e. contrastive. This mostly comes about because of some loss of distinctiveness in the environment of one or more allophones of a phoneme.
2667:
Unconditioned merger, that is, complete loss of a contrast between two or more phonemes, is not very common. Most mergers are conditioned. That is, most apparent mergers of A and B have an environment or two in which A did something else, such as drop or merge with C.
960:, for example, intervocalic */s/ became *. It was a phonetic change, merely a mild and superficial complication in the phonological system, but when * merged with */r/, the effect on the phonological system was greater. (The example will be discussed below, under
3161:
In
Hoenigswald's original scheme, loss, the disappearance of a segment, or even of a whole phoneme, was treated as a form of merger, depending on whether the loss was conditioned or unconditioned. The "element" that a vanished segment or phoneme merged with was
2968:
Phonemic split was a major factor in the creation of the contrast between voiced and voiceless fricatives in
English. Originally, to oversimplify a bit, Old English fricatives were voiced between voiced sounds and voiceless elsewhere. Thus /f/ was in
3204:
as more than what it looks like, /alterØ/, "marked" for case, number, and gender by an affix, like the other 29 forms in the paradigm. It is merely that the "marker" in question is not a phoneme or sequence of phonemes but the element /Ø/.
3242:
As stated above, one can regard loss as both a kind of conditioned merger (when only some expressions of a phoneme are lost) and a disappearance of a whole structure point. The former is much more common than the latter.
3148:, differing in phonetic specifications and distribution from OE /f/. Without doubt, one component in this misunderstanding is the orthography. If, instead of speaking of the development of Old English /f/ we said that OE
3422:
Total unconditional loss is, as mentioned, not very common. Latin /h/ appears to have been lost everywhere in all varieties of Proto-Romance except
Romanian. Proto-Indo-European laryngeals survived as consonants only in
3657:, where failing to make the split is stigmatized in Northern England, and speakers of non-splitting accents often try to introduce it into their speech, sometimes resulting in hypercorrections such as pronouncing
1430:
Note 2: unlike most phonological changes, this one became a "surface" rule in German, so loan-words whose source had a voiced stop in the devoicing environment are taken into German with a voiceless one instead:
3492:, phonemic differentiation is maintained, while in phonemic mergers it is lost. Phonemic splits involve the creation of two phonemes out of one, which then tend to diverge because of phonemic differentiation.
842:, in which the distribution of phonemes changes by either addition of new phonemes or a reorganization of existing phonemes. Mergers and splits are types of rephonemicization and are discussed further below.
3478:(F2) than back vowels, and unrounded vowels have a higher F2 than rounded vowels. Thus unrounded front vowels and rounded back vowels have maximally different F2s, enhancing their phonemic differentiation.
1210:
Note 2: one who knows German can figure out which cases of
English /ð/ were originally /ð/ and which changed from /d/. Original /d/ corresponds to /t/ in German, and original /ð/ corresponds to /d/. Thus,
1199:, and so on. Since /ð/ was already a structure-point in the language, the innovation resulted merely in more /ð/ and less /d/ and a gap in the distribution of /d/ (though not a very conspicuous one).
862:
Conditioned merger (which
Hoenigswald calls "primary split"), in which some instances of phoneme A become an existing phoneme B; the number of phonemes does not change, only their distribution.
1462:"way", all with voiceless final stops in the simplex form and in compounds, but /b d g/ in inflected forms. In Old High and Middle High German, all voiceless stops were written as pronounced:
891:
or subphonemic. This can entail one of two changes: either the phoneme turns into a new allophone—meaning the phonetic form changes—or the distribution of allophones of the phoneme changes.
3474:
are rounded. There are no languages in which all front vowels are rounded and all back vowels are unrounded. The most likely explanation for this is that front vowels have a higher second
865:
Phonemic split (which
Hoenigswald calls "secondary split"), in which some instances of A become a new phoneme B; this is phonemic differentiation in which the number of phonemes increases.
2643:; the evidence for these changes is almost entirely from comparative reconstruction. That reconstruction makes it easy to unriddle the story behind the weird forms of the Latin paradigm
2942:. This is because the contrastive feature in a vowel system usually has a nasal in its history, which makes for straightforward surmises. There are also clear alternations, as
1095:
Conditioned merger, or primary split, takes place when some, but not all, allophones of a phoneme, say A, merge with some other phoneme, B. The immediate results are these:
898:
differentiation or assimilation; i.e., sounds in specific environments acquire new phonetic features or perhaps lose phonetic features they originally had. For example, the
3236:
because the syntactic mechanism needs something explicit to generate the singular suffix on the verb. Thus, all English singular nouns may be marked with yet another zero.
1013:
Sound changes generally operate for a limited period of time, and once established, new phonemic contrasts rarely remain tied to their ancestral environments. For example,
3647:
3627:
It is sometimes difficult to determine whether a split or a merger has happened if one dialect has two phonemes corresponding to a single phoneme in another dialect;
1615:
This sound law is quite complete and regular, and in its immediate wake there were no examples of /s/ between vowels except for a few words with a special condition (
3791:
3046:
lost and with little reason to even suspect the original state of affairs; and anyway the original distributions have been much disturbed by analogical leveling.
3208:
Along the way, it is hard to know when to stop positing zeros and whether to regard one zero as different from another. For example, if the zero not-marking
3200:. Descriptively, however, it is problematic to say that the "nominative singular masculine" is signaled by the absence of any affix. It is simpler to view
2181:
One of the traits of conditioned merger, as outlined above, is that the total number of contrasts remains the same, but it is possible for such splits to
3181:
accusative singular masculine, etc.) of the 30 forms that make up the paradigm that is not explicitly marked with endings for gender, number, and case.
813:
3642:, however, the question of which splits and mergers are prestigious and which are stigmatized is irrelevant. However, such stigmatization can lead to
3589:
In a phonemic split, a phoneme at an earlier stage of the language is divided into two phonemes over time. Usually, it happens when a phoneme has two
2938:
Note 2: unusually for a split, the history of the French innovation, even including some changes in vowel cavity features, can be readily inferred by
3896:
1152:
259:
2028:
The sequence was regularly rendered in the orthography as |gn|. Some epigraphic inscriptions also feature non-standard spellings, e.g. SINNU for
868:
Unconditioned merger, in which all instances of phonemes A and B become A; this is phonemic reduction, in which the number of phonemes decreases.
3228:, it is uncertain whether English adjectives agree with the number of the noun they modify, using the same zero affix. (Deictics do so: compare
1988:
3239:
It seems possible to avoid all those issues by considering loss as a separate basic category of phonological change, and leave zero out of it.
3107:
postdated the rearranging of voicing in pre-Old English fricatives, or else it was phonetically long between vowels, originally, much like the
1970:
3510:, one phoneme moves in acoustic space, causing other phonemes to move as well to maintain optimal phonemic differentiation. An example from
3521:
2887:
Step 2: at some point in the history of French when speakers consistently stopped making an oral closure with the tongue, we had , that is
2671:
Typical is the unconditioned merger seen in the Celtic conflation of the PIE plain voiced series of stops with the breathy-voiced series: *
3667:
Occasionally, speakers of one accent may believe the speakers of another accent to have undergone a merger, when there has really been a
2909:"cat" solely by the contrast between the nasal and the oral articulation of the vowels, and thus with many other forms in which /a/ and
2315:
Cf. Latin ferō "carry" < Proto-Italic *pʰer- < PIE *bher-; Latin frāter "brother" < Proto-Italic *pʰrātēr < PIE *bhre-H₂ter-
1080:
3695:
1936:
3132:
Note 3: a common misstatement of cases like OE /f/ > Modern English /f, v/ is that a "new phoneme" has been created. Not so. A new
1639:). However, a new crop of /s/ between vowels soon arose from three sources. (1) a shortening of /ss/ after a diphthong or long vowel:
1119:
between A and B if inflection or derivation result in A sometimes but not always being in the environment in which it merged with B.
