2841:
2361:
2407:
3439:
2376:
2744:
2708:
2463:
2345:
3277:
2911:
2685:
1452:, also known as guide fossils, indicator fossils or dating fossils, are the fossilized remains or traces of particular plants or animals that are characteristic of a particular span of geologic time or environment, and can be used to identify and date the containing rocks. To be practical, index fossils must have a limited vertical time range, wide geographic distribution, and rapid evolutionary trends. Rock formations separated by great distances but containing the same index fossil species are thereby known to have both formed during the limited time that the species lived.
2313:
3420:
1522:
2447:
1509:, rather than an individual species — this allows greater precision as the time span in which all of the species in the assemblage existed together is narrower than the time spans of any of the members. Further, if only one species is present in a sample, it can mean either that (1) the strata were formed in the known fossil range of that organism; or (2) that the fossil range of the organism was incompletely known, and the strata extend the known fossil range. If the fossil is easy to preserve and easy to identify, more precise time estimating of the
2726:
3104:
1966:
3476:
2425:
3247:
3466:
2763:
2776:
158:
1872:
2670:
3500:
2328:
823:
1405:
2631:
2122:
3182:
1502:. Different fossils work well for sediments of different ages. To work well, the fossils used must be widespread geographically, so that they can be found in many different places. They must also be short lived as a species, so that the period of time during which they could be incorporated in the sediment is relatively narrow. The longer lived the species, the poorer the stratigraphic precision, so fossils that evolve rapidly.
1753:
2080:) usually produce simple fossils of a very small size, eukaryotic unicellular fossils are usually larger and more complex, with external morphological projections and ornamentation such as spines and hairs that only eukaryotes can produce; as most acritarchs have external projections (e.g., hair, spines, thick cell membranes, etc.), they are predominantly eukaryotes, although simple eukaryote acritarchs also exist.
2802:
5809:
4953:
2647:
22:
2510:, found in some plant tissues and persisting after the decay of the plant. These plants take up silica from the soil, whereupon it is deposited within different intracellular and extracellular structures of the plant. Phytoliths come in varying shapes and sizes. The term "phytolith" is sometimes used to refer to all mineral secretions by plants, but more commonly refers to siliceous plant remains.
2944:. Since the worms themselves were soft-bodied and hence extremely rarely preserved in the fossil record, their jaws constitute the main evidence of polychaetes in the geological past, and the only way to restore the evolution of this important group of animals. Small size of scolecodonts, usually less than 1 mm, puts them into a microfossil category. They are common by-product of conodont,
3298:
2538:) are usually deposited in shallow water near land, since the carbonate is precipitated by marine organisms that need land-derived nutrients. Generally speaking, the farther from land sediments fall, the less calcareous they are. Some areas can have interbedded calcareous sediments due to storms, or changes in ocean currents.
2213:. Siliceous oozes are the least common of the deep sea sediments, and make up approximately 15% of the ocean floor. Oozes are defined as sediments which contain at least 30% skeletal remains of pelagic microorganisms. Siliceous oozes are largely composed of the silica based skeletons of microscopic marine organisms such as
2883:
The element array constituted a feeding apparatus that is radically different from the jaws of modern animals. They are now termed "conodont elements" to avoid confusion. The three forms of teeth (i.e., coniform cones, ramiform bars, and pectiniform platforms) probably performed different functions.
1956:
The ecology of chitinozoa is also open to speculation; some may have floated in the water column, where others may have attached themselves to other organisms. Most species were particular about their living conditions, and tend to be most common in specific paleoenvironments. Their abundance also
1795:
is devoted to the study of pollen, which can be used both for biostratigraphy and to gain information about the abundance and variety of plants alive — which can itself yield important information about paleoclimates. Also, pollen analysis has been widely used for reconstructing past changes in
3168:
stage of their lifecycle. These dinocyst stages are known to occur in 84 of the 350 described freshwater dinoflagellate species, and in about 10% of the known marine species. Dinocysts have a long geological record with geochemical markers suggest a presence that goes back to the
2480:
3532:, and paleoceanographic markers. Their widespread presence around the world and physical toughness makes microfossils important for biostratigraphy, while the manner in which they have reacted to environmental changes makes them helpful when reconstructing past environments.
2894:, fossils used to define and identify geological periods and date strata. Conodonts elements can be used to estimate the temperatures rocks have been exposed to, which allows the thermal maturation levels of sedimentary rocks to be determined, which is important for
3141:, as part of their lifecycles. Dinoflagellates are mainly represented in the fossil record by these dinocysts, typically 15 to 100 micrometres in diameter, which accumulate in sediments as microfossils. Organic-walled dinocysts have resistant cell walls made out of
1791:, which affords it some resistance to the rigours of the fossilisation process that destroy weaker objects. It is produced in huge quantities. There is an extensive fossil record of pollen grains, often disassociated from their parent plant. The discipline of
2375:
2940:- a diverse and abundant group of worms which has been inhabiting different marine environments in the past 500 million years. Composed of highly resistant organic substance, the scolecodonts are frequently found as fossils from the rocks as old as the late
3524:. In micropaleontology, what would otherwise be distinct categories are grouped together based solely on their size, including microscopic organisms and minute parts of larger organisms. Numerous sediments have microfossils, which serve as significant
5916:
Yang, Ben; Steiner, Michael; Zhu, Maoyan; Li, Guoxiang; Liu, Jianni; Liu, Pengju (2016). "Transitional
Ediacaran–Cambrian small skeletal fossil assemblages from South China and Kazakhstan: Implications for chronostratigraphy and metazoan evolution".
3438:
5692:
Wu, Kui; Tian, Li; Liang, Lei; Metcalfe, Ian; Chu, Daoliang; Tong, Jinnan (2019). "Recurrent biotic rebounds during the Early
Triassic: Biostratigraphy and temporal size variation of conodonts from the Nanpanjiang Basin, South China".
2180:, filamentous microfossils have diameters typically less than 5 micrometres and have a length that can range from tens of micrometres to 100 micrometres, and spindle-like microfossils can be as long as 50 micrometres.
5391:
Moheimani, N.R.; Webb, J.P.; Borowitzka, M.A. (2012), "Bioremediation and other potential applications of coccolithophorid algae: A review. . Bioremediation and other potential applications of coccolithophorid algae: A review",
2046:, increasing in abundance, diversity, size, complexity of shape, and especially size and number of spines. Their increasingly spiny forms in the last 1 billion years may indicate an increased need for defence against predation.
4100:
6038:
Smith, E.F.; Nelson, L.L.; Strange, M.A.; Eyster, A.E.; Rowland, S.M.; Schrag, D.P.; MacDonald, F.A. (2016). "The end of the
Ediacaran: Two new exceptionally preserved body fossil assemblages from Mount Dunfee, Nevada, USA".
2884:
For many years, conodonts were known only from enigmatic tooth-like microfossils (200 micrometres to 5 millimetres in length) which occur commonly, but not always in isolation, and were not associated with any other fossil.
667:
A microfossil is a descriptive term applied to fossilized plants and animals whose size is just at or below the level at which the fossil can be analyzed by the naked eye. A commonly applied cutoff point between "micro" and
3040:
on some specimens. Current scientific opinion is divided between classifying them as polychaetes and regarding it as unsafe to classify them as members of any broader grouping. In 2020, a new study showed the presence of
1944:
affinities have all been entertained. The organisms have been better understood as improvements in microscopy facilitated the study of their fine structure, and it has been suggested that they represent either the
2707:
2114:, and other analytic techniques to the study of the ultrastructure, life history, and systematic affinities of mineralized, but originally organic-walled microfossils, have shown some acritarchs are fossilized
4766:
Marshall, C.; Javaux, E.; Knoll, A.; Walter, M. (2005). "Combined micro-Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and micro-Raman spectroscopy of
Proterozoic acritarchs: A new approach to Palaeobiology".
2176:, or degrades into oil and gas hydrocarbons. There are three main types of cell morphologies. Though there is no established range of sizes for each type, spheroid microfossils can be as small as about 8
1995:
to the present. Acritarchs are not a specific biological taxon, but rather a group with uncertain or unknown affinities. Most commonly they are composed of thermally altered acid insoluble carbon compounds
2871:
has been a puzzle for more than a century. It has been hypothesized that the first mechanism of chordate tissue mineralization began either in the oral skeleton of conodont or the dermal skeleton of early
731:(geologists who study fossils) are interested in these microfossils because they can use them to determine how environments and climates have changed in the past, and where oil and gas can be found today.
2743:
695:
Microfossils are found in rocks and sediments as the microscopic remains of what were once life forms such as plants, animals, fungus, protists, bacteria and archaea. Terrestrial microfossils include
2221:. Other components of siliceous oozes near continental margins may include terrestrially derived silica particles and sponge spicules. Siliceous oozes are composed of skeletons made from opal silica
4835:
Schopf, J. William; Kudryavtsev, Anatoliy B.; Sergeev, Vladimir N. (2010). "Confocal laser scanning microscopy and Raman imagery of the late
Neoproterozoic Chichkan microbiota of South Kazakhstan".
2867:
in Greek) are tiny, extinct jawless fish that resemble eels. For many years, they were known only from tooth-like microfossils found in isolation and now called conodont elements. The evolution of
2095:
Era and when other fossils are not available. Because most acritarchs are thought to be marine (pre-Triassic), they are also useful for palaeoenvironmental interpretation. The
Archean and earliest
3067:, and therefore feature in the debate about why such skeletons first appeared in the Late Ediacaran. The most widely supported answer is that their shells are a defense against predators, as some
3073:
specimens from China bear the marks of multiple attacks, which suggests they survived at least a few of them. The holes made by predators are approximately proportional to the size of the
4096:
2069:. In theory, when the biological source (taxon) of an acritarch does become known, that particular microfossil is removed from the acritarchs and classified with its proper group.
5828:"Fossil Reveals Earth's Oldest Known Animal Guts - The find in a Nevada desert revealed an intestine inside a creature that looks like a worm made of a stack of ice cream cones"
4504:
Colbath, G.Kent; Grenfell, Hugh R. (1995). "Review of biological affinities of
Paleozoic acid-resistant, organic-walled eukaryotic algal microfossils (including "acritarchs")".
4441:
Colbath, G.Kent; Grenfell, Hugh R. (1995). "Review of biological affinities of
Paleozoic acid-resistant, organic-walled eukaryotic algal microfossils (Including "acritarchs")".
4188:
Gabbott, S.E.; Aldridge, R.J.; Theron, J.N. (1998). "Chitinozoan chains and cocoons from the Upper
Ordovician Soom Shale lagerstatte, South Africa; implications for affinity".
3009:
Cloudinids had a wide geographic range, reflected in the present distribution of localities in which their fossils are found, and are an abundant component of some deposits.
5170:
Bohrmann, Gerhard; Abelmann, Andrea; Gersonde, Rainer; Hubberten, Hans; Kuhn, Gerhard (1994). "Pure siliceous ooze, a diagenetic environment for early chert formation".
3419:
2241:. Distance from land masses, water depth and ocean fertility are all factors that affect the opal silica content in seawater and the presence of siliceous oozes.
5085:
Oehler, D.Z.; Robert, F.; Mostefaoui, S.; Meibom, A.; Selo, M.; McKay, D.S. (2006). "Chemical
Mapping of Proterozoic Organic Matter at Submicron Spatial Resolution".
4731:
Kempe, A.; Wirth, R.; Altermann, W.; Stark, R.; Schopf, J.; Heckl, W. (2005). "Focussed ion beam preparation and in situ nanoscopic study of Precambrian acritarchs".
2099:
microfossils termed "acritarchs" may actually be prokaryotes. The earliest eukaryotic acritarchs known (as of 2020) are from between 1950 and 2150 million years ago.
