44:
757:. It is a form of isothermal heat treatment applied after an initial quench, typically in a molten salt bath, at a temperature just above the "martensite start temperature". At this temperature, residual stresses within the material are relieved and some bainite may be formed from the retained austenite which did not have time to transform into anything else. In industry, this is a process used to control the ductility and hardness of a material. With longer marquenching, the ductility increases with a minimal loss in strength; the steel is held in this solution until the inner and outer temperatures of the part equalize. Then the steel is cooled at a moderate speed to keep the temperature gradient minimal. Not only does this process reduce internal stresses and stress cracks, but it also increases impact resistance.
1458:
624:
546:'s definition of carbon steel allows up to 1.65% manganese by weight. There are two types of higher carbon steels which are high carbon steel and the ultra high carbon steel. The reason for the limited use of high carbon steel is that it has extremely poor ductility and weldability and has a higher cost of production. The applications best suited for the high carbon steels is its use in the spring industry, farm industry, and in the production of wide range of high-strength wires.
799:
meaning they can not be hardened throughout thick sections. Alloy steels have a better hardenability, so they can be through-hardened and do not require case hardening. This property of carbon steel can be beneficial, because it gives the surface good wear characteristics but leaves the core flexible
701:
might still exist if the carbon content is greater than the eutectoid). The steel must then be cooled slowly, in the realm of 20 °C (36 °F) per hour. Usually it is just furnace cooled, where the furnace is turned off with the steel still inside. This results in a coarse pearlitic structure,
739:
Carbon steel with at least 0.4 wt% C is heated to normalizing temperatures and then rapidly cooled (quenched) in water, brine, or oil to the critical temperature. The critical temperature is dependent on the carbon content, but as a general rule is lower as the carbon content increases. This results
358:
Carbon steel is susceptible to rust and corrosion, especially in environments with high moisture levels and/or salt. It can be shielded from corrosion by coating it with paint, varnish, or other protective material. Alternatively, it can be made from a stainless steel alloy that contains chromium,
730:
Carbon steel is heated to approximately 550 °C (1,000 °F) for 1 hour; this ensures the steel completely transforms to austenite. The steel is then air-cooled, which is a cooling rate of approximately 38 °C (100 °F) per minute. This results in a fine pearlitic structure, and a
680:
Spheroidite forms when carbon steel is heated to approximately 700 °C (1,300 °F) for over 30 hours. Spheroidite can form at lower temperatures but the time needed drastically increases, as this is a diffusion-controlled process. The result is a structure of rods or spheres of cementite
382:
Mild steel (iron containing a small percentage of carbon, strong and tough but not readily tempered), also known as plain-carbon steel and low-carbon steel, is now the most common form of steel because its price is relatively low while it provides material properties that are acceptable for many
359:
which provides excellent corrosion resistance. Carbon steel can be alloyed with other elements to improve its properties, such as by adding chromium and/or nickel to improve its resistance to corrosion and oxidation or adding molybdenum to improve its strength and toughness at high temperatures.
354:
Carbon steel is often divided into two main categories: low-carbon steel and high-carbon steel. It may also contain other elements, such as manganese, phosphorus, sulfur, and silicon, which can affect its properties. Carbon steel can be easily machined and welded, making it versatile for various
779:
The austempering process is the same as martempering, except the quench is interrupted and the steel is held in the molten salt bath at temperatures between 205 and 540 °C (400 and 1,000 °F), and then cooled at a moderate rate. The resulting steel, called bainite, produces an acicular
723:
It is a process in which hypoeutectoid steel is heated above the upper critical temperature. This temperature is maintained for a time and then reduced to below the lower critical temperature and is again maintained. It is then cooled to room temperature. This method eliminates any temperature
650:
phase; therefore all heat treatments, except spheroidizing and process annealing, start by heating the steel to a temperature at which the austenitic phase can exist. The steel is then quenched (heat drawn out) at a moderate to low rate allowing carbon to diffuse out of the austenite forming
780:
microstructure in the steel that has great strength (but less than martensite), greater ductility, higher impact resistance, and less distortion than martensite steel. The disadvantage of austempering is it can be used only on a few sheets of steel, and it requires a special salt bath.
