197:
27:
142:
430:
484:
219:
2099:
157:
662:
580:
542:
172:
674:
455:
180:
61:
209:
698:
686:
58:, particularly the hip-ball version of the ballgame. More than 1,300 ballcourts have been identified, 60% in the last 20 years alone. Although there is a tremendous variation in size, in general all ballcourts are the same shape: a long narrow alley flanked by two walls with horizontal, vertical, and sloping faces. Although the alleys in early ballcourts were open-ended, later ballcourts had enclosed end-zones, giving the structure an
557:. Actually sending a ball through the ring must have been a rare occurrence. The players could not use their hands or even feet to guide the ball. Moreover, the rings were only slightly larger than the ball itself and were located at no small distance from the playing alley. At Chichen Itza, for example, they were set 6 meters above the alley, while at
609:, for example, 6 sculptures of prone captives overhang the apron, a pair at mid-court and a pair at each of the ends of the cornice. Unfortunately, rings, markers and sculptures are more portable and more prone to removal or destruction than the permanent ballcourt infrastructure, and at some ballcourts these features have been lost forever.
568:, court markers were also used on many ballcourts to establish the dividing line between teams – one set into the playing alley floor at exact mid-court, the other two placed against each side wall. However, such placement is not universal. Two ancient ceramic ballcourt models recovered from western Mexico show the three markers placed
241:
site, is only one-sixth the size of the Great
Ballcourt at Chichen Itza. Despite the variation in size, ballcourts' playing alleys are generally the same shape, with an average length-to-width ratio of 4-to-1, although some regional variation is found: Central Mexico, for example, has slightly longer
645:
propose that the depictions record historic events and in particular record a "form of play ... distinct from the game conducted on the courts", one that "probably followed immediately after on steps adjacent to the ballcourts". Other researchers are skeptical. Marvin
Cohodas, for example, proposes
71:
show ballcourts being used for other sporting endeavours, including what appears to be a wrestling match. It is also known from archaeological excavations that ballcourts were the sites of sumptuous feasts, although whether these were conducted in the context of the ballgame or as another event
521:
Most prominent ballcourts were part of their town or city's central monumental precinct and as such they share the orientation of pyramids and other structures there. Since many
Mesoamerican cities and towns were oriented to a few degrees east of north (roughly 15° east of north), it is not
451:
By the Early
Classic, ballcourt designs began to feature an additional pair of mounds set some distance beyond the ends of the alley as if to keep errant balls from rolling too far away. By the Terminal Classic, the end zones of many ballcourts were enclosed, creating the well-known
500:
Unlike the compacted earth of the playing alley, the side walls of the formal ballcourts were lined with stone blocks. These walls featured 3 or more horizontal and sloping surfaces. Vertical surfaces are less common, but they begin to replace the sloping apron during the
196:
591:
These sunken court markers are almost invariably round and usually decorated with ballgame-related scenes or iconography. Other markers were set into ballcourt walls. Many researchers have also proposed that above-ground, moveable objects, for example stone
130:
Empire, have relatively few ballcourts while areas with smaller competing polities have many. At
Cantona, for example, the extraordinary number of ballcourts is likely due to the many and diverse cultures residing there under a relatively weak
617:
Many – or even most – Maya depictions of ballgame play are shown against a backdrop of stairs. Conversely, Maya staircases will occasionally feature reliefs of ballgame scenes or ballgame-related glyphs on their
1932:
448:. This narrow ballcourt has an 80 m Ă— 8 m (262 ft Ă— 26 ft) flat playing alley defined by two flanking earthen mounds with "benches" running along their length.
487:
Cross sections of some of the more typical ballcourts. Jacinto
Quirarte has classified Copan, Uxmal, and Xochicalco at Type I, Monte Albán as Type II, Chichen Itza as Type III, and
529:
Other than this general trend, no consistent orientation of ballcourts throughout
Mesoamerica has been found, although some patterns do emerge at the regional level. In the
461:
The evolution of the ballcourt is, of course, more complex than the foregoing suggests, and with over 1300 known ballcourts, there are exceptions to any generalization.