937:
Phonetic change in this context refers to the lack of phonological restructuring, not a small degree of sound change. For example,
2149:
1926:"(deep) sleep". For some words, only comparative evidence can help retrieve the original consonant: for example, the etymology of
1784:
141:
3220:
as "plural", or if are both basically a single morphological placeholder. If it is determined that there is a zero on the end of
2121:
1756:
113:
3700:
3547:
may occur. In that case, a single phoneme results where an earlier stage of the language had two phonemes (that is also called
774:
3115:"fish" is phonetically ) and long fricatives, just like sequences of fricatives, were always voiceless in Old English, as in
2128:
2102:
1763:
1737:
120:
94:
49:
2043:
The regular nasal assimilation of Latin can be seen as a form of "merger", insofar as it resulted in the contrast between
1183:
For a simple example, without alternation, early Middle English /d/ after stressed syllables followed by /r/ became /ð/:
945:(in which nearly all of the vowels of the English language changed) or the allophonic differentiation of /s/, originally
1902:
In some cases, the underlying (pre-assimilation) root can be retrieved from related lexical items in the language: e.g.
2827:, respectively. There is no way of telling in French which one of the two Latin vowels is the source of any given /wa/.
17:
3866:
Hale, M., Kissock, M., & Reiss, C. (2014) An I-Language Approach to Phonologization and Lexification. Chapter 20.
2679:. The collapse of the contrast cannot be stated in whole-series terms because the labiovelars do not co-operate. PIE *
3775:
2168:
2135:
1803:
1770:
1203:
Note 1: thanks to borrowing, from dialects as well as other languages, the original distribution has been disturbed:
1170:
295:
277:
222:
160:
127:
63:
204:
3369:
is actually attested) The /x/ phoneme still exists in some onomatopoeiac words, like "ugh" (note the spelling uses
3013:. The voiced fricative is typically seen in verbs, too (often with variations in vowel length of diverse sources):
1047:
refers to phonemic merger. It is not to be confused with the meaning of the word "reduction" in phonetics, such as
1450:
Note 2a: the surface alternation is what allows modern German orthography to write stops morphophonemically, thus
3886:
3705:
2185:
the number of contrasts. It happens if all of the conditioned merger products merge with one or another phoneme.
795:
356:
3826:
While Roman grammarians generally make some fairly fine observations about Latin phonetics, they do not mention
3795:
3318:
drops medially between voiced sounds in Greek but is preserved in final position and in some consonant clusters.
2117:
1752:
109:
3152:
split into /f/ and /v/, there would presumably be less confused talk of "a" new phoneme arising in the process.
2106:
1741:
887:
can occur without any modification to the phoneme inventory or phonemic correspondences. This change is purely
189:
98:
1276:
Note 3: alternation between /d/ and /ð/ would have been a theoretical possibility in English, as in sets like
976:
523:
3873:
Hoenigswald, H. (1965). Language change and linguistic reconstruction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
3373:, which indicates that when they were coined, there was still some understanding of the phonemic meaning of
3232:.) In some theories of syntax it is useful to have an overt marker on a singular noun in a sentence such as
2040:"fire". These are witness to the speakers' hesitancy on how to best transcribe the sound in the sequence .
3631:
research is usually required to determine the dialect that is conservative and the one that is innovative.
3337:"marrow", it vocalizes. It is elided (with varying effects on the preceding vowel, such as lengthening) in
3847:
3839:
3661:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3565:
3559:
3532:
3528:
3523:
3149:
3120:
3108:
3104:
3096:
3092:
3088:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2910:
2903:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2881:
1560:
1553:
1546:
1542:
1526:
946:
907:
903:
809:
805:
3515:
1473:
Note 3: the same distribution holds for /s/ vs. /z/, but it arose by a completely different process, the
1068:
968:
767:
3322:
1294:
1116:
538:
315:
3173:"(the) other", for example) is quite common, but it is the only one (nominative singular masculine:
872:
This classification does not consider mere changes in pronunciation, that is, phonetic change, even
1828:
1573:
1298:
706:
506:
478:
324:
55:
3549:
3169:
The situation in which a highly inflected language has formations without any affix at all (Latin
2068:
1943:
According to this rule of nasal assimilation, the sequences *-g-n and *-k-n would become , with a
1412:
3639:
2939:
2640:
2142:
2095:
1777:
1730:
1391:
676:
588:
438:
413:
403:
331:
200:
134:
87:
3646:, when the dialect speakers attempt to imitate the standard language but overshoot, as with the
3638:
and in dialects, the dialect pronunciation is considered nonstandard and may be stigmatized. In
1010:
so on. The difference became phonemic. (The "law of palatals" is an example of phonemic split.)
3628:
3482:
1577:
1281:
1052:
822:
791:
681:
3192:(overtly nominative singular and masculine), with the regular loss of the short vowel after *-
1410:"colorful" with /t/ in all environments (feminine /ˈbʊntə/, neuter /ˈbʊntəs/ and so on). In a
1108:
there is at least one environment for which A, for the time being, no longer occurs, called a
488:
3554:
1148:
927:
760:
255:
196:
3518:
3326:
1699:- "red" but equally clearly not native Latin), and many words taken from or through Greek (
1421:/ʔʊnt/ "and" is historically opaque (though as the spelling hints, the /t/ was originally *
1084:
1064:
851:
671:
471:
8:
3685:
3424:
631:
443:
351:
3801:"lamb". In Latin, PIE labiovelars were regularly delabialized before another consonant:
3543:
If a phoneme moves in acoustic space, but its neighbors do not move in a chain shift, a
3891:
3602:
3163:
1695:"rose" /rosa/, from a Sabellian source (the word is clearly somehow from Proto-Italic *
736:
711:
696:
593:
513:
1374:
There were, of course, also many cases of original voiceless stops in final position:
1297:
in German when in word-final position or immediately before a compound boundary (see:
3901:
3771:
3635:
2840:
2832:
1280:, but any such details have been erased by the commonplace diachronic process called
956:
Many phonetic changes provide the raw ingredients for later phonemic innovations. In
950:
942:
911:
899:
731:
721:
557:
458:
838:
change may sway the process of sound change). One process of phonological change is
3578:
3511:
3459:
3428:
2844:
584:
3830:= despite being thoroughly familiar with the idea from Greek orthography, where |
1248:
3690:
3643:
3598:
1824:
1048:
972:
923:
376:
1236:
1051:, but phonetic changes may contribute to phonemic mergers. For example, in most
2836:
1820:
1242:
931:
518:
418:
371:
366:
3247:
In Latin are many consonant clusters that lose a member or two such as these:
2030:
1996:
1976:
1957:
1878:
1848:
1207:
in Standard English (but forms with /ð/ are attested in nonstandard dialects).