716:
A process used to relieve stress in a cold-worked carbon steel with less than 0.3% C. The steel is usually heated to 550 to 650 °C (1,000 to 1,200 °F) for 1 hour, but sometimes temperatures as high as 700 °C (1,300 °F). The image above shows the process annealing
641:
The purpose of heat treating carbon steel is to change the mechanical properties of steel, usually ductility, hardness, yield strength, or impact resistance. Note that the electrical and thermal conductivity are only slightly altered. As with most strengthening techniques for steel,
740:
in a martensitic structure; a form of steel that possesses a super-saturated carbon content in a deformed body-centered cubic (BCC) crystalline structure, properly termed body-centered tetragonal (BCT), with much internal stress. Thus quenched steel is extremely hard but
415:. The first yield point (or upper yield point) is higher than the second and the yield drops dramatically after the upper yield point. If a low-carbon steel is only stressed to some point between the upper and lower yield point then the surface develops
655:
temperature (about 727 °C or 1,341 °F) affects the rate at which carbon diffuses out of austenite and forms cementite. Generally speaking, cooling swiftly will leave iron carbide finely dispersed and produce a fine grained
681:
within primary structure (ferrite or pearlite, depending on which side of the eutectoid you are on). The purpose is to soften higher carbon steels and allow more formability. This is the softest and most ductile form of steel.
765:
This is the most common heat treatment encountered because the final properties can be precisely determined by the temperature and time of the tempering. Tempering involves reheating quenched steel to a temperature below the
362:
It is an environmentally friendly material, as it is easily recyclable and can be reused in various applications. It is energy-efficient to produce, as it requires less energy than other metals such as aluminium and copper.
383:
applications. Mild steel contains approximately 0.05–0.30% carbon making it malleable and ductile. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and easy to form. Surface hardness can be increased with
668:
formed on the grain boundaries. A eutectoid steel (0.77% carbon) will have a pearlite structure throughout the grains with no cementite at the boundaries. The relative amounts of constituents are found using the
770:
temperature and then cooling. The elevated temperature allows very small amounts spheroidite to form, which restores ductility but reduces hardness. Actual temperatures and times are carefully chosen for each
419:. Low-carbon steels contain less carbon than other steels and are easier to cold-form, making them easier to handle. Typical applications of low carbon steel are car parts, pipes, construction, and food cans.
744:, usually too brittle for practical purposes. These internal stresses may cause stress cracks on the surface. Quenched steel is approximately three times harder (four with more carbon) than normalized steel.
427:
High-tensile steels are low-carbon, or steels at the lower end of the medium-carbon range, which have additional alloying ingredients in order to increase their strength, wear properties or specifically
1533:
Alvarenga HD, Van de Putte T, Van
Steenberge N, Sietsma J, Terryn H (October 2014). "Influence of Carbide Morphology and Microstructure on the Kinetics of Superficial Decarburization of C-Mn Steels".
607:
Ultra-high-carbon steel has approximately 1.25–2.0% carbon content. Steels that can be tempered to great hardness. Used for special purposes such as (non-industrial-purpose) knives, axles, and
795:
Case hardening processes harden only the exterior of the steel part, creating a hard, wear-resistant skin (the "case") but preserving a tough and ductile interior. Carbon steels are not very
591:
Medium-carbon steel has approximately 0.3–0.5% carbon content. It balances ductility and strength and has good wear resistance. It is used for large parts, forging and automotive components.
43:
651:
iron-carbide (cementite) and leaving ferrite, or at a high rate, trapping the carbon within the iron thus forming martensite. The rate at which the steel is cooled through the
660:
and cooling slowly will give a coarser pearlite. Cooling a hypoeutectoid steel (less than 0.77 wt% C) results in a lamellar-pearlitic structure of iron carbide layers with α-
664:(nearly pure iron) between. If it is hypereutectoid steel (more than 0.77 wt% C) then the structure is full pearlite with small grains (larger than the pearlite lamella) of
944:
646:(elasticity) is unaffected. All treatments of steel trade ductility for increased strength and vice versa. Iron has a higher solubility for carbon in the
514:
Carbon steels which can successfully undergo heat-treatment have a carbon content in the range of 0.30–1.70% by weight. Trace impurities of various other
1387:
1359:
1349:
599:
High-carbon steel has approximately 0.6 to 1.0% carbon content. It is very strong, used for springs, edged tools, and high-strength wires.