979:
646:
that the "stairs" are instead stepped platforms associated with human sacrifice, while
Carolyn Tate views the Yaxchilan stair scenes as "the Underworld segment of a
572:
along the court: one (again) at exact mid-court with the remaining pair set midway between the walls at either end of the playing alley. The ballcourt markers at
1003:
545:
A ring at
Chichen Itza. This ring was set some 6 meters (20 feet) above the playing alley, making it extremely difficult to pass the heavy ball through the hole.
2160:
1785:
933:
Aveni and Gibbs. Other researchers give other estimates or averages, but there is a remarkable consistency across time and space to this general orientation.
2394:
126:
It is thought that ballcourts are an indication of decentralization of political and economic power: areas with a strong centralized state, such as the
1923:
737:
included in this total, since these are outside
Mesoamerica and there is significant discussion whether these areas were used for ballplaying or not.
1989:
911:'s northern endzone is 3 times as deep as the southern endzone, perhaps due to the stairs gracing the northern end. Taldoire and Colsenet, p. 169.
1577:"The Politicization of the Mesoamerican Ballgame and Its Implications for the Interpretation of the Distribution of Ballcourts in Central Mexico"
1915:
1749:
576:
are also arranged in this manner. The ballcourt at Monte Albán, meanwhile, has only one court marker, placed at the exact center of the court.
476:
513:. There the vertical surfaces were covered with elaborate reliefs showing scenes, particularly sacrificial scenes, related to the ballgame.
72:
entirely is not as yet known. The siting of the most prominent ballcourts within the sacred precincts of cities and towns, as well as the
488:
626:, where 11 of the 13 risers feature ballgame-related scenes. In these scenes, it appears as if the players were actually playing the ball
84:
Although ballcourts are found within most Mesoamerican sites, they are not equally distributed across time or geography. For example, the
594:
472:
Some ballcourts featured only one enclosed endzone (the so-called T-shape) while some ballcourts' endzones are of different depths.
171:
141:
661:
1011:
422:
The earliest ballcourts were doubtless temporary marked off areas of compacted soil much like those used to play the modern
2267:
1982:
104:
and the northern Maya Lowlands have relatively few, and ballcourts are conspicuously absent at some major sites, including
1633:
1503:"The Ballgame in the Southern Pacific Coast Cotzumalhuapa Region and Its Impact on Kaminaljuyu During the Middle Classic"
212:-shape, as well as the rings set above the apron at center court. The setting sun of the equinox shines through the ring.
218:
156:
1000:
533:
region, for example, open-ended ballcourts with a north-south orientation were earlier than east-west enclosed courts.
475:
During the Formative period, some enclosed ballcourts were entirely rectangular, without endzones. One such court, at
1896:
1853:
1765:
1731:
1688:
1600:
1557:
1526:
1483:
1436:
1389:
1283:
1237:
1194:
1151:
2086:
1078:
1975:
1708:"'Bois Ton Sang, Beaumanoir': The Political and Conflictual Aspects of the Ballgame in the Northern Chiapas Area"
798:"Origins of the Mesoamerican ballgame: Earliest ballcourt from the highlands found at Etlatongo, Oaxaca, Mexico"
2399:
526:, for example, ballcourt orientations also tend to be a few degrees east of north, or at right angles to that.
119:
The ballgame was initially thought to be originated in the coastal lowlands, yet a ballcourt was discovered at
673:
20:
2379:
505:, and are a feature of several of the largest and best-known ballcourts, including the Great Ballcourt at
2071:
1884:
1719:
1588:
1514:
1471:
1424:
1377:
1271:
1225:
1139:
642:
97:
67:
Ballcourts were also used for functions other than, or in addition to, ballgames. Ceramics from western
2048:
1873:"And Then They Were Sacrificed: The Ritual Ballgame of Northeastern Mesoamerica Through Time and Space"
1794:
978:
Kelley, p. 97. An example of a Western Mexico ceramic court (without court markers, alas) can be seen
2019:
1757:
1952:
1406:
2076:
395:
313:
245:
The following is a comparison of the size of the playing alleys for several well-known ballcourts.