2826:. Ostracods are typically about 1 mm (0.039 in) in size, though they can range from 0.2 to 30 mm (0.008 to 1.181 in), with some species such as
3083:
fossils, which are often found in the same beds, have so far shown no such holes. These two points suggest that predators attacked in a selective manner, and the
3021:, growing new cones to avoid being buried by silt. However no specimens have been found embedded in mats, and their mode of life is still an unresolved question.
3675:
4970:
Philp, R.P.; Calvin, M. (1976). "Possible origin for insoluble organic (kerogen) debris in sediments from insoluble cell-wall materials of algae and bacteria".
4596:"MONTENARI, M. & LEPPIG, U. (2003): The Acritarcha: their classification morphology, ultrastructure and palaeoecological/palaeogeographical distribution".
6074:
Mertens KN, Rengefors K, Moestrup Ø, Ellegaard M (2012). "A review of recent freshwater dinoflagellate cysts: Taxonomy, phylogeny, ecology and palaeocology".
4231:
Liang, Yan; Hints, Olle; Tang, Peng; Cai, Chenyang; Goldman, Daniel; Nõlvak, Jaak; Tihelka, Erik; Pang, Ke; Bernardo, Joseph; Wang, Wenhui (1 December 2020).
3691:
Dodd, Matthew S.; Papineau, Dominic; Grenne, Tor; slack, John F.; Rittner, Martin; Pirajno, Franco; O'Neil, Jonathan; Little, Crispin T. S. (2 March 2017).
3358:, in the context of a marine sediment, does not refer to the consistency of the sediment but to its biological origin. The term ooze was originally used by
1436:
2065:. The nature of the organisms associated with older acritarchs is generally not well understood, though many are probably related to unicellular marine
3918:
2091:
but are occasionally extracted from carbonate-rich rocks. They are excellent candidates for index fossils used for dating rock formations in the
1167:
2406:
6494:
6441:
6392:
3972:
2840:
2139:
5048:
Walsh, M. (1991). "Microfossils and possible microfossils from the early Archean Onverwacht Group, Barberton mountain land, South Africa".
3354:(single-celled plankton and benthos microorganisms). Much smaller amounts of precipitated minerals and meteoric dust can also be present.
798:
4.54 billion years ago. Nonetheless, life may have started even earlier, at nearly 4.5 billion years ago, as claimed by some researchers.
3803:
1388:
6276:
2902:
are the earliest vertebrate teeth found in the fossil record, and some conodont teeth are the sharpest that have ever been recorded.
328:
3056:
Cloudinids are important in the history of animal evolution for two reasons. They are among the earliest and most abundant of the
2118:. In the end, it may well be, as Moczydłowska et al. suggested in 2011, that many acritarchs will, in fact, turn out to be algae.
1429:
3285:
Within each colored area, the type of material shown is what dominates, although other materials are also likely to be present.
654:
54:
that is generally between 0.001 mm and 1 mm in size, the visual study of which requires the use of light or electron
6470:
6417:
6368:
5576:
5253:
4021:
3861:
Betts, Holly C.; Putick, Mark N.; Clark, James W.; Williams, Tom A.; Donoghue, Philip C.J.; Pisani, Davide (20 August 2018).
2550:. Below this depth, calcium carbonate begins to dissolve in the ocean, and only non-calcareous sediments are stable, such as
2049:
Acritarchs may include the remains of a wide range of quite different kinds of organisms—ranging from the egg cases of small
791:
2725:
2424:
1583:. This division focuses on differences in the mineralogical and chemical composition of microfossil remains rather than on
672:
is 1 mm. Microfossils may either be complete (or near-complete) organisms in themselves (such as the marine plankters
58:. A fossil which can be studied with the naked eye or low-powered magnification, such as a hand lens, is referred to as a
2690:
Coccolithophores are the largest global source of biogenic calcium carbonate, and significantly contribute to the global
1422:
6160:
Moldowan JM, Talyzina NM (August 1998). "Biogeochemical evidence for dinoflagellate ancestors in the Early Cambrian".
6286:
6260:
5604:
5522:
Castellani, Christopher; Maas, Andreas; Eriksson, Mats E.; Haug, Joachim T.; Haug, Carolin; Waloszek, Dieter (2018).
5332:
Piperno, Dolores R. (2006). Phytoliths: A Comprehensive Guide for Archaeologists and Paleoecologists. AltaMira Press
5155:
4477:
4172:
3914:"The Microfossil Record of Early Land Plants: Advances in Understanding of Early Terrestrialization, 1970–1984"
2025:
6298:
Wierer, U.; Arrighi, S.; Bertola, S.; Kaufmann, G.; Baumgarten, B.; Pedrotti, A.; Pernter, P.; Pelegrin, J. (2018).
2360:
750:
but are classified by fine skeletal details of the small individuals of the colony. As another example, many fossil
4633:"Microfossils from the Paleoproterozoic Hutuo Group, Shanxi, North China: Early evidence for eukaryotic metabolism"
343:
3692:
2522:
can be applied to a fossil, sediment, or sedimentary rock which is formed from, or contains a high proportion of,
3747:
3146:
1650:
217:
5191:
4921:"A Mineralized Alga and Acritarch Dominated Microbiota from the Tully Formation (Givetian) of Pennsylvania, USA"
5676:
5337:
4282:"The Weng'an Biota (Doushantuo Formation): An Ediacaran window on soft-bodied and multicellular microorganisms"
3150:
1804:
period, but at that time it is indistinguishable from spores. It increases in abundance until the present day.
5473:"New species of Mesozoic benthic foraminifera from the former British Petroleum micropalaeontology collection"
3964:
3567:
3115:
1858:
are not part of a sexual cycle but are resistant structures used for survival under unfavourable conditions.
1299:
1294:
1127:
928:
308:
3250:
2547:
2237:). Silica (Si) is a bioessential element and is efficiently recycled in the marine environment through the
1455:
Index fossils were originally used to define and identify geologic units, then became a basis for defining
783:
338:
260:
212:
3653:
2008:
is entirely artificial, it is not without merit, as the form taxa show traits similar to those of genuine
1834:
and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores form part of the
5827:
5620:
Trotter, Julie A. (2006). "Chemical systematics of conodont apatite determined by laser ablation ICPMS".
4476:
Bengtson, S. (2002). "Origins and early evolution of predation". In Kowalewski, M.; Kelley, P.H. (eds.).
3359:
1122:
6250:
5751:
Jones, David; Evans, Alistair R.; Siu, Karen K. W.; Rayfield, Emily J.; Donoghue, Philip C. J. (2012).
1409:
1356:
647:
6204:
5205:
DeMaster, David J. (October 1981). "The supply and accumulation of silica in the marine environment".
5013:
Tegelaar, E.W.; deLeeuw, J.W.; Derenne, S.; Largeau, C. (1989). "A reappraisal of kerogen formation".
3017:, which are limited to shallow water, and it has been suggested that cloudinids lived embedded in the
4316:
3582:
2001:
1949:
or juvenile stage of a marine animal. However, recent research has suggested that they represent the
1929:
1917:
periods (i.e. the mid-Paleozoic), the millimetre-scale organisms are abundant in almost all types of
1584:
1350:
1009:
787:
525:
474:
454:
6407:
6358:
4349:"A Discussion and Proposals Concerning Fossil Dinoflagellates, Hystrichospheres, and Acritarchs, Ii"
3834:
3339:
on land, transported by rivers and land runoff, windborne dust, volcanoes, or grinding by glaciers.
3128:
4280:
Cunningham, John A.; Vargas, Kelly; Yin, Zongjun; Bengtson, Stefan; Donoghue, Philip C. J. (2017).
3445:
3302:
3061:
2858:
896:
497:
371:
27:
3276:
2986:
cones nested within one another; the appearance of the organism itself remains unknown. The name
2895:
2103:
2035:
Acritarch diversity reflects major ecological events such as the appearance of predation and the
1921:
across the globe. This wide distribution, and their rapid pace of evolution, makes them valuable
1132:
1004:
615:
492:
5859:"Discovery of bilaterian-type through-guts in cloudinomorphs from the terminal Ediacaran Period"
5753:"The sharpest tools in the box? Quantitative analysis of conodont element functional morphology"
3863:"Integrated genomic and fossil evidence illuminates life's early evolution and eukaryote origin"
3491:
containing radiolarians, calcispheres, calpionellids and a few sponge spicules. The presence of
3297:
2952:
samples, but sometimes they occur in the sediments where other fossils are very rare or absent.
2910:
6409:
Environmental Micropaleontology : the Application of Microfossils to Environmental Geology
3605:"Cochleatina: an enigmatic Ediacaran–Cambrian survivor among small carbonaceous fossils (SCFs)"
3084:
3046:
2684:
2462:
1321:
1146:
535:
426:
381:
376:
298:
3811:
2344:
6511:
5863:
5138:
Mulder, Thierry; Hüneke, Heiko; Van Loon, A.J. (2011), "Progress in Deep-Sea Sedimentology",
3557:
3367:
2695:
1835:
884:
790:, suggesting "an almost instantaneous emergence of life" (in a geological time-scale), after
640:
630:
421:
411:
318:
275:
5240:
Hasle, Grethe R.; Syvertsen, Erik E.; Steidinger, Karen A.; Tangen, Karl (25 January 1996).
6311:
6169:
6048:
5996:
5961:
5926:
5872:
5702:
5629:
5535:
5484:
5289:
5214:
5179:
5094:
5050:
5022:
4979:
4932:
4891:
4844:
4804:"Spore-Like Bodies in Some Early Paleozoic Acritarchs: Clues to Chlorococcalean Affinities"
4776:
4740:
4685:
4644:
4560:
4513:
4450:
4360:
4293:
4244:
4197:
4135:
4050:
4039:"Pollen Organ Telangiopsis sp. of Late Devonian Seed Plant and Associated Vegetative Frond"
3927:
3707:
3616:
3332:
3324:
3057:
2312:
1831:
1827:
1716:
1498:
are amongst the many species have been identified as index fossils that are widely used in
916:
431:
406:
401:
313:
202:
3775:
3690:
3350:
account for the other 55% of the total sediment, and originate in the skeletal remains of
8:
5735:
2868:
2542:
is a form of calcium carbonate derived from planktonic organisms that accumulates on the
2107:
2039:. Precambrian marine diversity was dominated by acritarchs. They underwent a boom around
1823:
1521:
1510:
838:
684:) of larger animals or plants. Microfossils are of critical importance as a reservoir of
626:
416:
366:
280:
250:
6315:
6173:
6052:
6000:
5987:
Porter, S.M. (1 June 2007). "Seawater Chemistry and Early Carbonate Biomineralization".
5965:
5930:
5876:
5706:
5633:
5539:
5488:
5293:
5218:
5183:
5098:
5026:
4983:
4936:
4895:
4848:
4780:
4744:
4689:
4648:
4564:
4517:
4454:
4364:
4297:
4248:
4201:
4139:
4054:
3931:
3711:
3620:
3006:
is at best weakly mineralized, whilst sharing the same "funnel-in-funnel" construction.
2446:
1932:
and ecological reconstruction difficult. Since their discovery in 1931, suggestions of
6488:
6435:
6386:
6334:
6299:
6232:
6137:
6110:
6091:
6020:
5952:
Germs, G.J.B. (October 1972). "New shelly fossils from Nama Group, South West Africa".
5893:
5858:
5832:
5777:
5752:
5718:
5568:
5448:
5421:
5310:
5277:
5147:
4995:
4860:
4613:
4423:
4419:
4213:
4124:"A chitinozoan morphological lineage and its importance in Lower Silurian stratigraphy"
4073:
4038:
3945:
3889:
3862:
3603:
Slater, Ben J.; Harvey, Thomas H. P.; Bekker, Andrey; Butterfield, Nicholas J. (2020).
3577:
3529:
3382:
3347:
3329:
Sediments at the bottom of the ocean have two main origins, terrigenous and biogenous.
