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189:. The launch of this mission gave the opportunity to image the Earth at a constant angle of incidence that is important as surface emissivity is angle dependent. In the beginning of 1980, new multi-frequency, dual-polarization radiometric instruments were developed. Two spacecraft were launched which carried instruments of this type:
464:
close and far regions of the atmosphere. The combination of several channels contains therefore information about the vertical temperature distribution. A similar approach is used to derive vertical profiles of water vapor utilizing its absorption line at 22.235 GHz and also around the 183.31 GHz absorption line.
418:
Time series from 14 April 2015 for (a) brightness temperatures measured at 7 different frequencies in the K (right) and V (left) bands, (b) retrieved vertically
Integrated Water Vapor (IWV) and cloud Liquid Water Path (LWP), (c) temperature profiles from 0 to 5 km, (d) absolute humidity profiles from
317:
receivers (time and location reference). The antenna itself often measures through a window made of foam which is transparent in the microwave spectrum to keep the antenna clean of dust, liquid water and ice. Often, also a heated blower system is attached the radiometer which helps to keep the window
273:
emission increases with frequency, hence, measuring at two frequencies, typically one close to the water absorption line (22.235 GHz) and one in the nearby window region (typically 31 GHz) dominated by liquid absorption provides information on both the columnar amount of water vapor and the
410:
clear sky TB that was obtained indirectly from radiative transfer theory. Satellites use a heated target as "hot" reference and the cosmic background radiation as "cold" reference. To increase the accuracy and stability of MWR calibrations further calibration targets, such as internal noise sources,
153:
in 1946 in the
Radiation Laboratory of Massachusetts Institute of Technology to better determine the temperature of the microwave background radiation. This first radiometer worked at a wavelength 1.25 cm and was operated at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Dicke also first discovered
638:
MWRnet is a network established in 2009 of scientists working with ground-based microwave radiometers. MWRnet aims to facilitate the exchange of information in the MWR user community fostering the participation to coordinated international projects. In the long run, MWRnet’s mission aims at setting
277:
Larger rain drops as well as larger frozen hydrometeors (snow, graupel, hail) also scatter microwave radiation especially at higher frequencies (>90 GHz). These scattering effects can be used to distinguish between rain and cloud water content exploiting polarized measurements but also to
220:
Microwave spectrum: The black lines show the simulated spectrum for a ground-based receiver; the colored lines are the spectrum obtained from a satellite instrument over the ocean measuring at horizontal (blue) and vertical (red) linear polarization. Solid lines indicate simulations for clear-sky
463:
and around the globe, the brightness temperature signals can be used to derive the temperature profile. Signals at the center of the absorption complex are dominated by the atmosphere closest to the radiometer (when ground-based). Moving into the window region, the signal is a superposition from
212:
Ground-based radiometers for the determination of temperature profiles were first explored in the 1960s and have since improved in terms of reduced noise and the ability to run unattended 24/7 within worldwide observational networks. Review articles, and a detailed online handbook are available.
349:
signal is received at the antenna it is downconverted to the intermediate frequency with the help of a stable local oscillator signal. After amplification with a Low Noise
Amplifier and band pass filtering the signal can be detected in full power mode, by splitting or splitting it into multiple
297:
techniques are often used to convert the signal down to lower frequencies that allow the use of commercial amplifiers and signal processing. Increasingly low noise amplifiers are becoming available at higher frequencies, i.e. up to 100 GHz, making heterodyne techniques obsolete. Thermal
334:
49:. They are usually equipped with multiple receiving channels to derive the characteristic emission spectrum of planetary atmospheres, surfaces or extraterrestrial objects. Microwave radiometers are utilized in a variety of environmental and engineering applications, including
72:
between 1 and 300 GHz provides complementary information to the visible and infrared spectral range. Most importantly, the atmosphere and also vegetation is semi-transparent in the microwave spectral range. This means components like dry gases,
185:. The launch of the Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer in 1978 became an important milestone in the history of radiometry. It was the first time a conically scanning radiometer was used in space; it was launched into space on board the NASA
809:
Westwater, E. R., S. Crewell, C. Mätzler, and D. Cimini, 2006: Principles of
Surface-based Microwave and Millimeter wave Radiometric Remote Sensing of the Troposphere, Quaderni Della Societa Italiana di Elettromagnetismo, 1(3), September 2005,
262:. Other significant absorption lines are found at 118.75 GHz (oxygen absorption) and at 183.31 GHz (water vapor absorption, used for water vapor profiling under dry conditions or from satellites). Weak absorption features due to
543:
and snow. Other than optical earth observation sensors, passive microwave can be used do determine the snow water equivalent (liquit water content of snow) by comparing various frequencies. The second type is used to measure along
693:
Westwater, Edgeworth Rupert, 1970: Ground-Based
Determination of Temperature Profiles by Microwaves. PH.D. Thesis, UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO AT BOULDER, Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 32-02, Section: B, page:
394:
of the references, their brightness temperatures can be calculated and directly related to detected voltages of the radiometer, hence, the linear relationship between brightness temperatures and voltages can be obtained.