93:
26:
561:
they set at the top of an 11-meter-wide apron, 3 meters above the playing alley (see lead photo).
444:, along the Pacific coast boasts the oldest ballcourt yet identified, dated to approximately 1400
30:
Ceramic sculpture from a Western Mexican tomb showing players engaged in the Mesoamerican ballgame
2389:
2043:
1998:
1316:
697:
554:
502:
466:
85:
1723:
1707:
1518:
1502:
1475:
1459:
1275:
1259:
1229:
1213:
1143:
1127:
1888:
1872:
1624:
1455:
1428:
1412:
1381:
1365:
113:
1592:
1576:
587:
showing two players volleying. Note the rounded bottom that anchors the marker into the court.
1680:
1664:
1186:
1170:
1023:
Schele and Miller (p. 247) say that "most" Maya depictions of ballgame action include stairs.
55:
1783:
Uriarte, Maria Teresa (January 2006). "The Teotihuacan Ballgame and the Beginning of Time".
1619:
1544:
Quirarte, Jacinto (1975). "The Ballcourt in Mesoamerica: Its Architectural Development". In
1067:; Sharon L. Gibbs (1976). "On the Orientation of Precolumbian Buildings in Central Mexico".
429:
2179:
2170:
1320:
809:
605:, and other stonework were also important components of the ballcourt. At the ballcourt at
292:
1453:
729:
Taladoire, p. 98. Note that there are slightly over 200 ballcourts also identified in the
685:
483:
76:
found buried there, demonstrates that the ballcourts were places of spectacle and ritual.
8:
2384:
2066:
2056:
2006:
1545:
1324:
813:
2023:
1876:
1845:
1841:
1822:
1711:
1676:
1672:
1580:
1506:
1463:
1416:
1408:
1369:
1352:
1263:
1255:
1217:
1182:
1178:
1131:
1114:
1098:
1069:
832:
797:
730:
2225:
2081:
2028:
2014:
1944:
1936:
1902:
1892:
1859:
1849:
1835:
1826:
1814:
1806:
1771:
1761:
1737:
1727:
1694:
1684:
1645:
1637:
1606:
1596:
1563:
1553:
1532:
1522:
1489:
1479:
1442:
1432:
1395:
1385:
1344:
1336:
1289:
1279:
1243:
1233:
1214:"The Lords of Light versus the Lords of Dark: The Postclassic Highland Maya Ballgame"
1200:
1190:
1157:
1147:
1118:
1106:
1090:
837:
720:
Cohodas states that the masonry courts were used "exclusively" for the hip-ball game.
550:
379:
357:
335:
39:
1574:
1041:
This is only a brief summary of Cohodas' viewpoint – for a full version, see p. 264.
2305:
2220:
2098:
1798:
1356:
1328:
1307:
1082:
827:
817:
523:
437:
2185:
2174:
1007:
132:
19:"Ballcourt" redirects here. For courts on which other ball games are played, see
100:, a nearby contemporaneous site, sets the record with 24. In contrast, Northern
2300:
2135:
1967:
1840:(Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the
1671:(Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the
1177:(Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the
991:
Whittington, p. 168-169, shows a fine example of a parrot head from Xochicalco.
73:
1802:
579:
541:
287:
225:
2373:
2358:
1940:
1810:
1641:
1348:
1340:
1302:
1094:
1064:
565:
530:
465:
Open ballcourts (i.e. without endzones) continued to be constructed into the
1948:
1906:
1863:
1818:
1775:
1741:
1698:
1649:
1610:
1536:
1493:
1446:
1399:
1293:
1247:
1204:
1161:
2325:
1567:
1110:
841:
822:
638:
506:
423:
329:
148:
622:. The most famous of these are the Hieroglyphic Stairs at Structure 33 in
2338:
2235:
2190:
2130:
1300:
188:
105:
51:
755:
Zender, p. 10, who cites John Gerard Fox (1996) "Playing with Power" in
619:
2295:
2061:
908:
631:
558:
445:
268:
203:
163:
2038:
1366:"The Known Archaeological Ballcourts of Durango and Zacatecas, Mexico"
1102:
2343:
2120:
647:
623:
584:
454:
441:
373:
208:
179:
120:
60:
637:
The association of stairs and the ballgame is not well understood.