3088:
3025:
2487:
2381:
2111:
2036:
2013:
1371:
1361:
1212:
1178:
1095:
1088:
999:
848:
391:
361:
303:
187:
66:
5656:
4708:
4673:
4383:
4348:
3465:
3103:
2998:
tubes, whose original mineral composition is unknown, Cloudinids comprise two genera:
6476:
6466:
6423:
6413:
6374:
6364:
6339:
6282:
6256:
6224:
6185:
6142:
6012:
5898:
5782:
5722:
5600:
5572:
5453:
5422:"A voltage-gated H+ channel underlying pH homeostasis in calcifying coccolithophores"
5373:
5333:
5315:
5249:
5226:
5151:
5120:
5067:
5063:
5034:
4904:
4879:
4864:
4713:
4617:
4578:
4529:
4525:
4462:
4427:
4388:
4262:
4217:
4168:
4078:
4017:
3894:
3725:
3634:
3552:
3521:
3515:
3232:
2658:
of a planktic foraminiferan. There are about 10,000 living species of foraminiferans
2655:
2636:
2596:
2523:
2088:
1965:
1635:
1527:
1506:
1463:
1376:
1286:
955:
889:
814:
776:
735:
590:
575:
530:
464:
386:
323:
94:
86:
6236:
6095:
6024:
5938:
4999:
4788:
4752:
4657:
4632:
3335:
account for about 45% of the total marine sediment, and originate in the erosion of
2818:. They are flattened from side to side and protected with a calcareous or chitinous
2148:
because their cell walls are made of proteins which convert to the organic material
6329:
6319:
6216:
6177:
6132:
6122:
6083:
6056:
6004:
5969:
5934:
5888:
5880:
5772:
5764:
5710:
5637:
5543:
5502:
5492:
5443:
5433:
5403:
5363:
5305:
5297:
5222:
5187:
5143:
5110:
5102:
5059:
5030:
4987:
4940:
4899:
4852:
4815:
4784:
4748:
4703:
4693:
4652:
4605:
4568:
4521:
4458:
4415:
4378:
4368:
4331:
4311:
4301:
4252:
4205:
4143:
4068:
4058:
4009:
3981:
3935:
3884:
3876:
3867:
3715:
3624:
3525:
3426:
3411:
3375:
3320:
3316:
3310:
3201:
2975:
2968:
2555:
2453:
2389:
2203:
2189:
2165:
2161:
1922:
1895:
1608:
1336:
1326:
1306:
923:
843:
795:
747:
685:
605:
333:
270:
240:
90:
6205:"Testing for defensive synergy in Caribbean sponges: Bad taste or glass spicules?"
6181:
6127:
5641:
4672:
Kempe, A.; Schopf, J. W.; Altermann, W.; Kudryavtsev, A. B.; Heckl, W. M. (2002).
3475:
6460:
6324:
5438:
5241:
4063:
4008:. Topics in Geobiology, 28. Vol. 28. Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 199–227.
3547:
3246:
3236:
2877:
2663:
2539:
2234:
2230:
2062:
2021:
1918:
1855:
1499:
1456:
1202:
1078:
992:
960:
728:
708:
704:
689:
677:
515:
396:
255:
197:
6220:
5407:
4878:
Moczydłowska, Małgorzata; Landing, ED; Zang, Wenlong; Palacios, Teodoro (2011).
4013:
3366:
for the silica deposits of radiolarian shells brought to the surface during the
3289:
2775:
2762:
5884:
5813:
5394:
5301:
4957:
4945:
4920:
4335:
3752:
3387:
3378:
containing at least 30 per cent from the skeletal remains of marine organisms.
3336:
3266:
3196:
3170:
3157:
3124:
2750:
2551:
2431:
2413:
2350:
2248:
2199:
2061:
represent various stages of the life cycle of algae that were ancestral to the
1950:
1903:
1899:
1688:
1624:
1568:
1479:
1344:
1207:
1194:
1048:
1021:
1016:
759:
720:
580:
565:
540:
459:
436:
130:
98:
6480:
5597:
Your Inner Fish: A Journey into the 3.5 Billion Year History of the Human Body
5368:
5351:
5084:
3880:
2714:
Calcareous microfossils from marine sediment consisting mainly of star-shaped
207:
6505:
6427:
6378:
6228:
4533:
4266:
4209:
3986:
3638:
3572:
3492:
3134:
3079:
3018:
3014:
2991:
2828:
2780:
2624:
2278:
2121:
1946:
1880:
1876:
1788:
1764:
1757:
1449:
1366:
1311:
1151:
1114:
977:
935:
906:
901:
772:
743:
712:
585:
570:
560:
245:
157:
6008:
5115:
4148:
4123:
1871:
81:
environments, but also occur in brackish water, fresh water and terrestrial
6343:
6146:
6016:
5902:
5786:
5768:
5497:
5472:
5457:
5420:
Taylor, A.R.; Chrachri, A.; Wheeler, G.; Goddard, H.; Brownlee, C. (2011).
5377:
5319:
5124:
5106:
5071:
5012:
4717:
4698:
4582:
4392:
4082:
3940:
3913:
3898:
3729:
3542:
3254:
3189:
3092:
2891:
2823:
2754:
2691:
2238:
1738:
1708:
1669:
1646:
1620:
1556:
1495:
1381:
1058:
1053:
1035:
853:
779:
755:
716:
673:
595:
555:
545:
235:
192:
177:
149:
6189:
5973:
5677:
Study of microfossils maps extreme global warming and environmental change
4820:
4803:
4373:
3693:"Evidence for early life in Earth's oldest hydrothermal vent precipitates"
2669:
6300:"The Iceman's lithic toolkit: Raw material, technology, typology and use"
4233:"Fossilized reproductive modes reveal a protistan affinity of Chitinozoa"
3743:
3562:
3499:
3220:
2945:
2922:
2733:
2469:
2338:
2327:
2218:
2210:
2145:
2096:
2087:. They are typically isolated from siliciclastic sedimentary rocks using
2083:
Acritarchs are found in sedimentary rocks from the present back into the
2077:
2054:
1813:
1779:
1681:
1316:
1259:
1173:
940:
872:
724:
669:
550:
265:
106:
102:
82:
70:
59:
33:
5714:
5507:
5471:
Fox, Lyndsey R.; Stukins, Stephen; Hill, Tom; Bailey, Haydon W. (2018).
4306:
4281:
3720:
3028:
of the cloudinids has proved difficult: they were initially regarded as
822:
707:
are the most common microfossils. Everywhere in the oceans, microscopic
5548:
5523:
4609:
4187:
3949:
3629:
3604:
3484:
3205:
3142:
3029:
2983:
2930:
2715:
2630:
2565:
2499:
2177:
2115:
2092:
2041:
2005:
1990:
1973:
1910:
1887:
1792:
1760:
1712:
1704:
1692:
1631:
1604:
1588:
1580:
1564:
1548:
1544:
1471:
1467:
911:
764:
681:
600:
469:
118:
55:
6111:"Towards an Ecological Understanding of Dinoflagellate Cyst Functions"
3965:"The human impact imprint on modern pollen spectra of the Mayan lands"
1796:
vegetation and their associated drivers. Pollen is first found in the
93:
is represented in the microfossil record, the most abundant forms are
6060:
5524:"First record of Cyanobacteria in Cambrian Orsten deposits of Sweden"
4991:
4856:
4257:
4232:
3449:
3186:
3050:
3042:
3033:
2972:
2961:
2949:
2890:
are globally widespread in sediments.Their many forms are considered
2887:
2873:
2675:
2652:
2611:
2607:
2543:
2535:
2531:
2385:
2233:, which are made from skeletons of calcium carbonate organisms (i.e.
2153:
2073:
2058:
1981:
1661:
1642:
1616:
1560:
1552:
1483:
1254:
1247:
1141:
987:
945:
610:
520:
114:
110:
38:
6087:
4573:
4548:
4479:
The fossil record of predation. The Paleontological Society Papers 8
3181:
786:
of Quebec, Canada that may be as old as 4.28 billion years old, the
6203:
Jones, Adam C.; Blum, James E.; Pawlik, Joseph R. (8 August 2005).
4880:"Proterozoic phytoplankton and timing of Chlorophyte algae origins"
3839:
3780:
3453:
3397:
3213:
3209:
3161:
3138:
3109:
3069:
3064:
2979:
2978:
about 550 million years ago, and became extinct at the base of the
2965:
2941:
2937:
2850:
2846:
2811:
2767:
2393:
2318:
2169:
2050:
2017:
1914:
1851:
1801:
1665:
1654:
1596:
1536:
1475:
1242:
1232:
967:
950:
74:
3835:"A timescale for the origin and evolution of all of life on Earth"
2982:. They formed small millimetre size conical fossils consisting of
6073:
5812:
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a
5169:
4956:
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a
3807:
3457:
3444:
Marble can contain microfossil foraminiferans, coccolithophores,
3392:
3240:
3165:
3037:
2995:
2933:
2822:
shell. There are about 70,000 known species, 13,000 of which are
2819:
2603:
2527:
2207:
2149:
2126:
2084:
2057:(green algae). It is likely that most acritarch species from the
2029:
1997:
1933:
1752:
1742:
1600:
1237:
1162:
1083:
972:
858:
739:
3748:"Scientists Say Canadian Bacteria Fossils May Be Earth's Oldest"
3680:
Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand". Accessed 11 May 2021.
3480:
2814:
are widespread crustaceans, generally small, sometimes known as
6462:
Marvelous microfossils : creators, timekeepers, architects
5562:
4877:
4671:
3804:"Canadian bacteria-like fossils called oldest evidence of life"
3430:
2801:
2615:
2507:
2397:
2306:
2289:
2285:
2214:
2173:
1941:
1847:
1797:
1784:
1720:
1700:
1696:
1612:
1576:
1572:
1540:
1491:
1487:
1266:
696:
172:
126:
122:
51:
5599:(reprint ed.). New York: Pantheon Books. pp. 85–86.
5239:
4919:
Chamberlain, John; Chamberlain, Rebecca; Brown, James (2016).
3216:, providing structural support and defense against predators.
2694:. They are the main constituent of chalk deposits such as the
2646:
2479:
21:
5808:
4952:
3602:
3488:
3362:, the "father of modern oceanography", who proposed the term
2899:
2619:
2301:
2293:
2157:
2009:
1937:
1891:
1843:
1839:
1819:
1673:
982:
751:
700:
78:
6297:
5419:
4674:"Atomic force microscopy of Precambrian microscopic fossils"
4162:
1770:
Green: spore tetrad. Blue: spore with Y-shaped trilete mark.
1535:
Microfossils can be classified by their composition as: (a)
5803:
5192:
10.1130/0091-7613(1994)022<0207:psoade>2.3.co;2
4918:
4279:
2297:
2222:
2066:
1677:
1100:
1039:
5806:
Institute of Geology at Tallinn University of Technology.
5521:
1668:(tiny oral structures of an extinct chordate group), some
4765:
3223:
spicules can become microfossils, and are referred to as
3087:
which this indicates is commonly cited as a cause of the
2546:. This can only occur if the ocean is shallower than the
6037:
5326:
4834:
4730:
3860:
5757:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
5390:
3911:
1707:(thought to be the egg cases of marine invertebrates),
5857:
Schiffbauer, James D.; et al. (10 January 2020).
5814:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
4958:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
3227:. Larger spicules visible to the naked eye are called
3212:. The meshing of many spicules serves as the sponge's
2876:. Conodont elements are made of a phosphatic mineral,
16:
Fossil that requires the use of a microscope to see it
5856:
5750:
4163:
Jansonius, J.; Jenkins, W.A.M. (1978). "Chitinozoa".
2595:
2277:
1906:
microfossils produced by an as yet unknown organism.
5470:
5278:"Phytoliths in selected broad-leaved trees in China"
5276:
Ge, Yong; Lu, Houyuan; Wang, Can; Gao, Xing (2020).