503:
497:
490:
478:
710:, with no internal stresses, which is often necessary for cost-effective forming. Only spheroidized steel is softer and more ductile.
731:
more-uniform structure. Normalized steel has a higher strength than annealed steel; it has a relatively high strength and hardness.
1188:
1037:
1728:
1709:
1690:
1661:
1256:
543:
242:
565:
1752:
118:
323:) and high strength wires. These applications require a much finer microstructure, which improves the toughness.
1279:
390:
The density of mild steel is approximately 7.85 g/cm (7,850 kg/m; 0.284 lb/cu in) and the
1373:
1297:
1471:
980:
1496:
1207:
572:(UK), AFNOR (France), UNI (Italy), SS (Sweden) , UNE (Spain), JIS (Japan), ASTM standards, and others.
17:
1457:
689:
Carbon steel is heated to approximately 400 °C (750 °F) for 1 hour; this ensures all the
295:
or the specified maximum for any of the following elements does not exceed the percentages noted:
123:
760:
684:
530:
grade, contains about 0.05% sulfur and melt around 1,426–1,538 °C (2,600–2,800 °F).
1233:
526:, that is, brittle and crumbly at high working temperatures. Low-alloy carbon steel, such as
355:
applications. It can also be heat treated to improve its strength, hardness, and durability.
331:
319:. High carbon steel has many different uses such as milling machines, cutting tools (such as
241:
content from about 0.05 up to 2.1 percent by weight. The definition of carbon steel from the
1423:
Nishimura, Naoya; Murase, Katsuhiko; Ito, Toshihiro; Watanabe, Takeru; Nowak, Roman (2012).
1178:
1542:
1436:
608:
8:
1323:
1546:
1440:
1422:
1558:
690:
661:
643:
391:
60:
1724:
1705:
1686:
1657:
1650:
1562:
1367:
1291:
1184:
612:
569:
205:
1550:
1444:
999:
561:
555:
515:
429:
372:
174:
169:
1747:
1151:
1018:
539:
312:
164:
631:, showing the temperature and carbon ranges for certain types of heat treatments
1110:
790:
636:
215:
159:
139:
89:
51:
1554:
1449:
1425:"Ultrasonic detection of spall damage induced by low-velocity repeated impact"
1424:
518:
can significantly affect the quality of the resulting steel. Trace amounts of
416:
1741:
796:
628:
535:
384:
335:
623:
1089:
1057:
924:
774:
747:
220:
210:
149:
1532:
1388:"Introduction to Carbon Steel | Types, Properties, Uses and Applications"
1105:
1094:
412:
343:
316:
154:
583:
Low-carbon steel has 0.05 to 0.15% carbon (plain carbon steel) content.
346:. In carbon steels, the higher carbon content lowers the melting point.
326:
As the carbon content percentage rises, steel has the ability to become
670:
575:
Carbon steel is broken down into four classes based on carbon content:
485:
473:
468:
457:
437:
285:, or any other element to be added to obtain a desired alloying effect;
258:
179:
113:
75:
1647:
1258:
Modulus of
Elasticity, Strength Properties of Metals – Iron and Steel
767:
734:
698:
694:
665:
652:
647:
531:
527:
523:
445:
296:
282:
200:
195:
70:
65:
673:. The following is a list of the types of heat treatments possible:
342:. Regardless of the heat treatment, a higher carbon content reduces
753:
Martempering is not actually a tempering procedure, hence the term
703:
657:
453:
433:
327:
278:
274:
270:
250:
103:
80:
27:
Steel in which the main interstitial alloying constituent is carbon
1116:
1100:
741:
707:
441:
339:
300:
266:
108:
611:. Most steels with more than 2.5% carbon content are made using
1356:
1084:
538:
of low-carbon steels. These additions turn the material into a
519:
461:
449:
320:
289:
262:
254:
238:
1648:
Brady, George S.; Clauser, Henry R.; Vaccari A., John (1997).