3880:
3863:
Hale, M. (2007), Historical linguistics: Theory and method, Oxford, Blackwell
726:
568:
547:
533:
493:
2036:
2013:
1894:
1831:
with it in nasality, while preserving their original point of articulation:
1635:"eloquent": that is, rhotacism did not take place when an /r/ followed the *
1572:
More typical of the aftermath of a conditioned merger is the famous case of
876:, in which neither the number nor the distribution of phonemes is affected.
3710:
3616:
in a following syllable. When sound change caused the syllables containing
3594:
3485:
3127:, vastly postdated the period when fricatives became voiced between vowels.
1664:
957:
915:
884:
830:
603:
528:
483:
361:
311:
3720:
1816:
A particular example of a conditioned merger in Latin is the rule whereby
3715:
3680:
3668:
3597:
eliminates the distinction between the two environments. For example, in
3507:
3501:
3489:
3467:
3463:
1944:
938:
873:
746:
741:
661:
598:
3553:). A well known example of a phonemic merger in American English is the
1817:
3770:(4th ed.). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. p. 69.
3606:
3471:
2109: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2056:
1744: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
666:
627:
551:
396:
3752:(Second ed.). Berlin; New York: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 53–4.
2655:
participle. If the root is inherited, it would have to have been PIE *
2639:
There is no alternation to give away the historical story, there, via
3590:
2044:
2022:
1031:*/ay/ to Sanskrit /ē/ had no effect at all on preceding velar stops.
1028:
949:, into , do not qualify as phonological change as long as all of the
895:
888:
855:
716:
636:
610:
543:
453:
387:
3390:
In many words, /f/ (that is, Old English ) was lost between vowels:
2188:
For example, in Latin, the Pre-Latin phoneme *θ (from Proto-Italic *
2084:
1719:
207:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
76:
3443:
1014:
801:
691:
686:
656:
408:
344:
1293:
A trivial (if all-pervasive) example of conditioned merger is the
1043:
is a loss of distinction between phonemes. Occasionally, the term
979:
articulation before front vowels (*/e/, */i/, */ē/ */ī/), so that
3475:
3447:
2675:
are indistinguishable in Celtic etymology from the reflexes of *
1709:
1537:(in native words) and does not become voiced in any environment:
1018:
834:
617:
448:
431:
3325:) is everywhere lost as such, but usually leaves traces behind (
3380:/g k/ are lost in English in word-initial position before /n/:
622:
577:
2895:) and finally, with the loss of the final stop, modern French
2728:(short and long high front rounded vowels) fell together with
3216:) as "third person singular" is the same zero that not-marks
2787:
vowels: thus, Latin /i ē/ are uniformly reflected as PWRom. *
919:
2799:
is reflected in French (in open syllables) as /wa/ (spelled
858:
can only affect a phonological system in one of three ways:
3339:
night, knight, might, taught, naught, freight, fought, plow
3196:- and the truncation of the resulting word-final cluster *-
1505:"to kiss" /ˈkʏsen/, nor does /s/ from Proto-West-Germanic *
3831:
3612:
originally had front rounded allophones before the vowel
3029:. Such alternations are to be seen even in loan words, as
2993:"wolf". But in say the dative singular of "life", that is
2775:
vowels simply fell together pairwise: in no way are Latin
2755:
There is a massive, consistent body of evidence that PIE *
2196:) disappears as such by merging with three other sounds: *
3184:
From a historical perspective, there is no problem since
3577:
respectively) have merged into a single phoneme in some
3427:
but left plenty of traces of their former presence (see
2958:/rafine/ "refined" indicate what happened to nasalized *
1027:, /čm/, and similar novelties; and the reduction of the
1612:
in all other environments, even in the same paradigm).
3384:. /t/ is lost after fricatives before nasals and /l/:
2925:"woman" /fam/ (with the lowering of (nasalized ) to *
2791:(in the standard Romance notation), and /u ō/ become *
1288:
3054:
have voiced fricative (next to the voiceless ones in
2847:, the vowel mergers progressed further, to 3 vowels.
2074:
3398:("lizard"), and in some alternative (poetic) forms:
3386:
soften, castle, bristle, chestnut, Christmas, hasten
2950:(fem.), while such pairs as /fin/ "fine" (fem.) and
1022:
1004:
998:
992:
986:
980:
894:
For the most part, phonetic changes are examples of
800:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
3119:"to kiss". The Early Modern English development of
1143:
may be too technical for most readers to understand
934:and nasals under the influence of adjacent vowels.
879:
250:
may be too technical for most readers to understand
101:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2763:merged totally in Proto-Indo-Iranian, as did PIE *
3290:Greek lost all stops from the end of a word (so *
2839:had 8 vowels; it has been reduced to 5 in modern
2738:hypp, cynn, cyssan, brycg, fyllan, fýr, mýs, brýd
1580:language spoken in the same area): Proto-Italic *
1099:there are the same number of contrasts as before.
3878:
3037:(though not as a rule in borrowed plurals, thus
2855:In a split (Hoenigswald's "secondary split"), a
2683:everywhere falls together with the reflexes of *
814:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
3634:When phonemic change occurs differently in the
3481:Phonemic differentiation can have an effect on
3314:), but stops generally survive elsewhere. PIE *
2742:hip, kin, kiss, bridge, fill, fire, mice, bride
3870:Edited by Patrick Honeybone and Joseph Salmons
3620:to be lost, a phonemic split resulted, making
2021:The sound was not a phoneme of Latin, but an
1866:"Samnium" (a region in the southern Apennines)
1324:"league, association" > /bʊnt/ (cf. plural
1123:
850:In a typological scheme first systematized by
3765:
3446:maximizing the acoustic distance between its
2921:not always reflected in the orthography: Fr.
2783:high vowels, front and back, merged with the
2241:- "smear, work with the hands"; cf. Sanskrit
768:
3868:The Oxford Handbook of Historical Phonology.
3747:
3531:, which in turn has triggered a lowering of
3103:, and either the change of this sequence to
3074:, and note that even in dialects with /z/ in
3068:bossy, glassy, leafy, earthy, breathy, saucy
1390:Note 1: this split is easily recoverable by
3434:
2288:-; like most reflexes plural only; cf Eng.
1017:acquired "new" /ki/ and /gi/ sequences via
64:Learn how and when to remove these messages
3696:Phonological history of English consonants
3458:For example, in many languages, including
1402:"bunch" (as in, keys) /bʊnt/ has a plural
1115:there is, under certain circumstances, an
775:
761:
3768:An Introduction to Historical Linguistics
3593:appearing in different environments, but
2169:Learn how and when to remove this message
1804:Learn how and when to remove this message
1435:"club" (association) /klʊp/ from English
1171:Learn how and when to remove this message
1155:, without removing the technical details.
1102:there are fewer words with A than before.
296:Learn how and when to remove this message
278:Learn how and when to remove this message
262:, without removing the technical details.
223:Learn how and when to remove this message
161:Learn how and when to remove this message
3850:. This is likely to be a mere oversight.
1934:) is revealed by comparison with Gothic
3897:Splits and mergers in English phonology
3766:Crowley, Terry; Bowern, Claire (2010).
2954:(masc.) together with derivatives like
2662:
1398:whose conditions are transparent. Thus
1247:, pointing to original /ð/ in English;
926:(common but not universal), changes in
14:
3879:
3701:Phonological history of English vowels
1366:"clever, wise" > /kluːk/ (cf. fem.
1105:there are more words of B than before.