5137:
3425:
Opal can include microfossil diatoms, radiolarians,
2994:. Fossils consist of a series of stacked vase-like
1988:, are organic-walled microfossils, known from about
5691:
5352:"Diversity, Nomenclature, and Taxonomy of Protists"
1505:Often biostratigraphic correlations are based on a
758:, which are protists are known from shells (called
6209:Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology
5233:
3912:Gray, J.; Chaloner, W. G.; Westoll, T. S. (1985).
3495:, which are extinct, was used to date this dagger.
3253:images of various microscleres and megascleres of
1953:of a group of protists with uncertain affinities.
4801:
4230:
3919:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B
6503:
6356:
6159:
5915:
4121:
4004:Traverse, Alfred (2007). "Devonian Palynology".
2832:being too large to be regarded as microfossils.
2152:as the cell breaks down after death. Kerogen is
6202:
5852:
5850:
5563:Richard C. Brusca & Gary J. Brusca (2003).
4969:
4912:
4678:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
4503:
4485:. The Paleontological Society. pp. 289–317
4440:
4406:Martin, Francine (1993). "Acritarchsa Review".
4353:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
4037:Wang, De-Ming; Meng, Mei-Cen; Guo, Yun (2016).
3243:. They are found in a range of symmetry types.
3013:is usually found in association with microbial
762:) that were as big as coins, such as the genus
5246:Identifying Marine Diatoms and Dinoflagellates
3962:
3282:Distribution of sediment types on the seafloor
1767:provide the earliest evidence of life on land.
6108:
5951:
5736:Scientists Discover Sharpest Teeth in History
5590:
5588:
5384:
4156:
3999:
3997:
2753:), usually made of calcium carbonate, from a
2333:diatom microfossil from 40 million years ago
2140:Archean life in the Barberton Greenstone Belt
2076:. While archaea, bacteria and cyanobacteria (
1430:
680:) or component parts (such as small teeth or
648:
6252:Voyage of the Challenger : The Atlantic
5986:
5847:
5819:
5798:
5796:
4802:Kaźmierczak, Józef; Kremer, Barbara (2009).
4475:
3963:Franco-Gaviria, Felipe; et al. (2018).
3208:. They provide structural support and deter
2783:remains of an annulated tubular microfossil
2506:) are rigid, microscopic structures made of
692:to assist in the correlation of rock units.
6357:Armstrong, Howard; Brasier, Martin (2013).
5945:
5275:
4181:
4036:
3854:
3826:
3776:"Earliest evidence of life on Earth 'found"
3767:
3736:
3684:
3668:
2392:made up of microfossils in the form of the
1772:Spores are about 30–35 μm across
688:information, and are also commonly used by
6493:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
6440:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
6391:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
6271:
6269:
5980:
5804:Scolecodonts — jaws of polychaete annelids
5585:
3994:
3795:
3156:Dinocysts are produced by a proportion of
3129:Dinoflagellate § Dinoflagellate cysts
1437:
1423:
655:
641:
6333:
6323:
6136:
6126:
5892:
5793:
5776:
5547:
5506:
5496:
5447:
5437:
5367:
5309:
5114:
4944:
4903:
4819:
4707:
4697:
4656:
4572:
4382:
4372:
4340:
4317:1983/d874148a-f20e-498a-97d2-379b3feaa18a
4315:
4305:
4256:
4224:
4147:
4072:
4062:
3985:
3973:Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana
3939:
3888:
3719:
3628:
65:Microfossils are a common feature of the
6458:
6278:Introduction to Marine Micropaleontology
5909:
5204:
4167:. Elsevier, New York. pp. 341–357.
4165:Introduction to marine micropaleontology
4003:
3905:
3498:
3474:
3464:
3296:
3275:
3245:
3180:
3102:
2909:
2839:
2800:
2774:
2761:
2478:
2366:elaborate silica shell of a radiolarian
2120:
1964:
1870:
1751:
1520:
1459:, and then for faunal stages and zones.
20:
6266:
5619:
5343:
4115:
3260:
3098:
3049:, the oldest on record, supporting the
2917:from the Ordovician and Silurian
715:which readily fossilise. These include
6504:
6405:
6275:Haq B.U. and Boersma A. (Eds.) (1998)
6255:Cambridge University Press, page235.
5594:
5269:
4405:
3801:
3742:
3204:are structural elements found in most
792:ocean formation 4.41 billion years ago
775:, or microfossils, were discovered in
77:. They are most common in deposits of
6109:Bravo I, Figueroa RI (January 2014).
5047:
5041:
4546:
4506:Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology
4443:Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology
4346:
3832:
3773:
711:multiply prolifically, and many grow
5825:
4103:from the original on 5 February 2018
3520:The study of microfossils is called
3509:
3351:
2168:. Over time, it is mineralised into
5654:
5349:
4630:
3654:"Discovering Devonian Microfossils"
3271:
1687:Organic microfossils: The study of
13:
5248:. Academic Press. pp. 5–385.
5148:10.1016/b978-0-444-53000-4.00001-9
4420:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1993.tb01241.x
3651:
3176:
2053:to resting cysts of many kinds of
14:
6523:
5695:Journal of the Geological Society
4286:Journal of the Geological Society
4190:Journal of the Geological Society
3137:, called dinoflagellate cysts or
2484:Phytolith from a leaf of the tree
1727:
6452:
6249:Thomson, Charles Wyville (2014)
5807:
4951:
4905:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2011.01054.x
4549:"Early life: Ancient acritarchs"
3437:
3418:
2845:Conodont element found from the
2742:
2724:
2706:
2683:
2668:
2645:
2629:
2461:
2445:
2423:
2405:
2396:(shells) of centric and pennate
2374:
2359:
2343:
2326:
2311:
2133:
1970:Acritarch from the Weng'an biota
1861:
1404:
1403:
821:
801:
734:Some microfossils are formed by
156:
6399:
6350:
6291:
6243:
6196:
6153:
6102:
6067:
6031:
5939:10.1016/j.precamres.2016.09.016
5826:Joel, Lucas (10 January 2020).
5744:
5729:
5685:
5670:
5648:
5613:
5556:
5515:
5464:
5413:
5350:Ald, S.M.; et al. (2007).
5207:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
5198:
5163:
5131:
5078:
5015:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
5006:
4963:
4871:
4828:
4795:
4789:10.1016/j.precamres.2005.05.006
4759:
4753:10.1016/j.precamres.2005.07.002
4724:
4665:
4658:10.1016/j.precamres.2020.105650
4624:
4589:
4540:
4497:
4469:
4434:
4399:
4324:
4273:
4089:
4030:
3956:
3674:Campbell, Hamish (12 Jun 2006)
3147:calcareous dinoflagellate cysts
3036:on the basis of what look like
3002:itself is mineralized, whereas
2905:
2718:with a sprinkling of coccoliths
1807:
1787:has an outer sheath, called a
1747:
1732:
1695:. Organic microfossils include
1651:calcareous dinoflagellate cysts
1168:microbial calcite precipitation
746:), which have relatively large
703:. Marine microfossils found in
218:List of human evolution fossils
5244:. In Tomas, Carmelo R. (ed.).
4631:Yin, Leiming (February 2020).
3774:Ghosh, Pallab (1 March 2017).
3645:
3596:
3151:siliceous dinoflagellate cysts
3032:worms, and then as coral-like
2183:
2144:Cells can be preserved in the
1516:
788:oldest record of life on Earth
1:
6182:10.1126/science.281.5380.1168
6128:10.3390/microorganisms2010011
5642:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2006.03.004
5477:Journal of Micropalaeontology
4808:Acta Palaeontologica Polonica
3802:Dunham, Will (1 March 2017).
3589:
3568:Protists in the fossil record
3470:Thickness of marine sediments
3133:Some dinoflagellates produce
2955:
2513:
1960:
1866:
1680:remains (collectively called
1128:marine biogenic calcification
6325:10.1371/journal.pone.0198292
5439:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001085
5227:10.1016/0016-7037(81)90006-5
5064:10.1016/0301-9268(92)90074-X
5035:10.1016/0016-7037(89)90191-9
4598:Paläontologische Zeitschrift
4526:10.1016/0034-6667(94)00148-d
4463:10.1016/0034-6667(94)00148-D
4064:10.1371/journal.pone.0147984
3405:
3342:
3251:Scanning electron microscope
2835:
2796:
2757:ooze on the deep ocean floor
2548:carbonate compensation depth
2323:0.002 to 0.2 mm
2194:
2072:Acritarchs were most likely
1928:Their bizarre form has made
213:List of transitional fossils
7:
6221:10.1016/j.jembe.2005.02.009
5954:American Journal of Science
5408:10.1016/j.algal.2012.06.002
5142:, Elsevier, pp. 1–24,
4014:10.1007/978-1-4020-5610-9_8
3535:
3185:Six-pointed spicule from a
2929:in Latin) are tiny jaws of
2770:benthic foraminifera
2588:
2270:
1676:spines and teeth and other
1357:Biomineralising polychaetes
1123:amorphous calcium carbonate
809:Part of a series related to
329:Mammalian auditory ossicles
136:
10:
6528:
6459:De Wever, Patrick (2020).
6406:Martin, Ronald E. (2000).
5885:10.1038/s41467-019-13882-z
5302:10.1038/s41598-020-72547-w
4946:10.3390/geosciences6040057
4097:"Tree of Life Web Project"
3513:
3409:
3314:
3308:
3264:
3194:
3122:
2856:
2356:0.1 to 0.2 mm
2187:
2137:
1811:
1777:
1736:
1563:, as in the study of some
1389:Burgess Shale preservation
5369:10.1080/10635150701494127
4122:Gary Lee Mullins (2000).
3881:10.1038/s41559-018-0644-x
3583:Small carbonaceous fossil
3288:For further information,
2680:under 0.1 mm
2591:
2563:
2273:
2246:
1957:varied with the seasons.
1660:Phosphatic microfossils:
1630:Calcareous microfossils:
1351:Cupriavidus metallidurans
794:, and not long after the
526:Invertebrate paleontology
475:Biological classification
455:Introduction to evolution
356:Evolution of various taxa
4210:10.1144/gsjgs.155.3.0447
3987:10.18268/BSGM2018v70n1a4
3833:Staff (20 August 2018).
3676:"Fossils - Microfossils"
3504:Some marine microfossils
3446:calcareous nannoplankton
3303:Carbonate-silicate cycle
2859:Conodont biostratigraphy
2534:. Calcareous sediments (
1830:that may be adapted for
1595:Siliceous microfossils:
1072:Teeth, scales, tusks etc
510:Branches of paleontology
498:Timeline of paleontology
28:carbonaceous microfossil
6009:10.1126/science.1137284
4837:Journal of Paleontology
4149:10.1111/1475-4983.00131
3656:. Iowa State University
3487:. The blade is made of
2971:that lived in the late
2896:hydrocarbon exploration
2104:atomic force microscopy
2044: million years ago
1993: million years ago
1883:showing its flask shape
1691:microfossils is called
1641:) microfossils include
1133:calcareous nannofossils
929:Choanoflagellate lorica
616:Vertebrate paleontology
493:History of paleontology
487:History of paleontology
208:Lagerstätte fossil beds
5769:10.1098/rspb.2012.0147
5498:10.5194/jm-37-395-2018
5107:10.1089/ast.2006.6.838
4699:10.1073/pnas.142310299
3941:10.1098/rstb.1985.0077
3506:
3496:
3472:
3306:
3294:
3257:
3192:
3120:
3085:evolutionary arms race
2919:
2854:
2808:
2793:
2785:Oscillatoriopsis longa
2772:
2496:
2202:is a type of biogenic
2130:
2102:Recent application of
1978:
1884:
1775:
1532:
1322:Magnetotactic bacteria
1147:oolitic aragonite sand
1005:scaly-foot snail shell
796:formation of the Earth
536:Molecular paleontology
85:deposits. While every
43:
34:Cochleatina canilovica
5974:10.2475/ajs.272.8.752
5864:Nature Communications
5595:Shubin, Neil (2009).
