1736:
as hyperlenses. It has been shown that even imperfect negative index flat lenses assisted with plasmon injection scheme can enable subdiffraction imaging of objects which is otherwise not possible due to the losses and noise. Although plasmon injection scheme was originally conceptualized for plasmonic metamaterials, the concept is general and applicable to all types electromagnetic modes. The main idea of the scheme is the coherent superposition of the lossy modes in the metamaterial with an appropriately structured external auxiliary field. This auxiliary field accounts for the losses in the metamaterial, hence effectively reduces the losses experienced by the signal beam or object field in the case of a metamaterial lens. The plasmon injection scheme can be implemented either physically or equivalently through deconvolution post-processing method. However, the physical implementation has shown to be more effective than the deconvolution. Physical construction of convolution and selective amplification of the spatial frequencies within a narrow bandwidth are the keys to the physical implementation of the plasmon injection scheme. This loss compensation scheme is ideally suited especially for metamaterial lenses since it does not require gain medium, nonlinearity, or any interaction with phonons. Experimental demonstration of the plasmon injection scheme has not yet been shown partly because the theory is rather new.
1492:. Indeed, no such material exists naturally and construction of the required metamaterials is non-trivial. Furthermore, it was shown that the parameters of the material are extremely sensitive (the index must equal −1); small deviations make the subwavelength resolution unobservable. Due to the resonant nature of metamaterials, on which many (proposed) implementations of superlenses depend, metamaterials are highly dispersive. The sensitive nature of the superlens to the material parameters causes superlenses based on metamaterials to have a limited usable frequency range. This initial theoretical superlens design consisted of a metamaterial that compensated for wave decay and reconstructs images in the near field. Both propagating and evanescent waves could contribute to the resolution of the image.
1496:
with a negative permeability at the frequency of visible light is difficult. Metals are then a good alternative as they have negative permittivity (but not negative permeability). Pendry suggested using silver due to its relatively low loss at the predicted wavelength of operation (356 nm). In 2003 Pendry's theory was first experimentally demonstrated at RF/microwave frequencies. In 2005, two independent groups verified Pendry's lens at UV range, both using thin layers of silver illuminated with UV light to produce "photographs" of objects smaller than the wavelength. Negative refraction of visible light was experimentally verified in an
1745:
1452:
1976:
the gratings has been used as the ultimate resolution test, as there is a concrete limit for the ability of a conventional (far field) lens to image a periodic object – in this case the image is a diffraction grating. For normal-incidence illumination the minimum spatial period that can be resolved with wavelength λ through a medium with refractive index n is λ/n. Zero contrast would therefore be expected in any (conventional) far-field image below this limit, no matter how good the imaging resist might be.
139:
413:
614:
and evanescent components, which advance parallel to the interface. As both the propagating and the smaller evanescent waves advance in a direction parallel to the medium interface, evanescent waves decay in the direction of propagation. Ordinary (positive index) optical elements can refocus the propagating components, but the exponentially decaying inhomogeneous components are always lost, leading to the diffraction limit for focusing to an image.
1889:
Objects also emit evanescent waves that carry details of the object, but are unobtainable with conventional optics. Such evanescent waves decay exponentially and thus never become part of the image resolution, an optics threshold known as the diffraction limit. Breaking this diffraction limit, and capturing evanescent waves are critical to the creation of a 100-percent perfect representation of an object.
2538:
2145:, proteins, DNA molecules and many other samples are hard to observe with a regular (optical) microscope. The lens previously demonstrated with negative refractive index material, a thin planar superlens, does not provide magnification beyond the diffraction limit of conventional microscopes. Therefore, images smaller than the conventional diffraction limit will still be unavailable.
428:. Subwavelength imaging can be defined as optical microscopy with the ability to see details of an object or organism below the wavelength of visible light (see discussion in the above sections). In other words, to have the capability to observe, in real time, below 200 nanometers. Optical microscopy is a non-invasive technique and technology because everyday light is the
2254:
radiation, and evanescent waves to construct the image. Super-resolution imaging was demonstrated over a distance of 6 times the wavelength (λ), in the far-field, with a resolution of at least λ/4. This is a significant improvement over previous research and demonstration of other near field and far field imaging, including nanohole arrays discussed below.
1543:
The imaging performance of such isotropic negative dielectric constant slab lenses were also analyzed with respect to the slab material and thickness. Subwavelength imaging opportunities with planar uniaxial anisotropic lenses, where the dielectric tensor components are of the opposite sign, have also been studied as a function of the structure parameters.
322:
1980:
periods above the diffraction limit (243 nm) are well resolved. The key results of this experiment are super-imaging of the sub-diffraction limit for 200 nm and 170 nm periods. In both cases the gratings are resolved, even though the contrast is diminished, but this gives experimental confirmation of Pendry's superlensing proposal.
1926:
goal of a 100-percent perfect image will persist. However, many scientists believe that a true perfect lens is not possible because there will always be some energy absorption loss as the waves pass through any known material. In comparison, the superlens image is substantially better than the one created without the silver superlens.
168:
2301:
themselves to other nanomaterials, the dots' optical properties change in unique ways in each case. Furthermore, evidence was discovered that quantum dot optical properties are altered as the nanoscale environment changes, offering greater possibility of using quantum dots to sense the local biochemical environment inside cells.
2285:
thousands of times smaller than a cell, have a variety of applications. One type of nanoparticle called a quantum dot glows when exposed to light. These semiconductor particles can be coated with organic materials, which are tailored to be attracted to specific proteins within the part of a cell a scientist wishes to examine.
2307:
The abstract from the related published research paper states (in part): Results are presented regarding the dynamic fluorescence properties of bioconjugated nanocrystals or quantum dots (QDs) in different chemical and physical environments. A variety of QD samples was prepared and compared: isolated
2292:
The research focused primarily on characterizing quantum dot properties, contrasting them with other imaging techniques. In one example, quantum dots were designed to target a specific type of human red blood cell protein that forms part of a network structure in the cell's inner membrane. When these
2114:
In 2010, a spherical hyperlens for two dimensional imaging at visible frequencies was demonstrated experimentally. The spherical hyperlens was based on silver and titanium oxide in alternating layers and had strong anisotropic hyperbolic dispersion allowing super-resolution with visible spectrum. The
2086:
Upon illumination, the scattered evanescent field from the object enters the anisotropic medium and propagates along the radial direction. Combined with another effect of the metamaterial, a magnified image at the outer diffraction limit-boundary of the hyperlens occurs. Once the magnified feature is
1877:
In 2005, a coherent, high-resolution image was produced (based on the 2003 results). A thinner slab of silver (35 nm) was better for sub–diffraction-limited imaging, which results in one-sixth of the illumination wavelength. This type of lens was used to compensate for wave decay and reconstruct
1542:
succeeded with a near field superlens. Other groups followed. Two developments in superlens research were reported in 2008. In the second case, a metamaterial was formed from silver nanowires which were electrochemically deposited in porous aluminium oxide. The material exhibited negative refraction.
642:
The performance limitation of conventional lenses is due to the diffraction limit. Following Pendry (2000), the diffraction limit can be understood as follows. Consider an object and a lens placed along the z-axis so the rays from the object are traveling in the +z direction. The field emanating from
613:
The original problem of the perfect lens: The general expansion of an EM field emanating from a source consists of both propagating waves and near-field or evanescent waves. An example of a 2-D line source with an electric field which has S-polarization will have plane waves consisting of propagating
2300:
Research efforts revealed that as the membrane proteins bunch up, the quantum dots attached to them are induced to cluster themselves and glow more brightly, permitting real time observation as the clustering of proteins progresses. More broadly, the research discovered that when quantum dots attach
2222:
For example, other point sources were similarly displaced from x' to x' + δx', from x^ to x^ + δx^, and from x^^ to x^^ + δx^^, and so on. Instead of functioning as a light concentrator, this performs the function of conventional lens imaging with a 1 to 1 correspondence, albeit with a point source.
2221:
is displayed a few tens of wavelengths from the array, on the other side of the array (the image plane). Also this type of array exhibited a 1 to 1 linear displacement, – from the location of the point source to its respective, parallel, location on the image plane. In other words, from x to x + δx.
1988:
Gradient Index (GRIN) – The larger range of material response available in metamaterials should lead to improved GRIN lens design. In particular, since the permittivity and permeability of a metamaterial can be adjusted independently, metamaterial GRIN lenses can presumably be better matched to free
1975:
The image fidelity is much improved over earlier results of the previous experimental lens stack. Imaging of sub-micrometre features has been greatly improved by using thinner silver and spacer layers, and by reducing the surface roughness of the lens stack. The ability of the silver lenses to image
1735:
An effective approach for the compensation of losses in metamaterials, called plasmon injection scheme, has been recently proposed. The plasmon injection scheme has been applied theoretically to imperfect negative index flat lenses with reasonable material losses and in the presence of noise as well
377:
radiation. As implied by its description, the far field escapes beyond the object. It is then easily captured and manipulated by a conventional glass lens. However, useful (nanometer-sized) resolution details are not observed, because they are hidden in the near field. They remain localized, staying
1550:
frequencies (Nielsen, R. B.; 2010). Furthermore, as dispersive materials, these are limited to functioning at a single wavelength. Proposed solutions are metal–dielectric composites (MDCs) and multilayer lens structures. The multi-layer superlens appears to have better subwavelength resolution than
1495:
Pendry also suggested that a lens having only one negative parameter would form an approximate superlens, provided that the distances involved are also very small and provided that the source polarization is appropriate. For visible light this is a useful substitute, since engineering metamaterials
621:
on the order of one wavelength due to the so-called diffraction limit. This limit hinders imaging very small objects, such as individual atoms, which are much smaller than the wavelength of visible light. A superlens is able to beat the diffraction limit. An example is the initial lens described by
577:
combined a transparent grating having 50 nm lines and spaces (the "metamaterial") with a conventional microscope immersion objective. The resulting "superlens" resolved a silicon sample also having 50 nm lines and spaces, far beyond the classical diffraction limit imposed by the illumination having
2166:
This began with a proposal by Pendry, in 2003. Magnifying the image required a new design concept in which the surface of the negatively refracting lens is curved. One cylinder touches another cylinder, resulting in a curved cylindrical lens which reproduced the contents of the smaller cylinder in
2148:
Another approach achieving super-resolution at visible wavelength is recently developed spherical hyperlens based on silver and titanium oxide alternating layers. It has strong anisotropic hyperbolic dispersion allowing super-resolution with converting evanescent waves into propagating waves. This
2110:
The optical hyperlens shows a notable potential for applications, such as real-time biomolecular imaging and nanolithography. Such a lens could be used to watch cellular processes that have been impossible to see. Conversely, it could be used to project an image with extremely fine features onto a
2094:
In a control experiment, the line pair object was imaged without the hyperlens. The line pair could not be resolved because of the diffraction limit of the (optical) aperture was limited to 260 nm. Because the hyperlens supports the propagation of a very broad spectrum of wave vectors, it can
1944:
In
February 2004, an electromagnetic radiation focusing system, based on a negative index metamaterial plate, accomplished subwavelength imaging in the microwave domain. This showed that obtaining separated images at much less than the wavelength of light is possible. Also, in 2004, a silver layer
1925:
The key to the superlens is its ability to significantly enhance and recover the evanescent waves that carry information at very small scales. This enables imaging well below the diffraction limit. No lens is yet able to completely reconstitute all the evanescent waves emitted by an object, so the
1921:
By designing the thin metal slab so that the surface current oscillations (the surface plasmons) match the evanescent waves from the object, the superlens is able to substantially enhance the amplitude of the field. Superlensing results from the enhancement of evanescent waves by surface plasmons.
1892:
In addition, conventional optical materials suffer a diffraction limit because only the propagating components are transmitted (by the optical material) from a light source. The non-propagating components, the evanescent waves, are not transmitted. Moreover, lenses that improve image resolution by
1888:
Conventional lenses, whether man-made or natural, create images by capturing the propagating light waves all objects emit and then bending them. The angle of the bend is determined by the index of refraction and has always been positive until the fabrication of artificial negative index materials.
2090:
The hyperlens magnifies the object by transforming the scattered evanescent waves into propagating waves in the anisotropic medium, projecting a spatial resolution high-resolution image into the far field. This type of metamaterials-based lens, paired with a conventional optical lens is therefore
2052:
With conventional optical lenses, the far field is a limit that is too distant for evanescent waves to arrive intact. When imaging an object, this limits the optical resolution of lenses to the order of the wavelength of light. These non-propagating waves carry detailed information in the form of
1901:
also has limitations when compared to the potential of a working superlens. Scanning electron and atomic force microscopes are now used to capture detail down to a few nanometers. However, such microscopes create images by scanning objects point by point, which means they are typically limited to
1979:
The (super) lens stack here results in a computational result of a diffraction-limited resolution of 243 nm. Gratings with periods from 500 nm down to 170 nm are imaged, with the depth of the modulation in the resist reducing as the grating period reduces. All of the gratings with
1806:
Simply put, as the field pattern is transferred from the input to the output face of a slab, so the image information is transported across each layer. This was experimentally demonstrated. To test the two-dimensional imaging performance of the material, an antenna was constructed from a pair of
1714:
This study agrees that any deviation from conditions where ε=μ=−1 results in the normal, conventional, imperfect image that degrades exponentially i.e., the diffraction limit. The perfect lens solution in the absence of losses is again, not practical, and can lead to paradoxical interpretations.
2288:
Notably, quantum dots last longer than many organic dyes and fluorescent proteins that were previously used to illuminate the interiors of cells. They also have the advantage of monitoring changes in cellular processes while most high-resolution techniques like electron microscopy only provide
2253:
The metamaterial nanolens was constructed of millions of nanowires at 20 nanometers in diameter. These were precisely aligned and a packaged configuration was applied. The lens is able to depict a clear, high-resolution image of nano-sized objects because it uses both normal propagating EM
1632:
demonstrated that Pendry's theory behind the perfect lens was not exactly correct. The analysis of the focusing of the evanescent spectrum (equations 13–21 in reference) was flawed. In addition, this applies to only one (theoretical) instance, and that is one particular medium that is lossless,
1917:
and infrared regime provided the realization of a possible metamaterial superlens. However, in the near field, the electric and magnetic responses of materials are decoupled. Therefore, for transverse magnetic (TM) waves, only the permittivity needed to be considered. Noble metals, then become
1905:
With current optical microscopes, scientists can only make out relatively large structures within a cell, such as its nucleus and mitochondria. With a superlens, optical microscopes could one day reveal the movements of individual proteins traveling along the microtubules that make up a cell's
1726:
is possible with current technologies. Negative refractive indices have been demonstrated in structured metamaterials. Such materials can be engineered to have tunable material parameters, and so achieve the optimal conditions. Losses up to microwave frequencies can be minimized in structures
2284:
A joint research team, working at the
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), has discovered a method of using nanoparticles to illuminate the cellular interior to reveal these slow processes. Nanoparticles,
2157:
By 2008 the diffraction limit has been surpassed and lateral imaging resolutions of 20 to 50 nm have been achieved by several "super-resolution" far-field microscopy techniques, including stimulated emission depletion (STED) and its related RESOLFT (reversible saturable optically linear
2280:
When observing the complex processes in a living cell, significant processes (changes) or details are easy to overlook. This can more easily occur when watching changes that take a long time to unfold and require high-spatial-resolution imaging. However, recent research offers a solution to
2177:
In 2007, a superlens utilizing coordinate transformation was again the subject. However, in addition to image transfer other useful operations were discussed; translation, rotation, mirroring and inversion as well as the superlens effect. Furthermore, elements that perform magnification are
1811:
tuned to 21.5 MHz, was positioned on top of it. The material does indeed act as an image transfer device for the magnetic field. The shape of the antenna is faithfully reproduced in the output plane, both in the distribution of the peak intensity, and in the "valleys" that bound the M.