606:
2240:
2115:
2107:
1916:"Glyphs for "Handspan" and "Strike" in Classic Maya Ballgame Texts"
1086:
510:
308:
184:
109:
89:
1332:
433:
Ballcourt terminology. Not all ballcourts have all these surfaces.
2290:
2280:
2230:
2210:
2125:
1575:
Santley, Robert M.; Michael J. Berman; Rami T. Alexander (1991).
101:
47:
1128:"Ballgame imagery of the Maya Lowlands: History and Iconography"
1063:
2353:
2348:
2333:
2257:
2215:
2205:
2195:
2165:
400:
242:
playing alleys, and the Maya Northern Lowlands slightly wider.
68:
1705:
237:
Ballcourts vary considerably in size. One of the smallest, at
2315:
2310:
2252:
2200:
2150:
2145:
2140:
924:-style ballcourts, after the Spanish word for basin (p. 106).
602:
573:
351:
238:
127:
2285:
2247:
2155:
2033:
1665:"The Architectural Background of the Pre-Hispanic Ballgame"
1413:"Pre-Hispanic Ballcourts from the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico"
1957:
123:
in the mountains of southern Mexico, dating to 1374 BCE.
1870:
1407:
Kowalewski, Stephen A.; Gary M. Feinman; Laura Finsten;
796:
Blomster, Jeffrey P.; Salazar Chávez, VĂctor E. (2020).
479:
in the Guatemala Highlands, features rounded side walls.
1833:
1837:
The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame
1669:
The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame
1175:
The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame
795:
630:
the stairs in what would seem to be a Maya version of
1782:
1617:
536:
1552:. Palo Alto, CA: Peek Publications. pp. 63–69.
1305:(1998). "Ball court design dates back 3,400 years".
1254:
1168:
899:
See Hill, Blake, and Clark (1998); Schuster (1998).
1363:
1543:
2371:
1997:
1748:
1754:Yaxchilan: The Design of a Maya Ceremonial City
1662:
1500:
1125:
667:One of two Mesoamerican ballgame courts at Cobá
1001:The Hudson Museum, University of Maine website
426:game, the Mesoamerican ballgame's descendant.
1983:
920:Quirarte. Taladoire refers to this type as a
1913:
1620:"Newsbriefs: Mesoamerica's Oldest Ballcourt"
1550:Pre-Columbian Art History: Selected Readings
1211:
553:into the wall at mid-court, appeared in the
92:, the largest city of the ballgame-obsessed
2395:Indigenous sports and games of the Americas
1990:
1976:
1618:Schuster, Angela M.H. (July–August 1998).
1460:"Ballcourts of the Northern Maya Lowlands"
21:Court (disambiguation) § Architecture
1706:Taladoire, Eric; Benoit Colsenet (1991).
831:
821:
1454:Kurjack, Edward B.; Ruben Maldonado C.;
578:
540:
482:
428:
25:
2372:
679:The Tehuacalco Mesoamerican ball court
509:and the North and South Ballcourts at
54:for more than 2,700 years to play the
1971:
1844:, Charlotte, NC ed.). New York:
1675:, Charlotte, NC ed.). New York:
1181:, Charlotte, NC ed.). New York:
495:
1933:Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute
583:Court marker from the Mayan site of
1667:. In E. Michael Whittington (ed.).
1634:Archaeological Institute of America
1173:. In E. Michael Whittington (ed.).
598:, were also used as court markers.
96:, has at least 18 ballcourts while
13:
863:Day, p. 76, and Taladoire, p. 114.
537:Rings, markers, and other features
14:
2411:
1871:Wilkerson, S. Jeffrey K. (1991).
777:Kurjack, Maldonado C., Robertson.
232:
2097:
1834:Whittington, E. Michael (2001).