953:remain in complementary distribution.
1567:
1153:make it understandable to non-experts
1090:
975:*/k/ and */g/ acquired distinctively
260:make it understandable to non-experts
3761:
3759:
3750:Principles of Historical Linguistics
3743:
3741:
3001:, being an old prepositional phrase
2736:via a simple phonetic unrounding: OE
2477:, and (rarely and problematically) *
2107:adding citations to reliable sources
2078:
1742:adding citations to reliable sources
1713:
1710:Nasal assimilation and "gn" in Latin
1497:/ˈmɔʏzə/. Original long (now short)
1127:
1063:have become the same sound and thus
804:. For the distinction between ,
234:
172:
99:adding citations to reliable sources
70:
29:
3538:
3347:bought, through, though, slaughter;
2876:when a nasal immediately follows: *
2748:, etc., have nothing to do with OE
1439:The same goes for truncated forms:
1289:Devoicing of voiced stops in German
1112:in the distribution of the phoneme.
24:
3584:
3095:(and never did). In native words,
2446:- "sewing implement" > PItal. *
2075:Concerning the number of contrasts
1525:), müßig "idle" /ˈmyːsɪç/. German
1477:of original */s/ between vowels: *
1021:and borrowing, and likewise /ču/,
25:
3913:
3756:
3738:
2880:"song" > (still phonemically
45:This article has multiple issues.
2083:
1718:
1584:> Latin /r/ between vowels: *
1132:
967:Similarly, in the prehistory of
880:Phonetic vs. phonological change
833:that alters the distribution of
239:
177:
75:
34:
3834:| = before /k/ and /g/, as in
3706:Phonological history of English
3495:
2997:, the form was (as in English
2831:Another example is provided by
2094:needs additional citations for
1729:needs additional citations for
1356:"mountain" /bɛɐ̯k/ (cf. plural
1308:"hand" > /hant/ (cf. plural
1053:North American English dialects
796:International Phonetic Alphabet
357:Consonant voicing and devoicing
86:needs additional citations for
53:or discuss these issues on the
3820:
3784:
3177:nominative singular feminine,
3041:, with voiceless fricatives).
1501:does not voice medially, as in
1350:"semi-official" /ˈhalpʔamtlɪç/
13:
1:
3726:
3453:
2902:"song", distinct from French
2699:seems to have become PCelt. *
2525:- is itself presumably via *-
2430:- "nourishment" > PItal. *
3557:by which the vowel phonemes
3527:has triggered a fronting of
3351:laugh, trough, tough, enough
3066:otherwise do not alternate:
2422:- "tool suffix" > Latin -
2034:"sign, insigne", INGNEM for
1675:) "unless" < the phrase *
1576:in Latin (also seen in some
1083:due to a merger created by
7:
3748:Henrich Hock, Hans (1991).
3674:
3516:Northern cities vowel shift
2714:
2617:- in Latin comes from PIE *
1687:) "as if" < the phrase *
1533:"fish", reflects original *
1124:Example from Middle English
910:in certain environments in
701:
203:the claims made and adding
10:
3918:
3857:
3569:(illustrated by the words
3499:
1701:philosophia, basis, casia,
1691:. (3) borrowings, such as
1023:
1005:
999:
993:
987:
981:
3377:), "yech" and "chutzpah".
3323:voiceless velar fricative
2929:prior to denasalization).
2767:into Proto-Indo-Iranian *
2703:, lining up with PCelt. *
2535:Elsewhere, *θ becomes d:
2517:"hemp"). The change of *-
1608:-, etc., with unchanged *
1517:"kegs" /ˈfɛsɐ/ plural of
1295:devoicing of voiced stops
1278:hard, harder; ride, rider
1273:pointing to original /d/.
1034:
3731:
3440:Phonemic differentiation
3435:Phonemic differentiation
3382:gnaw, gnat, knight, know
3287:("lantern" or the like).
3111:of present-day Italian (
3091:does not alternate with
3009:, was , as still seen in
2850:
2602:"am persuaded", English
2527:θr- > *-ðr- > *-βr
2513:"hemp" (cf. Old English
1406:/ˈbʏndə/ in contrast to
1344:"to halve" /halˈbiːʁən/)
1340:"half" > /halp/ (cf.
1299:Help:IPA/Standard German
1055:, the vowel in the word
845:
707:Compensatory lengthening
479:Compensatory lengthening
3640:descriptive linguistics
3550:phonetic neutralization
3442:is the phenomenon of a
3251:"toasted, dried" < *
3156:
3125:nation, mission, assure
3050:and (in some dialects)
2940:internal reconstruction
2819:"what", are from Latin
2641:internal reconstruction
2555:(three syllables; PIE *
2229:- "model, shape" > *
1659:"poured, melted" < *
1392:internal reconstruction
792:phonetic transcriptions
332:Quantitative metathesis
27:Phenomenon in phonology
3887:Historical linguistics
3813:"leave behind", Greek
3359:The Pilgrim's Progress
3259:"milking stool" < *
3072:glaze, leaves, breathe
2821:vēlum, fēnum, digitus
2598:"trusting" (cf. Greek
2321:Medially adjacent to *
1588:"I do, act" > Lat.
1394:because it results in
1282:morphological leveling
1059:and vowel in the word
985:came to be pronounced
854:in 1965, a historical
823:historical linguistics
789:This article contains
3414:"silver", and others.
3396:nafogar, hafoc, efete
3230:this deer, these deer
3062:) but adjectives in -
2245:"they smear", Avestan
2118:"Phonological change"
1823:, when followed by a
1753:"Phonological change"
1489:"mice" (for earlier *
1318:"wrist" /ˈhantgəlɛŋk/
928:point of articulation
110:"Phonological change"
3805:"left behind" < *
3327:transphonologization
3087:Note 2: the phoneme
2663:Unconditioned merger
2465:Intervocalic Latin -
2103:improve this article
1738:improve this article
852:Henry M. Hoenigswald
472:Transphonologization
95:improve this article
3686:Drift (linguistics)
3624:distinct phonemes.
3425:Anatolian languages
3365:, and the spelling
2946:"good" (masc.) vs.
2746:type, thyme, psyche
2025:of /g/ before /n/.
1549:only in loanwords:
1081:pronounced the same
1069:dialects of England
827:phonological change
352:Consonant gradation
3790:The same PIE root
3603:Germanic languages
3341:(Brit. plough, OE
3294:"what" > Greek
3136:has been created.
3123:< */sj/, as in
2509:- "hornet"); Lat.
2067:) being regularly
1568:Rhotacism in Latin
1447:"boy") is /buːp/.
1334:"gold" > /gɔlt/
1091:Conditioned merger
1065:undergone a merger
962:conditioned merger
737:Consonant mutation
712:Monophthongization
594:Consonant mutation
188:possibly contains
18:Merger (phonology)
3721:Index Diachronica
3636:standard language
3555:cot–caught merger
3410:"ever"; Scottish
3392:auger, hawk, newt
3005:); the plural of
2833:Japonic languages
2691:as Proto-Celtic *
2673:bh, *dh, *ǵh, *gh
2547:- > Pre-Lat. *
2543:- "middle" > *
2485:"both" < PIE *
2249:- "wall" = Greek
2218:Initially *θ >
2179:
2178:
2171:
2153:
1814:
1813:
1806:
1788:
1600:- and participle
1521:/fas/ (= English
1513:"water" /ˈvasɐ/,
1464:hleip, hant, uuec
1181:
1180:
1173:
1087:or "R-dropping".