672:
Microwave Remote
Sensing—Active and Passive". By F. T. Ulaby. R. K. Moore and A. K. Fung. (Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1981 and 1982.) Volume I: Microwave Remote Sensing Fundamentals and Radiometry.
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Westwater, E.R., C. Mätzler, S. Crewell (2004) A review of surface-based microwave and millimeter-wave radiometric remote sensing of the troposphere. Radio
Science Bulletin, No. 3010, September 2004, 59–80
148:
First developments of microwave radiometer were dedicated to the measurement of radiation of extraterrestrial origin in the 1930s and 1940s. The most common form of microwave radiometer was introduced by
289:
The key element is the Dicke switch, which alternately switches between the antenna and a cryogenic load at a known temperature. A calculation from the change in noise level, gives the sky temperature.
630:
on Juno has several antennas observing in several different microwave wavelengths to penetrate the top cloud layer of the planet, and detect features, temperatures, and chemical abundances there.
221:(cloud-free) conditions, dotted lines show a clear-sky case with a single layer liquid cloud. The vertical lines indicate typical frequencies used by satellite sensors like the AMSU radiometer.
607:, which used a microwave instrument to determine the high surface temperature of Venus was coming from the surface not higher up in the atmosphere. There are/were also radiometers on the
768:
Passive
Microwave Remote Sensing of the Earth, Physical Foundations, Eugene A. Sharkov, Springer-Praxis Books in Geophysical Sciences, Chapter 14: Passive microwave space missions
269:
Besides the distinct absorption features of molecular transition lines, there are also non-resonant contributions by hydrometeors (liquid drops and frozen particles). Liquid
286:
A microwave radiometer consists of an antenna system, microwave radio-frequency components (front-end) and a back-end for signal processing at intermediate frequencies.
274:
columnar amount of liquid water separately (two-channel radiometer). The so-called „water vapor continuum" arises from the contribution of far away water vapor lines.
846:
Bennartz, R., and P. Bauer (2003), Sensitivity of microwave radiances at 85–183 GHz to precipitating ice particles, Radio Sci., 38(4), 8075, doi:10.1029/2002RS002626.
837:
Czekala et al. (2001), Discrimination of cloud and rain liquid water path by groundbased polarized microwave radiometry, Geophy. Res. Lett., DOI: 10.1029/2000GL012247
246:
features shown at a figure on the right which allow to derive information about their abundance and vertical structure. Examples for such absorption features are the
370:
The calibration of microwave radiometer sets the basis for accurate measured brightness temperatures and therefore, for accurate retrieved atmospheric parameters as
592:
100:
instruments, they are designed to operate continuously and autonomously often in combination with other atmospheric remote sensors like for example cloud
553:
855:
Kneifel et al. (2010), Snow scattering signals in ground-based passive microwave radiometer measurements, J. Geophys. Res., DOI: 10.1029/2010JD013856
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684:
Thermal
Microwave Radiation: Applications for Remote Sensing, C. Matzler, 2006, The Institution of Engineering and Technology, London, Chapter 1.
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of the calibration targets should be chosen such that they span the full measurement range. Ground-based radiometers usually use an ambient
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Microwave
Radiometer calibration performed by employees of Research Center of R&D in Optoelectronics, Magurele (Romania).
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quantity, and columnar liquid water path with a high temporal resolution on the order of minutes to seconds under nearly all
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radiation. Traditionally, the amount of radiation a microwave radiometer receives is expressed as the equivalent blackbody
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is an interferometer/imaging radiometer capable of resolving soil moisture and salinity over small regions of surface.