560:
The following classification method is based on the
American
234:
35:
1411:
1681:
DeGarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003),
1286:. 21 May 2022. Archived from the original on 1 May 2023.
1097:(a low-cost precipitation-hardened high-strength steel)
311:
may also be used in reference to steel which is not
1680:
1649:
1310:
1183:(2nd ed.), Taylor & Francis, p. 1,
464:have their maximum allowable content restricted.
1739:
1721:Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering
1362:. Archived from the original on 18 October 2006.
249:no minimum content is specified or required for
1152:"Classification of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels"
803:
500:– 2.521% nickel-chromium-molybdenum steel
1113:(precipitation-hardened high-strength steels)
1718:
1656:(14th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
1635:
1623:
1611:
1599:
1587:
1575:
1520:
706:are thick. Fully annealed steel is soft and
377:
1719:Smith, William F.; Hashemi, Javad (2006),
602:
564:. Other international standards including
1526:
1448:
1683:Materials and Processes in Manufacturing
1641:
1324:"What Are the Different Types of Steel?"
1202:
1200:
622:
1704:(25th ed.), Industrial Press Inc,
1429:Central European Journal of Engineering
1176:
509:
315:; in this use carbon steel may include
14:
1740:
586:
549:
1699:
1197:
1146:
1144:
1142:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1134:
432:. These alloying ingredients include
422:
594:
578:
98:
24:
1131:
963:5.0% nickel (case-hardening) steel
25:
1764:
1231:
784:
618:
243:American Iron and Steel Institute
1456:
1311:DeGarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
1177:Knowles, Peter Reginald (1987),
1038:Austenitic chromium–nickel steel
42:
1700:Oberg, E.; et al. (1996),
1674:
1629:
1617:
1605:
1593:
1581:
1569:
1514:
1489:
1464:
1416:
1405:
1380:
1342:
1316:
1304:
1272:
1249:
1225:
1180:Design of structural steelwork
1170:
1158:. Key to Metals. November 2001
534:is often added to improve the
13:
1:
1723:(4th ed.), McGraw-Hill,
1124:
522:in particular make the steel
349:
816:Maximum forging temperature
804:Forging temperature of steel
7:
1077:
702:which means the "bands" of
411:where the material has two
338:; however, it becomes less
10:
1769:
788:
634:
553:
407:Low-carbon steels display
370:
288:the specified minimum for
188:Other iron-based materials
1555:10.1007/s11661-014-2600-y
1450:10.2478/s13531-012-0013-5
1372:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1296:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
818:
815:
812:
542:by some definitions, but
1636:Smith & Hashemi 2006
1624:Smith & Hashemi 2006
1612:Smith & Hashemi 2006
1600:Smith & Hashemi 2006
1588:Smith & Hashemi 2006
1576:Smith & Hashemi 2006
1521:Smith & Hashemi 2006
378:Mild or low-carbon steel
124:Widmanstätten structures
1753:Metallurgical processes
1685:(9th ed.), Wiley,
981:Chromium–vanadium steel
603:Ultra-high-carbon steel
568:(Germany), GB (China),
366:
1119:(high-strength steels)
632:
292:does not exceed 0.40%;
1472:"Medium-carbon steel"
945:nickel–chromium steel
800:and shock-absorbing.
626:
456:. Impurities such as
1702:Machinery's Handbook
1535:Metall Mater Trans A
1350:"MSDS, carbon steel"
819:Burning temperature
720:Isothermal annealing
510:Higher-carbon steels
303:0.60%; copper 0.60%.