1672:
at the time (2001), the DNG slab acts like a converter from a pulsed cylindrical wave to a pulsed beam. Furthermore, in reality (in practice), a DNG medium must be and is dispersive and lossy, which can have either desirable or undesirable effects, depending on the research or application.
1558:
While the evolution of nanofabrication techniques continues to push the limits in fabrication of nanostructures, surface roughness remains an inevitable source of concern in the design of nano-photonic devices. The impact of this surface roughness on the effective dielectric constants and
1906:
skeleton, the researchers said. Optical microscopes can capture an entire frame with a single snapshot in a fraction of a second. With superlenses this opens up nanoscale imaging to living materials, which can help biologists better understand cell structure and function in real time.
2296:
Because the clustering mechanism is not well understood, it was decided to examine it with the quantum dots. If a technique could be developed to visualize the clustering, then the progress of a malaria infection could be understood, which has several distinct developmental stages.
2106:
lens. That lens will exhibit three-dimensional capability. Near-field optical microscopy uses a tip to scan an object. In contrast, this optical hyperlens magnifies an image that is sub-diffraction-limited. The magnified sub-diffraction image is then projected into the far field.
1616:, and their refractive index is −1 relative to the surrounding medium. Theoretically, this would be a breakthrough in that the optical version resolves objects as minuscule as nanometers across. Pendry predicted that Double negative metamaterials (DNG) with a refractive index of
378:
much closer to the light emitting object, unable to travel, and unable to be captured by the conventional lens. Controlling the near field radiation, for high resolution, can be accomplished with a new class of materials not easily obtained in nature. These are unlike familiar
51:
that limits the fineness of their resolution depending on the illumination wavelength and the numerical aperture (NA) of the objective lens. Many lens designs have been proposed that go beyond the diffraction limit in some way, but constraints and obstacles face each of them.
2293:
proteins cluster together in a healthy cell, the network provides mechanical flexibility to the cell so it can squeeze through narrow capillaries and other tight spaces. But when the cell gets infected with the malaria parasite, the structure of the network protein changes.
104:, which is also limited because these use conventional lenses. Hence, the principles governing a superlens show that it has potential for imaging DNA molecules, cellular protein processes, and aiding in the manufacture of even smaller computer chips and microelectronics.
2178:
described, which are free from geometric aberrations, on both the input and output sides while utilizing free space sourcing (rather than waveguide). These magnifying elements also operate in the near and far field, transferring the image from near field to far field.
2920:
2091:
able to reveal patterns too small to be discerned with an ordinary optical microscope. In one experiment, the lens was able to distinguish two 35-nanometer lines etched 150 nanometers apart. Without the metamaterials, the microscope showed only one thick line.
1472:. However, if the interface is between a material with a positive index of refraction and another material with a negative index of refraction, the wave will appear on the same side of the normal. Pendry's idea of a perfect lens is a flat material where
240:, which tabulates to 200 nanometers. Therefore, conventional lenses, which literally construct an image of an object by using "ordinary" light waves, discard information that produces very fine, and minuscule details of the object that are contained in
845:
1575:) lenses. Pendry proposed that a thin slab of negative refractive metamaterial might overcome known problems with common lenses to achieve a "perfect" lens that would focus the entire spectrum, both the propagating as well as the evanescent spectra.
486:
in use. A photon is the minimum unit of light. While previously thought to be physically impossible, subwavelength imaging has been made possible through the development of metamaterials. This is generally accomplished using a layer of metal such as
5988:
Milton, Graeme W.; Nicorovici, Nicolae-Alexandru P.; McPhedran, Ross C.; Podolskiy, Viktor A. (2005-12-08). "A proof of superlensing in the quasistatic regime, and limitations of superlenses in this regime due to anomalous localized resonance".
1426:
2158:
fluorescent transitions) microscopy; saturated structured illumination microscopy (SSIM) ; stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM); photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM); and other methods using similar principles.
1025:
1760:"μ" an index of refraction "n" is derived. The index of refraction determines how light is bent on traversing from one material to another. In 2003, it was suggested that a metamaterial constructed with alternating, parallel, layers of
2001:
Imaging was experimentally demonstrated in the far field, taking the next step after near-field experiments. The key element is termed as a far-field superlens (FSL) which consists of a conventional superlens and a nanoscale coupler.
1873:
occurs, under the appropriate conditions. This demonstration provided direct evidence that the foundation of superlensing is solid, and suggested the path that will enable the observation of superlensing at optical wavelengths.
1249:
300:
Live biological cells in particular generally lack sufficient contrast to be studied successfully, because the internal structures of the cell are mostly colorless and transparent. The most common way to increase contrast is to
2271:
Theoretically it appears possible to transport a complex electromagnetic image through a tiny subwavelength hole with diameter considerably smaller than the diameter of the image, without losing the subwavelength details.
1997:
In 2005, a group proposed a theoretical way to overcome the near-field limitation using a new device termed a far-field superlens (FSL), which is a properly designed periodically corrugated metallic slab-based superlens.
585:
demonstrated negative index metamaterial came into existence in 2000–2001. The effectiveness of electron-beam lithography was also being researched at the beginning of the new millennium for nanometer-scale applications.
565:
features having dimensions much smaller than that of the vacuum wavelength of the exposing light. In 1981 two different techniques of contact imaging of planar (flat) submicroscopic metal patterns with blue light (400
2262:
2009–12. The light transmission properties of holey metal films in the metamaterial limit, where the unit length of the periodic structures is much smaller than the operating wavelength, are analyzed theoretically.
1186:
components of the wave, which contain information about the high-frequency (small-scale) features of the object being imaged. The highest resolution that can be obtained can be expressed in terms of the wavelength:
2010:
An approach is presented for subwavelength focusing of microwaves using both a time-reversal mirror placed in the far field and a random distribution of scatterers placed in the near field of the focusing point.
1952:
In early 2005, feature resolution was achieved with a different silver layer. Though this was not an actual image, it was intended. Dense feature resolution down to 250 nm was produced in a 50 nm thick
1807:
anti-parallel wires in the shape of the letter M. This generated a line of magnetic flux, so providing a characteristic field pattern for imaging. It was placed horizontally, and the material, consisting of 271
1142:
2229:
of conventional lenses can be reliably produced. Notable applications for this technology arise when conventional optics is not suitable for the task at hand. For example, this technology is better suited for
2087:
larger than (beyond) the diffraction limit, it can then be imaged with a conventional optical microscope, thus demonstrating magnification and projection of a sub-diffraction-limited image into the far field.
1455:
a) When a wave strikes a positive refraction index material from a vacuum. b) When a wave strikes a negative-refraction-index material from a vacuum. c) When an object is placed in front of an object with
597:
of light. Its derivative technologies such as evanescent near-field lithography, near-field interference lithography, and phase-shifting mask lithography were developed to overcome the diffraction limit.
1731:
elements. Furthermore, consideration of alternate structures may lead to configurations of left-handed materials that can achieve subwavelength focusing. Such structures were being studied at the time.
4134:
1850:
In 2003, a group of researchers showed that optical evanescent waves would be enhanced as they passed through a silver metamaterial lens. This was referred to as a diffraction-free lens. Although a
2019:
Once capability for near-field imaging was demonstrated, the next step was to project a near-field image into the far-field. This concept, including technique and materials, is dubbed "hyperlens".
1291:
2115:
resolution was 160 nm in the visible spectrum. It will enable biological imaging at the cellular and DNA level, with a strong benefit of magnifying sub-diffraction resolution into far-field.
2542:
1968:
Building on this prior research, super resolution was achieved at optical frequencies using a 50 nm flat silver layer. The capability of resolving an image beyond the diffraction limit, for
1718:
It was determined that although resonant surface plasmons are undesirable for imaging, these turn out to be essential for recovery of decaying evanescent waves. This analysis discovered that
171:
Schematic depictions and images of commonly used metallic nanoprobes that can be used to see a sample in nanometer resolution. Notice that the tips of the three nanoprobes are 100 nanometers.
2281:
scrutinize activities that occur over hours or even days inside cells, potentially solving many of the mysteries associated with molecular-scale events occurring in these tiny organisms.
2225:
However, resolution of more complicated structures can be achieved as constructions of multiple point sources. The fine details, and brighter image, that are normally associated with the
1571:
is determined by and limited to the wavelength of light. Around the year 2000, a slab of negative index metamaterial was theorized to create a lens with capabilities beyond conventional (
1488:
would do the job. The experimental realization of such a lens took, however, some more time, because it is not that easy to fabricate metamaterials with both negative permittivity and
2304:
Some concerns remain over toxicity and other properties. However, the overall findings indicate that quantum dots could be a valuable tool to investigate dynamic cellular processes.
119:. In contrast, a superlens captures propagating light waves and waves that stay on top of the surface of an object, which, alternatively, can be studied as both the far field and the
1680:
showed it to be in error while using the lossless, dispersionless DNG as the subject. This analysis mathematically demonstrated that subtleties of evanescent waves, restriction to a
64:
reported that conventional lenses are incapable of capturing some fine details of any given image. The superlens is intended to capture such details. This limitation of conventional
1476:=−1. Such a lens allows near-field rays, which normally decay due to the diffraction limit, to focus once within the lens and once outside the lens, allowing subwavelength imaging.
518:
in each instance. This compensates for the swiftly decaying evanescent waves. Prior to metamaterials, numerous other techniques had been proposed and even demonstrated for creating
4534:
Shivanand; Ludwig, Alon; Webb, K.J. (2012). "Impact of surface roughness on the effective dielectric constants and subwavelength image resolution of metal–insulator stack lenses".
2141:. Advancement in spatial resolution is key. Conventional optical microscopy is limited by a diffraction limit which is on the order of 200 nanometers (wavelength). This means that
1949:
near-field imaging. Super high resolution was not achieved, but this was intended. The silver layer was too thick to allow significant enhancements of evanescent field components.
2072:
direction of the layered metamaterial. On a microscopic level the large spatial frequency waves propagate through coupled surface plasmon excitations between the metallic layers.
1684:
slab and absorption had led to inconsistencies and divergencies that contradict the basic mathematical properties of scattered wave fields. For example, this analysis stated that
416:
The "Electrocomposeur" was an electron-beam lithography machine (electron microscope) designed for mask writing. It was developed in the early 1970s and deployed in the mid 1970s.
191:, image production and resolution depends on the length of a wave of visible light. However, with a superlens, this limitation may be removed, and a new class of image generated.
661:
1609:
imaging that compensates for wave decay and reconstructs images in the near-field. In addition, both propagating and evanescent waves contribute to the resolution of the image.
2206:
to form subwavelength spots (hot spots). The distances for the spots was a few tens of wavelengths on the other side of the array, or, in other words, opposite the side of the
443:) patterns that were too small to be observed with an ordinary optical microscope. This has potential applications not only for observing a whole living cell, or for observing
2167:
magnified but undistorted form outside the larger cylinder. Coordinate transformations are required to curve the original perfect lens into the cylindrical, lens structure.
1803:) – close to 21.3 MHz – is determined by the construction of the roll. Damping is achieved by the inherent resistance of the layers and the lossy part of permittivity.
175:
An image of an object can be defined as a tangible or visible representation of the features of that object. A requirement for image formation is interaction with fields of
1443:
is oriented perpendicularly to the direction of growth. For traveling waves inside a perfect lens, the
Poynting vector points in direction opposite to the phase velocity.
915:
5206:
5049:
A. Ghoshroy, W. Adams, X. Zhang, and D. O. Guney, Active plasmon injection scheme for subdiffraction imaging with imperfect negative index flat lens, arXiv: 1706.03886
3319:
2083:(at 35 nanometers thick) deposited on a half-cylindrical cavity, and fabricated on a quartz substrate. The radial and tangential permittivities have different signs.
1695:
A third analysis of Pendry's perfect lens concept, published in 2003, used the recent demonstration of negative refraction at microwave frequencies as confirming the
1318:
1989:
space. The GRIN lens is constructed by using a slab of NIM with a variable index of refraction in the y direction, perpendicular to the direction of propagation z.
1172:
1059:
923:
875:
6246:
Casse, B. D. F.; Lu, W. T.; Huang, Y. J.; Gultepe, E.; Menon, L.; Sridhar, S. (2010). "Super-resolution imaging using a three-dimensional metamaterials nanolens".
2057:, and overcome limitations. Therefore, projecting image details, normally limited by diffraction into the far field does require recovery of the evanescent waves.
1703:
that a planar DNG metamaterial would refocus the far field radiation of a point source. However, the perfect lens would require significantly different values for
2289:
images of cellular processes frozen at one moment. Using quantum dots, cellular processes involving the dynamic motions of proteins, are observable (elucidated).
1823:
are largely decoupled. This allows for nearly independent manipulation of the electric field with the permittivity and the magnetic field with the permeability.
6479:
4786:
4994:
Adams, W.; Sadatgol, M.; Zhang, X.; Guney, D. O. (2016). "Bringing the 'perfect lens' into focus by near-perfect compensation of losses without gain media".
4173:
6598:" – A lens able to focus 10 times more intensely than any conventional design could significantly enhance wireless power transmission and photolithography (
593:
Advanced deep UV photolithography can now offer sub-100 nm resolution, yet the minimum feature size and spacing between patterns are determined by the
6560:
1193:
1620:, can act, at least in principle, as a "perfect lens" allowing imaging resolution which is limited not by the wavelength, but rather by material quality.
5064:"Analytical description of inverse filter emulating the plasmon injection loss compensation scheme and implementation for ultrahigh-resolution hyperlens"
2469:
1881:
Objects were imaged as small as 40 nm across. In 2005 the imaging resolution limit for optical microscopes was at about one tenth the diameter of a
6435:
1518:
In 2004, the first superlens with a negative refractive index provided resolution three times better than the diffraction limit and was demonstrated at
1965:), the study noted that resolution improvements could be expected for imaging through silver lenses, rather than another method of near field imaging.
581:
Since at least 1998 near field optical lithography was designed to create nanometer-scale features. Research on this technology continued as the first
5338:
4586:
2134:
In 2007 researchers demonstrated super imaging using materials, which create negative refractive index and lensing is achieved in the visible range.
499:. There is a subtle interplay between propagating waves, evanescent waves, near field imaging and far field imaging discussed in the sections below.
2149:
method is non-fluorescence based super-resolution imaging, which results in real-time imaging without any reconstruction of images and information.
1842:. So, the field pattern should be transferred from the input to the output face of a slab of material without degradation of the image information.
1435:, so with proper lens thickness, all components of the angular spectrum can be transmitted through the lens undistorted. There are no problems with
432:. Imaging below the optical limit in optical microscopy (subwavelength) can be engineered for the cellular level, and nanometer level in principle.
4930:
Sadatgol, M.; Ozdemir, S. K.; Yang, L.; Guney, D. O. (2015). "Plasmon injection to compensate and control losses in negative index metamaterials".
2576:
2111:
photoresist as a first step in photolithography, a process used to make computer chips. The hyperlens also has applications for DVD technology.
2246:
In 2010, a nano-wire array prototype, described as a three-dimensional (3D) metamaterial-nanolens, consisting of bulk nanowires deposited in a
400:, obtains its properties from its artificially larger structure. This has resulted in novel properties, and novel responses, which allow for
5744:
574:
2717:
617:
A superlens is a lens which is capable of subwavelength imaging, allowing for magnification of near field rays. Conventional lenses have a
1067:
6553:
6148:
1649:
However, the final intuitive result of this theory that both the propagating and evanescent waves are focused, resulting in a converging
1551:
the single layer superlens. Losses are less of a concern with the multi-layer system, but so far it appears to be impractical because of
5656:
Wang, Junxia; Yang Xu
Hongsheng Chen; Zhang, Baile (2012). "Ultraviolet dielectric hyperlens with layered graphene and boron nitride".