1301:Hill, Warren D.; Michael Blake;
1079:Society for American Archaeology
696:
684:
672:
660:
653:
453:
217:
207:
195:
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170:
155:
140:
59:
1044:
1035:
1026:
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994:
985:
972:
963:
954:
945:
936:
927:
914:
902:
893:
884:
875:
866:
857:
522:surprising to find that in the
79:
64:-shape when viewed from above.
848:
789:
780:
771:
762:
749:
740:
723:
714:
612:
516:
1:
1315:(6679). London and New York:
1056:
1999:Native American architecture
1914:Zender, Mark (Spring 2004).
1169:Day, Jane Stevenson (2001).
417:
410:
407:
404:
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389:
386:
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367:
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272:
50:structure of a type used in
7:
1885:University of Arizona Press
1720:University of Arizona Press
1589:University of Arizona Press
1515:University of Arizona Press
1472:University of Arizona Press
1425:University of Arizona Press
1378:University of Arizona Press
1364:Kelley, J. Charles (1991).
1272:University of Arizona Press
1226:University of Arizona Press
1140:University of Arizona Press
162:Mesoamerican ball court at
10:
2416:
1879:; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
1795:Cambridge University Press
1714:; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
1583:; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
1509:; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
1466:; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
1419:; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
1372:; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
1266:; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
1260:"Ballgames and Boundaries"
1220:; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
1134:; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
1032:Schele and Miller, p. 247.
206:. Note the characteristic
18:
16:Pre-Columbian sports venue
2324:
2266:
2106:
2095:
2005:
1881:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
1803:10.1017/S0956536106060032
1758:University of Texas Press
1716:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
1585:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
1511:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
1468:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
1421:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
1374:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
1268:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
1222:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
1171:"Performing on the Court"
1136:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
942:Kowalewski et al., p. 38.
202:One of the ballcourts at
1931:(4). San Francisco, CA:
1663:Taladoire, Eric (2001).
1501:Parsons, Lee A. (1991).
1126:Cohodas, Marvin (1991).
708:
703:poc-ta-tok field, Mexico
94:Classic Veracruz culture
1317:Nature Publishing Group
768:Taladoire and Colsenet.
43:
1456:Merle Greene Robertson
1014:, among other sources.
1012:British Museum website
854:Santley et al., p. 14.
823:10.1126/sciadv.aay6964
588:
546:
492:
434:
263:length-to-width ratio
36:Mesoamerican ballcourt
31:
2400:Sports venues by type
1548:; Jean Stern (eds.).
1212:Fox, John W. (1991).
890:Quirarte, p. 205-208.
582:
544:
486:
469:and at smaller sites.
432:
183:-shape ball court in
56:Mesoamerican ballgame
29:
2171:Mesoamerican pyramid
1960:online reproduction)
881:Quirarte, p.209-210.
757:Current Anthropology
601:Various sculptures,
555:Terminal Classic era
2380:Mesoamerican sports
2087:Territorial Revival
1846:Thames & Hudson
1786:Ancient Mesoamerica
1677:Thames & Hudson
1546:Alana Cordy-Collins
1325:1998Natur.392..878H
1256:Gillespie, Susan D.
1183:Thames & Hudson
814:2020SciA....6.6964B
354:(Small ceremonial)
147:Great Ballcourt at
1877:Vernon Scarborough
1842:Mint Museum of Art
1712:Vernon Scarborough
1673:Mint Museum of Art
1581:Vernon Scarborough
1507:Vernon Scarborough
1464:Vernon Scarborough
1417:Vernon Scarborough
1409:Richard E. Blanton
1370:Vernon Scarborough
1264:Vernon Scarborough
1218:Vernon Scarborough
1179:Mint Museum of Art
1132:Vernon Scarborough
1077:(4). Menasha, WI:
1070:American Antiquity
1006:2007-12-01 at the
731:American Southwest
589:
547:
496:Walls and surfaces
493:
435:
332:(Grand Ballcourt)
224:Ballgame court at
32:
2367:
2366:
1065:Aveni, Anthony F.
786:Taladoire, p. 99.
415:
414:
40:Nahuatl languages
2407:
2101:
1992:
1985:
1978:
1969:
1968:
1963:
1961:
1951:. Archived from
1924:The PARI Journal
1920:
1910:
1867:
1830:
1793:(1). Cambridge:
1779:
1750:Tate, Carolyn E.