1547:2015MMTA...46..123A
1497:"High-carbon steel"
1441:2012CEJE....2..650N
587:Medium-carbon steel
550:AISI classification
394:is 200 GPa (29
119:Tempered martensite
1652:Materials Handbook
1626:, pp. 387–388
1614:, pp. 389–390
1602:, pp. 373–377
1590:, pp. 386–387
1208:"Low-carbon steel"
633:
423:High-tensile steel
409:yield-point runout
1190:978-0-903384-59-9
1075:
1074:
1056:Silico-manganese
713:Process annealing
613:powder metallurgy
595:High-carbon steel
562:AISI/SAE standard
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227:
16:(Redirected from
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1235:Density of Steel
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1174:
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1000:High-speed steel
810:
809:
693:transforms into
579:Low-carbon steel
556:SAE steel grades
430:tensile strength
400:
399:
373:SAE steel grades
175:Weathering steel
170:High-speed steel
46:
32:
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21:
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1328:Metal Exponents
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1305:
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1273:
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1261:
1255:
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1250:
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1226:
1216:
1214:
1206:
1205:
1198:
1191:
1175:
1171:
1161:
1159:
1150:
1149:
1132:
1127:
1122:
1080:
1019:Stainless steel
806:
793:
787:
644:Young's modulus
639:
621:
605:
597:
589:
581:
558:
552:
540:low-alloy steel
512:
425:
397:
395:
392:Young's modulus
380:
375:
369:
352:
313:stainless steel
245:(AISI) states:
165:Stainless steel
90:Microstructures
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1766:
1756:
1755:
1750:
1736:
1735:
1729:
1716:
1710:
1697:
1691:
1676:
1673:
1670:
1669:
1662:
1640:
1628:
1616:
1604:
1592:
1580:
1568:
1541:(1): 123–133.
1525:
1513:
1488:
1463:
1435:(4): 650–655.
1415:
1404:
1379:
1341:
1315:
1303:
1271:
1248:
1232:Elert, Glenn,
1224:
1196:
1189:
1169:
1129:
1128:
1126:
1123:
1121:
1120:
1114:
1111:Maraging steel
1108:
1103:
1098:
1092:
1087:
1081:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1072:
1069:
1066:
1063:
1060:
1053:
1052:
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1002:
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992:
989:
986:
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947:
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919:
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913:
910:
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902:
899:
896:
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879:
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873:
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791:Case hardening
789:Main article:
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751:
750:(marquenching)
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685:Full annealing
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678:
637:Heat treatment
635:Main article:
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619:Heat treatment
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304:
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226:
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216:Malleable iron
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185:
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160:Maraging steel
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152:
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140:Crucible steel
134:
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1732:
1730:0-07-295358-6
1726:
1722:
1717:
1713:
1711:0-8311-2599-3
1707:
1703:
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1694:
1692:0-471-65653-4
1688:
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1665:
1663:0-07-007084-9
1659:
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679:
677:Spheroidizing
676:
675:
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663:
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645:
638:
630:
629:phase diagram
625:
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610:
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592:
584:
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571:
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563:
557:
547:
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541:
537:
536:hardenability
533:
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393:
388:
386:
385:carburization
374:
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336:heat treating
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1675:Bibliography
1651:
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1619:
1607:
1595:
1583:
1571:
1538:
1534:
1528:
1516:
1504:. Retrieved
1500:
1491:
1479:. Retrieved
1475:
1466:
1432:
1428:
1418:
1407:
1395:. Retrieved
1392:MaterialsWiz
1391:
1382:
1344:
1332:. Retrieved
1327:
1318:
1306:
1283:
1280:"1020 Steel"
1274:
1262:, retrieved
1257:
1251:
1239:, retrieved
1234:
1227:
1215:. Retrieved
1211:
1179:
1172:
1160:. Retrieved
1155:
1090:Cold working
1058:spring steel
925:nickel steel
807:
794:
775:Austempering
771:composition.
755:marquenching
754:
748:Martempering
640:
627:Iron-carbon
606:
598:
590:
582:
574:
559:
513:
426:
413:yield points
408:
406:
404: psi).
