Cryptographic hash function

1090:– uses partial hash inversions to prove that work was done, to unlock a mining reward in Bitcoin, and as a good-will token to send an e-mail in Hashcash. The sender is required to find a message whose hash value begins with a number of zero bits. The average work that the sender needs to perform in order to find a valid message is exponential in the number of zero bits required in the hash value, while the recipient can verify the validity of the message by executing a single hash function. For instance, in Hashcash, a sender is asked to generate a header whose 160-bit SHA-1 hash value has the first 20 bits as zeros. The sender will, on average, have to try 133: 1319: 6209: 5245: 4178: 36: 5269: 6219: 5257: 1299:. General-purpose ciphers tend to have different design goals. In particular, AES has key and block sizes that make it nontrivial to use to generate long hash values; AES encryption becomes less efficient when the key changes each block; and related-key attacks make it potentially less secure for use in a hash function than for encryption. 1331:. The compression function can either be specially designed for hashing or be built from a block cipher. A hash function built with the Merkle–Damgård construction is as resistant to collisions as is its compression function; any collision for the full hash function can be traced back to a collision in the compression function. 1695:, and Christian Winnerlein with the goal of replacing the widely used but broken MD5 and SHA-1 algorithms. When run on 64-bit x64 and ARM architectures, BLAKE2b is faster than SHA-3, SHA-2, SHA-1, and MD5. Although BLAKE and BLAKE2 have not been standardized as SHA-3 has, BLAKE2 has been used in many protocols including the 1800:

Passwords may still be retrieved by an attacker from the hashes, because most people choose passwords in predictable ways. Lists of common passwords are widely circulated and many passwords are short enough that even all possible combinations may be tested if calculation of the hash does not take too

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project. The original specification – now commonly called SHA-0 – of the algorithm was published in 1993 under the title Secure Hash Standard, FIPS PUB 180, by U.S. government standards agency NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology). It was withdrawn by the NSA shortly after publication

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Collision resistance implies second pre-image resistance but does not imply pre-image resistance. The weaker assumption is always preferred in theoretical cryptography, but in practice, a hash-function that is only second pre-image resistant is considered insecure and is therefore not recommended for

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in the United States which required the storage of enormous numbers of documents for long periods and retrieved only rarely. Ever-increasing performance of traditional file systems and new software systems have eroded the value of legacy CAS systems, which have become increasingly rare after roughly

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In practice, collision resistance is insufficient for many practical uses. In addition to collision resistance, it should be impossible for an adversary to find two messages with substantially similar digests; or to infer any useful information about the data, given only its digest. In particular, a

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Rather than store plain user passwords, controlled-access systems frequently store the hash of each user's password in a file or database. When someone requests access, the password they submit is hashed and compared with the stored value. If the database is stolen (an all-too-frequent occurrence),

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against a weakened variant may undermine the experts' confidence. For instance, in August 2004 collisions were found in several then-popular hash functions, including MD5. These weaknesses called into question the security of stronger algorithms derived from the weak hash functions – in particular,

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SHA-3 (Secure Hash Algorithm 3) was released by NIST on August 5, 2015. SHA-3 is a subset of the broader cryptographic primitive family Keccak. The Keccak algorithm is the work of Guido Bertoni, Joan Daemen, Michael Peeters, and Gilles Van Assche. Keccak is based on a sponge construction, which can

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SHA-2 basically consists of two hash algorithms: SHA-256 and SHA-512. SHA-224 is a variant of SHA-256 with different starting values and truncated output. SHA-384 and the lesser-known SHA-512/224 and SHA-512/256 are all variants of SHA-512. SHA-512 is more secure than SHA-256 and is commonly faster

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SHA-2 (Secure Hash Algorithm 2) is a set of cryptographic hash functions designed by the United States National Security Agency (NSA), first published in 2001. They are built using the Merkle–Damgård structure, from a one-way compression function itself built using the Davies–Meyer structure from a

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stores these addresses and a pointer to the physical storage of the content. Because an attempt to store the same file will generate the same key, CAS systems ensure that the files within them are unique, and because changing the file will result in a new key, CAS systems provide assurance that the

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However, compared with standard hash functions, cryptographic hash functions tend to be much more expensive computationally. For this reason, they tend to be used in contexts where it is necessary for users to protect themselves against the possibility of forgery (the creation of data with the same

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In cryptographic practice, "difficult" generally means "almost certainly beyond the reach of any adversary who must be prevented from breaking the system for as long as the security of the system is deemed important". The meaning of the term is therefore somewhat dependent on the application since

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cannot replace or modify the input data without changing its digest. Thus, if two strings have the same digest, one can be very confident that they are identical. Second pre-image resistance prevents an attacker from crafting a document with the same hash as a document the attacker cannot control.

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In February 2005, an attack on SHA-1 was reported that would find collision in about 2 hashing operations, rather than the 2 expected for a 160-bit hash function. In August 2005, another attack on SHA-1 was reported that would find collisions in 2 operations. Other theoretical weaknesses of SHA-1

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There is a long list of cryptographic hash functions but many have been found to be vulnerable and should not be used. For instance, NIST selected 51 hash functions as candidates for round 1 of the SHA-3 hash competition, of which 10 were considered broken and 16 showed significant weaknesses and

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can result in a massive security breach if the password file is compromised. One way to reduce this danger is to only store the hash digest of each password. To authenticate a user, the password presented by the user is hashed and compared with the stored hash. A password reset method is required

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schemes require a cryptographic hash to be calculated over the message. This allows the signature calculation to be performed on the relatively small, statically sized hash digest. The message is considered authentic if the signature verification succeeds given the signature and recalculated hash

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and claims that she has solved it. Bob would like to try it himself, but would yet like to be sure that Alice is not bluffing. Therefore, Alice writes down her solution, computes its hash, and tells Bob the hash value (whilst keeping the solution secret). Then, when Bob comes up with the solution

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BLAKE3, an improved version of BLAKE2, was announced on January 9, 2020. It was created by Jack O'Connor, Jean-Philippe Aumasson, Samuel Neves, and Zooko Wilcox-O'Hearn. BLAKE3 is a single algorithm, in contrast to BLAKE and BLAKE2, which are algorithm families with multiple variants. The BLAKE3

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RIPEMD (RACE Integrity Primitives Evaluation Message Digest) is a family of cryptographic hash functions developed in Leuven, Belgium, by Hans Dobbertin, Antoon Bosselaers, and Bart Preneel at the COSIC research group at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, and first published in 1996. RIPEMD was

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and other service abuses such as spam on a network by requiring some work from the service requester, usually meaning processing time by a computer. A key feature of these schemes is their asymmetry: the work must be moderately hard (but feasible) on the requester side but easy to check for the

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needs to implement both encryption and hashing with minimal code size or hardware area. However, that approach can have costs in efficiency and security. The ciphers in hash functions are built for hashing: they use large keys and blocks, can efficiently change keys every block, and have been

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in 1991 to replace an earlier hash function, MD4, and was specified in 1992 as RFC 1321. Collisions against MD5 can be calculated within seconds, which makes the algorithm unsuitable for most use cases where a cryptographic hash is required. MD5 produces a digest of 128 bits (16 bytes).

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the effort that a malicious agent may put into the task is usually proportional to their expected gain. However, since the needed effort usually multiplies with the digest length, even a thousand-fold advantage in processing power can be neutralized by adding a dozen bits to the latter.

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However, use of standard cryptographic hash functions, such as the SHA series, is no longer considered safe for password storage. These algorithms are designed to be computed quickly, so if the hashed values are compromised, it is possible to try guessed passwords at high rates. Common

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Whirlpool is a cryptographic hash function designed by Vincent Rijmen and Paulo S. L. M. Barreto, who first described it in 2000. Whirlpool is based on a substantially modified version of the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES). Whirlpool produces a hash digest of 512 bits (64 bytes).

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On August 12, 2004, Joux, Carribault, Lemuel, and Jalby announced a collision for the full SHA-0 algorithm. Joux et al. accomplished this using a generalization of the Chabaud and Joux attack. They found that the collision had complexity 2 and took about 80,000 CPU hours on a

1782:. This makes the MD5, SHA-1, RIPEMD-160, Whirlpool, and the SHA-256 / SHA-512 hash algorithms all vulnerable to this specific attack. SHA-3, BLAKE2, BLAKE3, and the truncated SHA-2 variants are not vulnerable to this type of attack. 1614:

based upon the design principles used in MD4 and is similar in performance to the more popular SHA-1. RIPEMD-160 has, however, not been broken. As the name implies, RIPEMD-160 produces a hash digest of 160 bits (20 bytes).

1184:(CAS), also referred to as content-addressed storage or fixed-content storage, is a way to store information so it can be retrieved based on its content, not its name or location. It has been used for high-speed storage and 1326:

A hash function must be able to process an arbitrary-length message into a fixed-length output. This can be achieved by breaking the input up into a series of equally sized blocks, and operating on them in sequence using a

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function, which can be rigorously proven to be collision-resistant assuming that certain problems on ideal lattices are computationally difficult, but, as a linear function, does not satisfy these additional properties.

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to generate internal tables, which are then used in a keystream generator more or less unrelated to the hash algorithm. SEAL is not guaranteed to be as strong (or weak) as SHA-1. Similarly, the key expansion of the

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himself a few days later, Alice can prove that she had the solution earlier by revealing it and having Bob hash it and check that it matches the hash value given to him before. (This is an example of a simple

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value that can be stored with the password hash. The salt is hashed with the password, altering the password hash mapping for each password, thereby making it infeasible for an adversary to store tables of

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have been known, and in February 2017 Google announced a collision in SHA-1. Security researchers recommend that new applications can avoid these problems by using later members of the SHA family, such as

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password hash, for the high efficiency that it offers on modern CPUs. As BLAKE was a candidate for SHA-3, BLAKE and BLAKE2 both offer the same output sizes as SHA-3 – including a configurable output size.

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or other short messages, it can be feasible to invert a hash by trying all possible messages in the set. Because cryptographic hash functions are typically designed to be computed quickly, special

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and was superseded by the revised version, published in 1995 in FIPS PUB 180-1 and commonly designated SHA-1. Collisions against the full SHA-1 algorithm can be produced using the

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messages with the same MD5 hash, there is likely to be a collision in SHA-1. The additional work needed to find the SHA-1 collision (beyond the exponential birthday search) requires only

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The output size in bits is given by the extension to the "SHA" name, so SHA-224 has an output size of 224 bits (28 bytes); SHA-256, 32 bytes; SHA-384, 48 bytes; and SHA-512, 64 bytes.