1865:
surfaces. However, the use of surface plasmons to reconstruct evanescent components was not tried until Pendry's recent proposal (see "
313:, apparent structural details that are caused by the processing of the specimen and are thus not a legitimate feature of the specimen.
6574:
2853:
1830:. Therefore, the transverse (perpendicular) components of the EM field which radiate the material, that is the wavevector components k
1756:
Pendry's theoretical lens was designed to focus both propagating waves and the near-field evanescent waves. From permittivity "ε" and
570:) were demonstrated. One demonstration resulted in an image resolution of 100 nm and the other a resolution of 50 to 70 nm.
115:. These are waves that travel from a light source or an object to a lens, or the human eye. This can alternatively be studied as the
4756:
3374:
6595:
3991:
Zhang, Yong; Fluegel, B.; Mascarenhas, A. (2003). "Total
Negative Refraction in Real Crystals for Ballistic Electrons and Light".
3163:
6293:"Light transmission properties of holey metal films in the metamaterial limit: effective medium theory and subwavelength imaging"
1507:
It was discovered that a simple superlens design for microwaves could use an array of parallel conducting wires. This structure
1692:, is always present in practice, and absorption tends to transform amplified waves into decaying ones inside this medium (DNG).
1668:, Pendry's perfect lens effect cannot be realized. As a result, the perfect lens effect does not exist in general. According to
5256:
Lagarkov, A. N.; V. N. Kissel (2004-02-18). "Near-Perfect
Imaging in a Focusing System Based on a Left-Handed-Material Plate".
4499:
A.V. Kildishev, W. Cai, U.K. Chettiar, H.-K. Yuan, A.K. Sarychev, V.P. Drachev, V.M. Shalaev, J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 23, 423 (2006)
2124:
1854:, high-resolution, image was not intended, nor achieved, regeneration of the evanescent field was experimentally demonstrated.
1752:
which behaves as a magnetic faceplate, transferring a magnetic field distribution faithfully from the input to the output face.
1685:
1661:
527:
6394:"Probing dynamic fluorescence properties of single and clustered quantum dots toward quantitative biomedical imaging of cells"
5821:
Rho, Junsuk; Ye, Ziliang; Xiong, Yi; Yin, Xiaobo; Liu, Zhaowei; Choi, Hyeunseok; Bartal, Guy; Zhang, Xiang (1 December 2010).
2181:
The cylindrical magnifying superlens was experimentally demonstrated in 2007 by two groups, Liu et al. and
Smolyaninov et al.
6542:
6493:
4077:
Grbic, A.; Eleftheriades, G. V. (2004). "Overcoming the
Diffraction Limit with a Planar Left-handed Transmission-line Lens".
3644:
3214:
3169:
6584:
6528:
6514:
5239:
5171:
4723:
1508:
1257:
6392:
Kang, Hyeong-Gon; Tokumasu, Fuyuki; Clarke, Matthew; Zhou, Zhenping; Tang, Jianyong; Nguyen, Tinh; Hwang, Jeeseong (2010).
3352:
4453:
Liu, Huikan; Shivanand; Webb, K.J. (2008). "Subwavelength imaging opportunities with planar uniaxial anisotropic lenses".
3038:
Savo, S.; Andreone, A.; Di
Gennaro, E. (2009). "Superlensing properties of one-dimensional dielectric photonic crystals".
80:
cannot be resolved with the highest powered conventional microscopes. This limitation extends to the minute processes of
6457:
6214:
1460:=−1, light from it is refracted so it focuses once inside the lens and once outside. This allows subwavelength imaging.
2170:
This was followed by a 36-page conceptual and mathematical proof in 2005, that the cylindrical superlens works in the
354:
to the width of a pencil used to draw the ordinary images. The limit intrudes in all kinds of ways. For example, the
6089:
Tsang, Mankei; Psaltis, Demetri (2008). "Magnifying perfect lens and superlens design by coordinate transformation".
5543:
Jacob, Z.; Alekseyev, L.; Narimanov, E. (2005). "Optical
Hyperlens: Far-field imaging beyond the diffraction limit".
3012:
2650:
6476:
4837:
4409:
Shivanand; Liu, Huikan; Webb, K.J. (2008). "Imaging performance of an isotropic negative dielectric constant slab".
3940:
Fang, Nicholas; Lee, H; Sun, C; Zhang, X (2005). "Sub–Diffraction-Limited Optical Imaging with a Silver Superlens".
3230:
Synge, E.H. (1928). "A suggested method for extending the microscopic resolution into the ultramicroscopic region".
6667:
5490:
Geoffroy, Lerosey; et al. (2007-02-27). "Focusing Beyond the Diffraction Limit with Far-Field Time Reversal".
2918:, Dennis Gabor, "Improvements in or relating to optical systems composed of lenticules", published 1941
605:
proposed using a metamaterial lens to achieve nanometer-scaled imaging for focusing below the wavelength of light.
482:
technique which allows visualization of features on the viewed object which are smaller than the wavelength of the
5395:"Theory of the transmission properties of an optical far-field superlens for imaging beyond the diffraction limit"
350:
simply because it interacts with various wavelengths of light. At the same time, the wavelength of light can be
1878:
images in the near-field. Prior attempts to create a working superlens used a slab of silver that was too thick.
1578:
A slab of silver was proposed as the metamaterial. More specifically, such silver thin film can be regarded as a
1489:
6462:
4864:
Shelby, R. A.; Smith, D. R.; Schultz, S. (2001). "Experimental Verification of a Negative Index of Refraction".
1484:
Superlens construction was at one time thought to be impossible. In 2000, Pendry claimed that a simple slab of
4661:
Smolyaninov, Igor I.; Hung, YJ; Davis, CC (2007-03-27). "Magnifying Superlens in the Visible Frequency Range".
4133:
Nielsen, R. B.; Thoreson, M. D.; Chen, W.; Kristensen, A.; Hvam, J. M.; Shalaev, V. M.; Boltasseva, A. (2010).
4042:
Belov, Pavel; Simovski, Constantin (2005). "Canalization of subwavelength images by electromagnetic crystals".
1885:. With the silver superlens this results in a resolution of one hundredth of the diameter of a red blood cell.
1699:
of the fundamental concept of the perfect lens. In addition, this demonstration was thought to be experimental
6625:
4293:
Valentine, J.; et al. (2008). "Three-dimensional optical metamaterial with a negative refractive index".
4190:
Fang, N.; Lee, H; Sun, C; Zhang, X (2005). "Sub-Diffraction-Limited Optical Imaging with a Silver Superlens".
2882:
1673:
Consequently, Pendry's perfect lens effect is inaccessible with any metamaterial designed to be a DNG medium.
1665:
5931:
840:{\displaystyle E(x,y,z,t)=\sum _{k_{x},k_{y}}A(k_{x},k_{y})e^{i\left(k_{z}z+k_{y}y+k_{x}x-\omega t\right)},}
5605:
5369:
4635:
2512:
2347:
2137:
Continual improvements in optical microscopy are needed to keep up with the progress in nanotechnology and
1601:
Therefore, a type of lens was proposed, consisting of a metal film metamaterial. When illuminated near its
209:
combined with optical microscopy are beginning to allow increased feature resolution (see sections below).
6606:
3199:
1719:
1591:
1579:
519:
436:
5302:; Melville, David O. S. (2005-01-20). "Imaging through planar silver lenses in the optical near field".
244:. These dimensions are less than 200 nanometers. For this reason, conventional optical systems, such as
6443:
2507:
1512:
3284:
Smith, H.I. (1974). "Fabrication techniques for surface-acoustic-wave and thin-film optical devices".
2037:
In February 2018, a mid-infrared (~5–25 μm) hyperlens was introduced, made from a variably doped
2915:
2777:
Kawata, S.; Inouye, Y.; Verma, P. (2009). "Plasmonics for near-field nano-imaging and superlensing".
2625:
1897:
are limited by the availability of high-index materials, and point by point subwavelength imaging of
1808:
1749:
542:
515:
366:
194:
5772:
4888:
4370:
6662:
3372:
Fischer, U. Ch.; Zingsheim, H. P. (1981). "Submicroscopic pattern replication with visible light".
2327:
1870:
1722:
has a significant effect on the recovery of types of evanescent components. In addition, achieving
17:
5801:
3796:(2006). "Veselago's lens consisting of left-handed materials with arbitrary index of refraction".
2935:
1559:
subwavelength image resolution of multilayer metal–insulator stack lenses has also been studied.
228:, half way in between, is around 500 nanometers. Microscopy takes into account parameters such as
6215:"Northeastern physicists develop 3D metamaterial nanolens that achieves super-resolution imaging"
5606:"Far-field subdiffraction optical microscopy using metamaterial crystals: Theory and simulations"
5214:
4794:
4241:
Jeppesen, C.; Nielsen, R. B.; Boltasseva, A.; Xiao, S.; Mortensen, N. A.; Kristensen, A. (2009).
4079:
3591:
3523:
Fang, N.; et al. (2005). "Sub–Diffraction-Limited Optical Imaging with a Silver Superlens".
3465:
3286:
2745:
2584:
2435:
2389:
2367:
2352:
1744:
1612:
Pendry suggested that left-handed slabs allow "perfect imaging" if they are completely lossless,
880:
648:
644:
587:
523:
268:
1653:
within the slab and another convergence (focal point) beyond the slab turned out to be correct.
1421:{\displaystyle k'_{z}=-{\sqrt {{\frac {\omega ^{2}}{c^{2}}}-\left(k_{x}^{2}+k_{y}^{2}\right)}}.}
6657:
6567:
5767:
5394:
4883:
4365:
4346:
Yao, J.; et al. (2008). "Optical Negative Refraction in Bulk Metamaterials of Nanowires".
2462:
2362:
2322:
2235:
2044:
The capability of a metamaterial-hyperlens for sub-diffraction-limited imaging is shown below.
1969:
1436:
6187:
2936:"Image Formation by Induced Local Interactions: Examples Employing Nuclear Magnetic Resonance"
1020:{\displaystyle k_{z}={\sqrt {{\frac {\omega ^{2}}{c^{2}}}-\left(k_{x}^{2}+k_{y}^{2}\right)}}.}
6469:
3589:
Garcia, N.; Nieto-Vesperinas, M. (2002). "Left-Handed Materials Do Not Make a Perfect Lens".
2517:
2404:
2399:
2372:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2060:
In essence steps leading up to this investigation and demonstration was the employment of an
1862:
1757:
1497:
1465:
631:
362:
that are smaller than the wavelength of the laser. This limits the storage capacity of DVDs.
310:
5872:"Three-Dimensional Super-Resolution Imaging by Stochastic Optical Reconstruction Microscopy"
5116:"Metamaterial endoscope for magnetic field transfer: near field imaging with magnetic wires"
6345:
6304:
6255:
6163:
6108:
6045:
5998:
5946:
5883:
5834:
5759:
5690:
5620:
5562:
5501:
5454:
5409:
5353:
5311:
5265:
5223:
5129:
5075:
5013:
4949:
4875:
4813:
4680:
4603:
4544:
4463:
4419:
4357:
4304:
4257:
4199:
4149:
4088:
4051:
4000:
3949:
3904:
3805:
3746:
3683:
3600:
3534:
3474:
3422:
3383:
3336:
3119:
3059:
2949:
2864:
2788:
2729:
2665:
2593:
2394:
2384:
1708:
1587:
1485:
1150:
1037:
853:
201:. Optical microscopy, on the other hand cannot, being limited to some value just above 200
143:
5823:"Spherical hyperlens for two-dimensional sub-diffractional imaging at visible frequencies"
3457:
1869:" above). By studying films of varying thickness it has been noted that a rapidly growing
526:, is given credit for conceiving and developing the idea for what would ultimately become
8:
6317:
6292:
3793:
3789:
2226:
2171:
2079:
optical hyperlens. The hyperlens consisted of a curved periodic stack of thin silver and
2065:
1939:
1914:
1898:
1894:
1851:
1789:
1689:
1657:
1531:
538:
444:
429:
421:
6349:
6308:
6259:
6167:
6112:
6049:
6002:
5950:
5887:
5838:
5763:
5694:
5679:"Ultra low-loss super-resolution with extremely anisotropic semiconductor metamaterials"
5624:
5566:
5505:
5458:
5413:
5357:
5315:
5269:
5227:
5133:
5079:
5017:
4953:
4879:
4817:
4760:
4684:
4607:
4548:
4467:
4423:
4361:
4308:
4261:
4242:
4203:
4153:
4092:
4055:
4004:
3953:
3908:
3809:
3750:
3687:
3604:
3538:
3478:
3426:
3387:
3340:
3123:
3063:
2953:
2792:
2733:
2669:
2597:
236:
of the observed material. This combination defines the resolution cutoff, or microscopy
6575:
Initial page describes first demonstration of negative refraction in a natural material
6124:
6098:
6071:
6014:
5904:
5871:
5793:
5657:
5586:
5552:
5525:
5029:
5003:
4973:
4939:
4909:
4829:
4803:
4704:
4670:
4627:
4522:
E. Shamonina, V.A. Kalinin, K.H. Ringhofer, L. Solymar, Electron. Lett. 37, 1243 (2001)
4391:
4328:
4223:
4165:
4112:
4024:
3973:
3770:
3736:
3709:
3624:
3558:
3174:
3083:
3049:
2965:
2617:
2054:
1613:
618:
562:
401:
374:
302:
188:
147:
120:
100:
continue to be manufactured at progressively smaller scales. This requires specialized
69:
48:
1918:
natural selections for superlensing because negative permittivity is easily achieved.
1857:
By 2003 it was known for decades that evanescent waves could be enhanced by producing
557:
substrate. The shared technological goals of the metamaterial lens and the variety of
6413:
6361:
6179:
6063:
6018:
5964:
5909:
5852:
5785:
5578:
5517:
5492:
5472:
5281:
5147:
5033:
4965:
4901:
4866:
4696:
4619:
4594:
4560:
4479:
4435:
4383:
4348:
4320:
4275:
4215:
4104:
4016:
3965:
3922:
3856:
3762:
3701:
3616:
3550:
3525:
3438:
3210:
3137:
3075:
2823:
2681:
2609:
2005:
1910:
1769:
1586:. Through a conventional lens the phase remains consistent, but the evanescent waves
1523:
1451:
1244:{\displaystyle k_{\text{max}}\approx {\frac {\omega }{c}}={\frac {2\pi }{\lambda }},}
1183:
594:
590:
was shown to have desirable advantages for nanometer-scaled research and technology.
546:
496:
439:
lens coupled with a conventional optical lens could manipulate visible light to see (
420:
This has led to the desire to view live biological cell interactions in a real time,
383:
339:
309:, but often this involves killing and fixing the sample. Staining may also introduce
213:
198:
151:
44:
6075:
5590:
5529:
5323:
4833:
4708:
4631:
4395:
4169:
4116:
4028:
3774:
3713:
3628:
2621:
167:
6451:
6405:
6357:
6353:
6312:
6271:
6263:
6171:
6128:
6116:
6053:
6006:
5954:
5899:
5891:
5842:
5797:
5777:
5708:
5698:
5636:
5628:
5570:
5509:
5462:
5443:"Experimental studies of far-field superlens for sub-diffractional optical imaging"
5417:
5361:
5319:
5273:
5231:
5137:
5083:
5021:
4977:
4961:
4957:
4913:
4893:
4821:
4688:
4611:
4552:
4471:
4427:
4375:
4332:
4312:
4295:
4265:
4227:
4207:
4157:
4096:
4059:
4008:
3977:
3957:
3912:
3846:
3837:
3813:
3754:
3691:
3608:
3562:
3542:
3482:
3430:
3391:
3344:
3295:
3266:
3239:
3127:
3110:
3087:
3067:
2969:
2957:
2940:
2897:
2832:
2796:
2779:
2737:
2673:
2601:
2502:
2357:
2207:
2068:
dispersion. The effect was such that ordinary evanescent waves propagate along the
1723:
1602:
1572:
554:
460:
440:
276:
233:
221:
180:
108:
97:
81:
6539:
6490:
5277:
4100:
4012:
3648:
3612:
3209:. Progress In Optics series. Vol. 50. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 142–150.