401:
389:
381:
361:
357:
353:
325:
317:alloy steels
309:carbon steel
308:
306:
231:Carbon steel
230:
229:
221:Wrought iron
211:Ductile iron
150:Spring steel
145:Carbon steel
144:
29:
1106:Hot working
1095:Eglin steel
906:0.2% carbon
889:0.5% carbon
872:0.9% carbon
855:1.1% carbon
838:1.5% carbon
813:Steel type
727:Normalizing
417:LĂĽder bands
344:weldability
155:Alloy steel
99:Spheroidite
1742:Categories
1412:Vitzmetals
1360:AmeriSteel
1334:29 January
1125:References
797:hardenable
697:(although
671:lever rule
554:See also:
504:EN26 steel
498:EN25 steel
491:300M steel
486:4340 steel
479:4145 steel
474:4140 steel
469:41xx steel
458:phosphorus
438:molybdenum
371:See also:
350:Properties
259:molybdenum
206:White iron
180:Tool steel
114:Ledeburite
76:Martensite
18:Mild steel
1563:136871961
1397:18 August
768:eutectoid
761:Tempering
735:Quenching
724:gradient.
699:cementite
695:austenite
666:cementite
653:eutectoid
648:austenite
532:Manganese
524:red-short
446:manganese
307:The term
297:manganese
283:zirconium
201:Gray iron
196:Cast iron
71:Cementite
66:Austenite
1506:29 April
1481:29 April
1368:cite web
1292:cite web
1264:23 April
1241:23 April
1217:29 April
1162:29 April
1078:See also
704:pearlite
658:pearlite
516:elements
454:vanadium
434:chromium
334:through
332:stronger
279:vanadium
275:tungsten
271:titanium
251:chromium
104:Pearlite
81:Graphite
1543:Bibcode
1437:Bibcode
1117:Welding
1101:Forging
742:brittle
708:ductile
691:ferrite
662:ferrite
609:punches
442:silicon
340:ductile
321:chisels
301:silicon
299:1.65%;
267:niobium
132:Classes
109:Bainite
61:Ferrite
1748:Steels
1727:
1708:
1689:
1660:
1561:
1501:eFunda
1476:eFunda
1357:Gerdau
1212:eFunda
1187:
1085:Aermet
1071:1,350
1051:1,420
1032:1,385
1013:1,385
994:1,349
975:1,449
958:1,371
938:1,371
918:1,471
901:1,349
884:1,221
867:1,171
850:1,140
520:sulfur
462:sulfur
452:, and
450:nickel
328:harder
290:copper
263:nickel
255:cobalt
239:carbon
52:Phases
36:Steels
1559:S2CID
1353:(PDF)
1068:2,460
1065:1,249
1062:2,280
1048:2,590
1045:1,299
1042:2,370
1029:2,520
1026:1,282
1023:2,340
1010:2,520
1007:1,299
1004:2,370
991:2,460
988:1,249
985:2,280
972:2,640
969:1,271
966:2,320
955:2,500
952:1,249
949:2,280
943:3.0%
935:2,500
932:1,249
929:2,280
923:3.0%
915:2,680
912:1,321
909:2,410
898:2,460
895:1,249
892:2,280
881:2,230
878:1,121
875:2,050
864:2,140
861:1,082
858:1,980
847:2,080
844:1,049
841:1,920
833:(°C)
830:(°F)
827:(°C)
824:(°F)
717:area.
570:BS/EN
237:with
235:steel
233:is a
1725:ISBN
1706:ISBN
1687:ISBN
1658:ISBN
1508:2023
1483:2023
1399:2022
1374:link
1336:2021
1298:link
1266:2009
1243:2009
1219:2023
1185:ISBN
1164:2023
544:AISI
460:and
367:Type
330:and
1551:doi
1445:doi
566:DIN
528:A36
1744::
1557:.
1549:.
1539:46
1537:.
1499:.
1474:.
1443:.
1431:.
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1370:}}
1366:{{
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1199:^
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1133:^
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448:,
444:,
440:,
436:,
398:10
387:.
281:,
277:,
273:,
269:,
265:,
261:,
257:,
253:,
1733:.
1714:.
1695:.
1666:.
1565:.
1553::
1545::
1510:.
1485:.
1453:.
1447::
1439::
1433:2
1401:.
1376:)
1338:.
1300:)
1269:.
1246:.
1221:.
1193:.
1166:.
402:^
396:Ă—
20:)
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