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and liquid water path. The simplest version of a calibration is a so-called "hot-cold" calibration using two reference
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absorption line around 22.235 GHz (dipole rotational transition) which is used to observe the vertical profile of
154:
weak atmospheric microwave absorption using three different radiometers (at wavelengths of 1.0, 1.25 and 1.5 cm).
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were first used for observing the atmosphere, microwave radiometers became part of their instrumentation. In 1962 the
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up operational software, quality control procedures, data formats, etc. similar to other successful networks such as
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conditions. Microwave radiometers are also used for remote sensing of Earth's ocean and land surfaces, to derive
820:
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target as "hot" reference. As a cold target one can use either a liquid nitrogen cooled blackbody (77 K) or a
1061:
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Solids, liquids (e.g. the Earth's surface, ocean, sea ice, snow, vegetation) but also gases emit and absorb
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The atmospheric signal is very weak and the signal needs to be amplified by around 80 dB. Therefore,
209:(AMSU) and the Special Sensor Microwave Imager / Sounder (SSMIS) are widely used on different satellites.
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profiles) is not straightforward and comprehensive retrieval algorithms (using inversion techniques like
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527:. The first type uses lower frequencies (1–100 GHz) in atmospheric windows to observe sea-surface
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46:
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By the 2010s four microwave radiometers have been flown on interplanetary spacecraft. The first was
78:
242:. In the microwave range several atmospheric gases exhibit rotational lines. They provide specific
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that measures energy emitted at one millimeter-to-metre wavelengths (frequencies of 0.3–300
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45:. Microwave radiometers are very sensitive receivers designed to measure thermally-emitted
8:
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monitoring, microwave radiometers are operated from space as well as from the ground. As
54:
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bands with a spectrometer. For high-frequency calibrations a Dicke switch is used here.
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constrain the columnar amount of snow and ice particles from space and from the ground.
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observations. In following years a wide variety of microwave radiometers were tested on
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867:"Snow Water Equivalent Monitoring—A Review of Large-Scale Remote Sensing Applications"
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888:
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125:
62:
25:
Humidity and Temperature Profiler (HATPRO-SUNHAT) at the Barbados Clouds Observatory.
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transitions) around 60 GHz which is used to derive temperature profiles or the
108:. They allow the derivation of important meteorological quantities such as vertical
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919:
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Juno at Jupiter: The Juno microwave radiometer (MWR) - IEEE Conference Publication
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Other examples of microwave radiometers on meteorological satellites include the
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Usually ground-based radiometers are also equipped with environmental sensors (
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779:"MWRnet - An International Network of Ground-based Microwave Radiometers"
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Microwave instruments are flown on several polar orbiting satellites for
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are also used for stratospheric ozone density and temperature profiling.
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and wind speed, ice characteristics, and soil and vegetation properties.
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197:. The Nimbus-7 mission results allowed to globally monitor the state of
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The Juno probe, launched in 2011, is characterizing the atmosphere of
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The retrieval of physical quantities using microwave radiometry (e.g.
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Schilling, Samuel; Dietz, Andreas; Kuenzer, Claudia (20 March 2024).
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DOE Atmospheric Radiation Measurement MWR Instrument Description
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Temperature profiles are obtained by measuring along the oxygen
706:"The measurement of thermal radiation at microwave frequencies"
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101:
980:"Instruments and Science Data Systems - Microwave Radiometers"
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interact with microwave radiation but overall even the cloudy
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stabilization is highly important to avoid receiver drifts.
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instruments that are operated in cross-track mode, e.g.
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at any altitude is proportional to the temperature and
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Schematic diagram of a microwave radiometer using the
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National Science Digital Library – MWR Quicklook Page
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908:"Nimbus-7 SMMR Derived Global Snow Cover Parameters"
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Microwave Imaging Radiometer with Aperture Synthesis
459:. As oxygen is homogeneously distributed within the
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Tool measuring EM radiation at 0.3–300-GHz frequency
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1001:
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85:is not completely opaque in this frequency range.
424:Retrieval of temperature and water vapor profiles
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998:
906:Chang, A.T.C.; Foster, J.L.; Hall, D.K. (1987).
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480:as well as part of extraterrestrial missions.