1745:
1702:
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1021:
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989:
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960:Parsons, p. 200.
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918:
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808:(11): eaay6964.
802:Science Advances
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691:Yagul Ball Court
688:
676:
664:
524:Valley of Oaxaca
467:Terminal Classic
457:
438:Paso de la Amada
314:Classic Veracruz
257:length (meters)
248:
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182:
174:
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63:
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1734:
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1632:(4). New York:
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1008:Wayback Machine
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872:Uriarte, p. 23.
871:
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2049:Mayan Revival
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571:
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566:Aztec codices
562:
560:
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549:Stone rings,
543:
534:
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531:Cotzumalhuapa
527:
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49:
46:) is a large
45:
41:
37:
28:
22:
2275:
2136:GuachimontĂłn
2020:Mesoamerican
1953:the original
1928:
1922:
1880:
1836:
1790:
1784:
1753:
1715:
1668:
1653:. Retrieved
1629:
1623:
1584:
1549:
1510:
1467:
1420:
1373:
1312:
1306:
1267:
1221:
1174:
1135:
1074:
1068:
1050:Tate, p. 97.
1046:
1037:
1028:
1019:
996:
987:
974:
965:
956:
947:
938:
929:
921:
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850:
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742:
734:
725:
716:
639:Linda Schele
636:
627:
616:
600:
593:
590:
569:
564:As shown on
563:
548:
528:
520:
507:Chichen Itza
499:
460:
450:
436:
421:
330:Chichen Itza
244:
236:
149:Chichen Itza
125:
118:
86:Late Classic
83:
80:Distribution
66:
35:
33:
2339:Corbel arch
2306:Rope bridge
2236:Sweat lodge
2191:Plank house
2131:Earth lodge
2082:Territorial
2044:San Bartolo
1887:. pp.
1722:. pp.
1679:. pp.
1625:Archaeology
1591:. pp.
1517:. pp.
1474:. pp.
1427:. pp.
1380:. pp.
1319:: 878–879.
1274:. pp.
1228:. pp.
1185:. pp.
1142:. pp.
1081:: 510–517.
746:Day, p. 69.
643:Mary Miller
613:Maya stairs
570:length-wise
517:Orientation
503:Classic era
491:as Type IV.
477:La Lagunita
288:Monte Albán
273:Xochicalco
226:Monte Albán
189:El Salvador
106:Teotihuacan
52:Mesoamerica
2385:Ball games
2374:Categories
2296:Moki steps
2268:Structures
2062:Neo-Andean
1883:. Tucson:
1756:. Austin:
1718:. Tucson:
1655:2007-06-08
1587:. Tucson:
1513:. Tucson:
1470:. Tucson:
1423:. Tucson:
1376:. Tucson:
1270:. Tucson:
1224:. Tucson:
1138:. Tucson:
1057:References
951:Taladoire.
909:Chinkultic
733:which are
632:stoop ball
559:Xochicalco
489:Toluquilla
269:Xochicalco
204:Xochicalco
164:Teotenango
114:Tortuguero
2344:Roof comb
2276:Ballcourt
2161:Longhouse
2121:Corn crib
1941:1531-5398
1827:162613065
1811:0956-5361
1797:: 17–38.
1642:0003-8113
1349:204441622
1341:0028-0836
1119:162233018
1095:0002-7316
969:Quirarte.
922:palangana
648:cosmogram
624:Yaxchilan
585:Lubaantun
442:Soconusco
418:Evolution
374:Yaxchilan
121:Etlatongo
2326:Elements
2241:Temazcal
2116:Barabara
1949:44780248
1907:51873028
1864:49029226
1819:88827568
1776:23464300
1752:(1991).
1742:51873028
1699:49029226
1650:89268419
1611:51873028
1537:51873028
1494:51873028
1458:(1991).
1447:51873028
1411:(1991).
1400:51873028
1294:51873028
1258:(1991).
1248:51873028
1205:49029226
1162:51873028
1010:and the
1004:Archived
842:32201726
511:El Tajin
458:-shape.
