86:. When a foetus is in the womb and is not receiving sufficient nutrition, it can adapt to prioritize organ growth and increased metabolic efficiency to prepare itself for life in an energy deficient environment. Postnatally, when given the correct nutrition, babies exhibit ‘catch up growth’, potentially leading to obesity and other related complications. Studies based around restricting animals food intake throughout gestation have discovered that a reduction of just 30% of normal intake can cause low birth weight and increase sensitivity to high-fat-diet induced obesity.
64:
144:, and found hypermethylation of LEP in the placenta of those born to overly nourished mothers. This hypermethylation has been found to cause changes in the levels of circulating Leptin, as well as to leptin sensitivity and the development of neural circuits involved in the control of homeostasis which causes the higher risk of metabolic disease.
195:
developing in offspring is significantly higher in offspring where the mother was diagnosed with Type II diabetes before pregnancy rather than after. In addition, the age at which offspring are diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes is significantly younger in offspring exposed to maternal diabetes/GDM than
147:
Upon investigation it was found that a mother who was obese before conception was likely to have a higher level of placental LEP than the placenta of a mother of a healthy weight. One strategy for overcoming obesity is the use of gastric bypass and other such surgeries, while this does not entirely
22:
refers to the long-term physiological and metabolic effects that an offspring's prenatal and postnatal environments have on them. Perinatal nutrition has been identified as a significant factor in determining an offspring's likelihood of it being predisposed to developing
151:
Paternal overnutrition can also have a detrimental effect and new-borns have shown changes in methylation of DNA generally, with substantial hypomethylation at the gene
Insulin-like Growth factor 2 (IGF2). However, this topic is much less studied than maternal nutrition.
148:
alleviate the risk of altered metabolic imprinting it has been found that siblings born post maternal surgery are less likely to have as high body fat percentages than over nutrition as siblings born before the surgery.
780:
Dunford AR, Sangster JM (December 2017). "Maternal and paternal periconceptional nutrition as an indicator of offspring metabolic syndrome risk in later life through epigenetic imprinting: A systematic review".
341:
Contreras M, Sacks DA, Bowling FG, Cowley DM, Liley H, McIntyre HD, Tudehope DI, et al. (HAPO Study
Cooperative Research Group.) (July 2002). "The Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome (HAPO) Study".
54:
is not able and the foetus has to make its own. As a result, if a mother is hyperglycaemic the foetus is likely to be hyperinsulinaemic which leads to it having increased levels of growth and adiposity.
191:
Although the mechanisms are still largely unknown, foetus exposure to GDM and maternal diabetes has been shown to lead to lifelong metabolic complications because of metabolic imprinting. The risk of
116:
Maternal overnutrition can have detrimental effects on the health of the offspring later in life. This area is less well studied and understood but some progress has been made in identifying specific
50:
meaning maternal hyperglycaemia is associated with foetal hyperglycaemia. Despite maternal glucose being able to cross the blood-placental barrier, maternal
89:
In animal models, intrauterine undernutrition has been shown to be associated with hypertension later in life. This is because the formation of the
180:. This increase in insulin resistance and following increase in insulin secretion ensures that the foetus develops a normal glucose tolerance.
819:
Burlina S, Dalfrà MG, Lapolla A (February 2019). "Short- and long-term consequences for offspring exposed to maternal diabetes: a review".
728:"Impact of Early Nutrition, Physical Activity and Sleep on the Fetal Programming of Disease in the Pregnancy: A Narrative Review"
96:
More extreme prenatal conditions such as famine have been shown to have effects on the neurodevelopment of a foetus. After the
242:
188:
do not secrete enough insulin to adopt to the insulin resistance triggered by pregnancy, which leads to mild hyperglycaemia.
93:
is inhibited, which decreases filtration and flow rate through the nephrons, leading to increased blood pressure.
862:
McIntyre HD, Catalano P, Zhang C, Desoye G, Mathiesen ER, Damm P (July 2019). "Gestational diabetes mellitus".