997:, but the phones
943:Great Vowel Shift
840:rephonemicization
785:
784:
732:Shm-reduplication
722:Rhinoglottophilia
558:Consonant harmony
459:Cluster reduction
306:
305:
298:
288:
287:
280:
233:
232:
225:
190:original research
171:
170:
163:
145:
68:
16:(Redirected from
3909:
3851:
3849:
3841:
3824:
3818:
3788:
3782:
3781:
3763:
3754:
3753:
3745:
3663:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3611:
3568:
3567:
3562:
3561:
3539:Phonemic mergers
3535:, and so forth.
3534:
3530:
3525:
3512:American English
3429:laryngeal theory
3357:can be found in
3151:
3122:
3110:
3106:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3082:always has /s/).
2953:
2949:
2945:
2912:
2905:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2883:
2559:-, cf. Sanskrit
2300:(probably < *
2174:
2167:
2163:
2160:
2154:
2152:
2111:
2087:
2079:
1809:
1802:
1798:
1795:
1789:
1787:
1746:
1722:
1714:
1643:"lawsuit" < *
1562:
1555:
1548:
1544:
1528:
1176:
1169:
1165:
1162:
1156:
1136:
1135:
1128:
1026:
1025:
1008:
1007:
1002:
1001:
996:
995:
990:
989:
984:
983:
948:
909:
905:
811:
807:
777:
770:
763:
308:
307:
301:
294:
283:
276:
272:
269:
263:
243:
242:
235:
228:
221:
217:
214:
208:
205:inline citations
181:
180:
173:
166:
159:
155:
152:
146:
144:
103:
79:
71:
60:
38:
37:
30:
21:
3917:
3916:
3912:
3911:
3910:
3908:
3907:
3906:
3877:
3876:
3860:
3855:
3854:
3825:
3821:
3789:
3785:
3778:
3764:
3757:
3746:
3739:
3734:
3729:
3691:Language change
3677:
3644:hypercorrection
3587:
3585:Phonemic splits
3564:
3558:
3545:phonemic merger
3541:
3504:
3498:
3456:
3437:
3310:"O prince" >
3275:"dinner" < *
3267:"carved" < *
3159:
2853:
2717:
2665:
2629:"to sit down",
2469:- is from PIE *
2458:"cobbler's awl"
2276:- "door" > *
2175:
2164:
2158:
2155:
2112:
2110:
2100:
2088:
2077:
1974:"gather") >
1825:nasal consonant
1810:
1799:
1793:
1790:
1747:
1745:
1735:
1723:
1712:
1706:, etc., etc.).
1570:
1291:
1177:
1166:
1160:
1157:
1149:help improve it
1146:
1137:
1133:
1126:
1093:
1049:vowel reduction
1037:
885:Phonetic change
882:
848:
819:
818:
817:
781:
752:
751:
652:
644:
643:
642:
641:
613:
580:
563:
562:
539:Final devoicing
509:
499:
498:
474:
464:
463:
434:
424:
423:
399:
382:
381:
377:Debuccalization
347:
337:
336:
327:
302:
291:
290:
289:
284:
273:
267:
264:
256:help improve it
253:
244:
240:
229:
218:
212:
209:
194:
182:
178:
167:
156:
150:
147:
104:
102:
92:
80:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3915:
3905:
3904:
3899:
3894:
3889:
3875:
3874:
3871:
3864:
3859:
3856:
3853:
3852:
3819:
3794:yielded Greek
3783:
3776:
3755:
3736:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3724:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3688:
3683:
3676:
3673:
3586:
3583:
3540:
3537:
3500:Main article:
3497:
3494:
3455:
3452:
3436:
3433:
3416:
3415:
3388:
3378:
3321:Old English (
3319:
3288:
3158:
3155:
3154:
3153:
3129:
3128:
3084:
3083:
2966:
2965:
2964:
2963:
2933:
2932:
2931:
2930:
2915:
2914:
2885:
2852:
2849:
2837:Proto-Japanese
2829:
2828:
2772:
2753:
2740:became modern
2716:
2713:
2664:
2661:
2637:
2636:
2635:
2634:
2613:Intervocalic -
2608:
2607:
2580:
2533:
2532:
2531:
2530:
2501:"hornet" <
2460:
2459:
2416:
2373:
2319:
2318:
2317:
2316:
2310:
2309:
2270:
2177:
2176:
2091:
2089:
2082:
2076:
2073:
2019:
2018:
2001:
1994:"build") >
1981:
1962:
1900:
1899:
1883:
1867:
1853:
1818:syllable-final
1812:
1811:
1726:
1724:
1717:
1711:
1708:
1651:"house' < *
1623:"bushy hair",
1569:
1566:
1565:
1564:
1545:. (German has
1470:
1469:
1468:
1467:
1427:
1426:
1372:
1371:
1361:
1351:
1345:
1335:
1329:
1319:
1313:
1290:
1287:
1286:
1285:
1274:
1208:
1189:mother, father
1179:
1178:
1140:
1138:
1131:
1125:
1122:
1121:
1120:
1113:
1106:
1103:
1100:
1092:
1089:
1036:
1033:
902:of the vowels
881:
878:
870:
869:
866:
863:
847:
844:
812:⟩, see
788:
787:
786:
783:
782:
780:
779:
772:
765:
757:
754:
753:
750:
749:
744:
739:
734:
729:
724:
719:
714:
709:
704:
699:
694:
689:
684:
679:
674:
669:
664:
659:
653:
650:
649:
646:
645:
640:
639:
634:
625:
620:
614:
609:
608:
607:
606:
601:
596:
591:
581:
576:
575:
572:
571:
565:
564:
561:
560:
555:
541:
536:
531:
526:
524:Palatalization
521:
519:Coarticulation
516:
510:
505:
504:
501:
500:
497:
496:
491:
486:
481:
475:
470:
469:
466:
465:
462:
461:
456:
451:
446:
441:
435:
430:
429:
426:
425:
422:
421:
419:Vowel breaking
416:
411:
406:
400:
395:
394:
391:
390:
384:
383:
380:
379:
374:
372:L-vocalization
369:
367:Spirantization
364:
359:
354:
348:
343:
342:
339:
338:
335:
334:
328:
323:
322:
319:
318:
304:
303:
286:
285:
247:
245:
238:
231:
230:
185:
183:
176:
169:
168:
83:
81:
74:
69:
43:
42:
40:
33:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3914:
3903:
3900:
3898:
3895:
3893:
3890:
3888:
3885:
3884:
3882:
3872:
3869:
3865:
3862:
3861:
3845:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3823:
3816:
3812:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3797:
3793:
3787:
3779:
3777:9780195365542
3773:
3769:
3762:
3760:
3751:
3744:
3742:
3737:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3678:
3672:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3656:
3654:
3650:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3632:
3630:
3625:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3592:
3582:
3580:
3576:
3572:
3556:
3552:
3551:
3546:
3536:
3526:
3519:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3503:
3493:
3491:
3487:
3484:
3479:
3477:
3473:
3470:, while most
3469:
3465:
3461:
3451:
3449:
3445:
3441:
3432:
3430:
3426:
3420:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3361:rhyming with
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3333:"furrow" and
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3286:
3283:"moon" < *
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3245:
3244:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3234:My head hurts
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3206:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3182:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3167:
3165:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3131:
3130:
3126:
3118:
3114:
3102:
3086:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3044:
3043:
3042:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2961:
2957:
2941:
2937:
2936:
2935:
2934:
2928:
2924:
2919:
2918:
2917:
2916:
2908:
2901:
2886:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2866:
2865:
2861:
2858:
2848:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2826:
2825:*dictu), quid
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2773:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2718:
2712:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2669:
2660:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2611:
2610:
2609:
2606:"order, ask")
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2537:
2536:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2505:- (cf. Vedic
2504:
2500:
2496:
2493:- (cf. Greek
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2463:
2462:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2438:- > Latin
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2424:bulum, -bula:
2421:
2417:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2391:) > Latin
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2371:
2368:, Lithuanian
2367:
2363:
2359:
2356:(cf. English
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2340:"word" > *
2339:
2335:
2334:
2333:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2314:
2313:
2312:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2284:"door" (PIE *
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2223:
2222:
2221:
2216:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2186:
2184:
2173:
2170:
2162:
2159:February 2018
2151:
2148:
2144:
2141:
2137:
2134:
2130:
2127:
2123:
2120: –
2119:
2115:
2114:Find sources:
2108:
2104:
2098:
2097:
2092:This section
2090:
2086:
2081:
2080:
2072:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2041:
2039:
2038:
2033:
2032:
2026:
2024:
2016:
2015:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1999:
1998:
1993:
1991:
1986:
1982:
1979:
1978:
1973:
1972:
1967:
1963:
1960:
1959:
1954:
1950:
1949:
1948:
1946:
1941:
1939:
1938:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1923:
1917:
1915:
1909:
1907:
1897:
1896:
1891:
1889:
1884:
1881:
1880:
1875:
1873:
1868:
1865:
1861:
1859:
1854:
1851:
1850:
1845:
1843:
1837:
1834:
1833:
1832:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1819:
1808:
1805:
1797:
1794:February 2018
1786:
1783:
1779:
1776:
1772:
1769:
1765:
1762:
1758:
1755: –
1754:
1750:
1749:Find sources:
1743:
1739:
1733:
1732:
1727:This section
1725:
1721:
1716:
1715:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1613:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1592:(but perfect
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1559:
1552:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1481:"mouse" >
1480:
1476:
1472:
1471:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1448:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1429:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1414:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1388:
1387:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1369:
1365:
1362:
1359:
1355:
1352:
1349:
1346:
1343:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1330:
1327:
1323:
1320:
1317:
1314:
1311:
1307:
1304:
1303:
1302:
1300:
1296:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1251:
1246:
1245:
1240:
1239:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1209:
1206:
1205:rudder, adder
1202:
1201:
1200:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1175:
1172:
1164:
1154:
1150:
1144:
1141:This section
1139:
1130:
1129:
1118:
1114:
1111:
1107:
1104:
1101:
1098:
1097:
1096:
1088:
1086:
1085:non-rhoticity
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1032:
1030:
1020:
1016:
1011:
978:
974:
970:
965:
963:
959:
954:
952:
944:
940:
935:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
901:
897:
892:
890:
886:
877:
875:
867:
864:
861:
860:
859:
857:
853:
843:
841:
836:
832:
828:
824:
815:
803:
799:
797:
793:
778:
773:
771:
766:
764:
759:
758:
756:
755:
748:
745:
743:
740:
738:
735:
733:
730:
728:
727:Sulcalization
725:
723:
720:
718:
715:
713:
710:
708:
705:
703:
700:
698:
695:
693:
690:
688:
685:
683:
680:
678:
675:
673:
670:
668:
665:
663:
660:
658:
655:
654:
648:
647:
638:
635:
633:
629:
626:
624:
621:
619:
616:
615:
612:
605:
602:
600:
597:
595:
592:
590:
586:
583:
582:
579:
574:
573:
570:
569:Dissimilation
567:
566:
559:
556:
553:
549:
548:vowel harmony
545:
542:
540:
537:
535:
534:Labialization
532:
530:
527:
525:
522:
520:
517:
515:
512:
511:
508:
503:
502:
495:
494:Floating tone
492:
490:
487:
485:
482:
480:
477:
476:
473:
468:
467:
460:
457:
455:
452:
450:
447:
445:
442:
440:
437:
436:
433:
428:
427:
420:
417:
415:
412:
410:
407:
405:
402:
401:
398:
393:
392:
389:
386:
385:
378:
375:
373:
370:
368:
365:
363:
360:
358:
355:
353:
350:
349:
346:
341:
340:
333:
330:
329:
326:
321:
320:
317:
313:
310:
309:
300:
297:
282:
279:
271:
261:
257:
251:
248:This article
246:
237:
236:
227:
224:
216:
206:
202:
198:
192:
191:
186:This article
184:
175:
174:
165:
162:
154:
143:
140:
136:
133:
129:
126:
122:
119:
115:
112: –
111:
107:
106:Find sources:
100:
96:
90:
89:
84:This article
82:
78:
73:
72:
67:
65:
58:
57:
52:
51:
46:
41:
32:
31:
19:
3867:
3846:"messenger"
3843:
3835:
3827:
3822:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3786:
3767:
3749:
3711:Sound change
3666:
3658:
3652:
3648:
3633:
3626:
3595:sound change
3588:
3574:
3570:
3548:
3544:
3542:
3520:, where the
3505:
3496:Chain shifts
3490:chain shifts
3486:sound change
3480:
3464:front vowels
3457:
3439:
3438:
3421:
3417:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3385:
3381:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3241:
3238:
3233:
3229:
3225:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3207:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3183:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3168:
3160:
3146:new phonemes
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3124:
3116:
3112:
3100:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3039:proofs, uses
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3007:wulf, wulfas
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2981:"prisoner",
2978:
2977:"to fill" ,
2974:
2970:
2967:
2959:
2955:
2926:
2922:
2906:
2899:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2862:
2857:new contrast
2856:
2854:
2830:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2670:
2666:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2638:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2594:- > Lat.
2591:
2587:
2583:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2551:- > Lat.
2548:
2544:
2540:
2534:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2420:tʰlo-/*-tʰlā
2419:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2379:"red" > *
2376:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2352:) > Lat.
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2320:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2280:- > Lat.
2277:
2273:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2233:- > Lat.