201:surface as well as surface covered by snow and
322:(strong emitters in the MW) but also free of
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144:, for its December 1962 flyby of that planet
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577:Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer
382:at known, but different, "hot" and "cold"
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345:As seen from the figure above, after the
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626:using a microwave radiometer suite. The
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205:. Today, microwave instruments like the
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20:
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390:of the detector. Knowing the physical
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628:Microwave Radiometer (MWR) instrument
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821:"Microwave radiometer - EG-CLIMET"
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560:, e.g., MLS, are used to retrieve
140:Radiometric scanning for Venus by
14:
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1020:
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661:
169:in to investigate the surface of
1052:Electromagnetic radiation meters
953:, September 2014, pp. 1–3,
713:Review of Scientific Instruments
207:Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit
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573:Special Sensor Microwave/Imager
489:instruments that are used with
440:approach) have been developed.
411:or Dicke switches can be used.
959:10.1109/IRMMW-THz.2014.6956004
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250:absorption complex (caused by
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531:, soil moisture, sea-surface
1013:Retrieved: 21 December 2016.
447:complex at 60 GHz. The
7:
173:including a radiometer for
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1011:Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
589:Microwave Humidity Sounder
483:One distinguishes between
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31:microwave radiometer (MWR)
924:10.3189/S0260305500200736
468:Satellite instrumentation
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47:electromagnetic radiation
318:free of liquid drops or
165:mission was launched by
585:Microwave Sounding Unit
783:cetemps.aquila.infn.it
599:Spaceprobe instruments
564:profiles in the upper
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240:brightness temperature
226:Principle of operation
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57:, climate monitoring,
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1037:Juno Radiometer (MWR)
634:Ground-based networks
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374:profiles, integrated
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24:
1062:Microwave technology
912:Annals of Glaciology
704:Dicke, R.H. (1946).
68:Using the microwave
1008:"Science Overview".
986:on 30 November 2016
725:1946RScI...17..268D
719:(7). AIP: 268–275.
611:Jupiter probe, the
116:profiles, columnar
55:weather forecasting
884:10.3390/rs16061085
825:cfa.aquila.infn.it
548:lines to retrieve
438:optimal estimation
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733:10.1063/1.1770483
615:comet probe, and
474:Earth observation
126:ocean temperature
63:radio propagation
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554:humidity profile
491:conical scanning
476:and operational
187:Nimbus satellite
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877:(6): 1085.
550:temperature
533:temperature
478:meteorology
434:water vapor
430:temperature
404:temperature
380:blackbodies
376:water vapor
372:temperature
366:Calibration
307:temperature
256:water vapor
236:temperature
179:temperature
175:water vapor
157:Soon after
118:water vapor
110:temperature
75:water vapor
41:) known as
1057:Radiometry
1046:Categories
990:3 February
655:References
566:atmosphere
546:absorption
537:wind speed
461:atmosphere
445:absorption
419:0 to 5 km.
341:principle.
339:heterodyne
295:heterodyne
244:absorption
183:satellites
159:satellites
83:atmosphere
43:microwaves
35:radiometer
932:0260-3055
918:: 39–44.
893:2072-4292
605:Mariner 2
562:trace gas
352:frequency
232:microwave
163:Mariner-2
142:Mariner 2
65:studies.
967:42435396
749:26658623
741:20991753
641:EARLINET
529:salinity
516:sounding
449:emission
311:humidity
260:humidity
203:glaciers
191:Nimbus-7
114:humidity
721:Bibcode
645:AERONET
624:Jupiter
613:Rosetta
581:WindSat
513:, and
511:WINDSAT
497:of the
486:imaging
453:density
388:voltage
132:History
122:weather
94:climate
90:weather
965:
930:
891:
810:50–90.
747:
739:
649:CWINDE
591:. The
457:oxygen
408:zenith
313:) and
282:Design
248:oxygen
195:Seasat
106:lidars
102:radars
963:S2CID
756:(PDF)
745:S2CID
709:(PDF)
694:1134.
499:Earth
271:water
264:ozone
199:ocean
171:Venus
77:, or
33:is a
992:2017
928:ISSN
889:ISSN
737:PMID
609:Juno
587:and
552:and
521:ATMS
507:SSMI
503:AMSR
493:for
398:The
328:snow
326:and
303:rain
193:and
177:and
167:NASA
112:and
104:and
92:and
88:For
61:and
955:doi
920:doi
879:doi
729:doi
525:MHS
455:of
432:or
324:ice
320:dew
315:GPS
39:GHz
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