525:
to the strike
Egyptian labor minister Gamal Sorour threatened workers with prosecution "against any attempts to obstruct work." A labor rights director in Egypt stated that the Egyptian government canceled bonuses in an effort to reduce pay to all public sector employees except those in the Interior Ministry, armed forces, judiciary and banks. According to another analyst, the Egyptian government was allowing the workforce to shrink and lowering payroll costs to privatize the company. When workers ignored the ultimatum, the government announced it would extend bonuses to some workers, but not to those at Misr Helwan, unless the company regained profits lost in the strike. When workers remained on strike, the government promised they would extend bonuses to Misr Helwan employees as well, ending the strike. The company announced however that it would deduct 11 days of wages from salaries in retaliation for the strike.
521:, the Egyptian government passed laws raising the minimum wage to 1,200 EGP per month. In February 2014, 13,000 Misr Helwan workers, some earning only 500 EGP per month, began a sit-down strike demanding the implementation of minimum wages. Workers also demanded unpaid bonuses. In April Egypt's Higher Administrative Court ruled that public sector employees who strike can be prosecuted, prompting clashes between Misr Helwan workers and Egyptian security forces. In June, the Sisi government called on workers to stop all strikes, and increase productivity. Some Misr Helwan workers stated that mismanagement had brought productivity to 50% of capacity through failure to provide adequate raw materials for production. Misr Helwan employees stated that their wages still remained below minimum wage.
167:
320:
agreed upon threshold. Workers decided to return to strikes in
December after Misr Helwan reported over $ 30 million in profits, while giving only 20 days bonus pay, less than agreed upon under any condition. The December 2006 strike was initiated when 3,000 female garment workers left their stations chanting "Here are the women! Where are the men?" prompting male workers to join them. Workers, initially surrounded and confronted by security forces, were joined by 20,000 additional workers, elementary school pupils, and students from Mahalla, forcing security forces to back down. Workers then demanded the impeachment of union officials.
329:
properties." According to government officials, police feared that the strike would spread to other major manufacturing centers throughout Egypt, as occurred in 2006. Misr Helwan spokesmen stated that the company suffered losses of $ 1.8 million on the first day of the strike. The company management reportedly refused negotiations with strikers in early days of the strike, and
Egyptian Labour Minister Aisha Abdel Hadi, along with the government-controlled General Federation for Textile Workers, declared the strike illegal. The company subsequently promised to meet many of the workers' demands, ending the strike after one week.
259:. While these efforts failed, Misr Helwan workers nevertheless organized strike activities themselves, demanding in July 1938 that they be granted eight-hour workdays, and in 1947 that they work under more lenient disciplinary rules. During the 1947 strike, the Egyptian government brought tanks into Mahalla, killing three workers and injuring 17 more. It was not until 1948 that workers achieved eight-hour days, following a government commission responding to strike pressure. Strikes were again suppressed by the army under Nasser in August 1952.
387:
236:
recreational centers. The factory concentrated around the 20 percent of the whole labour force existing in the
Egyptian public textile sector. The company remained nationalized despite largescale liberalization of other sectors of the Egyptian economy. Following the global financial crisis of 2008, Misr Helwan entered into $ 21 million in debt, which the Egyptian State News Service stated it was able to reduce to $ 16 million in debt the subsequent year through a debt settlement program.
220:
463:
Helwan workers, and had rather promoted "corrupt" officials such as Fouad Abd-al-Alim. The Misr workers were joined by workers from seven other textile factories in the region, and strikes also broke out among doctors and health workers, university workers, and ceramics workers in other parts of Egypt. Workers suspended their strike on 24 July, having seen only some of their demands met, and promised to strike again in
September unless further concessions were made.
347:, Misr Helwan workers promised to strike on April 6, 2008, demanding higher pay. but police response including arrests, occupation of Misr Helwan facilities and intimidation initially prevented them from doing so; a strike would have been illegal unless sanctioned by the ruling National Democratic Party. Nevertheless, Misr Halwan workers and others throughout El-Mahalla El-Kubra fought with police, set fire to schools, cars and tires, destroyed a portrait of
614:
419:, Misr Helwan workers briefly ceased but then continued strike action, demanding higher wages. Workers also demanded the replacement of company officials, as the Egyptian Supreme Council for the Armed Forces called on the workers to return to work. With a tank stationed outside the company's main gate, workers also called for reforms within the country's military.