309:El Tajin
254:Culture
185:Cihuatan
177:Classic
110:Bonampak
90:El Tajin
88:site of
44:tlachtli
2291:E-Group
2281:Chultun
2231:Shabono
2211:Quiggly
2175:Triadic
2126:Chickee
2072:Revival
2039:RĂo Bec
1724:167–174
1568:3843930
1519:195–212
1476:145–159
1357:4394291
1321:Bibcode
1276:317–345
1230:213–238
1144:251–288
1111:1479302
833:7069692
810:Bibcode
628:against
551:tenoned
293:Zapotec
102:Chiapas
98:Cantona
48:masonry
2354:Sipapu
2349:Sascab
2334:Ashlar
2258:Wigwam
2221:Ramada
2216:Qullqa
2206:Qarmaq
2196:Pukara
2166:Maloca
2067:Pueblo
2057:Muisca
2007:Styles
1947:
1939:
1905:
1895:
1862:
1852:
1825:
1817:
1809:
1774:
1764:
1740:
1730:
1697:
1687:
1681:97–115
1648:
1640:
1636:: 22.
1609:
1599:
1566:
1556:
1535:
1525:
1492:
1482:
1445:
1435:
1398:
1388:
1382:87–100
1355:
1347:
1339:
1308:Nature
1292:
1282:
1246:
1236:
1203:
1193:
1160:
1150:
1117:
1109:
1103:279020
1101:
1093:
840:
830:
620:risers
607:Tonina
603:stelae
595:hachas
401:Toltec
187:site,
112:, and
69:Mexico
2316:Ushnu
2311:Sacbe
2253:Tupiq
2201:Qargi
2151:Jacal
2146:Igloo
2141:Hogan
2024:Aztec
1919:(PDF)
1889:45–71
1875:. In
1823:S2CID
1710:. In
1579:. In
1505:. In
1462:. In
1429:25–44
1415:. In
1368:. In
1353:S2CID
1262:. In
1216:. In
1187:65–77
1130:. In
1115:S2CID
1099:JSTOR
709:Notes
574:Copan
424:ulama
352:Tikal
343:30.4
251:Site
239:Tikal
133:state
128:Aztec
2286:Cuel
2248:Tipi
2226:Ruka
2156:Kiva
2077:Deco
2034:Puuc
2029:Maya
2015:Inca
1945:OCLC
1937:ISSN
1903:OCLC
1893:ISBN
1860:OCLC
1850:ISBN
1815:OCLC
1807:ISSN
1772:OCLC
1762:ISBN
1738:OCLC
1728:ISBN
1695:OCLC
1685:ISBN
1646:OCLC
1638:ISSN
1607:OCLC
1597:ISBN
1593:3–24
1564:OCLC
1554:ISBN
1533:OCLC
1523:ISBN
1490:OCLC
1480:ISBN
1443:OCLC
1433:ISBN
1396:OCLC
1386:ISBN
1345:OCLC
1337:ISSN
1290:OCLC
1280:ISBN
1244:OCLC
1234:ISBN
1201:OCLC
1191:ISBN
1158:OCLC
1148:ISBN
1107:OCLC
1091:ISSN
980:here
838:PMID
641:and
411:4.1
396:Tula
390:3.6
380:Maya
368:3.2
358:Maya
346:3.2
336:Maya
324:5.1
318:126
303:5.2
282:5.7
2186:Oca
1958:PDF
1799:doi
1329:doi
1313:392
1083:doi
828:PMC
818:doi
735:not
650:".
408:10
405:41
384:18
376:II
362:16
340:96
321:25
297:26
276:51
2376::
1943:.
1935:.
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1901:.
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804:.
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634:.
446:BC
440:,
387:5
365:5
300:5
279:9
135:.
116:.
108:,
42::
34:A
2182:)
2173:(
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2022:(
1991:e
1984:t
1977:v
1956:(
1929:4
1909:.
1866:.
1829:.
1801::
1778:.
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1701:.
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1613:.
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1085::
982:.
844:.
820::
812::
806:6
759:.
38:(
23:.
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