2230:
2226:
2219:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2187:
2182:
2180:
2165:
2156:
2146:
2139:
2132:
2125:
2113:
2101:Please help
2096:verification
2093:
2064:
2060:
2052:
2048:
2042:
2035:
2029:
2027:
2020:
2012:
2008:
2004:
1995:
1989:
1984:
1975:
1969:
1965:
1956:
1952:
1942:
1935:
1931:
1930:“year” (as *
1927:
1921:
1919:
1918:"Samnites";
1913:
1911:
1905:
1903:
1901:
1893:
1887:
1885:
1877:
1871:
1869:
1863:
1857:
1855:
1847:
1841:
1839:
1835:
1815:
1800:
1791:
1781:
1774:
1767:
1760:
1748:
1736:Please help
1731:verification
1728:
1703:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1665:univerbation
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1619:"wretched",
1616:
1614:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1571:
1557:
1550:
1541:"fisherman"
1538:
1534:
1530:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1444:
1443:(for formal
1440:
1436:
1432:
1422:
1418:
1413:neutralizing
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1396:alternations
1395:
1383:
1382:"colorful",
1379:
1375:
1373:
1367:
1363:
1357:
1353:
1347:
1341:
1337:
1331:
1325:
1321:
1315:
1309:
1305:
1292:
1277:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1249:
1243:
1237:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1204:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1185:módor, fæder
1184:
1182:
1167:
1158:
1142:
1109:
1094:
1076:
1072:
1071:, the words
1060:
1056:
1044:
1040:
1038:
1012:
969:Indo-Iranian
966:
961:
958:Proto-Italic
955:
941:such as the
939:chain shifts
936:
916:nasalization
893:
883:
874:chain shifts
871:
849:
839:
831:sound change
826:
820:
808:and ⟨
790:
604:Vowel hiatus
529:Velarization
507:Assimilation
484:Nasalization
362:Assibilation
312:Sound change
292:
274:
265:
249:
219:
210:
187:
157:
148:
138:
131:
124:
117:
105:
93:Please help
88:verification
85:
61:
54:
48:
47:Please help
44:
3716:Vowel shift
3681:Chain shift
3669:chain shift
3607:back vowels
3522:raising of
3508:chain shift
3502:Chain shift
3472:back vowels
3402:"evening",
3349:but /f/ in
3302:"ten" >
3078:, the verb
3070:, etc (cf.
2985:"athirst",
2454:> Latin
2329:*θ becomes
2304:-) usually
2237:(PIE root *
2200:(from PIE *
2069:neutralized
2057:nasal stops
1945:velar nasal
1829:assimilated
1704:Mesopotamia
1415:environment
1348:halbamtlich
1117:alternation
747:Chain shift
742:Vowel shift
662:Affrication
651:Other types
599:Tone sandhi
489:Tonogenesis
316:alternation
3881:Categories
3848:/áŋɡellos/
3727:References
3629:diachronic
3591:allophones
3483:diachronic
3226:three deer
2815:"finger",
2795:. PWRom. *
2707:< PIE *
2677:b *d *ǵ *g
2633:- "heart"
2625:- "foot",
2444:suH-dhleH₂
2364:< PIE *
2265:< PIE *
2192:< PIE *
2129:newspapers
2045:oral stops
1980:"firewood"
1910:"higher";
1764:newspapers
1563:"salary".)
1556:"genius",
1466:and so on.
1370:/ˈkluːgə/)
1360:/ˈbɛɐ̯gə/)
1316:Handgelenk
1161:April 2021
1067:. In most
896:allophonic
889:allophonic
667:Gemination
628:Synaeresis
397:Epenthesis
325:Metathesis
268:April 2021
197:improve it
121:newspapers
50:improve it
3892:Phonology
3840:/aŋkýlos/
3792:*H₂egʷnós
3468:unrounded
3188:is from *
3099:is from *
3080:to grease
2983:ofþyrsted
2913:contrast.
2868:Step 1: *
2843:, but in
2651:perfect,
2600:peíthomai
2563:-, Greek
2503:*ḱṛHs-ron
2497:-); Lat.
2428:peH₂-dhlo
2418:PItal. *-
2296:-, Greek
2023:allophone
1852:"highest"
1621:caesariēs
1578:Sabellian
1574:rhotacism
1485:/maʊs/, *
1342:halbieren
1328:/ˈbʏndə/)
1312:/ˈhɛndə/)
1253:= German
1215:= German
1045:reduction
1039:Phonemic
1029:diphthong
900:devoicing
856:sound law
717:Rhotacism
637:Synizesis
632:diaeresis
611:Synalepha
589:linking R
544:Metaphony
454:Haplology
439:Apheresis
414:Unpacking
404:Prothesis
388:Fortition
213:June 2010
201:verifying
151:July 2007
56:talk page
3902:Homonymy
3844:ággellos
3811:relinquō
3803:relictus
3675:See also
3454:Examples
3448:phonemes
3444:language
3406:"over",
3394:< OE
3355:daughter
3285:louwksnā
3269:scolptos
3261:molktrom
3144:/v/ are
3134:contrast
2989:"life",
2973:"fish",
2891:(if not
2882:/tʃantu/
2841:Japanese
2807:"sail",
2785:long mid
2715:Examples
2647:"order",
2590:- > *
2586:- > *
2582:PItal. *
2539:PItal. *
2511:cannabis
2440:pābulum;
2434:- > *
2375:PItal. *
2336:PItal. *
2272:PItal. *
2261:besides
2257:< OE
2253:English
2251:teîkhos;
2227:tʰi-n-kʰ
2225:PItal. *
2000:"timber"
1961:"worthy"
1940:“year”.
1836:*supimos
1689:kʷam sei
1561:/ˈɡaːʒə/
1554:/ʒeˈniː/
1529:, as in
1509:, as in
1458:"hand",
1454:"loaf",
1015:Sanskrit
912:Japanese
835:phonemes
806:/ /
802:Help:IPA
692:Iotacism
687:Betacism
677:Fronting
672:Clipping
657:Apophony
409:Paragoge
345:Lenition
3858:Sources
3838:"bent"
3836:agkúlos
3809:- (cf.
3807:likʷ-to
3662:/pʌdɪŋ/
3659:pudding
3601:in the
3579:accents
3514:is the
3476:formant
3462:, most
3460:English
3277:kertsnā
3265:scultus
3257:multrum
3253:torstos
3212:(as in
3190:alteros
3179:alterum
3140:NE /f/
3003:on lífe
2956:raffiné
2845:Yaeyama
2811:"hay",
2765:e *o *a
2695:, but *
2577:meth-yo
2432:pā-tʰlo
2407:), cf.
2377:rutʰros
2372:"name")
2338:wertʰom
2243:dihanti
2212:, and *
2143:scholar
1955:- >
1882:"sleep"
1864:Samnium
1778:scholar
1661:χewssos
1543:/ˈfɪʃɐ/
1539:Fischer
1493:) >
1475:voicing
1378:"bed",
1250:weather
1229:whether
1221:brother
1213:leather
1197:weather
1147:Please
1077:farther
1019:analogy
994:*/ge/ *
977:palatal
922:before
829:is any
794:in the
682:Raising
618:Elision
585:Liaison
449:Apocope
444:Syncope
432:Elision
254:Please
195:Please
135:scholar
3774:
3605:, the
3599:umlaut
3575:caught
3412:siller
3367:dafter
3329:). In
3308:wanakt
3249:tostus
3214:he can
3175:altera
3117:cyssan
3076:greasy
3060:grease
3052:greasy
3048:Worthy
3027:shelve
3011:wolves
2975:fyllen
2889:/tʃãt/
2872:> *
2752:= /y/.