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There are many cryptographic hash algorithms; this section lists a few algorithms that are referenced relatively often. A more extensive list can be found on the page containing a

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outputs from multiple hash functions provide collision resistance as good as the strongest of the algorithms included in the concatenated result. For example, older versions of

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A straightforward application of the Merkle–Damgård construction, where the size of hash output is equal to the internal state size (between each compression step), results in a

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2018. However, the principles of content addressability continue to be of great interest to computer scientists, and form the core of numerous emerging technologies, such as

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resistance strength, with the same expectations, refers to a similar problem of finding a second message that matches the given hash value when one message is already known;

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compression function is closely based on that of BLAKE2s, with the biggest difference being that the number of rounds is reduced from 10 to 7. Internally, BLAKE3 is a

817:, are designed to meet much weaker requirements and are generally unsuitable as cryptographic hash functions. For example, a CRC was used for message integrity in the 329: 419: 469: 392: 368: 295: 267: 4158: 3988: 1468: 2961:"Cryptographic Hash-Function Basics: Definitions, Implications, and Separations for Preimage Resistance, Second-Preimage Resistance, and Collision Resistance" 1137:-variant hash is combined with the file size, providing sufficient information for locating file sources, downloading the file, and verifying its contents. 904:; in actual practice, Alice and Bob will often be computer programs, and the secret would be something less easily spoofed than a claimed puzzle solution.) 2581: 1670:

also be used to build other cryptographic primitives such as a stream cipher. SHA-3 provides the same output sizes as SHA-2: 224, 256, 384, and 512 bits.

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of various types of content (file content, directory trees, ancestry information, etc.) to uniquely identify them. Hashes are used to identify files on

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digest over the message. So the message integrity property of the cryptographic hash is used to create secure and efficient digital signature schemes.

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Configurable output sizes can also be obtained using the SHAKE-128 and SHAKE-256 functions. Here the -128 and -256 extensions to the name imply the

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hash digests are sometimes published on websites or forums to allow verification of integrity for downloaded files, including files retrieved using

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constructions that have a larger internal state size – which range from tweaks of the Merkle–Damgård construction to new constructions such as the

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Documents may refer to SHA-1 as just "SHA", even though this may conflict with the other Secure Hash Algorithms such as SHA-0, SHA-2, and SHA-3.

2450: 2276:, p. 99: the concatenation of hash functions as suggested in the TLS... is guaranteed to be as secure as the candidate that remains secure. 2663:

Harnik, Danny; Kilian, Joe; Naor, Moni; Reingold, Omer; Rosen, Alon (2005). "On Robust Combiners for Oblivious Transfer and Other Primitives".

2424: 1817: 1263:, are built from block-cipher-like components designed for the purpose, with feedback to ensure that the resulting function is not invertible. 1195:

CAS systems work by passing the content of the file through a cryptographic hash function to generate a unique key, the "content address". The

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or other construction. That cipher can also be used in a conventional mode of operation, without the same security guarantees; for example,

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constructions using hash functions can be provably secure if the underlying hash function is secure. Also, many hash functions (including

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A function meeting these criteria may still have undesirable properties. Currently, popular cryptographic hash functions are vulnerable to

53: 100: 3134: 2980: 2644: 2305: 1043:– commonly use repeated invocations of a cryptographic hash to increase the time (and in some cases computer memory) required to perform 871:

algorithm can sometimes still be fast enough to make a feasible attack. Conversely, a polynomial-time algorithm (e.g., one that requires

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sums. This ensures that a method to find collisions in one of the hash functions does not defeat data protected by both hash functions.

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BLAKE2, an improved version of BLAKE, was announced on December 21, 2012. It was created by Jean-Philippe Aumasson, Samuel Neves,

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hash functions, the concatenated function is as collision-resistant as its strongest component, but not more collision-resistant.

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Hoch, Jonathan J.; Shamir, Adi (2008). "On the Strength of the Concatenated Hash Combiner when All the Hash Functions Are Weak".

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of fixed content, such as documents stored for compliance with government regulations. Content-addressable storage is similar to

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Mendel, Florian; Rechberger, Christian; Schläffer, Martin (2009). "MD5 is Weaker Than Weak: Attacks on Concatenated Combiners".

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to detect accidental data corruption. Indeed, in information-security contexts, cryptographic hash values are sometimes called (

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hash values to which the password hash digest can be compared or to test a large number of purloined hash values in parallel.

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and to detect accidental errors; their constructions frequently provide no resistance to a deliberate attack. For example, a

86: 1448:(PRNGs) can be built using hash functions. This is done by combining a (secret) random seed with a counter and hashing it. 5451: 5300: 2846:

Lyubashevsky, Vadim; Micciancio, Daniele; Peikert, Chris; Rosen, Alon (2008). "SWIFFT: A Modest Proposal for FFT Hashing".

2264:, p. 145:Concatenating ... is often used by implementors to "hedge bets" on hash functions. A combiner of the form MD5 5582: 853: 1427: 1160:. Being hash functions of a particular kind, cryptographic hash functions lend themselves well to this application too. 140:) at work. A small change in the input (in the word "over") drastically changes the output (digest). This is called the 68: 6001: 4860: 3523: 2740:. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 3152. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 306–316. 2531: 1467:, and stream ciphers can also be built from fixed-length digest hash functions. Often this is done by first building a 5001: 3690: 2504: 1775: 1519: 1339: 1313: 6243: 6056: 5195: 4261: 3819: 2974: 801:

in proofs of security) while still being deterministic and efficiently computable. This rules out functions like the

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Meanwhile, truncating the output of a longer hash, such as used in SHA-512/256, also defeats many of these attacks.

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SHA-1 (a strengthened version of SHA-0), RIPEMD-128, and RIPEMD-160 (both strengthened versions of RIPEMD).

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Sotirov, A; Stevens, M; Appelbaum, J; Lenstra, A; Molnar, D; Osvik, D A; de Weger, B (December 30, 2008).

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when password hashing is performed; original passwords cannot be recalculated from the stored hash value.

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encryption standard, but an attack was readily discovered, which exploited the linearity of the checksum.

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therefore did not make it to the next round; more information can be found on the main article about the

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and the hash function should be considered broken. SHA-1 produces a hash digest of 160 bits (20 bytes).

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Much more than encryption algorithms, one-way hash functions are the workhorses of modern cryptography.

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as long as the hashes are posted on a trusted site – usually the originating site – authenticated by

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Collision resistance prevents an attacker from creating two distinct documents with the same hash.

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CAS became a significant market during the 2000s, especially after the introduction of the 2002

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Alshaikhli, Imad Fakhri; AlAhmad, Mohammad Abdulateef (2015), "Cryptographic Hash Function",

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Password verification commonly relies on cryptographic hashes. Storing all user passwords as

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Andrew Regenscheid, Ray Perlner, Shu-Jen Chang, John Kelsey, Mridul Nandi, Souradyuti Paul,

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can be used to build hash functions, hash functions can be used to build block ciphers.

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can try billions of possible passwords each second. Password hash functions that perform

446: 331:(as for any good hash), so the hash value can be used as a representative of the message; 2530:. Department of Mathematics and Computer Science of Eindhoven University of Technology. 1338:; this is crucial to the security of this construction. This construction is called the 541:

on hash tables is possible if the collisions are easy to find, as in the case of linear

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Status Report on the First Round of the SHA-3 Cryptographic Hash Algorithm Competition

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SP 800-63B-3 – Digital Identity Guidelines, Authentication and Lifecycle Management

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A message digest can also serve as a means of reliably identifying a file; several

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but do not usually have a strong connection to practical security. For example, an

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A proof-of-work system (or protocol, or function) is an economic measure to deter

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Menezes, Alfred J.; van Oorschot, Paul C.; Vanstone, Scott A. (7 December 2018).

2969:. Vol. 3017. Lecture Notes in Computer Science: Springer. pp. 371–388. 2933: 2746: 2707: 2428: 2373: 2354: 1841: 1824:(KDFs) that have been created to slow brute force searches. Slow hashes include 1539: 1291: 1290:

can be used in place of these custom block ciphers; that might be useful when an

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Handbook of Research on Threat Detection and Countermeasures in Network Security

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prevents some attacks, such as building files of precomputing hash values, e.g.

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bits, unless the space of possible input values is significantly smaller than

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An illustration of the potential use of a cryptographic hash is as follows:

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that require greater computing resources have been developed that make such

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Dobraunig, Christoph; Eichlseder, Maria; Mendel, Florian (February 2015).

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processors – equivalent to 13 days of full-time use of the supercomputer.

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finding any pair of different messages that yield the same hash value (a

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Open source python based application with GUI used to verify downloads.

2928:. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 6498. pp. 144–162. 2887:. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 5912. pp. 144–161. 2781:. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 3494. pp. 474–490. 2702:. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 5126. pp. 616–630. 2672: 2366: 2012: 1888: 1767:

A successful, practical attack broke MD5 (used within certificates for

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usually used for encryption. Many well-known hash functions, including

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finalists included functions with block-cipher-like components (e.g.,

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of an arbitrary binary string to a binary string with a fixed size of

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Understanding Cryptography, A Textbook for Students and Practitioners

2850:. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 5086. pp. 54–72. 1845: 1749: 1472: 1142: 1130: 1015: 3229: 1164:

digest as the expected data) by potentially malicious participants.

1054:

A password hash also requires the use of a large random, non-secret

35: 6118: 6092: 6021: 5881: 5871: 5856: 5801: 5678: 5630: 5597: 5572: 5552: 5537: 5382: 5347: 4971: 4951: 4931: 4921: 4916: 4840: 4800: 4779: 4642: 4622: 4616: 4596: 4573: 4543: 4473: 4463: 4458: 4418: 4409: 4394: 4389: 4384: 4286: 4196: 4087: 4047: 3721: 3618: 3603: 3598: 3588: 3552: 3472: 3386: 3266: 3024:

Serious Cryptography: A Practical Introduction to Modern Encryption

2774: 2186: 2144: 1873: 1816:, making direct attacks possible even with salt. The United States 1087: 834: 508: 2845: 2068: 1141:

are another example. Such file hashes are often the top hash of a

833:

For messages selected from a limited set of messages, for example

560:

A cryptographic hash function must be able to withstand all known

6141: 6136: 6087: 5901: 5635: 5602: 5592: 5567: 5499: 5479: 5421: 5362: 5356: 5119: 5084: 5041: 4936: 4911: 4883: 4657: 4399: 4364: 3557: 3513: 3291: 2166: 1489: 1388: 1119: 923:

An important application of secure hashes is the verification of

439:) is also infeasible: a cryptographic hash is expected to have a 912: 6194: 6041: 5587: 5542: 5494: 5446: 5094: 5021: 4941: 4926: 4873: 4677: 4611: 4503: 4453: 4434: 3963: 3726: 3467: 3462: 3432: 3422: 3381: 3376: 3371: 3351: 3346: 3316: 3301: 3261: 2966:

Fast Software Encryption: 11th International Workshop, FSE 2004

2524:"MD5 considered harmful today: Creating a rogue CA certificate" 1908: 1898: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1709: 1696: 1686: 1649: 1485: 1456: 1431: 1362:

hash design. This design causes many inherent flaws, including

1276: 1040: 1036: 1032: 802: 2521: 557:

of any length as input and produce a fixed-length hash value.