2986:
2837:
2818:
2308:
individual QDs, QD aggregates, and QDs conjugated to other nanoscale materials...
6652:
6626:"New, revolutionary metalens focuses entire visible spectrum into a single point"
6588:
6581:
6546:
6532:
6525:
6518:
6511:
6497:
6483:
5299:
5181:
4733:
3888:
3817:
3410:
2038:
1728:
1606:
1598:. Furthermore, as the evanescent waves are now amplified, the phase is reversed.
1539:
1535:
1440:
479:
464:
241:
101:
3696:
3671:
2901:
2605:
2217:
nanoholes in a metal screen. More than concentrating hot spots, an image of the
1034:
direction. All of the components of the angular spectrum of the image for which
6439:
6120:
5632:
5120:
5025:
4615:
4536:
4455:
4411:
4063:
3040:
2409:
2195:
1935:
1882:
1820:
1816:
1650:
1552:
1534:. Instead, a thin silver film was used to enhance the evanescent modes through
1469:
627:
622:
Pendry, which uses a slab of material with a negative index of refraction as a
249:
202:
89:
6333:
4161:
3270:
3243:
2880:
2213:
In June 2008, this was followed by the demonstrated capability of an array of
1696:
6646:
5176:
4787:"Limitations on subdiffraction imaging with a negative refractive index slab"
4728:
3442:
2881:
Anantha, S. Ramakrishna; J.B. Pendry; M.C.K. Wiltshire; W.J. Stewart (2003).
2800:
2492:
2487:
2214:
2027:
1858:
1785:
1773:
1583:
1582:. As light moves away (propagates) from the source, it acquires an arbitrary
1567:
When the world is observed through conventional lenses, the sharpness of the
475:
468:
396:
331:
229:
138:
93:
65:
36:
6222:
5895:
5781:
5513:
5421:
5088:
5063:
4897:
4692:
4379:
4211:
3961:
3546:
3411:"Super-resolution through illumination by diffraction-born evanescent waves"
2210:. The quasi-periodic array of nanoholes functioned as a light concentrator.
1902:
non-living samples, and image capture times can take up to several minutes.
1815:
A consistent characteristic of the very near (evanescent) field is that the
6417:
6365:
6183:
6067:
6010:
5968:
5913:
5856:
5789:
5713:
5582:
5521:
5476:
5285:
5151:
4969:
4905:
4700:
4623:
4564:
4483:
4439:
4387:
4324:
4279:
4219:
4108:
4020:
3969:
3926:
3917:
3892:
3860:
3766:
3705:
3620:
3554:
3327:
3299:
3141:
3079:
3017:
2685:
2613:
2218:
2138:
1958:
1796:
1772:. It is an effective medium made up of a multi-layer stack, which exhibits
1704:
261:
127:
85:
77:
40:
6276:
2689:
6561:
Optimizing the superlens: Manipulating geometry to enhance the resolution
6058:
6033:
5959:
5927:
5574:
5467:
5442:
5142:
5115:
4808:
4587:"Wave propagation in media having negative permittivity and permeability"
4556:
4475:
4431:
4270:
3758:
3071:
2497:
2099:
2061:
2023:
1954:
1827:
1309:
1296:
A superlens overcomes the limit. A Pendry-type superlens has an index of
602:
558:
534:
293:
282:
6618:
Ultraviolet dielectric hyperlens with layered graphene and boron nitride
5745:"Far-Field Optical Hyperlens Magnifying Sub-Diffraction-Limited Objects"
5557:
4675:
4316:
3741:
3257:
Synge, E.H. (1932). "An application of piezoelectricity to microscopy".
2069:
1061:
is real are transmitted and re-focused by an ordinary lens. However, if
412:
130:
to describe something quite different: a compound lenslet array system.
5847:
5822:
3458:"Light-coupling masks for lensless, sub-wavelength optical lithography"
2247:
2203:
1946:
652:
582:
495:
a few atoms thick, which acts as a superlens, or by means of 1D and 2D
456:
370:
245:
237:
206:
184:
61:
6267:
6175:
5703:
5678:
5641:
5365:
5339:"Simulation and testing of a graded negative index of refraction lens"
5235:
4825:
4135:"Toward superlensing with metal–dielectric composites and multilayers"
3348:
2741:
2161:
1300:=−1 (ε=−1, μ=−1), and in such a material, transport of energy in the +
1030:
Only the positive square root is taken as the energy is going in the +
5677:
Hart, William S; Bak, Alexey O; Phillips, Chris C (7 February 2018).
4513:
Z. Jacob, L.V. Alekseyev, E. Narimanov, Opt. Express 14, 8247 (2006)
3486:
3434:
3395:
3195:
2961:
2677:
2266:
2257:
2103:
2026:(1200–1400 THz) hyperlens can be created using alternating layers of
1595:
1519:
1175:
637:
623:
567:
391:
351:
286:
155:
116:
6409:
6393:
6290:
3851:
3832:
3132:
3105:
1137:{\displaystyle k_{x}^{2}+k_{y}^{2}>{\frac {\omega ^{2}}{c^{2}}},}
365:
Thus, when an object emits or reflects light there are two types of
6398:
Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Nanomedicine and Nanobiotechnology
5008:
4944:
2152:
2095:
magnify arbitrary objects with sub-diffraction-limited resolution.
2031:
1700:
1629:
1547:
176:
6617:
6504:
6103:
5987:
5820:
5662:
3313:
3311:
3309:
3054:
2006:
Focusing beyond the diffraction limit with far-field time reversal
6568:
Now you see it, now you don't: cloaking device is not just sci-fi
4496:
W. Cai, D.A. Genov, V.M. Shalaev, Phys. Rev. B 72, 193101 (2005)
3727:
Podolskiy, V.A.; Narimanov, EE (2005). "Near-sighted superlens".
2080:
2076:
2075:
In 2007, just such an anisotropic metamaterial was employed as a
1681:
1677:
1439:, as evanescent waves carry none in the direction of growth: the
483:
448:
404:
that surpass the limitations imposed by the wavelength of light.
343:
253:
6465:– "The Perfect Lens: Resolution Beyond the Limits of Wavelength'
4292:
537:
fabrication techniques were presented. These proposals included
514:) are able to reconstruct nanometer sized images by producing a
224:
has a range that extends from 390 nanometers to 750 nanometers.
47:. The diffraction limit is a feature of conventional lenses and
6291:
Jung, J. and; L. Martín-Moreno; F J García-Vidal (2009-12-09).
5655:
5336:
4519:
B. Wood, J.B. Pendry, D.P. Tsai, Phys. Rev. B 74, 115116 (2006)
3306:
2129:
1546:
The superlens has not yet been demonstrated at visible or near-
1468:
of two materials, the wave appears on the opposite side of the
492:
347:
6031:
3787:
285:
limits the object, or cell's, resolution to approximately 200
4784:
4240:
4132:
2231:
2199:
2142:
1845:
1633:
nondispersive and the constituent parameters are defined as:
1568:
1174:
becomes imaginary, and the wave is an evanescent wave, whose
379:
355:
257:
225:
217:
73:
5113:
4502:
L. Shi, L. Gao, S. He, B. Li, Phys. Rev. B 76, 045116 (2007)
3584:
3582:
3580:
3578:
3576:
3574:
3572:
1623:
4715:
2047:
1962:
1669:
1645:=−1, which in turn results in a negative refraction of n=−1
488:
387:
126:
In the early 20th century the term "superlens" was used by
112:
5489:
4580:
4578:
4576:
4574:
4243:"Thin film Ag superlens towards lab-on-a-chip integration"
3455:
1446:
435:
For example, in 2007 a technique was demonstrated where a
358:
used in a digital video system cannot read details from a
5870:
Huang, Bo; Wang, W.; Bates, M.; Zhuang, X. (2008-02-08).
5165:
5163:
5161:
3569:
3449:
2098:
Although this work appears to be limited by being only a
1739:
550:
452:
359:
326:
306:
6209:
6207:
4929:
3893:"Super-resolution imaging through a planar silver layer"
2819:"Introduction to special issue – Lights, Camera, Action"
2718:"Creating a 'Perfect' Lens for Super-Resolution Imaging"
1594:
slab, normally decaying evanescent waves are contrarily
626:. In theory, a perfect lens would be capable of perfect
5603:
5542:
5207:"Rapid growth of evanescent wave by a silver superlens"
5109:
5107:
5105:
5103:
5101:
5099:
4993:
4656:
4654:
4652:
4650:
4648:
4571:
3990:
3317:
2546:
2174:. The debate over the perfect lens is discussed first.
1795:
Like a conventional lens, the z-direction is along the
1431:
For large angular frequencies, the evanescent wave now
459:
domain, it could be used to improve the first steps of
6391:
6142:
6140:
6138:
5158:
3588:
3037:
2275:
1286:{\displaystyle \Delta x_{\text{min}}\approx \lambda .}
321:
6204:
6032:
Schurig, D.; J. B. Pendry; D. R. Smith (2007-10-24).
5434:
5200:
5198:
2981:
2979:
1321:
1260:
1196:
1153:
1070:
1040:
926:
883:
856:
664:
6334:"Transporting an Image through a Subwavelength Hole"
6332:
Silveirinha, Mário G.; Engheta, Nader (2009-03-13).
5869:
5604:
Salandrino, Alessandro; Nader Engheta (2006-08-16).
5392:
5255:
5096:
4660:
4645:
3367:
3365:
2041:
multilayer, which offered drastically lower losses.
608:
6245:
6146:
6135:
4533:
3103:
2993:. Research Laboratory of Electronics. 13 March 2007
2570:
2568:
2566:
2564:
2562:
2560:
2558:
2556:
2470:
Metamaterials: Physics and Engineering Explorations
2202:screen, were able to focus the optical energy of a
2162:
Cylindrical superlens via coordinate transformation
248:, have been unable to accurately image very small,
6331:
5863:
5483:
5249:
5195:
4863:
4516:P.A. Belov, Y. Hao, Phys. Rev. B 73, 113110 (2006)
4076:
3726:
3004:
2976:
2812:
2810:
2267:Transporting an image through a subwavelength hole
2258:Light transmission properties of holey metal films
1768:materials, would be a more effective design for a
1711:than the demonstrated negative refractive sample.
1420:
1285:
1243:
1166:
1136:
1053:
1019:
909:
869:
839:
638:The diffraction limit as restriction on resolution
330:(digital versatile disc). A laser is employed for
6219:prototype super-resolution metamaterial nanonlens
5440:
5292:
5062:Zhang, Xu; Adams, Wyatt; Guney, Durdu O. (2017).
4780:
4778:
3362:
3277:
3200:"Adapted from "The History of Near-field Optics""
2987:"Prof. Sir John Pendry, Imperial College, London"
2776:
2648:
2184:
1838:, are decoupled from the longitudinal component k
541:to create a pattern in relief, photolithography,
6644:
6325:
4584:
4452:
4408:
3371:
3106:"Imaging by Flat Lens using Negative Refraction"
2553:
2153:Super resolution far-field microscopy techniques
630:– meaning that it could perfectly reproduce the
267:The limitations of standard optical microscopy (
232:, distance from the object to the lens, and the
5920:
5676:
5597:
5298:
5204:
5061:
4189:
3939:
3886:
3522:
3518:
3516:
3157:
3155:
3153:
3151:
2807:
2772:
2770:
2768:
2766:
2764:
2762:
2651:"Superlenses to overcome the diffraction limit"
1676:Another analysis, in 2002, of the perfect lens
1538:coupling. Almost at the same time Melville and
1479:
342:is pervasive throughout our society and in the
179:. Furthermore, the level of feature detail, or
6387:
6385:
6383:
6381:
6379:
6377:
6375:
6241:
6239:
6221:. Nanotechwire.com. 2010-01-18. Archived from
5816:
5814:
5742:
5738:
5736:
5734:
5732:
5730:
5728:
5726:
5724:
5386:
4775:
3882:
3880:
3878:
3876:
3874:
3872:
3870:
3642:
3514:
3512:
3510:
3508:
3506:
3504:
3502:
3500:
3498:
3496:
2547:National Institute of Standards and Technology
2118:
1784:=0. The effective refractive indices are then
502:
275:The technique can only image dark or strongly
6477:Superlenses to overcome the diffraction limit
6025:
4345:
4041:
3720:
3232:Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science
1983:
373:. These are the near field radiation and the
92:in their natural environments. Additionally,
6088:
5393:Durant, Stéphane; et al. (2005-12-02).
4286:
4128:
4126:
3148:
2914:
2759:
2130:Super-imaging in the visible frequency range
6554:Materials with negative index of refraction
6372:
6236:
5811:
5721:
3867:
3824:
3493:
3256:
3229:
2189:
1182:axis. This results in the loss of the high-
467:, essential for manufacturing ever smaller
292:Out-of-focus light from points outside the
212:One definition of being constrained by the
6596:Simple 'superlens' sharpens focusing power
6034:"Transformation-designed optical elements"
4183:
3672:"Negative refraction makes a perfect lens"
3663:
3099:
3097:
2816:
2577:"Negative Refraction Makes a Perfect Lens"
1929:
1846:Optical superlens with silver metamaterial
643:the object can be written in terms of its
6563:" by V.A. Podolskiy and Nicholas A. Kuhta
6316:
6275:
6102:
6057:
5981:
5958:
5903:
5846:
5771:
5712:
5702:
5661:
5640:
5556:
5536:
5466:
5141:
5114:Wiltshire, M. c. k.; et al. (2003).
5087:
5007:
4943:
4887:
4807:
4674:
4369:
4269:
4123:
3933:
3916:
3850:
3781:
3740:
3695:
3635:
3131:
3053:
2933:
2836:
2711:
2709:
1624:Other studies concerning the perfect lens
1464:Normally, when a wave passes through the
6284:
5441:Liu, Zhaowei; et al. (2007-05-22).
4859:
4857:
3830:
3375:Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology
3164:"Superlenses and Smaller Computer Chips"
2927:
2102:hyperlens, the next step is to design a
2048:Sub-diffraction imaging in the far field
1743:
1511:to be able to improve the resolution of
1450:
1178:decays as the wave propagates along the
634:of the source plane at the image plane.
411:
407:
346:. It is one of the fundamental tools of
320:
305:the different structures with selective
166:
137:
3318:Srituravanich, W.; et al. (2004).
3194:
3188:
3094:
2715:
2642:
1447:Effects of negative index of refraction
522:. As far back as 1928, Irish physicist
14:
6645:
6623:
5926:
5337:Greegor RB, et al. (2005-08-25).
5330:
4754:
4585:Ziolkowski, R. W.; Heyman, E. (2001).
3669:
3647:. Institute of Physics. Archived from
3408:
3250:
3223:
3161:
3010:
2851:
2706:
2574:
2125:Near-field scanning optical microscope
1992:
1972:, is defined here as superresolution.
1799:of the roll. The resonant frequency (w
1740:Near-field imaging with magnetic wires
1660:has a large negative index or becomes
528:near-field scanning optical microscopy
394:units. The new material class, termed
216:, is a resolution cut off at half the
5057:
5055:
5045:
5043:
4989:
4987:
4925:
4923:
4854:
3283:
3170:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
2250:substrate was fabricated and tested.