2657:yewdh-
2653:jussus
2627:sīdere
2584:pʰeytʰ
2575:< *
2561:madhya
2557:medhyo
2553:medius
2541:metʰyo
2521:- to -
2499:crābrō
2491:H₂embh
2489:- or *
2456:sūbula
2450:> *
2448:sūtʰlā
2413:rubrum
2405:rubros
2403:< *
2399:< *
2397:rubers
2395:(via *
2389:ruβros
2385:ruðros
2383:> *
2381:ruθros
2370:vaṙdas
2366:wṛdhom
2362:wurdaⁿ
2360:< *
2354:verbum
2350:werβom
2346:werðom
2344:> *
2342:werθom
2325:, or *
2306:thúrai
2292:< *
2267:dhoyǵh
2239:dheyǵh
2231:θi-n-χ
2183:reduce
2145:
2138:
2131:
2124:
2116:
2055:) and
2031:signum
2017:"lamb"
2009:ag-nos
2007:> *
2005:agʷnos
1997:tignum
1990:(s)teg
1985:teg-no
1977:lignum
1966:leg-no
1958:dignus
1953:dek-no
1898:"year"
1879:somnus
1849:summus
1838:> *
1780:
1773:
1766:
1759:
1751:
1677:ne sei
1663:. (2)
1645:kawssā
1606:ges-to
1604:< *
1602:gestus
1596:< *
1515:Fässer
1511:Wasser
1503:küssen
1271:Mutter
1267:mother
1259:father
1255:Wetter
1244:Widder
1238:wether
1225:Bruder
1191:/ðr/,
1073:father
1041:merger
1035:Merger
973:velars
971:, the
951:phones
924:nasals
920:vowels
914:, the
810:
702:Merger
697:Fusion
623:Crasis
578:Sandhi
552:umlaut
514:Fusion
137:
130:
123:
116:
108:
3815:leipō
3799:ámnos
3796:ἀμνός
3732:Notes
3655:split
3653:strut
3622:/y,ø/
3610:/u,o/
3506:In a
3488:. In
3363:after
3353:(and
3335:mearh
3300:deḱṃt
3202:alter
3186:alter
3171:alter
3113:pesce
3056:worth
3035:prove
3031:proof
3023:shelf
2999:alive
2952:/fɛ̃/
2948:/bɔn/
2944:/bɔ̃/
2923:femme
2900:chant
2893:/ʃãt/
2878:čantu
2851:Split
2813:doigt
2805:voile
2781:short
2759:and *
2687:and *
2649:jussī
2645:jubeō
2596:fīdus
2549:meðyo
2545:meθyo
2515:hænep
2507:śīrṣn
2495:amphi
2481:Lat.
2452:sūθlā
2442:PIE *
2436:pāθlo
2426:PIE *
2415:neut.
2411:fem.
2409:rubra
2401:rubrs
2393:ruber
2323:l, *r
2302:dhwor
2298:thúrā
2286:dhwor
2282:forēs
2274:tʰwor
2255:dough
2247:daēza
2235:fingō
2204:and *
2150:JSTOR
2136:books
2037:ignem
2014:agnus
2011:>
1932:atnos
1928:annus
1908:erior
1895:annus
1892:>
1876:>
1862:>
1846:>
1821:stops
1785:JSTOR
1771:books
1685:quasī
1681:quasi
1657:fūsus
1653:kāssā
1641:causa
1625:diser
1617:miser
1598:ges-s
1594:gessi
1551:Genie
1531:Fisch
1495:Mäuse
1491:mūsiz
1487:mūsīz
1437:club.
1404:Bünde
1384:Stock
1368:kluge
1364:*klug
1358:Berge
1354:*berg
1338:*halb
1332:*gold
1326:Bünde
1322:*bund
1310:Hände
1306:*hand
1263:Vater
1233:weder
1217:Leder
1195:>
1193:weder
1187:>
982:*/ke/
932:stops
846:Types
798:(IPA)
142:JSTOR
128:books
3772:ISBN
3649:foot
3573:and
3563:and
3466:are
3408:e'er
3404:o'er
3400:e'en
3343:plōh
3331:furh
3304:déka
3292:kʷit
3281:lūna
3273:cēna
3222:deer
3218:deer
3164:zero
3157:Loss
3138:Both
3025:but
3019:give
3017:but
3015:gift
2995:lífe
2991:wulf
2979:hæft
2971:fisc
2907:chat
2904:/ʃa/
2897:/ʃã/
2823:(via
2817:quoi
2809:foin
2777:e, ē
2631:cord
2592:feyð
2588:feyθ
2487:ambh
2483:ambō
2387:(? *
2358:word
2348:(? *
2308:pl.)
2294:dhur
2290:door
2278:θwor
2208:), *
2122:news
2053:t, d
2049:p, b
1987:- (*
1971:leǵ-
1968:- (*
1937:aþna
1870:*swe
1860:nyom
1757:news
1693:rosa
1673:nisī
1669:nisi
1649:cāsa
1590:gerō
1586:gesō
1558:Gage
1519:Fass
1483:Maus
1456:Hand
1452:Leib
1445:Bube
1433:Klub
1408:bunt
1400:Bund
1380:bunt
1376:Bett
1079:are
1075:and
1061:palm
1024:/ǰu/
1003:and
991:and
906:and
630:and
314:and
114:news
3618:/i/
3614:/i/
3571:cot
3566:/ɔ/
3560:/ɑ/
3533:/ɔ/
3529:/ɑ/
3524:/æ/
3431:).
3345:),
3312:ána
3306:, *
3298:, *
3224:in
3210:can
3166:".
3150:/ɰ/
3142:and
3121:/ʃ/
3109:/ʃ/
3105:/ʃ/
3097:/ʃ/
3093:/ʒ/
3089:/ʃ/
3058:and
3033:vs
2987:líf
2911:/ã/
2803:);
2732:and
2724:and
2697:gʷh
2623:ped
2621:in
2604:bid
2565:més
2473:, *
2263:dāg
2259:dāh
2206:gʷh
2105:by
1916:īni
1890:nos
1874:nos
1856:*sa
1844:mos
1740:by
1697:ruθ
1633:tus
1547:/ʒ/
1527:/ʃ/
1523:vat
1479:mūs
1460:Weg
1441:Bub
1419:und
1301:):
1151:to
1110:gap
1057:lot
964:.)
930:of
918:of
908:/ɯ/
904:/i/
821:In
258:to
199:by
97:by
3883::
3842:,
3817:).
3758:^
3740:^
3671:.
3664:.
3581:.
3450:.
3375:gh
3371:gh
3296:ti
3279:,
3271:,
3263:,
3255:,
3198:rs
3101:sk
3021:,
2884:);
2835:.
2801:oi
2720:OE
2711:.
2709:kʷ
2705:kʷ
2701:gʷ
2689:bh
2681:gʷ
2659:.
2579:-)
2573:os
2529:-.
2523:br
2519:sr
2479:b:
2471:bh
2331:b:
2327:u,
2269:-)
2220:f:
2214:b:
2202:bh
2194:dh
2190:tʰ
2071:.
2063:,
2051:,
1947::
1924:or
1920:so
1912:Sa
1904:su
1886:*a
1840:su
1827:,
1679:,
1667::
1655:,
1647:,
1535:sk
1499:ss
1425:).
1269:=
1265:,
1261:=
1257:,
1241:=
1235:,
1231:=
1227:,
1223:=
1219:,
825:,
587:,
550:,
59:.
3832:γ
3828:g
3780:.
3651:–
3316:s
3194:r
3162:"
3064:y
2962:.
2960:i
2927:ã
2874:ã
2870:a
2797:ẹ
2793:ọ
2789:ẹ
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2769:a
2761:r
2757:l
2750:y
2734:í
2730:i
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2693:b
2685:b
2619:d
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2569:s
2567:(
2475:s
2467:b
2210:d
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2166:(
2161:)
2157:(
2147:·
2140:·
2133:·
2126:·
2099:.
2065:n
2061:m
2059:(
2047:(
2003:*
1992:-
1983:*
1964:*
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1922:p
1914:b
1906:p
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776:e
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266:(
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