566:"Metabolic imprinting, programming and epigenetics - a review of present priorities and future opportunities"
276:
Lau C, Rogers JM (December 2004). "Embryonic and fetal programming of physiological disorders in adulthood".
105:
97:
476:"Metabolic imprinting: critical impact of the perinatal environment on the regulation of energy homeostasis"
70:
Maternal undernutrition has been linked with low birth weight and also a number of diseases, including
647:"Erratum: Neurodevelopmental disorders after prenatal famine: The story of the Dutch Famine Study".
104:
was significantly higher in those conceived at the height of the famine, as was the prevalence of
47:
71:
24:
676:"Effects of maternal nutrition on the expression of genomic imprinted genes in ovine fetuses"
911:
181:
8:
916:
615:"Neurodevelopmental disorders after prenatal famine: The story of the Dutch Famine Study"
564:
Hanley B, Dijane J, Fewtrell M, Grynberg A, Hummel S, Junien C, et al. (July 2010).
480:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
887:
844:
754:
727:
700:
675:
660:
631:
614:
595:
525:"The obesity epidemic: metabolic imprinting on genetically susceptible neural circuits"
500:
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451:
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253:
218:
177:
169:
137:
355:
891:
879:
836:
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443:
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238:
848:
599:
455:
371:
871:
828:
790:
749:
739:
695:
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674:
Duan JE, Zhang M, Flock K, Seesi SA, Mandoiu I, Jones A, et al. (2018-08-03).
656:
626:
577:
536:
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435:
398:
351:
320:
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230:
832:
691:
197:
192:
129:
32:
324:
63:
875:
794:
582:
565:
426:
Freinkel N (December 1980). "Banting
Lecture 1980. Of pregnancy and progeny".
905:
101:
726:
Moreno-Fernandez J, Ochoa JJ, Lopez-Frias M, Diaz-Castro J (December 2020).
439:
883:
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763:
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709:
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412:
363:
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79:
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447:
541:
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during the second and third trimester of pregnancy cause an increase in
744:
289:
234:
185:
39:
173:
161:
83:
311:
Donnelly L, Campling G (March 2014). "Functions of the placenta".
16:
Long-term metabolic effects of environment on fetuses and neonates
125:
120:
that are affected. Studies have investigated hypermethylation of
51:
43:
28:
141:
133:
90:
75:
563:
196:
those who are not. It is suggested that this is a result of
861:
340:
117:
100:
of the winter of 1944–1945, it was found that the risk of
121:
721:
719:
136:(LEP) as a possible gene which is altered via metabolic
821:
The
Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine
716:
818:
278:
Birth
Defects Research Part C: Embryo Today: Reviews
673:
344:
International
Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics
903:
336:
334:
310:
155:
814:
812:
779:
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773:
612:
331:
216:
809:
770:
613:Susser E, Hoek HW, Brown A (February 1998).
469:
467:
465:
606:
384:
269:
210:
132:. More specific studies have investigated
111:
58:
753:
743:
699:
630:
581:
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462:
402:
313:Anaesthesia & Intensive Care Medicine
275:
252:
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160:An increase in certain hormones such as
62:
904:
557:
522:
473:
172:, human placental growth hormone and
182:Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM)
13:
661:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009597
632:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009439
14:
928:
783:Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome
385:Oken E, Gillman MW (April 2003).
219:"Metabolic imprinting in obesity"
649:American Journal of Epidemiology
619:American Journal of Epidemiology
570:The British Journal of Nutrition
140:in response to overnutrition in
864:Nature Reviews. Disease Primers
855:
667:
516:
419:
378:
304:
217:Sullivan EL, Grove KL (2010).
128:mothers to those of a healthy
1:
833:10.1080/14767058.2017.1387893
785:. SI: Online Supplement - 2.
692:10.1080/15592294.2018.1503489
356:10.1016/s0020-7292(02)00092-9
203:
156:Maternal/gestational diabetes
124:and found it to be higher in
7:
325:10.1016/j.mpaic.2014.01.004
200:during foetal development.