1748:A prism composed of high performance
1526:superlens was demonstrated by N.Fang
386:, which derive their properties from
107:Conventional lenses capture only the
6470:Surface plasmon subwavelength optics
6147:Huang FM, et al. (2008-06-24).
5169:
4757:"Collection of photonics references"
4721:
2316:
2022:In May 2012, calculations showed an
316:
2649:Zhang, Xiang; Liu, Zhaowei (2008).
2276:Nanoparticle imaging – quantum dots
24:
6582:Negative-index materials made easy
6512:Superlens microscope gets up close
5991:Proceedings of the Royal Society A
5743:Liu, Z; et al. (2007-03-27).
5052:
5040:
4984:
4920:
4755:Pendry, J. B. (18 February 2005).
1261:
455:move in and out of cells. In the
162:
146:is a conventional optical system.
25:
6679:
6428:
4785:Smith, D.R.; et al. (2003).
2194:Work in 2007 demonstrated that a
1562:
609:Analysis of the diffraction limit
6540:Superlens breaks optical barrier
6463:Professor Sir John Pendry at MIT
3645:"Breaking the diffraction limit"
3456:Schmid, H.; et al. (1998).
3104:Parimi, P.; et al. (2003).
2716:Aguirre, Edwin L. (2012-09-18).
2541: This article incorporates
2536:
1522:frequencies. In 2005, the first
6609:" by Stefan W. Hell. Vol. 316.
6082:
5670:
5649:
4748:
4527:
4507:
4490:
4446:
4402:
4339:
4234:
4070:
4035:
3984:
3643:David R. Smith (May 10, 2004).
3402:
3031:
2852:Pendry, John (September 2004).
1530:, but the lens did not rely on
553:bombardment, on an appropriate
6500:" Overview of superlens theory
6358:10.1103/PhysRevLett.102.103902
6318:10.1088/1367-2630/11/12/123013
4962:10.1103/physrevlett.115.035502
3409:Guerra, John M. (1995-06-26).
3168:Technology Review magazine of
2908:
2874:
2845:
2185:Nano-optics with metamaterials
757:
731:
692:
668:
252:structures or nanometer-sized
68:has inhibited progress in the
13:
1:
6491:Breaking the diffracion limit
5278:10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.077401
5205:Liu, Z.; et al. (2003).
4101:10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.117403
4013:10.1103/PhysRevLett.91.157404
3613:10.1103/PhysRevLett.88.207403
3013:"Cornering The Terahertz Gap"
2854:"Manipulating the Near Field"
2838:10.1126/science.316.5828.1143
2531:
1605:, the lens could be used for
185:length of a wave of radiation
6624:Andrei, Mihai (2018-01-04).
5932:"Perfect cylindrical lenses"
3833:"Metamaterials: Ideal focus"
3818:10.1016/j.optcom.2006.02.013
3162:Bullis, Kevin (2007-03-27).
3011:Yeager, A. (28 March 2009).
2817:Vinson, V; Chin, G. (2007).
2513:Sergei Tretyakov (scientist)
2348:Negative index metamaterials
2014:
1826:Furthermore, this is highly
1480:Development and construction
7:
6607:Far-Field Optical Nanoscopy
6436:The Quest for the Superlens
3697:10.1103/PhysRevLett.85.3966
3320:"Plasmonic Nanolithography"
2902:10.1080/0950034021000020824
2861:Optics & Photonics News
2606:10.1103/PhysRevLett.85.3966
2311:
2241:
2119:Plasmon-assisted microscopy
910:{\displaystyle k_{x},k_{y}}
520:super-resolution microscopy
503:Early subwavelength imaging
154:that is a little above 200
10:
6684:
6149:"Nanohole Array as a Lens"
6121:10.1103/PhysRevB.77.035122
5633:10.1103/PhysRevB.74.075103
4722:Dumé, B. (21 April 2005).
4616:10.1103/PhysRevE.64.056625
4064:10.1103/PhysRevB.71.193105
2122:
1984:Negative index GRIN lenses
1957:using illumination from a
1933:
578:650 nm wavelength in air.
533:In 1974 proposals for two-
55:
6505:Flat Superlens Simulation
5324:10.1088/1464-4258/7/2/023
5170:Dumé, B. (4 April 2005).
4162:10.1007/s00340-010-4065-z
3271:10.1080/14786443209461931
3244:10.1080/14786440808564615
2198:array of nanoholes, in a
543:electron-beam lithography
516:negative refractive index
367:electromagnetic radiation
195:Electron beam lithography
177:electromagnetic radiation
133:
5172:"Superlens breakthrough"
5026:10.1088/1367-2630/aa4f9e
4724:"Superlens breakthrough"
2890:Journal of Modern Optics
2883:"Imaging the Near Field"
2801:10.1038/nphoton.2009.111
2722:Journal of Nanophotonics
2482:Metamaterials scientists
2328:History of metamaterials
2238:circuits, and so forth.
2227:high numerical apertures
2190:Nanohole array as a lens
1871:transmission coefficient
1724:subwavelength resolution
1720:metamaterial periodicity
6668:21st century in science
6338:Physical Review Letters
6248:Applied Physics Letters
5896:10.1126/science.1153529
5782:10.1126/science.1137368
5514:10.1126/science.1134824
5422:10.1364/JOSAB.23.002383
5346:Applied Physics Letters
5215:Applied Physics Letters
5089:10.1364/josab.34.001310
4932:Physical Review Letters
4898:10.1126/science.1058847
4795:Applied Physics Letters
4693:10.1126/science.1138746
4380:10.1126/science.1157566
4212:10.1126/science.1108759
4080:Physical Review Letters
3993:Physical Review Letters
3962:10.1126/science.1108759
3592:Physical Review Letters
3547:10.1126/science.1108759
3466:Applied Physics Letters
3415:Applied Physics Letters
3287:Proceedings of the IEEE
3205:. In Wolf, Emil (ed.).
2585:Physical Review Letters
2436:Metamaterials (journal)
2390:Terahertz metamaterials
2368:Plasmonic metamaterials
2353:Nonlinear metamaterials
1930:50-nm flat silver layer
1312:to have opposite sign:
1304:direction requires the
645:angular spectrum method
524:Edward Hutchinson Synge
269:bright-field microscopy
6526:Superlens breakthrough
6297:New Journal of Physics
6011:10.1098/rspa.2005.1570
5807:on September 20, 2009.
4996:New Journal of Physics
3918:10.1364/OPEX.13.002127
3670:Pendry, J. B. (2000).
3300:10.1109/PROC.1974.9627
2934:Lauterbur, P. (1973).
2575:Pendry, J. B. (2000).
2543:public domain material
2463:Metamaterials Handbook
2363:Photonic metamaterials
2323:Acoustic metamaterials
1753:
1461:
1437:conservation of energy
1422:
1287:
1245:
1168:
1138:
1055:
1021:
911:
871:
841:
417:
335:
296:reduces image clarity.
271:) lie in three areas:
172:
159:
6458:Subwavelength imaging
5827:Nature Communications
4179:on September 8, 2014.
2518:Richard W. Ziolkowski
2405:Tunable metamaterials
2400:Transformation optics
2373:Seismic metamaterials
2343:Metamaterial cloaking
2338:Metamaterial antennas
2333:Metamaterial absorber
2123:Further information:
1961:. Using simulations (
1934:Further information:
1758:magnetic permeability
1747:
1688:, which is linked to
1504:) bicrystal in 2003.
1498:yttrium orthovanadate
1454:
1423:
1288:
1246:
1169:
1167:{\displaystyle k_{z}}
1139:
1056:
1054:{\displaystyle k_{z}}
1022:
912:
872:
870:{\displaystyle k_{z}}
842:
632:electromagnetic field
426:subwavelength imaging
415:
408:Subwavelength imaging
369:associated with this
324:
256:, such as individual
170:
141:
96:and the interrelated
6059:10.1364/OE.15.014772
5960:10.1364/OE.11.000755
5575:10.1364/OE.14.008247
5468:10.1364/OE.15.006947
5143:10.1364/OE.11.000709
4557:10.1364/OL.37.004317
4476:10.1364/OL.33.002568
4432:10.1364/OL.33.002562
4271:10.1364/OE.17.022543
3831:Brumfiel, G (2009).
3759:10.1364/OL.30.000075
3651:on February 28, 2009
3072:10.1364/OE.17.019848
2395:Theories of cloaking
2385:Split-ring resonator
2064:metamaterial with a
1707:, permeability, and
1486:left-handed material
1319:
1258:
1194:
1151:
1068:
1038:
924:
881:
854:
662:
478:has become a unique
187:. For example, with
144:binocular microscope
72:. This is because a
6556:" by V.A. Podolskiy
6448:Scientific American
6350:2009PhRvL.102j3902S
6309:2009NJPh...11l3013J
6260:2010ApPhL..96b3114C
6168:2008NanoL...8.2469H
6113:2008PhRvB..77c5122T
6050:2007OExpr..1514772S
6003:2005RSPSA.461.3999M
5951:2003OExpr..11..755P
5888:2008Sci...319..810H
5839:2010NatCo...1..143R
5764:2007Sci...315.1686L
5695:2018AIPA....8b5203H
5625:2006PhRvB..74g5103S
5567:2006OExpr..14.8247J
5506:2007Sci...315.1120L
5500:(5815): 1120–1122.
5459:2007OExpr..15.6947L
5414:2006JOSAB..23.2383D
5358:2005ApPhL..87i1114G
5316:2005JOptA...7S.176B
5270:2004PhRvL..92g7401L
5228:2003ApPhL..83.5184L
5134:2003OExpr..11..709W
5080:2017JOSAB..34.1310Z
5018:2016NJPh...18l5004A
4954:2015PhRvL.115c5502S
4880:2001Sci...292...77S
4818:2003ApPhL..82.1506S
4685:2007Sci...315.1699S
4669:(5819): 1699–1701.
4608:2001PhRvE..64e6625Z
4549:2012OptL...37.4317S
4468:2008OptL...33.2568L
4424:2008OptL...33.2562S
4362:2008Sci...321..930Y
4317:10.1038/nature07247
4309:2008Natur.455..376V
4262:2009OExpr..1722543J
4204:2005Sci...308..534F
4177:(Free PDF download)
4154:2010ApPhB.100...93N
4093:2004PhRvL..92k7403G
4056:2005PhRvB..71s3105B
4005:2003PhRvL..91o7404Z
3954:2005Sci...308..534F
3909:2005OExpr..13.2127M
3810:2006OptCo.264..130T
3751:2005OptL...30...75P
3688:2000PhRvL..85.3966P
3605:2002PhRvL..88t7403G
3539:2005Sci...308..534F
3479:1998ApPhL..72.2379S
3427:1995ApPhL..66.3555G
3388:1981JVST...19..881F
3341:2004NanoL...4.1085S
3124:2003Natur.426..404P
3064:2009OExpr..1719848S
3048:(22): 19848–19856.
2954:1973Natur.242..190L
2793:2009NaPho...3..388K
2734:2010JNano...4d3514K
2693:(Free PDF download)
2670:2008NatMa...7..435Z
2598:2000PhRvL..85.3966P
2449:Metamaterials books
2208:incident plane wave
1993:Far-field superlens
1940:Fresnel diffraction
1899:electron microscopy
1895:index of refraction
1709:spatial periodicity
1658:metamaterial medium
1588:decay exponentially
1532:negative refraction
1407:
1389:
1334:
1103:
1085:
1006:
988:
588:Imprint lithography
508:Metamaterial lenses
437:metamaterials-based
430:transmission medium
424:, and the need for
422:natural environment
218:wavelength of light
70:biological sciences
6587:2010-01-17 at the
6545:2012-01-13 at the
6531:2012-01-19 at the
6517:2012-01-19 at the
6496:2009-02-28 at the
6482:2011-07-20 at the
5848:10.1038/ncomms1148
5402:J. Opt. Soc. Am. B
5304:J. Opt. Soc. Am. A
5300:Blaikie, Richard J
5068:J. Opt. Soc. Am. B
4736:on 19 January 2012
3358:on April 15, 2010.
3207:Progress in Optics
2172:quasistatic regime
2055:spatial resolution
1828:anisotropic system
1754:
1462:
1418:
1393:
1375:
1322:
1283:
1241:
1164:
1134:
1089:
1071:
1051:
1017:
992:
974:
907:
867:
837:
727:
601:In the year 2000,
445:cellular processes
418:
336:
277:refracting objects
214:resolution barrier
197:can overcome this
189:optical microscopy
183:, is limited to a
173:
160:
148:Spatial resolution
6450:. July 2006. PDF
6268:10.1063/1.3291677
6176:10.1021/nl801476v
6091:Physical Review B
5882:(5864): 810–813.
5704:10.1063/1.5013084
5551:(18): 8247–8256.
5453:(11): 6947–6954.
5408:(11): 2383–2392.
5366:10.1063/1.2037202
5245:on June 24, 2010.
5236:10.1063/1.1636250
4826:10.1063/1.1554779
4802:(10): 1506–1508.
4641:on July 17, 2010.
4595:Physical Review E
4303:(7211): 376–379.
4198:(5721): 534–537.
4142:Applied Physics B
4044:Physical Review B
3948:(5721): 534–537.
3887:Melville, David;
3845:(7246): 504–505.
3682:(18): 3966–3969.
3533:(5721): 534–537.
3421:(26): 3555–3557.
3349:10.1021/nl049573q
3294:(10): 1361–1387.
3216:978-0-444-53023-3
3198:(November 2007).
2948:(5394): 190–191.
2742:10.1117/1.3484153
2592:(18): 3966–3969.
2528:
2527:
2423:Academic journals
1970:far-field imaging
1945:was used for sub-
1911:magnetic coupling
1770:metamaterial lens
1614:impedance matched
1413:
1365:
1308:component of the
1271:
1236:
1218:
1204:
1184:angular-frequency
1129:
1012:
964:
877:is a function of
698:
595:diffraction limit
563:optically resolve
547:X-ray lithography
497:photonic crystals
402:details of images
338:The conventional
317:Conventional lens
254:organisms in vivo
152:diffraction limit
150:is confined by a
102:optical equipment
84:moving alongside
82:cellular proteins
45:diffraction limit
43:to go beyond the
16:(Redirected from
6675:
6639:
6637:
6636:
6602:, 24 April 2008)
6452:Imperial College
6422:
6421:
6389:
6370:
6369:
6329:
6323:
6322:
6320:
6288:
6282:
6281:
6279:
6243:
6234:
6233:
6231:
6230:
6211:
6202:
6201:
6199:
6198:
6192:
6186:. Archived from
6162:(8): 2469–2472.
6153:
6144:
6133:
6132:
6106:
6086:
6080:
6079:
6061:
6044:(22): 14772–82.
6029:
6023:
6022:
5985:
5979:
5978:
5976:
5975:
5962:
5936:
5924:
5918:
5917:
5907:
5867:
5861:
5860:
5850:
5818:
5809:
5808:
5806:
5800:. Archived from
5775:
5749:
5740:
5719:
5718:
5716:
5706:
5674:
5668:
5667:
5665:
5653:
5647:
5646:
5644:
5610:
5601:
5595:
5594:
5560:
5540:
5534:
5533:
5487:
5481:
5480:
5470:
5438:
5432:
5431:
5429:
5428:
5399:
5390:
5384:
5383:
5381:
5380:
5375:on June 18, 2010
5374:
5368:. Archived from
5343:
5334:
5328:
5327:
5310:(2): S176–S183.