507:, to detect duplicate data or uniquely identify files, and as 6097: 6071: 6011: 5986: 5744: 5688: 5673: 5577: 5484: 5441: 5436: 5416: 5124: 5062: 5046: 5006: 4991: 4946: 4662: 4487: 4355: 3452: 3341: 3296: 3244: 3201: 3196: 3190: 2367:

Collisions for Hash Functions MD4, MD5, HAVAL-128, and RIPEMD

2328: 1928: 1797:

the thief will only have the hash values, not the passwords.

1757: 1719:, and it supports higher degrees of parallelism than BLAKE2. 1664: 1638: 1582: 1512: 1505:

Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)

1480: 1423: 1419: 1343: 1260: 1256: 958: 942: 938: 810: 195: 191: 187: 183: 137: 3089:"Series of mini-lectures about cryptographic hash functions" 2232:

Security Evaluation of SHA-224, SHA-512/224, and SHA-512/256

5886: 5665: 4379: 4301: 3567: 3562: 3533: 3528: 3492: 2997: 1958: 1883: 1722: 1404: 786: 334:

finding an input string that matches a given hash value (a

5956: 5866: 5474: 5067: 5031: 4637: 3336: 3331: 3184: 2882: 2261: 2229: 1820:

recommends storing passwords using special hashes called

1563: 1508: 1463:, output an arbitrarily long stream and can be used as a 1426:) are built by using a special-purpose block cipher in a 1347: 1252: 1248: 1134: 934: 553:

Most cryptographic hash functions are designed to take a

2662: 2273: 1227: 984: 1976:"Cryptanalysis of MD5 and SHA: Time for a New Standard" 1236:

to build a cryptographic hash function, specifically a

793:

hash function should behave as much as possible like a

3989:

Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator

2463:

Summarizes Wang et al. results and their implications.

2000: 1469:

cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator

1334:

The last block processed should also be unambiguously

660:

It should be difficult to find two different messages

648:. Functions that lack this property are vulnerable to 598:. Functions that lack this property are vulnerable to 27:

Hash function that is suitable for use in cryptography

2211: 1677:

of the function rather than the output size in bits.

1587:

SHA-1 was developed as part of the U.S. Government's

449: 400: 380: 356: 307: 283: 255: 3104: 2922:"Speeding up the Wide-Pipe: Secure and Fast Hashing" 883:-digit keys) may be too slow for any practical use. 2284: 2282: 617:, it should be difficult to find a different input 60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2555:"The 15 biggest data breaches of the 21st century" 2365:XiaoyunWang, Dengguo Feng, Xuejia Lai, Hongbo Yu, 1342:. Most common classical hash functions, including 1047:on stored password hash digests. For details, see 463: 413: 386: 362: 323: 289: 269:bits) that has special properties desirable for a 261: 2384: 1735:Even if a hash function has never been broken, a 6235: 2958: 2279: 2188:A Framework for Iterative Hash Functions – HAIFA 2030: 1545: 1048: 422: 2145:"Design Principles for Iterated Hash Functions" 1353: 1082:service provider. One popular system – used in 2772: 2553:Swinhoe, Dan; Hill, Michael (April 17, 2020). 2184: 2172: 2116: 2045:"Flickr's API Signature Forgery Vulnerability" 1818:National Institute of Standards and Technology 1785: 1389:Use in building other cryptographic primitives 1307: 1167: 973:alterations of the file, since an intentional 340:assuming all input strings are equally likely. 5301: 4212: 3820: 3128: 2641:"Mind-blowing development in GPU performance" 2185:Biham, Eli; Dunkelman, Orr (24 August 2006). 2083:"Use MD5 hashes to verify software downloads" 1471:and then using its stream of random bytes as 1382:use a classical Merkle–Damgård construction. 913:Verifying the integrity of messages and files 577:, it should be difficult to find any message 214: 865:provably secure cryptographic hash functions 700:. This property is sometimes referred to as 644:. This property is sometimes referred to as 136:A cryptographic hash function (specifically 3021:Aumasson, Jean-Philippe (6 November 2017). 2824: 2552: 2505:"Randomized Hashing and Digital Signatures" 2191:. Second NIST Cryptographic Hash Workshop. 2112: 2110: 2108: 2018: 1774:Many cryptographic hashes are based on the 301:) for a random input string ("message") is 5315: 5308: 5294: 5268: 4219: 4205: 3827: 3813: 3135: 3121: 2697: 2502: 2334: 1864:Comparison of cryptographic hash functions 1764:that do not require collision resistance. 1552:comparison of cryptographic hash functions 1393:Hash functions can be used to build other 1156:is to allow the fast look-up of data in a 1097: 789:construction works around these problems. 221: 207: 3056: 2919: 2892: 2855: 2786: 2745: 2217: 2138: 2136: 1959:Menezes, van Oorschot & Vanstone 2018 716:Informally, these properties mean that a 370:bits of hash value is expected to have a 120:Learn how and when to remove this message 3020: 2920:Nandi, Mridul; Paul, Souradyuti (2010). 2825:Katz, Jonathan; Lindell, Yehuda (2014). 2472: 2440: 2294: 2105: 2006: 1924:Security of cryptographic hash functions 1723:Attacks on cryptographic hash algorithms 1648:than SHA-256 on 64-bit machines such as 1317: 1275:) though the function finally selected, 1149:, which allows for additional benefits. 1003: 696:. Such a pair is called a cryptographic 131: 2926:Progress in Cryptology - INDOCRYPT 2010 2885:Advances in Cryptology – ASIACRYPT 2009 2779:Advances in Cryptology – EUROCRYPT 2005 2665:Advances in Cryptology – EUROCRYPT 2005 2609: 1644:(classified) specialized block cipher. 1302: 824: 594:. This concept is related to that of a 479:Cryptographic hash functions have many 14: 6236: 5055: 3086: 2773:Kelsey, John; Schneier, Bruce (2005). 2579: 2561:from the original on November 24, 2020 2496: 2300: 2133: 2080: 2042: 1488:stream ciphers makes heavy use of the 1295:designed and vetted for resistance to 5289: 5186:Decentralized autonomous organization 4200: 3808: 3116: 2633: 2610:Claburn, Thomas (February 14, 2019). 2603: 2573: 2546: 2515: 2466: 2453:from the original on January 16, 2013 2441:Schneier, Bruce (February 18, 2005). 2434: 2410: 2378: 2359: 2340: 2223: 2178: 2142: 2093:from the original on October 18, 2012 1228:Hash functions based on block ciphers 985:Signature generation and verification 421:(a practical example can be found in 6218: 5256: 4226: 2738:Advances in Cryptology – CRYPTO 2004 2732: 2422:Finding Collisions in the Full SHA-1 2288: 2074: 2036: 1970: 1964: 1322:The Merkle–Damgård hash construction 495:. They can also be used as ordinary 58:adding citations to reliable sources 29: 3057:Paar, Christof; Pelzl, Jan (2009). 2959:Rogaway, P.; Shrimpton, T. (2004). 2828:Introduction to Modern Cryptography 2700:Automata, Languages and Programming 2534:from the original on March 25, 2017 2306:"More Problems with Hash Functions" 1526:observed that 2-collisions lead to 1232:There are several methods to use a 977:can readily be crafted to have the 24: 3080:"The ECRYPT Hash Function Website" 2199:from the original on 28 April 2017 1152:One of the main applications of a 1049:§ Attacks on hashed passwords 423:§ Attacks on hashed passwords 25: 6265: 5196:Distributed ledger technology law 3050: 2647:from the original on Apr 9, 2023. 2473:Brewster, Thomas (Feb 23, 2017). 2081:Perrin, Chad (December 5, 2007). 6217: 6208: 6207: 5267: 5255: 5244: 5243: 4177: 4176: 3834: 3004:Handbook of Applied Cryptography 1495: 1286:A standard block cipher such as 1173:This section is an excerpt from 1066: 531:Non-cryptographic hash functions 346:to such search is quantified as 277:the probability of a particular 34: 2983:from the original on 2022-11-30 2963:. In Roy, B.; Mier, W. (eds.). 2813:from the original on 2017-03-16 2622:from the original on 2020-04-25 2592:from the original on 2020-11-21 2485:from the original on 2017-02-24 2395:10.4018/978-1-4666-6583-5.ch006 2244:from the original on 2016-12-27 2155:from the original on 2017-05-21 2051:from the original on 2013-08-15 1934:Universal one-way hash function 1730:NIST hash function competitions 1245:block cipher modes of operation 907: 886: 45:needs additional citations for 4038:Information-theoretic security 3732:NIST hash function competition 2503:Halevi, Shai; Krawczyk, Hugo. 2389:, IGI Global, pp. 80–94, 1760:, or using techniques such as 1446:Pseudorandom number generators 1380:NIST hash function competition 1378:. None of the entrants in the 1094:times to find a valid header. 953:. This practice establishes a 895:poses a tough math problem to 863:are important in the study of 13: 1: 2643:. Improsec. January 3, 2020. 2310:The Cryptography Mailing List 2043:Duong, Thai; Rizzo, Juliano. 2021:, pp. 155–157, 190, 232. 1940: 1602: 1546:Cryptographic hash algorithms 1479:is a stream cipher that uses 1451:Some hash functions, such as 1354:Wide pipe versus narrow pipe 1129:networks. For example, in an 809:Checksum algorithms, such as 562:types of cryptanalytic attack 548: 69:"Cryptographic hash function" 6249:Cryptographic hash functions 3737:Password Hashing Competition 3148:message authentication codes 3144:Cryptographic hash functions 2934:10.1007/978-3-642-17401-8_12 2747:10.1007/978-3-540-28628-8_19 2708:10.1007/978-3-540-70583-3_50 2117:Grassi Paul A. (June 2017). 2031:Rogaway & Shrimpton 2004 1945: 1617: 1401:Message authentication codes 1329:one-way compression function 1238:one-way compression function 489:message authentication codes 350:: a cryptographic hash with 7: 6173:Cryptographic hash function 4257:Cryptographic hash function 4154:Message authentication code 4109:Cryptographic hash function 3912:Cryptographic hash function 3691:Merkle–Damgård construction 3006:. CRC Press. pp. 33–. 2894:10.1007/978-3-642-10366-7_9 2857:10.1007/978-3-540-71039-4_4 2831:(2nd ed.). CRC Press. 1904:Message authentication code 1851: 1786:Attacks on hashed passwords 1776:Merkle–Damgård construction 1520:Merkle–Damgård construction 1340:Merkle–Damgård construction 1314:Merkle–Damgård construction 1308:Merkle–Damgård construction 1182:Content-addressable storage 1175:Content-addressable storage 1168:Content-addressable storage 859:". Such interpretations of 702:strong collision resistance 605:Second pre-image resistance 491:(MACs), and other forms of 235:cryptographic hash function 10: 6270: 4033:Harvest now, decrypt later 2655: 2580:Goodin, Dan (2012-12-10). 2173:Kelsey & Schneier 2005 2033:, in Sec. 5. Implications. 1789: 1707: 1684: 1662: 1636: 1621: 1606: 1580: 1561: 1311: 1190:content-addressable memory 1172: 1070: 1007: 988: 916: 762:an attacker can calculate 6203: 6150: 6127: 6111: 6080: 6055: 5995: 5942: 5819: 5730: 5697: 5664: 5611: 5508: 5460: 5407: 5396: 5323: 5239: 5216:Initial exchange offering 5191:Decentralized application 5171:Cryptocurrency in Nigeria 5133: 5107: 4897: 4859: 4788: 4745: 4676: 4586: 4536: 4512: 4496: 4472: 4433: 4408: 4354: 4344: 4310: 4234: 4172: 4149:Post-quantum cryptography 4101: 3842: 3804: 3755: 3709: 3673: 3627: 3576: 3504: 3481: 3410: 3254: 3215: 3177: 3154: 3112: 3108: 2193:Cryptology ePrint Archive 2149:Cryptology ePrint Archive 1844:and some recent modes of 1703: 1680: 1624:Whirlpool (hash function) 1243:The methods resemble the 1213:peer-to-peer file sharing 1079:denial-of-service attacks 1025:graphics processing units 753:, by choosing a suitable 646:weak collision resistance 483:applications, notably in 202: 182: 177: 162: 157: 150: 6244:Cryptographic primitives 6163:Timeline of cryptography 5221:List of cryptocurrencies 5108:Crypto service companies 4899:Cryptocurrency exchanges 4139:Quantum key distribution 4129:Authenticated encryption 3984:Random number generation 3485:key derivation functions 2848:Fast Software Encryption 2443:"Cryptanalysis of SHA-1" 2069:Lyubashevsky et al. 2008 1822:key derivation functions 1780:length extension attacks 1769:Transport Layer Security 1658: 1632: 1576: 1395:cryptographic primitives 967:cyclic redundancy checks 839:key derivation functions 815:cyclic redundancy checks 539:denial-of-service attack 6158:Outline of cryptography 6129:Anti–computer forensics 4134:Public-key cryptography 4124:Symmetric-key algorithm 3917:Key derivation function 3877:Cryptographic primitive 3870:Authentication protocol 3855:Outline of cryptography 3850:History of cryptography 3763:Hash-based cryptography 3665:Length extension attack 2127:10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63b 2019:Katz & Lindell 2014 1894:Length extension attack 1098:File or data identifier 650:second-preimage attacks 543:cyclic redundancy check 471:bits (lower due to the 6185:Homomorphic encryption 6178:List of hash functions 5317:Cryptographic software 5156:Complementary currency 4262:Decentralized exchange 4247:Cryptocurrency tumbler 3922:Secure Hash Algorithms 3865:Cryptographic protocol 3773:Message authentication 2335:Hoch & Shamir 2008 2143:Lucks, Stefan (2004). 