4821:10.4202/app.2008.0060
4374:10.1073/pnas.49.3.298
4347:Evitt, W. R. (1963).
3558:Gunflint microfossils
3502:
3483:who lived during the
3478:
3468:
3410:Further information:
3368:Challenger expedition
3333:Terrigenous sediments
3315:Further information:
3300:
3279:
3249:
3184:
3106:
2913:
2843:
2804:
2778:
2765:
2696:white cliffs of Dover
2642:many under 1 mm
2482:
2188:Further information:
2124:
1968:
1879:chitinozoan from the
1874:
1755:
1737:Further information:
1664:microfossils include
1599:microfossils include
1524:
276:Timeline of evolution
24:
5919:Precambrian Research
5051:Precambrian Research
4769:Precambrian Research
4733:Precambrian Research
4637:Precambrian Research
4547:Buick, R. . (2010).
3456:, calpionellids and
3325:Marine isotope stage
3261:Freshwater sediments
3099:Dinoflagellate cysts
3058:small shelly fossils
2806:Ostracod microfossil
2435:(bilateral symmetry)
2125:Three main types of
1828:asexual reproduction
1717:dinoflagellate cysts
1526:Microfossils from a
1511:stratigraphic layers
771:In 2017, fossilized
293:Organs and processes
203:List of fossil sites
6316:2018PLoSO..1398292W
6174:1998Sci...281.1168M
6053:2016Geo....44..911S
6001:2007Sci...316.1302P
5966:1972AmJS..272..752G
5931:2016PreR..285..202Y
5877:2020NatCo..11..205S
5802:Hints, Olle (2016)
5763:(1739): 2849–2854.
5715:10.1144/jgs2019-065
5707:2019JGSoc.176.1232W
5634:2006ChGeo.233..196T
5540:2018Palgy..61..855C
5489:2018JMicP..37..395F
5294:2020NatSR..1015577G
5219:1981GeCoA..45.1715D
5184:1994Geo....22..207B
5099:2006AsBio...6..838O
5027:1989GeCoA..53.3103T
4984:1976Natur.262..134P
4937:2016Geosc...6...57C
4896:2011Palgy..54..721M
4849:2010JPal...84..402S
4781:2005PreR..138..208M
4745:2005PreR..140...36K
4690:2002PNAS...99.9117K
4649:2020PreR..342j5650Y
4565:2010Natur.463..885B
4518:1995RPaPa..86..287C
4455:1995RPaPa..86..287C
4365:1963PNAS...49..298E
4307:10.1144/jgs2016-142
4298:2017JGSoc.174..793C
4249:2020Geo....48.1200L
4202:1998JGSoc.155..447G
4140:2000Palgy..43..359M
4055:2016PLoSO..1147984W
3932:1985RSPTB.309..167G
3721:10.1038/nature21377
3712:2017Natur.543...60D
3621:2020Palgy..63..733S
3348:Biogenous sediments
2869:mineralized tissues
2108:confocal microscopy
2012:— for example the '
2004:of acritarchs into
1800:record in the late
1049:Vertebrate skeleton
839:Mineralized tissues
627:Paleontology Portal
281:Transitional fossil
251:Geologic time scale
144:Part of a series on
5833:The New York Times
5569:Sinauer Associates
5549:10.1111/pala.12374
5282:Scientific Reports
5140:Deep-Sea Sediments
4610:10.1007/bf03004567
4408:Biological Reviews
3630:10.1111/pala.12484
3578:Scale microfossils
3530:paleoenvironmental
3507:
3497:
3473:
3383:Diatomaceous earth
3307:
3295:
3258:
3193:
3121:
3089:Cambrian explosion
2920:
2855:
2849:to the end of the
2809:
2794:
2773:
2731:Illustration of a
2497:
2488:Cornus controversa
2400:(click to magnify)
2382:Diatomaceous earth
2131:
2112:Raman spectroscopy
2037:Cambrian explosion
1979:
1885:
1776:
1533:
1213:diatomaceous earth
1179:Great Calcite Belt
1096:Scale microfossils
1089:otolithic membrane
1000:small shelly fauna
973:echinoderm stereom
849:Biocrystallization
736:colonial organisms
188:Fossil preparation
44:
6472:978-1-4214-3674-6
6419:978-1-4615-4167-7
6370:978-1-118-68545-7
6168:(5380): 1168–70.
5578:978-0-87893-097-5
5255:978-0-08-053441-1
5213:(10): 1715–1732.
5021:(11): 3103–3106.
4978:(5564): 134–136.
4684:(14): 9117–9120.
4604:: 173–194. 2003.
4559:(7283): 885–886.
4243:(12): 1200–1204.
4023:978-1-4020-6684-9
3926:(1138): 167–195.
3875:(10): 1556–1562.
3652:Drewes, Charlie.
3553:Chemostratigraphy
3522:micropaleontology
3516:Micropaleontology
3510:Micropaleontology
3427:silicoflagellates
3292:
3239:, or composed of
3231:. Spicule can be
3145:. There are also
2791:
2790:Scale bar: 100 μm
2702:
2701:
2586:name of skeleton
2524:calcium carbonate
2494:
2417:(radial symmetry)
2370:
2369:
2268:name of skeleton
2172:or graphite-like
2129:cell morphologies
2089:hydrofluoric acid
1773:
1623:(worm jaws), and
1609:silicoflagellates
1528:deep sea sediment
1507:faunal assemblage
1447:
1446:
1377:permineralization
1362:Mineral nutrients
1287:Mineral evolution
956:foraminifera test
815:Biomineralization
784:Nuvvuagittuq Belt
777:hydrothermal vent
709:protist organisms
690:biostratigraphers
665:
664:
591:Paleotempestology
576:Paleoneurobiology
531:Micropaleontology
95:protist skeletons
67:geological record
6519:
6498:
6492:
6484:
6446:
6445:
6439:
6431:
6403:
6397:
6396:
6390:
6382:
6363:. New York, NY.
6354:
6348:
6347:
6337:
6327:
6295:
6289:
6273:
6264:
6247:
6241:
6240:
6200:
6194:
6193:
6157:
6151:
6150:
6140:
6130:
6106:
6100:
6099:
6071:
6065:
6064:
6061:10.1130/G38157.1
6035:
6029:
6028:
5984:
5978:
5977:
5949:
5943:
5942:
5913:
5907:
5906:
5896:
5854:
5845:
5844:
5842:
5840:
5823:
5817:
5811:
5800:
5791:
5790:
5780:
5748:
5742:
5741:, 20 March 2012.
5733:
5727:
5726:
5701:(6): 1232–1246.
5689:
5683:
5682:, 7 August 2019.
5674:
5668:
5667:
5665:
5663:
5652:
5646:
5645:
5628:(3–4): 196–216.
5622:Chemical Geology
5617:
5611:
5610:
5592:
5583:
5582:
5567:(2nd ed.).
5560:
5554:
5553:
5551:
5519:
5513:
5512:
5510:
5500:
5468:
5462:
5461:
5451:
5441:
5417:
5411:
5410:
5388:
5382:
5381:
5371:
5347:
5341:
5330:
5324:
5323:
5313:
5273:
5267:
5266:
5264:
5262:
5242:"Marine Diatoms"
5237:
5231:
5230:
5202:
5196:
5195:
5167:
5161:
5160:
5135:
5129:
5128:
5118:
5116:2060/20060028086
5082:
5076:
5075:
5058:(2–4): 271–293.
5045:
5039:
5038:
5010:
5004:
5003:
4992:10.1038/262134a0
4967:
4961:
4955:
4950:
4948:
4916:
4910:
4909:
4907:
4875:
4869:
4868:
4857:10.1666/09-134.1
4832:
4826:
4825:
4823:
4799:
4793:
4792:
4775:(3–4): 208–224.
4763:
4757:
4756:
4728:
4722:
4721:
4711:
4701:
4669:
4663:
4662:
4660:
4628:
4622:
4621:
4593:
4587:
4586:
4576:
4544:
4538:
4537:
4512:(3–4): 287–314.
4501:
4495:
4494:
4492:
4490:
4484:
4483:(Free full text)
4473:
4467:
4466:
4449:(3–4): 287–314.
4438:
4432:
4431:
4403:
4397:
4396:
4386:
4376:
4344:
4338:
4328:
4322:
4321:
4319:
4309:
4277:
4271:
4270:
4260:
4258:10.1130/G47865.1
4228:
4222:
4221:
4185:
4179:
4178:
4160:
4154:
4153:
4151:
4119:
4113:
4112:
4110:
4108:
4093:
4087:
4086:
4076:
4066:
4034:
4028:
4027:
4001:
3992:
3991:
3989:
3969:
3960:
3954:
3953:
3943:
3909:
3903:
3902:
3892:
3858:
3852:
3851:
3849:
3847:
3830:
3824:
3823:
3821:
3819:
3810:. Archived from
3799:
3793:
3792:
3790:
3788:
3771:
3765:
3764:
3762:
3760:
3746:(1 March 2017).
3740:
3734:
3733:
3723:
3697:
3688:
3682:
3672:
3666:
3665:
3663:
3661:
3649:
3643:
3642:
3632:
3600:
3526:biostratigraphic
3479:Stone dagger of
3441:
3422:
3412:sedimentary rock
3376:pelagic sediment
3364:radiolarian ooze
3321:Paleoclimatology
3317:Paleoceanography
3311:Marine sediments
3287:
3272:Marine sediments
3095:and complexity.
3053:interpretation.
2789:
2746:
2728:
2710:
2687:
2672:
2649:
2633:
2561:
2560:
2556:pelagic red clay
2492:
2465:
2454:Silicoflagellate
2449:
2427:
2409:
2390:sedimentary rock
2378:
2363:
2347:
2330:
2315:
2244:
2243:
2235:coccolithophores
2231:calcareous oozes
2229:, as opposed to
2204:pelagic sediment
2190:Shelled protists
2166:organic solvents
2045:
1994:
1986:confused origins
1923:biostratigraphic
1909:Common from the
1856:Bacterial spores
1769:
1457:geologic periods
1439:
1432:
1425:
1412:
1407:
1406:
1327:Magnetoreception
1307:Ballast minerals
902:Cephalopod shell
897:Brachiopod shell
844:Remineralisation
825:
806:
805:
742:(especially the
729:Palaeontologists
705:marine sediments
678:coccolithophores
657:
650:
643:
606:Sclerochronology
334:Mosaic evolution
271:Paleoclimatology
241:Extinction event
160:
141:
140:
121:, together with
6527:
6526:
6522:
6521:
6520:
6518:
6517:
6516:
6502:
6501:
6486:
6485:
6473:
6455:
6450:
6449:
6433:
6432:
6420:
6404:
6400:
6384:
6383:
6371:
6355:
6351:
6310:(6): e0198292.
6296:
6292:
6274:
6267:
6248:
6244:
6201:
6197:
6158:
6154:
6107:
6103:
6088:10.2216/11-89.1
6072:
6068:
6036:
6032:
5985:
5981:
5950:
5946:
5914:
5910:
5855:
5848:
5838:
5836:
5824:
5820:
5801:
5794:
5749:
5745:
5734:
5730:
5690:
5686:
5675:
5671:
5661:
5659:
5653:
5649:
5618:
5614:
5607:
5593:
5586:
5579:
5561:
5557:
5520:
5516:
5469:
5465:
5432:(6): e1001085.
5418:
5414:
5389:
5385:
5348:
5344:
5331:
5327:
5274:
5270:
5260:
5258:
5256:
5238:
5234:
5203:
5199:
5168:
5164:
5158:
5136:
5132:
5083:
5079:
5046:
5042:
5011:
5007:
4968:
4964:
4917:
4913:
4876:
4872:
4833:
4829:
4800:
4796:
4764:
4760:
4729:
4725:
4670:
4666:
4629:
4625:
4595:
4594:
4590:
4574:10.1038/463885a
4545:
4541:
4502:
4498:
4488:
4486:
4482:
4474:
4470:
4439:
4435:
4404:
4400:
4345:
4341:
4329:
4325:
4278:
4274:
4229:
4225:
4186:
4182:
4175:
4161:
4157:
4120:
4116:
4106:
4104:
4095:
4094:
4090:
4049:(1): e0147984.