10:
933:
387:"Fetal origins of obesity"
35:amongst other conditions.
876:10.1038/s41572-019-0098-8
795:10.1016/j.dsx.2017.04.021
583:10.1017/s0007114510003338
440:10.2337/diab.29.12.1023
112:Maternal over-nutrition
59:Maternal undernutrition
48:blood-placental barrier
789:(Suppl 2): S655–S662.
523:Levin BE (July 2000).
492:10.1098/rstb.2006.1851
474:Levin BE (July 2006).
72:Cardiovascular disease
67:
25:cardiovascular disease
66:
106:schizoid personality
20:Metabolic imprinting
542:10.1038/oby.2000.41
404:10.1038/oby.2003.69
745:10.3390/nu12123900
290:10.1002/bdrc.20029
223:Forum of Nutrition
178:insulin resistance
168:, human placental
68:
486:(1471): 1107–21.
244:978-3-8055-9300-7
235:10.1159/000264406
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529:Obesity Research
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391:Obesity Research
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193:Type II diabetes
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724:
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672:
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434:(12): 1023–35.
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332:
309:
305:
274:
270:
245:
215:
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198:DNA methylation
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61:
33:type 2 diabetes
17:
12:
11:
5:
930:
920:
919:
914:
898:
897:
854:
827:(4): 687–694.
808:
769:
715:
686:(8): 793–807.
666:
605:
556:
515:
461:
418:
397:(4): 496–506.
377:
330:
303:
268:
243:
208:
207:
205:
202:
157:
154:
113:
110:
60:
57:
46:can cross the
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9:
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4:
3:
2:
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638:
633:
628:
624:
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609:
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584:
579:
576:(S1): S1-25.
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530:
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519:
511:
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284:(4): 300–12.
283:
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102:schizophrenia
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94:
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45:
41:
36:
34:
30:
26:
21:
867:
863:
857:
824:
820:
786:
782:
738:(12): 3900.
735:
731:
683:
679:
669:
655:(11): 1135.
652:
648:
625:(3): 213–6.
622:
618:
608:
573:
569:
559:
535:(4): 342–7.
532:
528:
518:
483:
479:
431:
427:
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394:
390:
380:
350:(1): 69–77.
347:
343:
319:(3): 136–9.
316:
312:
306:
281:
277:
271:
226:
222:
212:
190:
184:arises when
166:progesterone
159:
150:
146:
115:
98:Dutch Famine
95:
88:
80:hypertension
69:
37:
19:
18:
912:Epigenetics
680:Epigenetics
229:: 186–194.
42:, maternal
917:Metabolism
906:Categories
204:References
186:beta cells
138:imprinting
892:195893390
870:(1): 47.
732:Nutrients
162:oestrogen
40:pregnancy
884:31296866
849:23067468
841:28969466
803:28533070
764:33419354
710:30051747
600:10008335
592:20929595
551:10933311
510:16815795
456:27125111
428:Diabetes
413:12690076
372:68389809
364:12113977
298:15662709
263:19955786
174:cortisol
170:lactogen
84:diabetes
755:7766505
701:6224220
641:9482494
501:1642705
448:7002669
254:3255478
91:kidneys
52:insulin
44:glucose
38:During
29:obesity
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134:Leptin
76:stroke
31:, and
888:S2CID
845:S2CID
596:S2CID
452:S2CID
368:S2CID
142:utero
126:obese
118:genes
880:PMID
837:PMID
799:PMID
760:PMID
706:PMID
637:PMID
588:PMID
547:PMID
506:PMID
444:PMID
409:PMID
360:PMID
294:PMID
259:PMID
239:ISBN
82:and
872:doi
829:doi
791:doi
750:PMC
740:doi
696:PMC
688:doi
657:doi
653:148
627:doi
623:147
578:doi
574:104
537:doi
496:PMC
488:doi
484:361
436:doi
399:doi
352:doi
321:doi
286:doi
249:PMC
231:doi
130:BMI
122:DNA
908::
886:.
878:.
866:.
843:.
835:.
825:32
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