1557: 1323: 1104:source code management 465: 415: 388: 364: 325: 324:{\displaystyle 2^{-n}} 291: 263: 152:Secure Hash Algorithms 145: 6190:End-to-end encryption 5211:Initial coin offering 5166:Cryptocurrency bubble 4697:Basic Attention Token 4267:Decentralized finance 4252:Cryptocurrency wallet 4028:End-to-end encryption 3974:Cryptojacking malware 2218:Nandi & Paul 2010 1869:Cryptographic agility 1321: 1221:distributed computing 1004:Password verification 969:only prevent against 963:error-detecting codes 466: 416: 414:{\displaystyle 2^{n}} 389: 365: 326: 292: 264: 135: 5206:Environmental impact 5176:Cryptocurrency scams 4144:Quantum cryptography 4068:Trusted timestamping 3059:"11: Hash Functions" 2447:Schneier on Security 1693:Zooko Wilcox-O'Hearn 1568:MD5 was designed by 1303:Hash function design 1281:cryptographic sponge 850:theoretical analyses 825:Degree of difficulty 656:Collision resistance 568:Pre-image resistance 481:information-security 447: 441:collision resistance 398: 378: 354: 305: 297:-bit output result ( 281: 253: 54:improve this article 4861:Inactive currencies 3897:Cryptographic nonce 3660:Side-channel attack 3087:Buldas, A. (2011). 3027:. No Starch Press. 2788:10.1007/11426639_28 2337:, pp. 616–630. 2304:(August 20, 2004). 2195:. Report 2007/278. 2175:, pp. 474–490. 2151:. Report 2004/253. 1814:graphics processors 1372:sponge construction 1297:related-key attacks 1204:file is unchanged. 1106:systems, including 1045:brute-force attacks 843:brute-force attacks 718:malicious adversary 713:real applications. 571:Given a hash value 499:, to index data in 464:{\displaystyle n/2} 372:preimage resistance 5777:Facebook Messenger 4321:Proof of authority 4292:Non-fungible token 4272:Distributed ledger 4013:Subliminal channel 3997:Pseudorandom noise 3939:Key (cryptography) 3717:CAESAR Competition 3701:HAIFA construction 3650:Brute-force attack 2673:10.1007/11426639_6 2427:2017-07-15 at the 2420:, and Hongbo Yu, " 2372:2004-12-20 at the 2353:2018-06-05 at the 2274:Harnik et al. 2005 1806:cryptographic salt 1762:randomized hashing 1507:used concatenated 1376:HAIFA construction 1350:, take this form. 1324: 1208:Sarbanes–Oxley Act 485:digital signatures 461: 411: 384: 360: 321: 287: 259: 146: 6231: 6230: 6081:Service providers 5815: 5814: 5621:Check Point VPN-1 5283: 5282: 5103: 5102: 4582: 4581: 4282:Lightning Network 4194: 4193: 4190: 4189: 4073:Key-based routing 4063:Trapdoor function 3929:Digital signature 3800: 3799: 3796: 3795: 3594:ChaCha20-Poly1305 3411:Password hashing/ 3034:978-1-59327-826-7 3013:978-0-429-88132-9 2943:978-3-642-17400-1 2904:978-3-642-10365-0 2867:978-3-540-71038-7 2838:978-1-4665-7026-9 2798:978-3-540-25910-7 2757:978-3-540-22668-0 2717:978-3-540-70582-6 2682:978-3-540-25910-7 2404:978-1-4666-6583-5 2071:, pp. 54–72. 1792:Password cracking 1737:successful attack 1675:security strength 1486:HC-128 and HC-256 1279:, was built on a 997:digital signature 991:Digital signature 925:message integrity 919:File verification 902:commitment scheme 545:(CRC) functions. 387:{\displaystyle n} 363:{\displaystyle n} 348:security strength 338:) is infeasible, 290:{\displaystyle n} 262:{\displaystyle n} 231: 230: 130: 129: 122: 104: 16:(Redirected from 6261: 6221: 6220: 6211: 6210: 6059:operating system 6057:Security-focused 6005: 5830: 5405: 5404: 5310: 5303: 5296: 5287: 5286: 5271: 5270: 5259: 5258: 5247: 5246: 5231:Virtual currency 5181:Digital currency 5161:Crypto-anarchism 5053: 5052: 4806:HBAR (Hashgraph) 4789:Other currencies 4425:Ethereum Classic 4352: 4351: 4228:Cryptocurrencies 4221: 4214: 4207: 4198: 4197: 4180: 4179: 4008:Insecure channel 3860:Classical cipher 3829: 3822: 3815: 3806: 3805: 3681:Avalanche effect 3635:Collision attack 3178:Common functions 3137: 3130: 3123: 3114: 3113: 3110: 3109: 3106: 3105: 3096: 3091:. Archived from 3083: 3074: 3069:. Archived from 3046: 3017: 3000:"Hash functions" 2991: 2989: 2988: 2955: 2916: 2896: 2879: 2859: 2842: 2821: 2819: 2818: 2790: 2769: 2749: 2729: 2694: 2649: 2648: 2637: 2631: 2630: 2628: 2627: 2607: 2601: 2600: 2598: 2597: 2577: 2571: 2570: 2568: 2566: 2557:. CSO Magazine. 2550: 2544: 2543: 2541: 2539: 2519: 2513: 2512: 2511:on May 22, 2022. 2507:. Archived from 2500: 2494: 2493: 2491: 2490: 2470: 2464: 2462: 2460: 2458: 2438: 2432: 2414: 2408: 2407: 2382: 2376: 2363: 2357: 2344: 2338: 2332: 2326: 2325: 2323: 2321: 2316:on April 9, 2016 2312:. Archived from 2298: 2292: 2286: 2277: 2271: 2265: 2259: 2253: 2252: 2250: 2249: 2243: 2236: 2227: 2221: 2215: 2209: 2208: 2206: 2204: 2182: 2176: 2170: 2164: 2163: 2161: 2160: 2140: 2131: 2130: 2114: 2103: 2102: 2100: 2098: 2078: 2072: 2066: 2060: 2059: 2057: 2056: 2040: 2034: 2028: 2022: 2016: 2010: 2004: 1998: 1997: 1992: 1991: 1982:. Archived from 1968: 1962: 1956: 1859:Avalanche effect 1594:shattered attack 1537: 1531: 1364:length-extension 1217:cryptocurrencies 1093: 1010:Password hashing 882: 876: 869:exponential-time 845:more difficult. 797:(often called a 780: 776: 774: 761: 760: 752: 746: 738: 727:length-extension 695: 677: 668: 643: 625: 616: 600:preimage attacks 596:one-way function 593: 582: 576: 473:birthday paradox 470: 468: 467: 462: 457: 420: 418: 417: 412: 410: 409: 393: 391: 390: 385: 369: 367: 366: 361: 330: 328: 327: 322: 320: 319: 296: 294: 293: 288: 268: 266: 265: 260: 223: 216: 209: 148: 147: 142:avalanche effect 125: 118: 114: 111: 105: 103: 62: 38: 30: 21: 6269: 6268: 6264: 6263: 6262: 6260: 6259: 6258: 6234: 6233: 6232: 6227: 6199: 6146: 6123: 6107: 6076: 6058: 6051: 5999: 5991: 5962:Java Anon Proxy 5938: 5824: 5823: 5821:Disk encryption 5811: 5787:Google Messages 5772:Signal Protocol 5726: 5693: 5660: 5607: 5504: 5456: 5399: 5392: 5319: 5314: 5284: 5279: 5235: 5201:Double-spending 5151:Blockchain game 5129: 5099: 5051: 4893: 4855: 4784: 4741: 4672: 4578: 4532: 4508: 4492: 4468: 4429: 4404: 4340: 4306: 4230: 4225: 4195: 4186: 4168: 4097: 3838: 3833: 3792: 3751: 3710:Standardization 3705: 3696:Sponge function 3669: 3645:Birthday attack 3640:Preimage attack 3623: 3579: 3572: 3500: 3483: 3482:General purpose 3477: 3412: 3406: 3255:Other functions 3250: 3217:SHA-3 finalists 3211: 3173: 3150: 3141: 3078: 3053: 3035: 3014: 2994: 2986: 2984: 2977: 2944: 2905: 2868: 2839: 2816: 2814: 2799: 2758: 2718: 2683: 2658: 2653: 2652: 2639: 2638: 2634: 2625: 2623: 2608: 2604: 2595: 2593: 2578: 2574: 2564: 2562: 2551: 2547: 2537: 2535: 2520: 2516: 2501: 2497: 2488: 2486: 2471: 2467: 2456: 2454: 2439: 2435: 2429:Wayback Machine 2415: 2411: 2405: 2383: 2379: 2374:Wayback Machine 2364: 2360: 2355:Wayback Machine 2345: 2341: 2333: 2329: 2319: 2317: 2299: 2295: 2287: 2280: 2272: 2268: 2260: 2256: 2247: 2245: 2241: 2234: 2228: 2224: 2216: 2212: 2202: 2200: 2183: 2179: 2171: 2167: 2158: 2156: 2141: 2134: 2115: 2106: 2096: 2094: 2079: 2075: 2067: 2063: 2054: 2052: 2041: 2037: 2029: 2025: 2017: 2013: 2005: 2001: 1989: 1987: 1972:Schneier, Bruce 1969: 1965: 1957: 1953: 1948: 1943: 1938: 1854: 1794: 1788: 1725: 1712: 1706: 1689: 1683: 1667: 1661: 1641: 1635: 1626: 1620: 1611: 1605: 1585: 1579: 1566: 1560: 1548: 1540:polynomial time 1533: 1527: 1498: 1492:hash function. 1407:is such a MAC. 1391: 1356: 1316: 1310: 1305: 1292:embedded system 1230: 1225: 1224: 1178: 1170: 1100: 1091: 1075: 1069: 1012: 1006: 993: 987: 921: 915: 910: 889: 878: 872: 857:polynomial time 827: 795:random function 778: 772: 763: 758: 754: 748: 740: 732: 706:birthday attack 693: 686: 679: 676: 670: 667: 661: 641: 634: 627: 624: 618: 615: 609: 608:Given an input 584: 578: 572: 551: 453: 448: 445: 444: 430:second preimage 405: 401: 399: 396: 395: 379: 376: 375: 355: 352: 351: 312: 308: 306: 303: 302: 282: 279: 278: 254: 251: 250: 227: 198: 126: 115: 109: 106: 63: 61: 51: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6267: 6257: 6256: 6251: 6246: 6229: 6228: 6226: 6225: 6215: 6204: 6201: 6200: 6198: 6197: 6192: 6187: 6182: 6181: 6180: 6175: 6168:Hash functions 6165: 6160: 6154: 6152: 6151:Related topics 6148: 6147: 6145: 6144: 6139: 6133: 6131: 6125: 6124: 6122: 6121: 6115: 6113: 6109: 6108: 6106: 6105: 6100: 6095: 6090: 6084: 6082: 6078: 6077: 6075: 6074: 6069: 6063: 6061: 6053: 6052: 6050: 6049: 6044: 6039: 6034: 6029: 6024: 6019: 6014: 6008: 6006: 5993: 5992: 5990: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5974: 5969: 5964: 5959: 5954: 5948: 5946: 5940: 5939: 5937: 5936: 5931: 5930: 5929: 5919: 5914: 5909: 5904: 5899: 5894: 5889: 5884: 5879: 5874: 5869: 5864: 5859: 5854: 5849: 5844: 5839: 5833: 5831: 5817: 5816: 5813: 5812: 5810: 5809: 5806: 5805: 5804: 5799: 5794: 5789: 5784: 5779: 5769: 5764: 5759: 5758: 5757: 5752: 5742: 5736: 5734: 5728: 5727: 5725: 5724: 5719: 5714: 5709: 5703: 5701: 