5296:
5290:
5289:
5253:
5247:
5246:
5244:
5238:. Archived from
5211:
5202:
5193:
5192:
5190:
5189:
5180:. Archived from
5167:
5156:
5155:
5145:
5111:
5094:
5093:
5091:
5059:
5050:
5047:
5038:
5037:
5011:
4991:
4982:
4981:
4947:
4927:
4918:
4917:
4891:
4861:
4852:
4851:
4849:
4848:
4842:
4836:. Archived from
4811:
4809:cond-mat/0206568
4791:
4782:
4773:
4772:
4770:
4768:
4759:. Archived from
4752:
4746:
4745:
4743:
4741:
4732:. Archived from
4719:
4713:
4712:
4678:
4658:
4643:
4642:
4640:
4634:. Archived from
4591:
4582:
4569:
4568:
4531:
4525:
4511:
4505:
4494:
4488:
4487:
4450:
4444:
4443:
4406:
4400:
4399:
4373:
4343:
4337:
4336:
4290:
4284:
4283:
4273:
4256:(25): 22543–52.
4247:
4238:
4232:
4231:
4187:
4181:
4180:
4178:
4172:. Archived from
4139:
4130:
4121:
4120:
4074:
4068:
4067:
4039:
4033:
4032:
3988:
3982:
3981:
3937:
3931:
3930:
3920:
3903:(6): 2127–2134.
3889:Blaikie, Richard
3884:
3865:
3864:
3854:
3828:
3822:
3821:
3790:Veretennicoff, I
3785:
3779:
3778:
3744:
3724:
3718:
3717:
3699:
3667:
3661:
3660:
3658:
3656:
3639:
3633:
3632:
3586:
3567:
3566:
3520:
3491:
3490:
3487:10.1063/1.121362
3462:
3453:
3447:
3446:
3435:10.1063/1.113814
3406:
3400:
3399:
3396:10.1116/1.571227
3369:
3360:
3359:
3357:
3351:. Archived from
3335:(6): 1085–1088.
3324:
3315:
3304:
3303:
3281:
3275:
3274:
3254:
3248:
3247:
3227:
3221:
3220:
3204:
3192:
3186:
3185:
3183:
3182:
3173:. Archived from
3159:
3146:
3145:
3135:
3101:
3092:
3091:
3057:
3035:
3029:
3028:
3026:
3025:
3008:
3002:
3001:
2999:
2998:
2991:Colloquia Series
2983:
2974:
2973:
2962:10.1038/242190a0
2931:
2925:
2924:
2923:
2919:
2912:
2906:
2905:
2896:(9): 1419–1430.
2887:
2878:
2872:
2871:
2869:
2863:. Archived from
2858:
2849:
2843:
2842:
2840:
2814:
2805:
2804:
2780:Nature Photonics
2774:
2757:
2756:
2754:
2753:
2744:. Archived from
2713:
2704:
2703:
2701:
2700:
2694:
2688:. Archived from
2678:10.1038/nmat2141
2658:Nature Materials
2655:
2646:
2640:
2639:
2637:
2636:
2630:
2624:. Archived from
2581:
2572:
2540:
2539:
2503:Vladimir Shalaev
2358:Photonic crystal
2317:
1792:, respectively.
1670:FDTD simulations
1603:plasma frequency
1592:metamaterial DNG
1427:
1425:
1424:
1419:
1414:
1412:
1408:
1406:
1401:
1388:
1383:
1366:
1364:
1363:
1354:
1353:
1344:
1342:
1330:
1292:
1290:
1289:
1284:
1273:
1272:
1269:
1250:
1248:
1247:
1242:
1237:
1232:
1224:
1219:
1211:
1206:
1205:
1202:
1173:
1171:
1170:
1165:
1163:
1162:
1143:
1141:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1128:
1127:
1118:
1117:
1108:
1102:
1097:
1084:
1079:
1060:
1058:
1057:
1052:
1050:
1049:
1026:
1024:
1023:
1018:
1013:
1011:
1007:
1005:
1000:
987:
982:
965:
963:
962:
953:
952:
943:
941:
936:
935:
916:
914:
913:
908:
906:
905:
893:
892:
876:
874:
873:
868:
866:
865:
846:
844:
843:
838:
833:
832:
831:
827:
814:
813:
798:
797:
782:
781:
756:
755:
743:
742:
726:
725:
724:
712:
711:
461:photolithography
242:evanescent waves
234:refractive index
222:visible spectrum
207:new technologies
199:resolution limit
181:image resolution
98:microelectronics
21:
6683:
6682:
6678:
6677:
6676:
6674:
6673:
6672:
6663:2000 in science
6643:
6642:
6634:
6632:
6589:Wayback Machine
6547:Wayback Machine
6533:Wayback Machine
6519:Wayback Machine
6498:Wayback Machine
6484:Wayback Machine
6431:
6426:
6425:
6410:10.1002/wnan.62
6390:
6373:
6330:
6326:
6289:
6285:
6244:
6237:
6228:
6226:
6213:
6212:
6205:
6196:
6194:
6190:
6151:
6145:
6136:
6087:
6083:
6030:
6026:
5997:(2064): 3999 .
5986:
5982:
5973:
5971:
5934:
5925:
5921:
5868:
5864:
5819:
5812:
5804:
5773:10.1.1.708.3342
5747:
5741:
5722:
5675:
5671:
5654:
5650:
5608:
5602:
5598:
5558:physics/0607277
5541:
5537:
5488:
5484:
5439:
5435:
5426:
5424:
5397:
5391:
5387:
5378:
5376:
5372:
5341:
5335:
5331:
5297:
5293:
5258:Phys. Rev. Lett
5254:
5250:
5242:
5209:
5203:
5196:
5187:
5185:
5168:
5159:
5112:
5097:
5060:
5053:
5048:
5041:
4992:
4985:
4928:
4921:
4889:10.1.1.119.1617
4862:
4855:
4846:
4844:
4840:
4789:
4783:
4776:
4766:
4764:
4763:on 3 March 2016
4753:
4749:
4739:
4737:
4720:
4716:
4676:physics/0610230
4659:
4646:
4638:
4589:
4583:
4572:
4532:
4528:
4512:
4508:
4495:
4491:
4462:(21): 2568–70.
4451:
4447:
4407:
4403:
4371:10.1.1.716.4426
4344:
4340:
4291:
4287:
4245:
4239:
4235:
4188:
4184:
4176:
4137:
4131:
4124:
4075:
4071:
4040:
4036:
3989:
3985:
3938:
3934:
3885:
3868:
3852:10.1038/459504a
3829:
3825:
3786:
3782:
3742:physics/0403139
3725:
3721:
3676:Phys. Rev. Lett
3668:
3664:
3654:
3652:
3640:
3636:
3587:
3570:
3521:
3494:
3460:
3454:
3450:
3407:
3403:
3370:
3363:
3355:
3322:
3316:
3307:
3282:
3278:
3255:
3251:
3238:(35): 356–362.
3228:
3224:
3217:
3202:
3193:
3189:
3180:
3178:
3160:
3149:
3133:10.1038/426404a
3102:
3095:
3036:
3032:
3023:
3021:
3009:
3005:
2996:
2994:
2985:
2984:
2977:
2932:
2928:
2921:
2913:
2909:
2885:
2879:
2875:
2867:
2856:
2850:
2846:
2815:
2808:
2775:
2760:
2751:
2749:
2714:
2707:
2698:
2696:
2692:
2653:
2647:
2643:
2634:
2632:
2628:
2579:
2573:
2554:
2537:
2534:
2529:
2476:
2378:
2314:
2278:
2269:
2260:
2244:
2192:
2187:
2164:
2155:
2132:
2127:
2121:
2050:
2039:indium arsenide
2017:
2008:
1995:
1986:
1942:
1932:
1893:increasing the
1848:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1821:magnetic fields
1802:
1783:
1779:
1742:
1729:superconducting
1644:
1640:
1626:
1607:superresolution
1565:
1536:surface plasmon
1503:
1482:
1449:
1441:Poynting vector
1402:
1397:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1370:
1359:
1355:
1349:
1345:
1343:
1341:
1326:
1320:
1317:
1316:
1268:
1264:
1259:
1256:
1255:
1225:
1223:
1210:
1201:
1197:
1195:
1192:
1191:
1158:
1154:
1152:
1149:
1148:
1123:
1119:
1113:
1109:
1107:
1098:
1093:
1080:
1075:
1069:
1066:
1065:
1045:
1041:
1039:
1036:
1035:
1001:
996:
983:
978:
973:
969:
958:
954:
948:
944:
942:
940:
931:
927:
925:
922:
921:
901:
897:
888:
884:
882:
879:
878:
861:
857:
855:
852:
851:
809:
805:
793:
789:
777:
773:
772:
768:
764:
760:
751:
747:
738:
734:
720:
716:
707:
703:
702:
663:
660:
659:
640:
611:
539:contact imaging
505:
465:nanolithography
410:
319:
250:nanometer-sized
165:
163:Image formation
136:
58:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6681:
6671:
6670:
6665:
6660:
6655:
6641:
6640:
6621:
6620:", 22 May 2012
6614:
6603:
6592:
6578:
6571:
6564:
6557:
6550:
6536:
6522:
6508:
6501:
6487:
6473:
6466:
6460:
6455:
6444:David R. Smith
6440:John B. Pendry
6430:
6429:External links
6427:
6424:
6423:
6371:
6344:(10): 103902.
6324:
6303:(12): 123013.
6283:
6277:2047/d20002681
6235:
6203:
6134:
6081:
6038:Optics Express
6024:
5980:
5939:Optics Express
5930:(2003-04-07).
5919:
5862:
5810:
5758:(5819): 1686.
5720:
5669:
5648:
5596:
5545:Optics Express
5535:
5482:
5447:Optics Express
5433:
5385:
5329:
5291:
5264:(7): 077401 .
5248:
5194:
5157:
5128:(7): 709–715.
5121:Optics Express
5095:
5051:
5039:
5002:(12): 125004.
4983:
4919:
4874:(5514): 77–9.
4853:
4774:
4747:
4714:
4644:
4570:
4543:(20): 4317–9.
4526:
4524:
4523:
4520:
4517:
4506:
4504:
4503:
4500:
4489:
4445:
4418:(21): 2562–4.
4401:
4338:
4285:
4250:Optics Express
4233:
4182:
4122:
4087:(11): 117403.
4069:
4050:(19): 193105.
4034:
3999:(15): 157404.
3983:
3932:
3897:Optics Express
3891:(2005-03-21).
3866:
3823:
3804:(1): 130–134.
3794:Vandersande, G
3780:
3719:
3662:
3634:
3599:(20): 207403.
3568:
3492:
3448:
3401:
3361:
3305:
3276:
3249:
3222:
3215:
3196:Novotny, Lukas
3187:
3147:
3093:
3041:Optics Express
3030:
3003:
2975:
2926:
2907:
2873:
2870:on 2008-02-21.
2844:
2831:(5828): 1143.
2806:
2787:(7): 388–394.
2758:
2705:
2664:(6): 435–441.
2641:
2551:
2550:
2533:
2530:
2526:
2525:
2521:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2508:David R. Smith
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2478:
2474:
2473:
2466:
2458:
2457:
2456:
2455:
2454:
2453:
2452:
2451:
2439:
2438:
2432:
2431:
2430:
2429:
2428:
2427:
2426:
2425:
2413:
2412:
2410:Plasmonic lens
2407:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2380:
2376:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2277:
2274:
2268:
2265:
2259:
2256:
2243:
2240:
2196:quasi-periodic
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2163:
2160:
2154:
2151:
2131:
2128:
2120:
2117:
2049:
2046:
2016:
2013:
2007:
2004:
1994:
1991:
1985:
1982:
1936:Fresnel number
1931:
1928:
1883:red blood cell
1859:excited states
1847:
1844:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1800:
1781:
1777:
1764:materials and
1741:
1738:
1647:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1625:
1622:
1590:. In the flat
1573:positive index
1564:
1563:Perfect lenses
1561:
1501:
1481:
1478:
1448:
1445:
1429:
1428:
1417:
1411:
1405:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1378:
1373:
1369:
1362:
1358:
1352:
1348:
1340:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1294:
1293:
1282:
1279:
1276:
1267:
1263:
1252:
1251:
1240:
1235:
1231:
1228:
1222:
1217:
1214:
1209:
1200:
1161:
1157:
1145:
1144:
1133:
1126:
1122:
1116:
1112:
1106:
1101:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1074:
1048:
1044:
1028:
1027:
1016:
1010:
1004:
999:
995:
991:
986:
981:
977:
972:
968:
961:
957:
951:
947:
939:
934:
930:
904:
900:
896:
891:
887:
864:
860:
848:
847:
836:
830:
826:
823:
820:
817:
812:
808:
804:
801:
796:
792:
788:
785:
780:
776:
771:
767:
763:
759:
754:
750:
746:
741:
737:
733:
730:
723:
719:
715:
710:
706:
701:
697:
694:
691:
688:
685:
682:
679:
676:
673:
670:
667:
639:
636:
610:
607:
583:experimentally
504:
501:
469:computer chips
447:, such as how
409:
406:
318:
315:
298:
297:
290:
280:
164:
161:
135:
132:
94:computer chips
57:
54:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6680:
6669:
6666:
6664:
6661:
6659:
6658:Metamaterials
6656:
6654:
6651:
6650:
6648:
6631:
6627:
6622:
6619:
6615:
6613:. 25 May 2007
6612:
6608:
6604:
6601:
6600:New Scientist
6597:
6593:
6590:
6586:
6583:
6579:
6576:
6572:
6569:
6565:
6562:
6558:
6555:
6551:
6548:
6544:
6541:
6537:
6534:
6530:
6527:
6523:
6520:
6516:
6513:
6509:
6506:
6502:
6499:
6495:
6492:
6488:
6485:
6481:
6478:
6474:
6471:
6467:
6464:
6461:
6459:
6456:
6453:
6449:
6445:
6441:
6437:
6433:
6432:
6419:
6415:
6411:
6407:
6403:
6399:
6395:
6388:
6386:
6384:
6382:
6380:
6378:
6376:
6367:
6363:
6359:
6355:
6351:
6347:
6343:
6339:
6335:
6328:
6319:
6314:
6310:
6306:
6302:
6298:
6294:
6287:
6278:
6273:
6269:
6265:
6261:
6257:
6254:(2): 023114.
6253:
6249:
6242:
6240:
6225:on 2016-03-04
6224:
6220:
6216:
6210:
6208:
6193:on 2012-03-01
6189:
6185:
6181:
6177:
6173:
6169:
6165:
6161:
6157:
6150:
6143:
6141:
6139:
6130:
6126:
6122:
6118:
6114:
6110:
6105:
6100:
6097:(3): 035122.
6096:
6092:
6085:
6077:
6073:
6069:
6065:
6060:
6055:
6051:
6047:
6043:
6039:
6035:
6028:
6020:
6016:
6012:
6008:
6004:
6000:
5996:
5992:
5984:
5970:
5966:
5961:
5956:
5952:
5948:
5945:(7): 755–60.
5944:
5940:
5933:
5929:
5923:
5915:
5911:
5906:
5901:
5897:
5893:
5889:
5885:
5881:
5877:
5873:
5866:
5858:
5854:
5849:
5844:
5840:
5836:
5832:
5828:
5824:
5817:
5815:
5803:
5799:
5795:
5791:
5787:
5783:
5779:
5774:
5769:
5765:
5761:
5757:
5753:
5746:
5739:
5737:
5735:
5733:
5731:
5729:
5727:
5725:
5715:
5714:10044/1/56578
5710:
5705:
5700:
5696:
5692:
5689:(2): 025203.
5688:
5684:
5680:
5673:
5664:
5659:
5652:
5643:
5638:
5634:
5630:
5626:
5622:
5619:(7): 075103.