4035:
4031:
4024:
4006:Paleopalynology
4002:
3995:
3967:
3961:
3957:
3910:
3906:
3859:
3855:
3845:
3843:
3831:
3827:
3817:
3815:
3814:on 2 March 2017
3800:
3796:
3786:
3784:
3772:
3768:
3758:
3756:
3741:
3737:
3706:(7643): 60–64.
3695:
3689:
3685:
3673:
3669:
3659:
3657:
3650:
3646:
3601:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3548:Biostratigraphy
3538:
3518:
3512:
3505:
3481:Ötzi the Iceman
3471:
3461:
3442:
3433:
3423:
3414:
3408:
3352:marine protists
3345:
3327:
3313:
3305:
3293:
3286:
3284:
3274:
3269:
3263:
3199:
3179:
3177:Sponge spicules
3158:dinoflagellates
3131:
3119:
3113:
3101:
3077:specimens, and
2958:
2918:
2916:
2908:
2878:hydroxylapatite
2861:
2853:
2838:
2807:
2799:
2792:
2788:
2771:
2758:
2747:
2738:
2729:
2720:
2719:
2711:
2664:coccolithophore
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2600:
2580:
2575:
2569:
2540:Calcareous ooze
2526:in the form of
2516:
2495:
2493:scale bar 20 μm
2485:
2477:
2476:
2475:
2474:
2473:
2472:
2466:
2458:
2457:
2456:
2450:
2437:
2436:
2434:
2428:
2419:
2418:
2416:
2410:
2401:
2379:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2282:
2262:
2257:
2251:
2226:
2206:located on the
2197:
2192:
2186:
2142:
2136:
2063:dinoflagellates
2040:
2022:mass extinction
1989:
1977:
1971:
1963:
1919:marine sediment
1869:
1864:
1816:
1810:
1782:
1774:
1771:
1768:
1750:
1745:
1735:
1730:
1639:
1625:sponge spicules
1531:
1519:
1500:biostratigraphy
1443:
1402:
1395:
1394:
1393:
1281:
1273:
1272:
1271:
1227:
1219:
1218:
1217:
1203:biogenic silica
1197:
1187:
1186:
1185:
1170:
1158:
1137:
1117:
1107:
1106:
1105:
1073:
1065:
1064:
1063:
1043:
1028:
1027:
1026:
993:gastropod shell
961:testate amoebae
951:diatom frustule
876:
865:
864:
863:
833:
804:
721:dinoflagellates
670:"macro" fossils
661:
629:
621:
620:
516:Biostratigraphy
511:
503:
502:
488:
480:
479:
450:
442:
441:
357:
349:
348:
339:Nervous systems
294:
286:
285:
261:History of life
256:Geologic record
231:
230:Natural history
223:
222:
198:List of fossils
168:
139:
131:vascular plants
99:microbial cysts
42:
31:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6525:
6515:
6514:
6500:
6499:
6471:
6454:
6451:
6448:
6447:
6418:
6398:
6369:
6349:
6290:
6265:
6242:
6195:
6152:
6115:Microorganisms
6101:
6082:(6): 612–619.
6066:
6030:
5995:(5829): 1302.
5979:
5960:(8): 752–761.
5944:
5908:
5846:
5818:
5792:
5743:
5728:
5684:
5669:
5647:
5612:
5605:
5584:
5577:
5555:
5534:(6): 855–880.
5514:
5483:(1): 395–401.
5463:
5412:
5402:(2): 120–133,
5395:Algal Research
5383:
5362:(4): 684–689.
5342:
5325:
5268:
5254:
5232:
5197:
5162:
5156:
5130:
5093:(6): 838–850.
5077:
5040:
5005:
4962:
4911:
4890:(4): 721–733.
4870:
4843:(3): 402–416.
4827:
4814:(3): 541–551.
4794:
4758:
4739:(1–2): 36–54.
4723:
4664:
4623:
4588:
4539:
4496:
4468:
4433:
4414:(4): 475–537.
4398:
4359:(3): 298–302.
4339:
4336:dictionary.com
4330:definition of
4323:
4292:(5): 793–802.
4272:
4223:
4196:(3): 447–452.
4180:
4173:
4155:
4134:(2): 359–373.
4114:
4088:
4029:
4022:
3993:
3955:
3904:
3853:
3825:
3794:
3766:
3753:New York Times
3735:
3683:
3667:
3644:
3615:(5): 733–752.
3594:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3514:Main article:
3511:
3508:
3503:
3469:
3463:
3462:
3443:
3436:
3434:
3424:
3417:
3407:
3404:
3403:
3402:
3401:
3400:
3390:
3388:Siliceous ooze
3385:
3344:
3341:
3309:Main article:
3301:
3280:
3273:
3270:
3267:Paleolimnology
3262:
3259:
3197:Sponge spicule
3195:Main article:
3178:
3175:
3171:Early Cambrian
3135:resting stages
3125:Microbial cyst
3107:
3100:
3097:
3026:classification
3019:microbial mats
2964:were an early
2957:
2954:
2914:
2907:
2904:
2844:
2837:
2834:
2805:
2798:
2795:
2781:Cyanobacterial
2779:
2766:
2760:
2759:
2748:
2741:
2739:
2730:
2723:
2721:
2713:
2712:
2705:
2700:
2699:
2688:
2681:
2678:
2673:
2666:
2660:
2659:
2650:
2643:
2640:
2634:
2627:
2622:
2598:
2593:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2577:
2571:
2570:
2564:
2552:siliceous ooze
2515:
2512:
2483:
2468:
2467:
2460:
2459:
2452:
2451:
2444:
2443:
2442:
2441:
2440:
2439:
2438:
2432:Pennate diatom
2430:
2429:
2422:
2420:
2414:Centric diatom
2412:
2411:
2404:
2402:
2380:
2373:
2368:
2367:
2364:
2357:
2354:
2348:
2341:
2335:
2334:
2331:
2324:
2321:
2316:
2309:
2304:
2280:
2275:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2259:
2253:
2252:
2249:Siliceous ooze
2247:
2224:
2200:Siliceous ooze
2196:
2193:
2185:
2182:
2135:
2132:
2002:classification
1969:
1962:
1959:
1930:classification
1868:
1865:
1863:
1860:
1809:
1806:
1765:trilete spores
1756:
1749:
1746:
1734:
1731:
1729:
1728:Organic-walled
1726:
1725:
1724:
1685:
1658:
1657:(seed shrimp).
1637:
1628:
1591:distinctions.
1525:
1518:
1515:
1496:foraminiferans
1480:dinoflagellate
1445:
1444:
1442:
1441:
1434:
1427:
1419:
1416:
1415:
1414:
1413:
1397:
1396:
1392:
1391:
1386:
1385:
1384:
1379:
1369:
1364:
1359:
1354:
1347:
1342:
1334:
1329:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1304:
1303:
1302:
1300:immobilization
1297:
1295:mineralization
1289:
1283:
1282:
1279:
1278:
1275:
1274:
1270:
1269:
1264:
1263:
1262:
1252:
1251:
1250:
1245:
1235:
1229:
1228:
1225:
1224:
1221:
1220:
1216:
1215:
1210:
1208:siliceous ooze
1205:
1199:
1198:
1195:Silicification
1193:
1192:
1189:
1188:
1184:
1183:
1182:
1181:
1176:
1171:
1159:
1157:
1156:
1155:
1154:
1149:
1138:
1136:
1135:
1130:
1125:
1119:
1118:
1113:
1112:
1109:
1108:
1104:
1103:
1098:
1093:
1092:
1091:
1081:
1075:
1074:
1071:
1070:
1067:
1066:
1062:
1061:
1056:
1051:
1045:
1044:
1034:
1033:
1030:
1029:
1025:
1024:
1019:
1017:Sponge spicule
1014:
1013:
1012:
1010:estuary shells
1007:
1002:
997:
996:
995:
990:
985:
975:
965:
964:
963:
958:
953:
948:
943:
933:
932:
931:
921:
920:
919:
914:
909:
899:
894:
893:
892:
887:
878:
877:
871:
870:
867:
866:
862:
861:
856:
851:
846:
841:
835:
834:
831:
830:
827:
826:
818:
817:
811:
810:
803:
800:
773:microorganisms
713:tiny skeletons
663:
662:
660:
659:
652:
645:
637:
634:
633:
623:
622:
619:
618:
613:
608:
603:
598:
593:
588:
583:
581:Paleopathology
578:
573:
568:
566:Paleolimnology
563:
558:
553:
548:
543:
541:Palaeoxylology
538:
533:
528:
523:
518:
512:
509:
508:
505:
504:
501:
500:
495:
489:
486:
485:
482:
481:
478:
477:
472:
467:
462:
460:Common descent
457:
451:
448:
447:
444:
443:
440:
439:
434:
429:
424:
419:
414:
409:
404:
399:
394:
389:
384:
379:
374:
369:
364:
358:
355:
354:
351:
350:
347:
346:
341:
336:
331:
326:
321:
316:
311:
306:
301:
295:
292:
291:
288:
287:
284:
283:
278:
273:
268:
266:Origin of life
263:
258:
253:
248:
243:
238:
232:
229:
228:
225:
224:
221:
220:
215:
210:
205:
200:
195:
190:
185:
180:
175:
169:
166:
165:
162:
161:
153:
152:
146:
145:
138:
135:
39:Late Ediacaran
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6524:
6513:
6510:
6509:
6507:
6496:
6490:
6482:
6478:
6474:
6468:
6465:. Baltimore.