5695: 5694: 5692: 5691: 5686: 5681: 5676: 5670: 5668: 5662: 5661: 5659: 5658: 5653: 5648: 5643: 5638: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5617: 5615: 5609: 5608: 5606: 5605: 5600: 5595: 5590: 5585: 5580: 5575: 5570: 5565: 5560: 5555: 5550: 5545: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5520: 5518:BBM Enterprise 5514: 5512: 5506: 5505: 5503: 5502: 5497: 5492: 5487: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5466: 5464: 5458: 5457: 5455: 5454: 5449: 5444: 5439: 5434: 5429: 5424: 5419: 5413: 5411: 5402: 5394: 5393: 5391: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5375: 5370: 5365: 5360: 5350: 5345: 5340: 5335: 5329: 5327: 5321: 5320: 5313: 5312: 5305: 5298: 5290: 5281: 5280: 5278: 5277: 5265: 5253: 5240: 5237: 5236: 5234: 5233: 5228: 5223: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5163: 5158: 5153: 5148: 5143: 5137: 5135: 5134:Related topics 5131: 5130: 5128: 5127: 5122: 5117: 5111: 5109: 5105: 5104: 5101: 5100: 5098: 5097: 5092: 5087: 5082: 5077: 5076: 5075: 5065: 5059: 5057: 5050: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5034: 5029: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5009: 5004: 4999: 4994: 4989: 4984: 4979: 4974: 4969: 4964: 4959: 4954: 4949: 4944: 4939: 4934: 4929: 4924: 4919: 4914: 4909: 4903: 4901: 4895: 4894: 4892: 4891: 4886: 4881: 4876: 4871: 4865: 4863: 4857: 4856: 4854: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4798: 4792: 4790: 4786: 4785: 4783: 4782: 4777: 4772: 4767: 4762: 4757: 4751: 4749: 4743: 4742: 4740: 4739: 4734: 4729: 4724: 4719: 4714: 4709: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4689: 4683: 4681: 4674: 4673: 4671: 4670: 4665: 4660: 4655: 4650: 4645: 4640: 4635: 4630: 4625: 4620: 4614: 4609: 4604: 4599: 4593: 4591: 4588:Proof of stake 4584: 4583: 4580: 4579: 4577: 4576: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4559:Nervos Network 4556: 4551: 4546: 4540: 4538: 4534: 4533: 4531: 4530: 4525: 4519: 4517: 4510: 4509: 4507: 4506: 4500: 4498: 4494: 4493: 4491: 4490: 4485: 4479: 4477: 4470: 4469: 4467: 4466: 4461: 4456: 4451: 4446: 4440: 4438: 4431: 4430: 4428: 4427: 4422: 4415: 4413: 4406: 4405: 4403: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4361: 4359: 4349: 4342: 4341: 4339: 4338: 4333: 4331:Proof of stake 4328: 4326:Proof of space 4323: 4317: 4315: 4308: 4307: 4305: 4304: 4299: 4297:Smart contract 4294: 4289: 4284: 4279: 4274: 4269: 4264: 4259: 4254: 4249: 4244: 4238: 4236: 4232: 4231: 4224: 4223: 4216: 4209: 4201: 4192: 4191: 4188: 4187: 4185: 4184: 4173: 4170: 4169: 4167: 4166: 4161: 4159:Random numbers 4156: 4151: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4111: 4105: 4103: 4099: 4098: 4096: 4095: 4090: 4085: 4083:Garlic routing 4080: 4075: 4070: 4065: 4060: 4055: 4050: 4045: 4040: 4035: 4030: 4025: 4020: 4015: 4010: 4005: 4003:Secure channel 4000: 3994: 3993: 3992: 3981: 3976: 3971: 3966: 3961: 3959:Key stretching 3956: 3951: 3946: 3941: 3936: 3931: 3926: 3925: 3924: 3919: 3914: 3904: 3902:Cryptovirology 3899: 3894: 3889: 3887:Cryptocurrency 3884: 3879: 3874: 3873: 3872: 3862: 3857: 3852: 3846: 3844: 3840: 3839: 3832: 3831: 3824: 3817: 3809: 3802: 3801: 3798: 3797: 3794: 3793: 3791: 3790: 3785: 3780: 3775: 3770: 3765: 3759: 3757: 3753: 3752: 3750: 3749: 3744: 3739: 3734: 3729: 3724: 3719: 3713: 3711: 3707: 3706: 3704: 3703: 3698: 3693: 3688: 3686:Hash collision 3683: 3677: 3675: 3671: 3670: 3668: 3667: 3662: 3657: 3652: 3647: 3642: 3637: 3631: 3629: 3625: 3624: 3622: 3621: 3616: 3611: 3606: 3601: 3596: 3591: 3585: 3583: 3574: 3573: 3571: 3570: 3565: 3560: 3555: 3550: 3545: 3536: 3531: 3526: 3521: 3516: 3510: 3508: 3502: 3501: 3499: 3498: 3495: 3489: 3487: 3479: 3478: 3476: 3475: 3470: 3465: 3460: 3455: 3450: 3445: 3440: 3435: 3430: 3425: 3419: 3417: 3414:key stretching 3408: 3407: 3405: 3404: 3399: 3394: 3389: 3384: 3379: 3374: 3369: 3364: 3359: 3354: 3349: 3344: 3339: 3334: 3329: 3324: 3319: 3314: 3309: 3304: 3299: 3294: 3289: 3284: 3279: 3274: 3269: 3264: 3258: 3256: 3252: 3251: 3249: 3248: 3242: 3237: 3232: 3227: 3221: 3219: 3213: 3212: 3210: 3209: 3204: 3199: 3194: 3188: 3181: 3179: 3175: 3174: 3172: 3171: 3166: 3161: 3155: 3152: 3151: 3140: 3139: 3132: 3125: 3117: 3103: 3102: 3097: 3095:on 2012-12-06. 3084: 3076: 3073:on 2012-12-08. 3052: 3051:External links 3049: 3048: 3047: 3033: 3018: 3012: 2993: 2992: 2975: 2956: 2942: 2917: 2903: 2880: 2866: 2843: 2837: 2822: 2797: 2770: 2756: 2730: 2716: 2695: 2681: 2659: 2657: 2654: 2651: 2650: 2632: 2602: 2572: 2545: 2514: 2495: 2465: 2433: 2418:Yiqun Lisa Yin 2416:Xiaoyun Wang, 2409: 2403: 2377: 2358: 2339: 2327: 2293: 2278: 2266: 2254: 2222: 2210: 2177: 2165: 2132: 2104: 2073: 2061: 2035: 2023: 2011: 2009:, p. 106. 1999: 1963: 1950: 1949: 1947: 1944: 1942: 1939: 1937: 1936: 1931: 1926: 1921: 1916: 1911: 1906: 1901: 1896: 1891: 1886: 1881: 1876: 1871: 1866: 1861: 1855: 1853: 1850: 1810:rainbow tables 1790:Main article: 1787: 1784: 1724: 1721: 1708:Main article: 1705: 1702: 1685:Main article: 1682: 1679: 1663:Main article: 1660: 1657: 1637:Main article: 1634: 1631: 1622:Main article: 1619: 1616: 1607:Main article: 1604: 1601: 1581:Main article: 1578: 1575: 1562:Main article: 1559: 1556: 1547: 1544: 1497: 1494: 1390: 1387: 1355: 1352: 1312:Main article: 1309: 1306: 1304: 1301: 1229: 1226: 1179: 1171: 1169: 1166: 1099: 1096: 1084:Bitcoin mining 1071:Main article: 1068: 1065: 1029:key stretching 1008:Main article: 1005: 1002: 989:Main article: 986: 983: 979:colliding code 955:chain of trust 917:Main article: 914: 911: 909: 906: 888: 885: 826: 823: 710: 709: 698:hash collision 691: 684: 674: 665: 658: 653: 639: 632: 622: 613: 606: 603: 569: 550: 547: 505:fingerprinting 497:hash functions 493:authentication 477: 476: 460: 456: 452: 433: 426: 408: 404: 383: 359: 332: 318: 315: 311: 286: 258: 243:hash algorithm 229: 228: 226: 225: 218: 211: 203: 200: 199: 180: 179: 178:Main standards 175: 174: 164:hash functions 160: 159: 155: 154: 128: 127: 42: 40: 33: 26: 18:Message digest 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6266: 6255: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6245: 6242: 6241: 6239: 6224: 6216: 6214: 6206: 6205: 6202: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6183: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6171: 6170: 6169: 6166: 6164: 6161: 6159: 6156: 6155: 6153: 6149: 6143: 6140: 6138: 6135: 6134: 6132: 6130: 6126: 6120: 6117: 6116: 6114: 6110: 6104: 6101: 6099: 6096: 6094: 6091: 6089: 6086: 6085: 6083: 6079: 6073: 6070: 6068: 6065: 6064: 6062: 6060: 6054: 6048: 6045: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6033: 6030: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6010: 6009: 6007: 6003: 5998: 5994: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5953: 5950: 5949: 5947: 5945: 5941: 5935: 5932: 5928: 5925: 5924: 5923: 5920: 5918: 5915: 5913: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5903: 5900: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5890: 5888: 5885: 5883: 5880: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5860: 5858: 5855: 5853: 5850: 5848: 5845: 5843: 5840: 5838: 5835: 5834: 5832: 5828: 5822: 5818: 5807: 5803: 5800: 5798: 5795: 5793: 5790: 5788: 5785: 5783: 5780: 5778: 5775: 5774: 5773: 5770: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5756: 5753: 5751: 5748: 5747: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5737: 5735: 5733: 5729: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5704: 5702: 5700: 5696: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5671: 5669: 5667: 5663: 5657: 5654: 5652: 5649: 5647: 5644: 5642: 5641:SoftEther VPN 5639: 5637: 5634: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5624: 5622: 5619: 5618: 5616: 5614: 5610: 5604: 5601: 5599: 5596: 5594: 5591: 5589: 5586: 5584: 5581: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5571: 5569: 5566: 5564: 5561: 5559: 5556: 5554: 5551: 5549: 5546: 5544: 5541: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5531: 5529: 5526: 5524: 5523:Bouncy Castle 5521: 5519: 5516: 5515: 5513: 5511: 5510:TLS & SSL 5507: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5491: 5488: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5467: 5465: 5463: 5459: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5440: 5438: 5435: 5433: 5430: 5428: 5425: 5423: 5420: 5418: 5415: 5414: 5412: 5410: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5400:communication 5395: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5361: 5358: 5354: 5351: 5349: 5346: 5344: 5341: 5339: 5336: 5334: 5331: 5330: 5328: 5326: 5325:Email clients 5322: 5318: 5311: 5306: 5304: 5299: 5297: 5292: 5291: 5288: 5276: 5275: 5266: 5264: 5263: 5254: 5252: 5251: 5242: 5241: 5238: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5179: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5167: 5164: 5162: 5159: 5157: 5154: 5152: 5149: 5147: 5144: 5142: 5139: 5138: 5136: 5132: 5126: 5123: 5121: 5118: 5116: 5113: 5112: 5110: 5106: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5086: 5083: 5081: 5080:LocalBitcoins 5078: 5074: 5071: 5070: 5069: 5066: 5064: 5061: 5060: 5058: 5054: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5038: 5035: 5033: 5030: 5028: 5025: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5012:ItBit (Paxos) 5010: 5008: 5005: 5003: 5000: 4998: 4995: 4993: 4990: 4988: 4985: 4983: 4980: 4978: 4975: 4973: 4970: 4968: 4965: 4963: 4960: 4958: 4955: 4953: 4950: 4948: 4945: 4943: 4940: 4938: 4935: 4933: 4930: 4928: 4925: 4923: 4920: 4918: 4915: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4904: 4902: 4900: 4896: 4890: 4887: 4885: 4882: 4880: 4877: 4875: 4872: 4870: 4867: 4866: 4864: 4862: 