5618:
5614:
5607:
5600:
5592:
5588:
5584:
5580:
5576:
5572:
5568:
5564:
5559:
5554:
5550:
5546:
5539:
5531:
5527:
5523:
5519:
5515:
5511:
5507:
5503:
5499:
5495:
5494:
5486:
5478:
5474:
5469:
5464:
5460:
5456:
5452:
5448:
5444:
5437:
5423:
5419:
5415:
5411:
5407:
5403:
5396:
5389:
5371:
5367:
5363:
5359:
5355:
5352:(9): 091114.
5351:
5347:
5340:
5333:
5325:
5321:
5317:
5313:
5309:
5305:
5301:
5295:
5287:
5283:
5279:
5275:
5271:
5267:
5263:
5259:
5252:
5241:
5237:
5233:
5229:
5225:
5221:
5217:
5216:
5208:
5201:
5199:
5184:on 2012-01-19
5183:
5179:
5178:
5177:Physics World
5173:
5166:
5164:
5162:
5153:
5149:
5144:
5139:
5135:
5131:
5127:
5123:
5122:
5117:
5110:
5108:
5106:
5104:
5102:
5100:
5090:
5085:
5081:
5077:
5073:
5069:
5065:
5058:
5056:
5046:
5044:
5035:
5031:
5027:
5023:
5019:
5015:
5010:
5005:
5001:
4997:
4990:
4988:
4979:
4975:
4971:
4967:
4963:
4959:
4955:
4951:
4946:
4941:
4938:(3): 035502.
4937:
4933:
4926:
4924:
4915:
4911:
4907:
4903:
4899:
4895:
4890:
4885:
4881:
4877:
4873:
4869:
4868:
4860:
4858:
4843:on 2016-03-03
4839:
4835:
4831:
4827:
4823:
4819:
4815:
4810:
4805:
4801:
4797:
4796:
4788:
4781:
4779:
4762:
4758:
4751:
4735:
4731:
4730:
4729:Physics World
4725:
4718:
4710:
4706:
4702:
4698:
4694:
4690:
4686:
4682:
4677:
4672:
4668:
4664:
4657:
4655:
4653:
4651:
4649:
4637:
4633:
4629:
4625:
4621:
4617:
4613:
4609:
4605:
4602:(5): 056625.
4601:
4597:
4596:
4588:
4581:
4579:
4577:
4575:
4566:
4562:
4558:
4554:
4550:
4546:
4542:
4539:
4538:
4530:
4521:
4518:
4515:
4514:
4510:
4501:
4498:
4497:
4493:
4485:
4481:
4477:
4473:
4469:
4465:
4461:
4458:
4457:
4449:
4441:
4437:
4433:
4429:
4425:
4421:
4417:
4414:
4413:
4405:
4397:
4393:
4389:
4385:
4381:
4377:
4372:
4367:
4363:
4359:
4356:(5891): 930.
4355:
4351:
4350:
4342:
4334:
4330:
4326:
4322:
4318:
4314:
4310:
4306:
4302:
4298:
4297:
4289:
4281:
4277:
4272:
4267:
4263:
4259:
4255:
4251:
4244:
4237:
4229:
4225:
4221:
4217:
4213:
4209:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4186:
4175:
4171:
4167:
4163:
4159:
4155:
4151:
4148:(1): 93–100.
4147:
4143:
4136:
4129:
4127:
4118:
4114:
4110:
4106:
4102:
4098:
4094:
4090:
4086:
4082:
4081:
4073:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4038:
4030:
4026:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4006:
4002:
3998:
3994:
3987:
3979:
3975:
3971:
3967:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3936:
3928:
3924:
3919:
3914:
3910:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3883:
3881:
3879:
3877:
3875:
3873:
3871:
3862:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3844:
3840:
3839:
3834:
3827:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3784:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3756:
3752:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3723:
3715:
3711:
3707:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3666:
3650:
3646:
3638:
3630:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3593:
3585:
3583:
3581:
3579:
3577:
3575:
3573:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3536:
3532:
3528:
3527:
3519:
3517:
3515:
3513:
3511:
3509:
3507:
3505:
3503:
3501:
3499:
3497:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3467:
3459:
3452:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3405:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3376:
3368:
3366:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3329:
3321:
3314:
3312:
3310:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3288:
3280:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3253:
3245:
3241:
3237:
3233:
3226:
3218:
3212:
3208:
3201:
3197:
3191:
3177:on 2011-06-07
3176:
3172:
3171:
3165:
3158:
3156:
3154:
3152:
3143:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3118:(6965): 404.
3117:
3113:
3112:
3107:
3100:
3098:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3042:
3034:
3020:
3019:
3014:
3007:
2992:
2988:
2982:
2980:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2942:
2937:
2930:
2917:
2911:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2884:
2877:
2866:
2862:
2855:
2848:
2839:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2825:
2820:
2813:
2811:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2781:
2773:
2771:
2769:
2767:
2765:
2763:
2748:on 2016-03-04
2747:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2728:(1): 043514.
2727:
2723:
2719:
2712:
2710:
2695:on 2012-10-18
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2652:
2645:
2631:on 2016-04-18
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2586:
2578:
2571:
2569:
2567:
2565:
2563:
2561:
2559:
2557:
2552:
2549:
2548:
2545:from the
2544:
2524:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2493:Ulf Leonhardt
2491:
2489:
2488:Nader Engheta
2486:
2485:
2484:
2483:
2479:
2477:
2472:
2471:
2467:
2465:
2464:
2460:
2459:
2450:
2447:
2446:
2445:
2444:
2443:
2442:
2441:
2440:
2437:
2434:
2433:
2424:
2421:
2420:
2419:
2418:
2417:
2416:
2415:
2414:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2382:
2381:
2379:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2320:
2319:
2318:
2309:
2305:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2273:
2264:
2255:
2251:
2249:
2239:
2237:
2233:
2232:X-ray imaging
2228:
2223:
2220:
2216:
2215:quasi-crystal
2211:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2182:
2179:
2175:
2173:
2168:
2159:
2150:
2146:
2144:
2140:
2135:
2126:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2105:
2101:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2082:
2078:
2073:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2058:
2056:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2035:
2033:
2029:
2028:boron nitride
2025:
2020:
2012:
2003:
1999:
1990:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1971:
1966:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1950:
1948:
1941:
1937:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1916:
1912:
1907:
1903:
1900:
1896:
1890:
1886:
1884:
1879:
1875:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1855:
1853:
1843:
1829:
1824:
1822:
1818:
1813:
1810:
1804:
1798:
1793:
1791:
1787:
1786:perpendicular
1775:
1774:birefringence
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1751:
1746:
1737:
1733:
1730:
1725:
1721:
1716:
1712:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1693:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1674:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1654:
1652:
1636:
1635:
1634:
1631:
1621:
1619:
1615:
1610:
1608:
1604:
1599:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1576:
1574:
1570:
1560:
1556:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1516:
1514:
1510:
1505:
1499:
1493:
1491:
1487:
1477:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1459:
1453:
1444:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1415:
1409:
1403:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1376:
1371:
1367:
1360:
1356:
1350:
1346:
1338:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1315:
1314:
1313:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1280:
1277:
1274:
1265:
1254:
1253:
1238:
1233:
1229:
1226:
1220:
1215:
1212:
1207:
1198:
1190:
1189:
1188:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1159:
1155:
1131:
1124:
1120:
1114:
1110:
1104:
1099:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1081:
1076:
1072:
1064:
1063:
1062:
1046:
1042:
1033:
1014:
1008:
1002:
997:
993:
989:
984:
979:
975:
970:
966:
959:
955:
949:
945:
937:
932:
928:
920:
919:
918:
902:
898:
894:
889:
885:
862:
858:
834:
828:
824:
821:
818:
815:
810:
806:
802:
799:
794:
790:
786:
783:
778:
774:
769:
765:
761:
752:
748:
744:
739:
735:
728:
721:
717:
713:
708:
704:
699:
695:
689:
686:
683:
680:
677:
674:
671:
665:
658:
657:
656:
654:
650:
649:superposition
646:
635:
633:
629:
625:
620:
615:
606:
604:
599:
596:
591:
589:
584:
579:
576:
571:
569:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
531:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
500:
498:
494:
490:
485:
481:
477:
476:subwavelength
472:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
433:
431:
427:
423:
414:
405:
403:
399:
398:
397:metamaterials
393:
389:
385:
381:
376:
372:
368:
363:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
333:
332:data transfer
329:
328:
323:
314:
312:
308:
304:
295:
291:
288:
284:
281:
278:
274:
273:
272:
270:
265:
263:
262:DNA molecules
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
238:optical limit
235:
231:
230:lens aperture
227:
223:
219:
215:
210:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
190:
186:
182:
178:
169:
157:
153:
149:
145:
140:
131:
129:
124:
122:
118:
114:
110:
105:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
53:
50:
46:
42:
41:metamaterials
38:
34:
30:
19:
6633:. Retrieved
6629:
6610:
6599:
6472:" 2009-12-05
6447:
6404:(1): 48–58.
6401:
6397:
6341:
6337:
6327:
6300:
6296:
6286:
6251:
6247:
6227:. Retrieved
6223:the original
6218:
6195:. Retrieved
6188:the original
6159:
6155:
6094:
6090:
6084:
6041:
6037:
6027:
5994:
5990:
5983:
5972:. Retrieved
5942:
5938:
5928:Pendry, John
5922:
5879:
5875:
5865:
5830:
5826:
5802:the original
5755:
5751:
5686:
5683:AIP Advances
5682:
5672:
5651:
5616:
5613:Phys. Rev. B
5612:
5599:
5548:
5544:
5538:
5497:
5491:
5485:
5450:
5446:
5436:
5425:. Retrieved
5405:
5401:
5388:
5377:. Retrieved
5370:the original
5349:
5345:
5332:
5307:
5303:
5294:
5261:
5257:
5251:
5240:the original
5222:(25): 5184.
5219:
5213:
5186:. Retrieved
5182:the original
5175:
5125:
5119:
5071:
5067:
4999:
4995:
4935:
4931:
4871:
4865:
4845:. Retrieved
4838:the original
4799:
4793:
4765:. Retrieved
4761:the original
4750:
4738:. Retrieved
4734:the original
4727:
4717:
4666:
4662:
4636:the original
4599:
4593:
4540:
4535:
4529:
4509:
4492:
4459:
4454:
4448:
4415:
4410:
4404:
4353:
4347:
4341:
4300:
4294:
4288:
4253:
4249:
4236:
4195:
4191:
4185:
4174:the original
4145:
4141:
4084:
4078:
4072:
4047:
4043:
4037:
3996:
3992:
3986:
3945:
3941:
3935:
3900:
3896:
3842:
3836:
3826:
3801:
3797:
3788:Tassin, P.;
3783:
3732:
3728:
3722:
3679:
3675:
3665:
3653:. Retrieved
3649:the original
3637:
3596:
3590:
3530:
3524:
3470:
3464:
3451:
3418:
3414:
3404:
3379:
3373:
3353:the original
3332:
3328:Nano Letters
3326:
3291:
3285:
3279:
3262:
3258:
3252:
3235:
3234:. Series 7.
3231:
3225:
3206:
3190:
3179:. Retrieved
3175:the original
3167:
3115:
3109:
3045:
3039:
3033:
3022:. Retrieved
3018:Science News
3016:
3006:
2995:. Retrieved
2990:
2945:
2939:
2929:
2910:
2893:
2889:
2876:
2865:the original
2860:
2847:
2828:
2822:
2784:
2778:
2750:. Retrieved
2746:the original
2725:
2721:
2697:. Retrieved
2690:the original
2661:
2657:
2644:
2633:. Retrieved
2626:the original
2589:
2583:
2535:
2522:
2481:
2480:
2475:
2468:
2461:
2448:
2422:
2377:
2306:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2270:
2261:
2252:
2245:
2236:nano-optical
2224:
2219:point source
2212:
2193:
2180:
2176:
2169:
2165:
2156:
2147:
2139:microbiology
2136:
2133:
2113:
2109:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2074:
2059:
2051:
2043:
2036:
2021:
2018:
2009:
2000:
1996:
1987:
1978:
1974:
1967:
1959:mercury lamp
1951:
1943:
1924:
1920:
1909:Advances of
1908:
1904:
1891:
1887:
1880:
1876:
1867:Perfect lens
1866:
1856:
1849:
1825:
1814:
1805:
1794:
1765:
1761:
1755:
1734:
1717:
1713:
1705:permittivity
1694:
1675:
1655:
1648:
1627:
1617:
1611:
1600:
1577:
1566:
1557:
1545:
1527:
1517:
1506:
1494:
1490:permeability
1483:
1473:
1463:
1457:
1432:
1430:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1295:
1179:
1146:
1031:
1029:
849:
641:
616:
612:
600:
592:
580:
572:
532:
511:
507:
506:
474:Focusing at
473:
434:
425:
419:
395:
364:
337:
325:
299:
279:effectively.
266:
211:
193:
174:
128:Dennis Gabor
125:
106:
86:microtubules
78:DNA molecule
59:
32:
28:
26:
6630:ZME Science
5074:(6): 1310.
3838:Nature News
3798:Opt. Commun
3735:(1): 75–7.
3473:(19): 237.
3265:(83): 297.
3259:Philos. Mag
2498:John Pendry
2100:cylindrical
2062:anisotropic
2024:ultraviolet
1955:photoresist
1809:Swiss rolls
1750:Swiss rolls
1656:If the DNG
1651:focal point
1580:metasurface
1555:mis-match.
1310:wave vector
653:plane waves
603:John Pendry
575:John Guerra
559:lithography
535:dimensional
512:Superlenses
294:focal plane
283:Diffraction
246:microscopes
226:Green light
205:. However,
109:propagating
90:living cell
49:microscopes
39:which uses
6647:Categories
6635:2018-01-05
6229:2010-01-20
6197:2009-12-21
5974:2009-11-04
5833:(9): 143.
5642:1808/21743
5427:2009-10-26
5379:2009-11-01
5188:2009-11-10
5009:1607.07464
4945:1506.06282
4847:2009-11-01
4767:11 January
4537:Opt. Lett.
4456:Opt. Lett.
4412:Opt. Lett.
3382:(4): 881.
3181:2010-01-13
3024:2010-03-02
2997:2010-04-07
2752:2013-06-02
2699:2013-06-03
2635:2009-11-14
2532:References
2248:dielectric
2204:plane wave
2077:magnifying
2066:hyperbolic
1947:micrometre
1727:utilizing
1690:dispersion
1686:absorption
1666:dispersive
1524:near field
619:resolution
457:technology
382:, such as
371:phenomenon
340:glass lens
287:nanometers
203:nanometers
156:nanometers
121:near field
62:Ernst Abbe
33:super lens
6507:" EM Talk
6156:Nano Lett
6104:0708.0262
6019:120546522
5768:CiteSeerX
5663:1205.4823
5034:119268393
4884:CiteSeerX
4366:CiteSeerX
3729:Opt. Lett
3443:0003-6951
3055:0907.3821
2916:GB 541753
2104:spherical
2015:Hyperlens
1863:interface
1697:viability
1641:=μ(ω) / μ
1596:amplified
1553:impedance
1520:microwave
1515:imaging.