6464:
6463:
6457:
6456:
6453:Other sources
6443:
6437:
6429:
6425:
6421:
6415:
6411:
6410:
6402:
6394:
6388:
6380:
6376:
6372:
6366:
6362:
6361:
6353:
6345:
6341:
6336:
6331:
6326:
6321:
6317:
6313:
6309:
6305:
6301:
6294:
6288:
6287:9780080534961
6284:
6280:
6279:
6272:
6270:
6262:
6261:9781108074759
6258:
6254:
6253:
6246:
6238:
6234:
6230:
6226:
6222:
6218:
6214:
6210:
6206:
6199:
6191:
6187:
6183:
6179:
6175:
6171:
6167:
6163:
6156:
6148:
6144:
6139:
6134:
6129:
6124:
6120:
6116:
6112:
6105:
6097:
6093:
6089:
6085:
6081:
6077:
6070:
6062:
6058:
6054:
6050:
6046:
6042:
6034:
6026:
6022:
6018:
6014:
6010:
6006:
6002:
5998:
5994:
5990:
5983:
5975:
5971:
5967:
5963:
5959:
5955:
5948:
5940:
5936:
5932:
5928:
5924:
5920:
5912:
5904:
5900:
5895:
5890:
5886:
5882:
5878:
5874:
5870:
5866:
5865:
5860:
5853:
5851:
5835:
5834:
5829:
5822:
5815:
5810:
5805:
5799:
5797:
5788:
5784:
5779:
5774:
5770:
5766:
5762:
5758:
5754:
5747:
5740:
5737:
5732:
5724:
5720:
5716:
5712:
5708:
5704:
5700:
5696:
5688:
5681:
5678:
5673:
5658:
5651:
5643:
5639:
5635:
5631:
5627:
5623:
5616:
5608:
5606:9780307277459
5602:
5598:
5591:
5589:
5580:
5574:
5570:
5566:
5565:Invertebrates
5559:
5550:
5545:
5541:
5537:
5533:
5529:
5528:Palaeontology
5525:
5518:
5509:
5504:
5499:
5494:
5490:
5486:
5482:
5478:
5474:
5467:
5459:
5455:
5450:
5445:
5440:
5435:
5431:
5427:
5423:
5416:
5409:
5405:
5401:
5397:
5396:
5387:
5379:
5375:
5370:
5365:
5361:
5357:
5353:
5346:
5339:
5335:
5329:
5321:
5317:
5312:
5307:
5303:
5299:
5295:
5291:
5287:
5283:
5279:
5272:
5257:
5251:
5247:
5243:
5236:
5228:
5224:
5220:
5216:
5212:
5208:
5201:
5193:
5189:
5185:
5181:
5177:
5173:
5166:
5159:
5157:9780444530004
5153:
5149:
5145:
5141:
5134:
5126:
5122:
5117:
5112:
5108:
5104:
5100:
5096:
5092:
5088:
5081:
5073:
5069:
5065:
5061:
5057:
5053:
5052:
5044:
5036:
5032:
5028:
5024:
5020:
5016:
5009:
5001:
4997:
4993:
4989:
4985:
4981:
4977:
4973:
4966:
4959:
4954:
4947:
4942:
4938:
4934:
4930:
4926:
4922:
4915:
4906:
4901:
4897:
4893:
4889:
4885:
4884:Palaeontology
4881:
4874:
4866:
4862:
4858:
4854:
4850:
4846:
4842:
4838:
4831:
4822:
4817:
4813:
4809:
4805:
4798:
4790:
4786:
4782:
4778:
4774:
4770:
4762:
4754:
4750:
4746:
4742:
4738:
4734:
4727:
4719:
4715:
4710:
4705:
4700:
4695:
4691:
4687:
4683:
4679:
4675:
4668:
4659:
4654:
4650:
4646:
4642:
4638:
4634:
4627:
4619:
4615:
4611:
4607:
4603:
4599:
4592:
4584:
4580:
4575:
4570:
4566:
4562:
4558:
4554:
4550:
4543:
4535:
4531:
4527:
4523:
4519:
4515:
4511:
4507:
4500:
4481:
4480:
4472:
4464:
4460:
4456:
4452:
4448:
4444:
4437:
4429:
4425:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4402:
4394:
4390:
4385:
4380:
4375:
4370:
4366:
4362:
4358:
4354:
4350:
4343:
4337:
4333:
4327:
4318:
4313:
4308:
4303:
4299:
4295:
4291:
4287:
4283:
4276:
4268:
4264:
4259:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4234:
4227:
4219:
4215:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4191:
4184:
4176:
4174:0-444-00267-7
4170:
4166:
4159:
4150:
4145:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4129:
4128:Palaeontology
4125:
4118:
4102:
4098:
4092:
4084:
4080:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4060:
4056:
4052:
4048:
4044:
4040:
4033:
4025:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4007:
4000:
3998:
3988:
3983:
3979:
3975:
3974:
3966:
3959:
3951:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3920:
3915:
3908:
3900:
3896:
3891:
3886:
3882:
3878:
3874:
3870:
3869:
3864:
3857:
3842:
3841:
3836:
3829:
3813:
3809:
3805:
3798:
3783:
3782:
3777:
3770:
3755:
3754:
3749:
3745:
3739:
3731:
3727:
3722:
3717:
3713:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3694:
3687:
3681:
3677:
3671:
3655:
3648:
3640:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3609:Palaeontology
3606:
3599:
3595:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3573:Protist shell
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3540:
3533:
3531:
3527:
3523:
3517:
3501:
3494:
3493:calpionellids
3490:
3486:
3482:
3477:
3467:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3440:
3435:
3432:
3428:
3421:
3416:
3415:
3413:
3399:
3396:
3395:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3380:
3379:
3377:
3373:
3372:biogenic ooze
3369:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3349:
3340:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3312:
3304:
3299:
3291:
3283:
3278:
3268:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3217:
3215:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3198:
3191:
3188:
3183:
3174:
3172:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3154:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3130:
3126:
3117:
3112:
3111:
3105:
3096:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3081:
3080:Sinotubulites
3076:
3072:
3071:
3066:
3063:
3059:
3054:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3022:
3020:
3016:
3015:stromatolites
3012:
3007:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2992:Preston Cloud
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2974:
2970:
2967:
2963:
2953:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2936:of the order
2935:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2912:
2903:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2892:index fossils
2889:
2885:
2881:
2879:
2875:
2870:
2866:
2860:
2852:
2848:
2842:
2833:
2831:
2830:
2829:Gigantocypris
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2803:
2786:
2782:
2777:
2769:
2764:
2756:
2755:foraminiferal
2752:
2745:
2740:
2736:
2735:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2709:
2704:
2703:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2686:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2671:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2661:
2657:
2654:
2651:
2648:
2644:
2641:
2638:
2635:
2632:
2628:
2626:
2625:foraminiferan
2623:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2594:
2589:typical size
2585:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2511:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2490:
2489:
2481:
2471:
2464:
2455:
2448:
2433:
2426:
2421:
2415:
2408:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2377:
2372:
2371:
2365:
2362:
2358:
2355:
2352:
2349:
2346:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2336:
2332:
2329:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2314:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2276:
2271:typical size
2267:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2254:
2250:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2191:
2181:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2141:
2134:Archean cells
2128:
2123:
2119:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2100:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2081:
2079:
2075:
2070:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2047:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
2000:). While the
1999:
1992:
1987:
1983:
1975:
1967:
1958:
1954:
1952:
1948:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1926:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1907:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1882:
1881:Burgsvik beds
1878:
1877:Late Silurian
1873:
1862:Fungal spores
1859:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1822:is a unit of
1821:
1815:
1805:
1803:
1799:
1794:
1790:
1789:sporopollenin
1786:
1781:
1766:
1762:
1759:
1758:Late Silurian
1754:
1744:
1740:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1711:(worm jaws),
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1672:(worm jaws),
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1633:
1629:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1593:
1592:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1529:
1523:
1514:
1513:is possible.
1512:
1508:
1503:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1460:
1458:
1453:
1451:
1450:Index fossils
1440:
1435:
1433:
1428:
1426:
1421:
1420:
1418:
1417:
1411:
1401:
1400:
1399:
1398:
1390:
1387:
1383:
1380:
1378:
1375:
1374:
1373:
1372:Fossilization
1370:
1368:
1367:Microbial mat
1365:
1363:
1360:
1358:
1355:
1353:
1352:
1348:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1339:
1335:
1333:
1330:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1312:Magnetofossil
1310:
1308:
1305:
1301:
1298:
1296:
1293:
1292:
1290:
1288:
1285:
1284:
1277:
1276:
1268:
1265:
1261:
1258:
1257:
1256:
1253:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1241:
1240:
1239:
1236:
1234:
1231:
1230:
1223:
1222:
1214:
1211:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1200:
1196:
1191:
1190:
1180:
1177:
1175:
1172:
1169:
1166:
1165:
1164:
1161:
1160:
1153:
1152:aragonite sea
1150:
1148:
1145:
1144:
1143:
1140:
1139:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1120:
1116:
1115:Calcification
1111:
1110:
1102:
1099:
1097:
1094:
1090:
1087:
1086:
1085:
1082:
1080:
1077:
1076:
1069:
1068:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1052:
1050:
1047:
1046:
1041:
1037:
1036:Endoskeletons
1032:
1031:
1023:
1020:
1018:
1015:
1011:
1008:
1006:
1003:
1001:
998:
994:
991:
989:
986:
984:
981:
980:
979:
978:mollusc shell
976:
974:
971:
970:
969:
966:
962:
959:
957:
954:
952:
949:
947:
944:
942:
939:
938:
937:
936:Protist shell
934:
930:
927:
926:
925:
922:
918:
915:
913:
910:
908:
907:cirrate shell
905:
904:
903:
900:
898:
895:
891:
888:
886:
883:
882:
880:
879:
874:
869:
868:
860:
857:
855:
852:
850:
847:
845:
842:
840:
837:
836:
829:
828:
824:
820:
819:
816:
813:
812:
808:
807:
802:Index fossils
799:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
778:
774:
769:
767:
766:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
744:Cheilostomata
741:
737:
732:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
702:
698:
693:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
658:
653:
651:
646:
644:
639:
638:
636:
635:
632:
628:
625:
624:
617:
614:
612:
609:
607:
604:
602:
599:
597:
594:
592:
589:
587:
586:Paleopedology
584:
582:
579:
577:
574:
572:
571:Paleomycology
569:
567:
564:
562:
561:Paleogenetics
559:
557:
554:
552:
549:
547:
544:
542:
539:
537:
534:
532:
529:
527:
524:
522:
519:
517:
514:
513:
507:
506:
499:
496:
494:
491:
490:
484:
483:
476:
473:
471:
468:
466:
463:
461:
458:
456:
453:
452:
446:
445:
438:
435:
433:
430:
428:
425:
423:
420:
418:
415:
413:
410:
408:
405:
403:
400:
398:
395:
393:
390:
388:
385:
383:
380:
378:
375:
373:
370:
368:
365:
363:
360:
359:
353:
352:
345:
342:
340:
337:
335:
332:
330:
327:
325:
322:
320:
317:
315:
312:
310:
307:
305:
302:
300:
297:
296:
290:
289:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
262:
259:
257:
254:
252:
249:
247:
246:Geochronology
244:
242:
239:
237:
234:
233:
227:
226:
219:
216:
214:
211:
209:
206:
204:
201:
199:
196:
194:
191:
189:
186:
184:
181:
179:
176:
174:
173:Fossilization
171:
170:
164:
163:
159:
155:
154:
151:
148:
147:
143:
142:
134:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
63:
61:
57:
53:
49:
40:
36:
35:
29:
26:An enigmatic
23:
19:
6512:Microfossils
6461:
6412:. New York.
6408:
6401:
6360:Microfossils
6359:
6352:
6307:
6303:
6293:
6277:
6251:
6245:
6215:(1): 67–81.
6212:
6208:
6198:
6165:
6161:
6155:
6121:(1): 11–32.
6118:
6114:
6104:
6079:
6075:
6069:
6044:
6040:
6033:
5992:
5988:
5982:
5957:
5953:
5947:
5922:
5918:
5911:
5871:(205): 205.
5868:
5862:
5837:. Retrieved
5831:
5821:
5760:
5756:
5746:
5739:Sci-News.com
5738:
5731:
5698:
5694:
5687:
5679:
5672:
5660:. Retrieved
5650:
5625:
5621:
5615:
5596:
5564:
5558:
5531:
5527:
5517:
5508:10141/622407
5480:
5476:
5466:
5429:
5426:PLOS Biology
5425:
5415:
5399:
5393:
5386:
5359:
5355:
5345:
5328:
5288:(1): 15577.
5285:
5281:
5271:
5259:. Retrieved
5245:
5235:
5210:
5206:
5200:
5175:
5171:
5165:
5139:
5133:
5090:
5087:Astrobiology
5086:
5080:
5055:
5049:
5043:
5018:
5014:
5008:
4975:
4971:
4965:
4928:
4924:
4914:
4887:
4883:
4873:
4840:
4836:
4830:
4811:
4807:
4797:
4772:
4768:
4761:
4736:
4732:
4726:
4681:
4677:
4667:
4640:
4636:
4626:
4601:
4597:
4591:
4556:
4552:
4542:
4509:
4505:
4499:
4487:. Retrieved
4478:
4471:
4446:
4442:
4436:
4411:
4407:
4401:
4356:
4352:
4342:
4326:
4289:
4285:
4275:
4240:
4236:
4226:
4193:
4189:
4183:
4164:
4158:
4131:
4127:
4117:
4105:. Retrieved
4091:
4046:
4042:
4032:
4005:
3980:(1): 61–78.