4858: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4797: 4794: 4793: 4791: 4787: 4781: 4778: 4776: 4773: 4771: 4768: 4766: 4763: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4752: 4750: 4748: 4744: 4738: 4735: 4733: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4718: 4715: 4713: 4710: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4675: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4661: 4659: 4656: 4654: 4651: 4649: 4646: 4644: 4641: 4639: 4636: 4634: 4631: 4629: 4626: 4624: 4621: 4618: 4615: 4613: 4610: 4608: 4605: 4603: 4600: 4598: 4595: 4594: 4592: 4589: 4585: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4562: 4560: 4557: 4555: 4552: 4550: 4547: 4545: 4542: 4541: 4539: 4535: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4521: 4520: 4518: 4515: 4511: 4505: 4502: 4501: 4499: 4497:RandomX-based 4495: 4489: 4486: 4484: 4481: 4480: 4478: 4475: 4471: 4465: 4462: 4460: 4457: 4455: 4452: 4450: 4447: 4445: 4442: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4432: 4426: 4423: 4420: 4417: 4416: 4414: 4411: 4407: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4366: 4363: 4362: 4360: 4357: 4353: 4350: 4347: 4346:Proof of work 4343: 4337: 4336:Proof of work 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4318: 4316: 4313: 4309: 4303: 4300: 4298: 4295: 4293: 4290: 4288: 4285: 4283: 4280: 4278: 4275: 4273: 4270: 4268: 4265: 4263: 4260: 4258: 4255: 4253: 4250: 4248: 4245: 4243: 4240: 4239: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4222: 4217: 4215: 4210: 4208: 4203: 4202: 4199: 4183: 4175: 4174: 4171: 4165: 4164:Steganography 4162: 4160: 4157: 4155: 4152: 4150: 4147: 4145: 4142: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4122: 4120: 4119:Stream cipher 4117: 4115: 4112: 4110: 4107: 4106: 4104: 4100: 4094: 4091: 4089: 4086: 4084: 4081: 4079: 4078:Onion routing 4076: 4074: 4071: 4069: 4066: 4064: 4061: 4059: 4058:Shared secret 4056: 4054: 4051: 4049: 4046: 4044: 4041: 4039: 4036: 4034: 4031: 4029: 4026: 4024: 4021: 4019: 4016: 4014: 4011: 4009: 4006: 4004: 4001: 3998: 3995: 3990: 3987: 3986: 3985: 3982: 3980: 3977: 3975: 3972: 3970: 3967: 3965: 3962: 3960: 3957: 3955: 3952: 3950: 3949:Key generator 3947: 3945: 3942: 3940: 3937: 3935: 3932: 3930: 3927: 3923: 3920: 3918: 3915: 3913: 3910: 3909: 3908: 3907:Hash function 3905: 3903: 3900: 3898: 3895: 3893: 3890: 3888: 3885: 3883: 3882:Cryptanalysis 3880: 3878: 3875: 3871: 3868: 3867: 3866: 3863: 3861: 3858: 3856: 3853: 3851: 3848: 3847: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3830: 3825: 3823: 3818: 3816: 3811: 3810: 3807: 3803: 3789: 3786: 3784: 3781: 3779: 3778:Proof of work 3776: 3774: 3771: 3769: 3766: 3764: 3761: 3760: 3758: 3754: 3748: 3745: 3743: 3740: 3738: 3735: 3733: 3730: 3728: 3725: 3723: 3720: 3718: 3715: 3714: 3712: 3708: 3702: 3699: 3697: 3694: 3692: 3689: 3687: 3684: 3682: 3679: 3678: 3676: 3672: 3666: 3663: 3661: 3658: 3656: 3655:Rainbow table 3653: 3651: 3648: 3646: 3643: 3641: 3638: 3636: 3633: 3632: 3630: 3626: 3620: 3617: 3615: 3612: 3610: 3607: 3605: 3602: 3600: 3597: 3595: 3592: 3590: 3587: 3586: 3584: 3581: 3578:Authenticated 3575: 3569: 3566: 3564: 3561: 3559: 3556: 3554: 3551: 3549: 3546: 3544: 3540: 3537: 3535: 3532: 3530: 3527: 3525: 3522: 3520: 3517: 3515: 3512: 3511: 3509: 3507: 3506:MAC functions 3503: 3496: 3494: 3491: 3490: 3488: 3486: 3480: 3474: 3471: 3469: 3466: 3464: 3461: 3459: 3456: 3454: 3451: 3449: 3446: 3444: 3441: 3439: 3436: 3434: 3431: 3429: 3426: 3424: 3421: 3420: 3418: 3415: 3409: 3403: 3400: 3398: 3395: 3393: 3390: 3388: 3385: 3383: 3380: 3378: 3375: 3373: 3370: 3368: 3365: 3363: 3360: 3358: 3355: 3353: 3350: 3348: 3345: 3343: 3340: 3338: 3335: 3333: 3330: 3328: 3325: 3323: 3320: 3318: 3315: 3313: 3310: 3308: 3305: 3303: 3300: 3298: 3295: 3293: 3290: 3288: 3285: 3283: 3280: 3278: 3275: 3273: 3270: 3268: 3265: 3263: 3260: 3259: 3257: 3253: 3246: 3243: 3241: 3238: 3236: 3233: 3231: 3228: 3226: 3223: 3222: 3220: 3218: 3214: 3208: 3205: 3203: 3200: 3198: 3195: 3193:(compromised) 3192: 3189: 3187:(compromised) 3186: 3183: 3182: 3180: 3176: 3170: 3169:Known attacks 3167: 3165: 3162: 3160: 3157: 3156: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3138: 3133: 3131: 3126: 3124: 3119: 3118: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3101: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3055: 3054: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3030: 3026: 3025: 3019: 3015: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2996: 2995: 2982: 2978: 2976:3-540-22171-9 2972: 2968: 2967: 2962: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2900: 2895: 2890: 2886: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2863: 2858: 2853: 2849: 2844: 2840: 2834: 2830: 2829: 2823: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2794: 2789: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2753: 2748: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2734:Joux, Antoine 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2661: 2660: 2646: 2642: 2636: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2606: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2576: 2560: 2556: 2549: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2518: 2510: 2506: 2499: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2469: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2437: 2430: 2426: 2423: 2419: 2413: 2406: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2381: 2375: 2371: 2368: 2362: 2356: 2352: 2349: 2343: 2336: 2331: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2297: 2290: 2285: 2283: 2275: 2270: 2263: 2262:Mendel et al. 2258: 2240: 2233: 2226: 2219: 2214: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2189: 2181: 2174: 2169: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2139: 2137: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2113: 2111: 2109: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2077: 2070: 2065: 2050: 2046: 2039: 2032: 2027: 2020: 2015: 2008: 2007:Aumasson 2017 2003: 1996: 1986:on 2016-03-16 1985: 1981: 1980:Computerworld 1977: 1973: 1967: 1961:, p. 33. 1960: 1955: 1951: 1935: 1932: 1930: 1927: 1925: 1922: 1920: 1919:Random oracle 1917: 1915: 1914:PGP word list 1912: 1910: 1907: 1905: 1902: 1900: 1897: 1895: 1892: 1890: 1887: 1885: 1882: 1880: 1877: 1875: 1872: 1870: 1867: 1865: 1862: 1860: 1857: 1856: 1849: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1802: 1798: 1793: 1783: 1781: 1777: 1772: 1770: 1765: 1763: 1759: 1753: 1751: 1747: 1746:supercomputer 1741: 1738: 1733: 1731: 1720: 1718: 1711: 1701: 1698: 1694: 1688: 1678: 1676: 1671: 1666: 1656: 1653: 1651: 1645: 1640: 1630: 1625: 1615: 1610: 1600: 1597: 1595: 1590: 1584: 1574: 1571: 1570:Ronald Rivest 1565: 1555: 1553: 1543: 1541: 1536: 1530: 1525: 1521: 1516: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1501:Concatenating 1496:Concatenation 1493: 1491: 1487: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1465:stream cipher 1462: 1458: 1454: 1449: 1447: 1443: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1412:block ciphers 1408: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1396: 1386: 1383: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1351: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1336:length padded 1332: 1330: 1320: 1315: 1300: 1298: 1293: 1289: 1284: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1241: 1239: 1235: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1209: 1205: 1202: 1198: 1193: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1176: 1165: 1161: 1159: 1155: 1154:hash function 1150: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1095: 1089: 1085: 1080: 1074: 1073:Proof of work 1067:Proof-of-work 1064: 1062: 1057: 1052: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1020: 1017: 1011: 1001: 998: 992: 982: 980: 976: 972: 971:non-malicious 968: 964: 960: 956: 952: 948: 944: 940: 936: 932: 930: 926: 920: 905: 903: 898: 894: 884: 881: 875: 870: 866: 862: 858: 855: 851: 846: 844: 840: 836: 831: 822: 820: 816: 812: 807: 804: 800: 799:random oracle 796: 790: 788: 784: 783:concatenation 771: 767: 757: 751: 744: 736: 730: 728: 722: 719: 714: 707: 703: 699: 690: 683: 673: 664: 659: 657: 654: 651: 647: 638: 631: 621: 612: 607: 604: 601: 597: 591: 587: 581: 575: 570: 567: 566: 565: 563: 558: 556: 546: 544: 540: 536: 532: 528: 526: 522: 518: 514: 510: 506: 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 474: 458: 454: 450: 442: 438: 434: 431: 427: 424: 406: 402: 381: 373: 357: 349: 345: 341: 337: 333: 316: 313: 309: 300: 284: 276: 275: 274: 273:application: 272: 271:cryptographic 256: 248: 244: 240: 236: 224: 219: 217: 212: 210: 205: 204: 201: 197: 193: 189: 185: 181: 176: 173: 169: 165: 161: 156: 153: 149: 143: 139: 134: 124: 121: 113: 102: 99: 95: 92: 88: 85: 81: 78: 74: 71: – 70: 66: 65:Find sources: 59: 55: 49: 48: 43:This article 41: 37: 32: 31: 19: 6172: 5997:File systems 5907:Private Disk 5272: 5260: 5248: 5125:Initiative Q 4483:Bitcoin Gold 4375:Counterparty 4370:Bitcoin Cash 4256: 4114:Block cipher 4108: 3954:Key schedule 3944:Key exchange 3934:Kleptography 3911: 3892:Cryptosystem 3836:Cryptography 3143: 3093:the original 3071:the original 3062: 3023: 3003: 2985:. Retrieved 2965: 2925: 2884: 2847: 2827: 2815:. Retrieved 2778: 2737: 2699: 2664: 2635: 2624:. Retrieved 2616:The Register 2615: 2605: 2594:. Retrieved 2586:Ars Technica 2575: 2565:November 25, 2563:. Retrieved 2548: 2536:. Retrieved 2527: 2517: 2509:the original 2498: 2487:. Retrieved 2478: 2468: 2455:. Retrieved 2446: 2436: 2412: 2386: 2380: 2361: 2342: 2330: 2318:. Retrieved 2314:the original 2309: 2296: 2269: 2257: 2246:. Retrieved 2225: 2213: 2201:. Retrieved 2192: 2187: 2180: 2168: 2157:. Retrieved 2148: 2118: 2095:. Retrieved 2087:TechRepublic 2086: 2076: 2064: 2053:. Retrieved 2038: 2026: 2014: 2002: 1994: 1988:. Retrieved 1984:the original 1979: 1966: 1954: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1773: 1766: 1754: 1742: 1734: 1726: 1713: 1690: 1672: 1668: 1654: 1646: 1642: 1627: 1612: 1598: 1586: 1567: 1549: 1534: 1528: 1524:Antoine Joux 1517: 1499: 1450: 1444: 1428:Davies–Meyer 1416:Luby-Rackoff 1409: 1399: 1392: 1384: 1367: 1359: 1357: 1333: 1325: 1285: 1242: 1234:block cipher 1231: 1194: 1180: 1162: 1151: 1139:Magnet links 1124:peer-to-peer 1101: 1076: 1053: 1021: 1013: 994: 970: 947:file sharing 933: 922: 908:Applications 890: 887:Illustration 879: 873: 860: 847: 832: 828: 808: 791: 769: 765: 755: 749: 742: 734: 726: 723: 715: 711: 701: 688: 681: 671: 662: 645: 636: 629: 619: 610: 589: 585: 579: 573: 559: 552: 533:are used in 529: 524: 520: 517:fingerprints 516: 512: 478: 443:strength of 440: 436: 429: 374:strength of 371: 343: 339: 335: 238: 234: 232: 163: 116: 107: 97: 90: 83: 76: 64: 52:Please help 47:verification 44: 6112:Educational 5917:Sentry 2020 5862:DriveSentry 5782:Google Allo 5388:Thunderbird 5226:Token money 5115:Hyperledger 4987:EDX Markets 4851:WhopperCoin 4747:Stablecoins 4102:Mathematics 4093:Mix network 3768:Merkle tree 3756:Utilization 3742:NSA Suite B 2302:Finney, Hal 1879:File fixity 1804:The use of 1801:much time. 1771:) in 2008. 