1509:was shown
1466:interface
1368:−
1347:ω
1339:−
1278:λ
1275:≈
1262:Δ
1234:λ
1230:π
1213:ω
1208:≈
1176:amplitude
1111:ω
967:−
946:ω
822:ω
819:−
700:∑
624:flat lens
573:In 1995,
441:nanoscale
392:molecular
375:far field
352:analogous
311:artifacts
117:far field
29:superlens
6585:Archived
6543:Archived
6529:Archived
6515:Archived
6494:Archived
6480:Archived
6418:20049830
6366:19392114
6184:18572971
6076:16247289
6068:19550757
5969:19461787
5914:18174397
5857:21266993
5790:17379801
5591:11542914
5583:19529199
5530:16152502
5522:17322059
5477:19547010
5286:14995884
5152:19461782
4970:26230802
4906:11292865
4834:39687616
4709:11806529
4701:17379804
4632:38798156
4624:11736134
4565:23233908
4484:18978923
4440:18978921
4396:20978013
4388:18703734
4325:18690249
4280:20052179
4220:15845849
4170:39903291
4117:17693868
4109:15089166
4029:36997903
4021:14611495
3970:15845849
3927:19495100
3861:19478762
3775:15680137
3767:15648643
3714:25803316
3706:11041972
3629:32561041
3621:12005605
3555:15845849
3142:14647372
3080:19997206
2686:18497850
2622:25803316
2614:11041972
2312:See also
2242:Nanolens
2032:graphene
1852:coherent
1817:electric
1790:parallel
1701:evidence
1637:ε(ω) / ε
1630:research
1628:Further
1548:infrared
1332:′
449:proteins
384:crystals
344:sciences
60:In 1873
18:Metalens
6611:Science
6346:Bibcode
6305:Bibcode
6256:Bibcode
6164:Bibcode
6129:9517825
6109:Bibcode
6046:Bibcode
5999:Bibcode
5947:Bibcode
5905:2633023
5884:Bibcode
5876:Science
5835:Bibcode
5798:5917552
5760:Bibcode
5752:Science
5691:Bibcode
5621:Bibcode
5563:Bibcode
5502:Bibcode
5493:Science
5455:Bibcode
5410:Bibcode
5354:Bibcode
5312:Bibcode
5266:Bibcode
5224:Bibcode
5130:Bibcode
5076:Bibcode
5014:Bibcode
4978:2876786
4950:Bibcode
4914:9321456
4876:Bibcode
4867:Science
4814:Bibcode
4681:Bibcode
4663:Science
4604:Bibcode
4545:Bibcode
4464:Bibcode
4420:Bibcode
4358:Bibcode
4349:Science
4333:4314138
4305:Bibcode
4258:Bibcode
4228:1085807
4200:Bibcode
4192:Science
4150:Bibcode
4089:Bibcode
4052:Bibcode
4001:Bibcode
3978:1085807
3950:Bibcode
3942:Science
3905:Bibcode
3806:Bibcode
3747:Bibcode
3684:Bibcode
3655:May 31,
3601:Bibcode
3563:1085807
3535:Bibcode
3526:Science
3475:Bibcode
3423:Bibcode
3384:Bibcode
3337:Bibcode
3120:Bibcode
3088:2217980
3060:Bibcode
2970:4176060
2950:Bibcode
2824:Science
2789:Bibcode
2730:Bibcode
2666:Bibcode
2594:Bibcode
2143:viruses
2081:alumina
1913:in the
1861:at the
1678:concept
1540:Blaikie
647:, as a
561:aim to
484:photons
480:imaging
258:viruses
220:. The
56:History
35:, is a
6653:Lenses
6416:
6364:
6182:
6127:
6074:
6066:
6017:
5967:
5912:
5902:
5855:
5796:
5788:
5770:
5589:
5581:
5528:
5520:
5475:
5284:
5150:
5032:
4976:
4968:
4912:
4904:
4886:
4832:
4740:31 May
4707:
4699:
4630:
4622:
4563:
4482:
4438:
4394:
4386:
4368:
4331:
4323:
4296:Nature
4278:
4226:
4218:
4168:
4115:
4107:
4027:
4019:
3976:
3968:
3925:
3859:
3773:
3765:
3712:
3704:
3627:
3619:
3561:
3553:
3441:
3213:
3140:
3111:Nature
3086:
3078:
2968:
2941:Nature
2922:
2684:
2620:
2612:
2523:
2070:radial
1682:finite
1528:et al.
1470:normal
850:where
555:planar
493:silver
388:atomic
380:solids
348:optics
134:Theory
111:light
66:lenses
6438:" by
6191:(PDF)
6152:(PDF)
6125:S2CID
6099:arXiv
6072:S2CID
6015:S2CID
5935:(PDF)
5805:(PDF)
5794:S2CID
5748:(PDF)
5658:arXiv
5609:(PDF)
5587:S2CID
5553:arXiv
5526:S2CID
5398:(PDF)
5373:(PDF)
5342:(PDF)
5243:(PDF)
5210:(PDF)
5030:S2CID
5004:arXiv
4974:S2CID
4940:arXiv
4910:S2CID
4841:(PDF)
4830:S2CID
4804:arXiv
4790:(PDF)
4705:S2CID
4671:arXiv
4639:(PDF)
4628:S2CID
4590:(PDF)
4392:S2CID
4329:S2CID
4246:(PDF)
4224:S2CID
4166:S2CID
4138:(PDF)
4113:S2CID
4025:S2CID
3974:S2CID
3771:S2CID
3737:arXiv
3710:S2CID
3625:S2CID
3559:S2CID
3461:(PDF)
3356:(PDF)
3323:(PDF)
3203:(PDF)
3084:S2CID
3050:arXiv
2966:S2CID
2886:(PDF)
2868:(PDF)
2857:(PDF)
2654:(PDF)
2629:(PDF)
2618:S2CID
2580:(PDF)
2234:, or
2200:metal
2053:high
1834:and k
1780:=∞, n
1662:lossy
1584:phase
1569:image
1433:grows
1147:then
628:focus
549:, or
356:laser
303:stain
260:, or
113:waves
88:of a
74:virus
31:, or
6442:and
6414:PMID
6362:PMID
6180:PMID
6064:PMID
5965:PMID
5910:PMID
5853:PMID
5786:PMID
5579:PMID
5518:PMID
5473:PMID
5282:PMID
5148:PMID
4966:PMID
4902:PMID
4769:2011
4742:2009
4697:PMID
4620:PMID
4561:PMID
4480:PMID
4436:PMID
4384:PMID
4321:PMID
4276:PMID
4216:PMID
4105:PMID
4017:PMID
3966:PMID
3923:PMID
3857:PMID
3763:PMID
3702:PMID
3657:2009
3617:PMID
3551:PMID
3439:ISSN
3211:ISBN
3138:PMID
3076:PMID
2682:PMID
2610:PMID
2030:and
1963:FDTD
1938:and
1819:and
1797:axis
1788:and
1766:n=+1
1762:n=−1
1618:n=−1
1500:(YVO
1105:>
489:gold
463:and
453:fats
451:and
390:and
307:dyes
142:The
37:lens
6446:.
6406:doi
6354:doi
6342:102
6313:doi
6272:hdl
6264:doi
6172:doi
6117:doi
6054:doi
6007:doi
5995:461
5955:doi
5900:PMC
5892:doi
5880:319
5843:doi
5778:doi
5756:315
5709:hdl
5699:doi
5637:hdl
5629:doi
5571:doi
5510:doi
5498:315
5463:doi
5418:doi
5362:doi
5320:doi
5274:doi
5232:doi
5138:doi
5084:doi
5022:doi
4958:doi
4936:115
4894:doi
4872:292
4822:doi
4689:doi
4667:315
4612:doi
4553:doi
4472:doi
4428:doi
4376:doi
4354:321
4313:doi
4301:455
4266:doi
4208:doi
4196:308
4158:doi
4146:100
4097:doi
4060:doi
4009:doi
3958:doi
3946:308
3913:doi
3847:doi
3843:459
3814:doi
3802:264
3755:doi
3692:doi
3609:doi
3543:doi
3531:308
3483:doi
3431:doi
3392:doi
3345:doi
3296:doi
3267:doi
3240:doi
3128:doi
3116:426
3068:doi
2958:doi
2946:242
2898:doi
2833:doi
2829:316
2797:doi
2738:doi
2674:doi
2602:doi
1915:THz
1776:, n
1664:or
1513:MRI
1270:min
1203:max
651:of
551:ion
491:or
360:DVD
327:DVD
76:or
6649::
6628:.
6412:.
6400:.
6396:.
6374:^
6360:.
6352:.
6340:.
6336:.
6311:.
6301:11
6299:.
6295:.
6270:.
6262:.
6252:96
6250:.
6238:^
6217:.
6206:^
6178:.
6170:.
6158:.
6154:.
6137:^
6123:.
6115:.
6107:.
6095:77
6093:.
6070:.
6062:.
6052:.
6042:15
6040:.
6036:.
6013:.
6005:.
5993:.
5963:.
5953:.
5943:11
5941:.
5937:.
5908:.
5898:.
5890:.
5878:.
5874:.
5851:.
5841:.
5829:.
5825:.
5813:^
5792:.
5784:.
5776:.
5766:.
5754:.
5750:.
5723:^
5707:.
5697:.
5685:.
5681:.
5635:.
5627:.
5617:74
5615:.
5611:.
5585:.
5577:.
5569:.
5561:.
5549:14
5547:.
5524:.
5516:.
5508:.
5496:.
5471:.
5461:.
5451:15
5449:.
5445:.
5416:.
5406:23
5404:.
5400:.
5360:.
5350:87
5348:.
5344:.
5318:.
5306:.
5280:.
5272:.
5262:92
5260:.
5230:.
5220:83
5218:.
5212:.
5197:^
5174:.
5160:^
5146:.
5136:.
5126:11
5124:.
5118:.
5098:^
5082:.
5072:34
5070:.
5066:.
5054:^
5042:^
5028:.
5020:.
5012:.
5000:18
4998:.
4986:^
4972:.
4964:.
4956:.
4948:.
4934:.
4922:^
4908:.
4900:.
4892:.
4882:.
4870:.
4856:^
4828:.
4820:.
4812:.
4800:82
4798:.
4792:.
4777:^
4726:.
4703:.
4695:.
4687:.
4679:.
4665:.
4647:^
4626:.
4618:.
4610:.
4600:64
4598:.
4592:.
4573:^
4559:.
4551:.
4541:37
4478:.
4470:.
4460:33
4434:.
4426:.
4416:33
4390:.
4382:.
4374:.
4364:.
4352:.
4327:.
4319:.
4311:.
4299:.
4274:.
4264:.
4254:17
4252:.
4248:.
4222:.
4214:.
4206:.
4194:.
4164:.
4156:.
4144:.
4140:.
4125:^
4111:.
4103:.
4095:.
4085:92
4083:.
4058:.
4048:71
4046:.
4023:.
4015:.
4007:.
3997:91
3995:.
3972:.
3964:.
3956:.
3944:.
3921:.
3911:.
3901:13
3899:.
3895:.
3869:^
3855:.
3841:.
3835:.
3812:.
3800:.
3792:;
3769:.
3761:.
3753:.
3745:.
3733:30
3731:.
3708:.
3700:.
3690:.
3680:85
3678:.
3674:.
3623:.
3615:.
3607:.
3597:88
3595:.
3571:^
3557:.
3549:.
3541:.
3529:.
3495:^
3481:.
3471:73
3469:.
3463:.
3437:.
3429:.
3419:66
3417:.
3413:.
3390:.
3380:19
3378:.
3364:^
3343:.
3331:.
3325:.
3308:^
3292:62
3290:.
3263:13
3261:.
3166:.
3150:^
3136:.
3126:.
3114:.
3108:.
3096:^
3082:.
3074:.
3066:.
3058:.
3046:17
3044:.
3015:.
2989:.
2978:^
2964:.
2956:.
2944:.
2938:.
2894:50
2892:.
2888:.
2859:.
2827:.
2821:.
2809:^
2795:.
2783:.
2761:^
2736:.
2724:.
2720:.
2708:^
2680:.
2672:.
2660:.
2656:.
2616:.
2608:.
2600:.
2590:85
2588:.
2582:.
2555:^
2034:.
917::
655::
568:nm
545:,
530:.
471:.
264:.
123:.
27:A
6638:.
6616:"
6605:"
6594:"
6591:"
6580:"
6577:"
6573:"
6570:"
6566:"
6559:"
6552:"
6549:"
6538:"
6535:"
6524:"
6521:"
6510:"
6503:"
6489:"
6486:"
6475:"
6468:"
6454:.
6434:"
6420:.
6408::
6402:2
6368:.
6356::
6348::
6321:.
6315::
6307::
6280:.
6274::
6266::
6258::
6232:.
6200:.
6174::
6166::
6160:8
6131:.
6119::
6111::
6101::
6078:.
6056::
6048::
6021:.
6009::
6001::
5977:.
5957::
5949::
5916:.
5894::
5886::
5859:.
5845::
5837::
5831:1
5780::
5762::
5717:.
5711::
5701::
5693::
5687:8
5666:.
5660::
5645:.
5639::
5631::
5623::
5593:.
5573::
5565::
5555::
5532:.
5512::
5504::
5479:.
5465::
5457::
5430:.
5420::
5412::
5382:.
5364::
5356::
5326:.
5322::
5314::
5308:7
5288:.
5276::
5268::
5234::
5226::
5191:.
5154:.
5140::
5132::
5092:.
5086::
5078::
5036:.
5024::
5016::
5006::
4980:.
4960::
4952::
4942::
4916:.
4896::
4878::
4850:.
4824::
4816::
4806::
4771:.
4744:.
4711:.
4691::
4683::
4673::
4614::
4606::
4567:.
4555::
4547::
4486:.
4474::
4466::
4442:.
4430::
4422::
4398:.
4378::
4360::
4335:.
4315::
4307::
4282:.
4268::
4260::
4230:.
4210::
4202::
4160::
4152::
4119:.
4099::
4091::
4066:.
4062::
4054::
4031:.
4011::
4003::
3980:.
3960::
3952::
3929:.
3915::
3907::
3863:.
3849::
3820:.
3816::
3808::
3777:.
3757::
3749::
3739::
3716:.
3694::
3686::
3659:.
3641:"
3631:.
3611::
3603::
3565:.
3545::
3537::
3489:.
3485::
3477::
3445:.
3433::
3425::
3398:.
3394::
3386::
3347::
3339::
3333:4
3302:.
3298::
3273:.
3269::
3246:.
3242::
3236:6
3219:.
3184:.
3144:.
3130::
3122::
3090:.
3070::
3062::
3052::
3027:.
3000:.
2972:.
2960::
2952::
2904:.
2900::
2841:.
2835::
2803:.
2799::
2791::
2785:3
2755:.
2740::
2732::
2726:4
2702:.
2676::
2668::
2662:7
2638:.
2604::
2596::
1840:z
1836:y
1832:x
1801:0
1782:x
1778:2
1643:0
1639:0
1502:4
1474:n
1458:n
1416:.
1410:)
1404:2
1399:y
1395:k
1391:+
1386:2
1381:x
1377:k
1372:(
1361:2
1357:c
1351:2
1336:=
1328:z
1324:k
1306:z
1302:z
1298:n
1281:.
1266:x
1239:,
1227:2
1221:=
1216:c
1199:k
1180:z
1160:z
1156:k
1132:,
1125:2
1121:c
1115:2
1100:2
1095:y
1091:k
1087:+
1082:2
1077:x
1073:k
1047:z
1043:k
1032:z
1015:.
1009:)
1003:2
998:y
994:k
990:+
985:2
980:x
976:k
971:(
960:2
956:c
950:2
938:=
933:z
929:k
903:y
899:k
895:,
890:x
886:k
863:z
859:k
835:,
829:)
825:t
816:x
811:x
807:k
803:+
800:y
795:y
791:k
787:+
784:z
779:z
775:k
770:(
766:i
762:e
758:)
753:y
749:k
745:,
740:x
736:k
732:(
729:A
722:y
718:k
714:,
709:x
705:k
696:=
693:)
690:t
687:,
684:z
681:,
678:y
675:,
672:x
669:(
666:E
510:(
334:.
289:.
158:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