3977:
3971:
3958:
3923:
3917:
3907:
3872:
3866:
3856:
3844:. Retrieved
3838:
3828:
3816:. Retrieved
3812:the original
3797:
3785:. Retrieved
3779:
3769:
3757:. Retrieved
3751:
3744:Zimmer, Carl
3738:
3703:
3699:
3686:
3679:
3670:
3658:. Retrieved
3647:
3612:
3608:
3598:
3543:Biosignature
3519:
3371:
3363:
3355:
3346:
3331:
3328:
3281:
3228:
3225:microscleres
3224:
3218:
3200:
3190:glass sponge
3155:
3132:
3114:as drawn by
3108:
3078:
3074:
3068:
3055:
3023:
3010:
3008:
3003:
2999:
2987:
2959:
2926:
2923:Scolecodonts
2921:
2915:Scolecodonts
2906:Scolecodonts
2898:. Conodont
2886:
2882:
2864:
2862:
2827:
2820:bivalve-like
2816:seed shrimps
2815:
2810:
2784:
2732:
2692:carbon cycle
2519:
2517:
2504:plant stones
2503:
2498:
2486:
2239:silica cycle
2219:radiolarians
2198:
2143:
2101:
2082:
2071:
2048:
2034:
1985:
1984:, Greek for
1980:
1955:
1927:
1908:
1886:
1817:
1808:Plant spores
1783:
1748:Pollen grain
1739:Palynomorphs
1733:Palynomorphs
1709:scolecodonts
1705:chitinozoans
1682:ichthyoliths
1670:scolecodonts
1647:foraminifera
1621:scolecodonts
1605:radiolarians
1571:, as in the
1557:foraminifera
1534:
1504:
1472:chitinozoans
1464:microfossils
1461:
1454:
1448:
1382:petrifaction
1349:
1337:
1332:Microfossils
1331:
1079:Limpet teeth
1059:Ossification
1054:Bone mineral
988:chiton shell
873:Exoskeletons
854:Biointerface
780:precipitates
770:
763:
756:Foraminifera
733:
725:radiolarians
717:foraminifera
694:
686:paleoclimate
674:foraminifera
666:
596:Paleozoology
556:Paleoecology
546:Paleobiology
299:Avian flight
236:Biogeography
193:Index fossil
182:
178:Trace fossil
150:Paleontology
119:chitinozoans
64:
47:
45:
32:
18:
6047:(11): 911.
5925:: 202–215.
5657:"Conodonts"
5261:13 November
4925:Geosciences
3563:Macrofossil
3448:and algae,
3360:John Murray
3255:demosponges
3229:megascleres
3221:microscopic
3062:mineralized
2946:chitinozoan
2863:Conodonts (
2734:Globigerina
2502:(Greek for
2470:Radiolarian
2384:is a soft,
2339:radiolarian
2211:ocean floor
2184:Mineralised
2178:micrometres
2156:in mineral
2146:rock record
2097:Proterozoic
2078:prokaryotes
2055:chlorophyta
2006:form genera
1972:c. 570–609
1836:life cycles
1814:Cryptospore
1780:Pollen zone
1579:studied in
1565:vertebrates
1517:Composition
1462:Species of
1317:Magnetosome
1260:phosphorite
1226:Other forms
1174:calcite sea
941:coccosphere
885:exoskeleton
551:Paleobotany
372:Cephalopods
367:Butterflies
183:Microfossil
107:Pyrrhophyta
103:Chrysophyta
83:sedimentary
71:Precambrian
69:, from the
60:macrofossil
48:microfossil
37:, from the
6481:1148175375
6281:Elsevier.
6076:Phycologia
5839:10 January
5356:Syst. Biol
5338:0759103852
5178:(3): 207.
4643:: 105650.
4489:1 December
4107:5 February
3590:References
3485:Copper Age
3450:ostracodes
3265:See also:
3233:calcareous
3143:dinosporin
3123:See also:
3091:of animal
3051:bilaterian
3043:Nephrozoan
3034:cnidarians
3030:polychaete
2984:calcareous
2962:cloudinids
2956:Cloudinids
2931:polychaete
2865:cone tooth
2857:See also:
2716:discoaster
2676:coccoliths
2566:Calcareous
2520:calcareous
2514:Calcareous
2500:Phytoliths
2138:See also:
2116:microalgae
2074:eukaryotes
1982:Acritarchs
1961:Acritarchs
1911:Ordovician
1888:Chitinozoa
1867:Chitinozoa
1812:See also:
1793:palynology
1778:See also:
1761:sporangium
1713:acritarchs
1693:palynology
1662:Phosphatic
1643:coccoliths
1632:Calcareous
1617:phytoliths
1589:ecological
1581:palynology
1561:phosphatic
1553:coccoliths
1549:calcareous
1545:radiolaria
1468:acritarchs
912:cuttlebone
881:Arthropod
765:Nummulites
601:Palynology
470:Cladistics
309:Multicells
115:acritarchs
56:microscopy
6489:cite book
6436:cite book
6428:840285428
6387:cite book
6379:904814387
6229:0022-0981
5723:202181855
5662:26 August
5655:MIRACLE.
4931:(4): 57.
4865:130041483
4618:127238427
4534:0034-6667
4428:221527533
4332:acritarch
4267:0091-7613
4218:129236534
3846:20 August
3639:1475-4983
3454:pteropods
3431:ebridians
3406:Lithified
3343:Biogenous
3237:siliceous
3219:Smaller,
3210:predators
3187:siliceous
3139:dinocysts
3116:Ehrenberg
3093:diversity
3065:skeletons
3004:Conotubus
2973:Ediacaran
2950:acritarch
2927:worm jaws
2888:Conodonts
2874:agnathans
2836:Conodonts
2812:Ostracods
2797:Ostracods
2653:Calcified
2639:or shell
2612:limestone
2608:aragonite
2581:involved
2544:sea floor
2536:limestone
2532:aragonite
2518:The term
2394:frustules
2386:siliceous
2353:or shell
2263:involved
2195:Siliceous
2154:insoluble
2093:Paleozoic
2059:Paleozoic
2051:metazoans
2016:' in the
2014:explosion
1925:markers.
1898:-shaped,
1832:dispersal
1666:conodonts
1655:ostracods
1613:ebridians
1597:Siliceous
1585:taxonomic
1567:, or (d)
1537:siliceous
1484:ostracods
1476:conodonts
1338:engrailed
1255:Phosphate
1248:oil shale
1142:Aragonite
946:coccolith
611:Taphonomy
521:Ichnology
465:Phylogeny
449:Evolution
437:Tetrapods
382:Dinosaurs
377:Cetaceans
129:from the
111:Sarcodina
101:from the
6506:Category
6344:29924811
6304:PLOS ONE
6237:85614908
6147:27694774
6096:86845462
6025:27418253
6017:17540895
5903:31924764
5787:22418253
5680:Phys.org
5458:21713028
5378:17661235
5320:32968165
5125:17155884
5072:11540926
5000:42212699
4718:12089337
4583:20164911
4393:16591055
4101:Archived
4083:26808271
4043:PLOS ONE
3899:30127539
3840:Phys.org
3781:BBC News
3730:28252057
3536:See also
3398:Alginite
3290:see here
3214:skeleton
3202:Spicules
3110:Dinocyst
3075:Cloudina
3070:Cloudina
3011:Cloudina
3000:Cloudina
2988:Cloudina
2980:Cambrian
2966:metazoan
2942:Cambrian
2938:Eunicida
2934:annelids
2851:Triassic
2847:Cambrian
2768:Mesozoic
2749:Shells (
2319:frustule
2170:graphite
2020:and the
2018:Cambrian
1976:
1915:Devonian
1852:protozoa
1838:of many
1802:Devonian
1763:bearing
1723:remains.
1551:, as in
1539:, as in
1466:such as
1410:Category
1291:In soil
1243:alginite
1233:Bone bed
968:Seashell
875:(shells)
748:colonies
738:such as
631:Category
427:Sea cows
422:Reptiles
412:Molluscs
319:Flagella
137:Overview
75:Holocene
6335:6010222
6312:Bibcode
6190:9712575
6170:Bibcode
6162:Science
6138:5029505
6049:Bibcode
6041:Geology
5997:Bibcode
5989:Science
5962:Bibcode
5927:Bibcode
5894:6954273
5873:Bibcode
5778:3367778
5703:Bibcode
5630:Bibcode
5536:Bibcode
5485:Bibcode
5449:3119654
5311:7512002
5290:Bibcode
5215:Bibcode
5180:Bibcode
5172:Geology
5095:Bibcode
5023:Bibcode
4980:Bibcode
4933:Bibcode
4892:Bibcode
4845:Bibcode
4777:Bibcode
4741:Bibcode
4686:Bibcode
4645:Bibcode
4561:Bibcode
4514:Bibcode
4451:Bibcode
4361:Bibcode
4294:Bibcode
4245:Bibcode
4237:Geology
4198:Bibcode
4136:Bibcode
4074:4725745
4051:Bibcode
3950:2396358
3928:Bibcode
3890:6152910
3818:1 March
3808:Reuters
3787:2 March
3759:2 March
3708:Bibcode
3660:4 March
3617:Bibcode
3460:
3458:bryozoa
3393:Kerogen
3241:spongin
3206:sponges
3166:zygotic
3162:dormant
3118:in 1837
2996:calcite
2990:honors
2787:
2604:calcite
2579:protist
2574:mineral
2528:calcite
2398:diatoms
2261:protist
2256:mineral
2215:diatoms
2150:kerogen
2127:Archean
2085:Archean
2030:Permian
2028:of the
2024:at the
1998:kerogen
1934:protist
1902:walled
1900:organic
1743:Kerogen
1689:organic
1619:, some
1601:diatoms
1569:organic
1541:diatoms
1482:cysts,
1280:Related
1238:Kerogen
1163:Calcite
1084:Otolith
917:gladius
890:cuticle
859:Biofilm
832:General
782:in the
740:Bryozoa
432:Spiders
407:Mammals
402:Insects
167:Fossils
87:kingdom
73:to the
41:
6479:
6469:
6426:
6416:
6377:
6367:
6342:
6332:
6285:
6259:
6235:
6227:
6188:
6145:
6135:
6094:
6023:
6015:
5901:
5891:
5785:
5775:
5721:
5603:
5575:
5456:
5446:
5376:
5336:
5318:
5308:
5252:
5154:
5123:
5070:
4998:
4972:Nature
4863:
4716:
4709:123103
4706:
4616:
4581:
4553:Nature
4532:
4426:
4391:
4384:299818
4381:
4265:
4216:
4171:
4081:
4071:
4020:
3948:
3897:
3887:
3868:Nature
3728:
3700:Nature
3637:
3323:, and
2976:period
2969:family
2824:extant
2616:marble
2576:forms
2508:silica
2307:diatom
2290:quartz
2286:silica
2258:forms
2174:carbon
2164:, and
1942:fungal
1940:, and
1904:marine
1890:are a
1840:plants
1824:sexual
1798:fossil
1785:Pollen
1721:fungal
1719:, and
1701:spores
1697:pollen
1653:, and
1577:spores
1573:pollen
1559:, (c)
1547:, (b)
1492:spores
1488:pollen
1408:
1267:Pyrena
924:Lorica
752:genera
701:spores
697:pollen
682:spores
417:Plants
397:Humans
387:Fishes
127:spores
123:pollen
79:marine
52:fossil
6233:S2CID
6092:S2CID
6021:S2CID
5719:S2CID
4996:S2CID
4861:S2CID
4614:S2CID
4424:S2CID
4214:S2CID
3968:(PDF)
3946:JSTOR
3696:(PDF)
3489:chert
3374:is a
3337:rocks
3160:as a
3060:with
3045:type
2900:teeth
2751:tests
2620:chalk
2302:chert
2294:glass
2162:bases
2158:acids
2067:algae
2042:1,000
1991:2,000
1938:plant
1896:flask
1892:taxon
1848:fungi
1844:algae
1820:spore
1674:shark
1345:Druse
1040:bones
983:nacre
760:tests
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