1717:Merkle tree 1360:narrow-pipe 1197:file system 1127:filesharing 1061:precomputed 995:Almost all 535:hash tables 525:hash values 501:hash tables 6238:Categories 6103:NordLocker 6047:Tahoe-LAFS 6037:Rubberhose 5977:RetroShare 5852:Cryptoloop 5847:CrossCrypt 5827:Comparison 5797:TextSecure 5755:ChatSecure 5717:RetroShare 5707:Bitmessage 5646:strongSwan 5432:ChatSecure 5343:Claws Mail 5333:Apple Mail 5146:BitLicense 5090:QuadrigaCX 5073:bankruptcy 5037:ShapeShift 4982:Crypto.com 4869:BitConnect 4821:MobileCoin 4590:currencies 4449:Bitconnect 4444:Auroracoin 4348:currencies 4314:mechanisms 4242:Blockchain 4235:Technology 4053:Ciphertext 4023:Decryption 4018:Encryption 3979:Ransomware 3580:encryption 3357:RadioGatún 3164:Comparison 3043:1012843116 2987:2022-11-30 2817:2017-07-18 2626:2020-11-26 2596:2020-11-23 2489:2017-02-24 2248:2017-07-18 2237:(Report). 2159:2017-07-18 2055:2012-12-07 1990:2016-04-20 1941:References 1889:Hash chain 1846:Unix crypt 1609:RIPEMD-160 1603:RIPEMD-160 1461:RadioGatún 1158:hash table 1118:, use the 1031:– such as 877:steps for 861:difficulty 854:asymptotic 813:and other 678:such that 626:such that 583:such that 549:Properties 523:, or just 344:resistance 299:hash value 80:newspapers 5944:Anonymity 5934:VeraCrypt 5922:TrueCrypt 5912:Scramdisk 5877:FileVault 5842:BitLocker 5837:BestCrypt 5750:Cryptocat 5656:WireGuard 5558:MatrixSSL 5528:BoringSSL 5490:SecureCRT 5452:Profanity 5427:Centericq 5338:Autocrypt 4977:Coincheck 4879:KodakCoin 4727:Shiba Inu 4712:KodakCoin 4702:Chainlink 4628:Injective 4602:Avalanche 4564:Primecoin 4312:Consensus 4043:Plaintext 3497:KDF1/KDF2 3416:functions 3402:Whirlpool 2952:0302-9743 2913:0302-9743 2876:0302-9743 2807:0302-9743 2766:0302-9743 2726:0302-9743 2691:0302-9743 2538:March 29, 2528:HashClash 2457:March 30, 2289:Joux 2004 1946:Citations 1750:Itanium 2 1748:with 256 1618:Whirlpool 1473:keystream 1368:wide-pipe 1283:instead. 1201:directory 1186:retrieval 1147:hash tree 1143:hash list 1131:ed2k link 1112:Mercurial 1016:cleartext 951:mirroring 835:passwords 687:) = hash( 635:) = hash( 521:checksums 509:checksums 437:collision 336:pre-image 314:− 6213:Category 6119:CrypTool 6093:Tresorit 6022:eCryptfs 5982:Ricochet 5882:FreeOTFE 5872:eCryptfs 5857:dm-crypt 5802:WhatsApp 5679:Linphone 5631:Openswan 5598:TeamNote 5583:SChannel 5573:mbed TLS 5553:LibreSSL 5538:cryptlib 5470:Dropbear 5383:Sylpheed 5348:Enigmail 5250:Category 4972:Coinbase 4952:Bitstamp 4932:Bitpanda 4922:bitFlyer 4917:Bitfinex 4841:SafeMoon 4801:Filecoin 4780:USD Coin 4648:Polkadot 4643:Peercoin 4623:Gridcoin 4617:Ethereum 4597:Algorand 4574:Vertcoin 4544:AmbaCoin 4474:Equihash 4464:Litecoin 4459:Dogecoin 4419:Ethereum 4395:Peercoin 4390:Namecoin 4385:MazaCoin 4287:MetaMask 4182:Category 4088:Kademlia 4048:Codetext 3991:(CSPRNG) 3969:Machines 3722:CRYPTREC 3553:Poly1305 3473:yescrypt 3387:Streebog 3267:CubeHash 3247:(winner) 3067:Springer 2981:Archived 2811:Archived 2645:Archived 2620:Archived 2590:Archived 2559:Archived 2532:Archived 2483:Archived 2451:Archived 2425:Archived 2370:Archived 2351:Archived 2239:Archived 2197:Archived 2153:Archived 2121:. NIST. 2097:March 2, 2091:Archived 2049:Archived 1874:CRYPTREC 1852:See also 1589:Capstone 1410:Just as 1116:Monotone 1088:Hashcash 965:such as 949:such as 848:In some 781:denotes 777:, where 747:but not 731:: given 158:Concepts 110:May 2016 6254:Hashing 6223:Commons 6142:BusKill 6137:USBKill 6088:Freenet 5972:Vidalia 5927:History 5902:PGPDisk 5808:SimpleX 5767:Session 5762:Proteus 5636:OpenVPN 5626:Hamachi 5603:wolfSSL 5593:stunnel 5568:OpenSSL 5500:wolfSSH 5480:OpenSSH 5422:BitlBee 5368:Outlook 5363:Kontact 5357:Gpg4win 5262:Commons 5141:Airdrop 5120:IQ.Wiki 5085:Mt. Gox 5056:Defunct 5042:Uniswap 5002:Genesis 4937:Bithumb 4912:Binance 4884:OneCoin 4846:Stellar 4732:The DAO 4722:Polygon 4692:Aventus 4607:Cardano 4400:Titcoin 4365:Bitcoin 4356:SHA-256 3843:General 3628:Attacks 3558:SipHash 3514:CBC-MAC 3448:LM hash 3428:Balloon 3292:HAS-160 2656:Sources 2320:May 25, 2203:18 July 1842:Balloon 1490:SHA-256 1120:sha1sum 981:value. 729:attacks 588:= hash( 513:digital 241:) is a 94:scholar 6195:S/MIME 6042:StegFS 5952:GNUnet 5792:Signal 5740:Matrix 5588:SSLeay 5543:GnuTLS 5495:WinSCP 5447:Kopete 5398:Secure 5095:Thodex 5022:Kucoin 5017:Kraken 4997:Gemini 4967:Circle 4942:BitMEX 4927:Bitkub 4874:Coinye 4836:Ripple 4811:Helium 4775:Tether 4680:tokens 4678:ERC-20 4653:Solana 4612:EOS.IO 4516:-based 4504:Monero 4476:-based 4454:Coinye 4437:-based 4435:Scrypt 4412:-based 4410:Ethash 4358:-based 3964:Keygen 3788:Pepper 3727:NESSIE 3674:Design 3468:scrypt 3463:PBKDF2 3438:Catena 3433:bcrypt 3423:Argon2 3382:Snefru 3377:Shabal 3372:SWIFFT 3352:RIPEMD 3347:N-hash 3322:MASH-2 3317:MASH-1 3302:Kupyna 3262:BLAKE3 3245:Keccak 3230:Grøstl 3207:BLAKE2 3041: 3031: 3010: 2973: 2950: 2940: 2911: 2901: 2874: 2864: 2835: 2805: 2795: 2764: 2754: 2724: 2714: 2689: 2679: 2479:Forbes 2401: 1909:NESSIE 1899:MD5CRK 1838:argon2 1834:scrypt 1830:bcrypt 1826:pbkdf2 1710:BLAKE3 1704:BLAKE3 1697:Argon2 1687:BLAKE2 1681:BLAKE2 1459:, and 1457:Keccak 1432:SHACAL 1277:Keccak 1219:, and 1041:Argon2 1037:scrypt 1033:PBKDF2 803:SWIFFT 555:string 503:, for 96: 89: 82: 75: 67: 6098:Wuala 6072:Qubes 6067:Tails 6012:EncFS 5987:Wickr 5745:OMEMO 5712:Briar 5689:Zfone 5674:Jitsi 5578:BSAFE 5533:Botan 5485:PuTTY 5442:Jitsi 5437:climm 5417:Adium 5063:BTC-e 5047:Upbit 5007:Huobi 4992:eToro 4947:Bitso 4889:Petro 4770:Terra 4717:Minds 4687:Augur 4663:Tezos 4658:Steem 4619:(2.0) 4569:Verge 4537:Other 4528:Petro 4488:Zcash 4421:(1.0) 3999:(PRN) 3582:modes 3458:Makwa 3453:Lyra2 3443:crypt 3392:Tiger 3342:MDC-2 3297:HAVAL 3282:Fugue 3240:Skein 3225:BLAKE 3202:SHA-3 3197:SHA-2 3191:SHA-1 2242:(PDF) 2235:(PDF) 1929:SHA-3 1758:SHA-2 1665:SHA-3 1659:SHA-3 1650:AMD64 1639:SHA-2 1633:SHA-2 1583:SHA-1 1577:SHA-1 1513:SHA-1 1481:SHA-1 1453:Skein 1424:SHA-2 1420:SHA-1 1344:SHA-1 1273:BLAKE 1269:Skein 1265:SHA-3 1261:SHA-2 1257:SHA-1 1145:or a 1133:, an 975:spoof 959:HTTPS 943:SHA-2 941:, or 939:SHA-1 893:Alice 811:CRC32 764:hash( 733:hash( 680:hash( 628:hash( 196:SHA-3 192:SHA-2 188:SHA-1 184:SHA-0 138:SHA-1 101:JSTOR 87:books 6032:PEFS 6027:LUKS 6002:List 5897:LUKS 5892:geli 5887:GBDE 5684:Jami 5666:ZRTP 5651:Tinc 5548:JSSE 5274:List 5027:Kuna 4957:BTCC 4907:Abra 4826:Nano 4816:Luna 4796:Chia 4760:Diem 4737:TRON 4554:IOTA 4549:Firo 4523:Dash 4380:LBRY 4302:Web3 4277:Fork 3783:Salt 3747:CNSA 3614:IAPM 3568:VMAC 3563:UMAC 3548:PMAC 3543:CMAC 3539:OMAC 3534:NMAC 3529:HMAC 3524:GMAC 3493:HKDF 3362:SIMD 3312:Lane 3287:GOST 3272:ECOH 3159:List 3146:and 3039:OCLC 3029:ISBN 3008:ISBN 2971:ISBN 2948:ISSN 2938:ISBN 2909:ISSN 2899:ISBN 2872:ISSN 2862:ISBN 2833:ISBN 2803:ISSN 2793:ISBN 2762:ISSN 2752:ISBN 2722:ISSN 2712:ISBN 2687:ISSN 2677:ISBN 2567:2020 2540:2009 2459:2009 2399:ISBN 2322:2016 2205:2017 2099:2013 1884:HMAC 1518:For 1511:and 1477:SEAL 1440:LION 1438:and 1436:BEAR 1422:and 1405:HMAC 1374:and 1346:and 1259:and 1114:and 1086:and 1056:salt 929:file 787:HMAC 741:len( 739:and 669:and 342:The 73:news 6017:EFS 5967:Tor 5957:I2P 5867:E4M 5732:DRA 5722:Tox 5699:P2P 5613:VPN 5563:NSS 5475:lsh 5462:SSH 5409:OTR 5378:PGP 5373:p≡p 5353:GPG 5068:FTX 5032:OKX 4962:BUX 4831:NEO 4765:Pax 4755:Dai 4707:Kin 4668:TON 4638:Nxt 4633:Kin 4514:X11 3619:OCB 3609:GCM 3604:EAX 3599:CWC 3589:CCM 3519:DAA 3397:VSH 3367:SM3 3337:MD6 3332:MD4 3327:MD2 3307:LSH 3277:FSB 3185:MD5 2930:doi 2889:doi 2852:doi 2783:doi 2742:doi 2704:doi 2669:doi 2391:doi 2123:doi 1564:MD5 1558:MD5 1509:MD5 1348:MD5 1288:AES 1253:MD5 1249:MD4 1199:'s 1135:MD4 1108:Git 1039:or 935:MD5 897:Bob 819:WEP 247:map 245:(a 239:CHF 172:DSA 168:SHA 56:by 6240:: 3235:JH 3065:. 3061:. 3037:. 3002:. 2979:. 2946:. 2936:. 2924:. 2907:. 2897:. 2870:. 2860:. 2809:. 2801:. 2791:. 2777:. 2760:. 2750:. 2720:. 2710:. 2685:. 2675:. 2618:. 2614:. 2588:. 2584:. 2526:. 2481:. 2477:. 2449:. 2445:. 2431:". 2397:, 2308:. 2281:^ 2147:. 2135:^ 2107:^ 2089:. 2085:. 2047:. 1993:. 1978:. 1974:. 1840:, 1836:, 1832:, 1828:, 1732:. 1652:. 1554:. 1542:. 1475:. 1455:, 1442:. 1434:, 1271:, 1255:, 1251:, 1240:. 1215:, 1192:. 1110:, 1051:. 1035:, 937:, 931:. 768:∥ 519:, 515:) 487:, 475:). 428:a 425:); 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