324:
and better working conditions. Workers and their families held rallies, threatened to create an independent administration, and demanded the resignation of
Textile Holding Company head Mohsen al-Jilany, Misr Helwan chairman Mahmoud al-Gibali, and the dismissal of the workers' syndicate council head. They furthermore denied any relationship with the
141:. It is a state-owned enterprise held by the Holding Company for Cotton, Spinning, Weaving and Garments. Egypt's largest industrial facility employs over 25,000 workers, many of whom have played an active role in Egyptian labor struggles. Large protests and strikes at Misr Spinning and Weaving since 2006 contributed to the collapse of the
351:, and stormed the city hall. 300 people were injured in the first two days of rioting, and one youth fatally shot by police; two more later died as well. The Egyptian government offered concessions to Misr Helwan workers of 30 days bonus pay, and sent prime minister Ahmed Nazif to negotiate with them.
553:
The Misr
Spinning and Weaving Company is considered Egypt's largest company and industrial facility; 48% of Egypt's economy involves the textile industry. Since its creation in 1927 and through successive stages of development and governance, Misr Helwan has been considered at the forefront not only
524:
In
October 2015 Egyptian authorities declared that they would no longer provide promised and as-yet unpaid bonuses to employees, prompting another strike by 17,000 Misr Helwan workers, soon joined by workers in associated industries. The bonuses were meant to help with surging inflation. In response
182:
and proclaimed itself to be "an
Egyptian Bank for Egyptians only," began providing capital for large-scale Egyptian industrial facilities and considered Misr Spinning and Weaving to be its flagship enterprise. Egyptian economist Talaat Harb was one of those who helped establish the firm. Misr Helwan
490:
The revolution's slogan was "Justice, bread and freedom," but we've obtained none of these. The government just increased the price of electricity by 15% while our wages have stagnated. They're now trying to impose a discriminatory constitution, written for and by
Islamists. The Muslim Brotherhood
323:
From 2006 to 2007, while basic foodstuff prices increased by 48% and Misr Helwan reported profits of $ 120, many Misr workers were paid only $ 27 monthly, with some paid as little as $ 18 monthly. On September 23, 2007, approximately 20–27,000 workers from Misr went on strike, demanding higher pay
319:
A strike at Misr Helwan in December 2006 prompted a nationwide strike centered on pay, living conditions, and market reforms. Workers in March 2006 had made concessions to the management accepting 45 rather than 60 days of bonus pay, in exchange for profit sharing in the event of profits beyond an
298:
In September 1984 a sit-in strike at the Misr Company over government-mandated price increases and declining wages led to a general strike in El-Mahalla and surrounding towns. The strike forced Mubarak to return the cost of flat bread in working class districts to one penny, a subsidy then costing
462:
for "representing the Egyptian people in the revolution." On the same day, 25,000 workers from Misr Helwan went on strike demanding increased profit sharing, better retirement benefits and a replacement of the management. Some strikers argued that the revolution had not materially benefitted Misr
290:
and expected better treatment following their service in the Egyptian army. On May 21 Egyptian security forces killed one protester, injured others, and arrested 40–50; police requestioned two agricultural engineers who they alleged had incited workers to protest. The Misr Helwan workers earned $
235:
In 2004, the company employed 23,000 workers and exported 46,000 tons of cotton yarn, 150 million square meters of fabric, and 5 million garments annually. In 2005, it employed 26,000 workers, and company facilities included 8 spinning mills, 10 weaving factories, processing units and labs, and
328:
and stated that any implied links were intended to represent their fight over rights as a security risk. Government security forces surrounded and confined striking workers with their families, and arrested 5-8 trade unionists, accusing them of "unlawful gathering" and "destruction of public
190:
and by the 1980s represented the second largest export in Egypt, after crude oil. Cotton production in Egypt nevertheless declined after its post-WWII peak as arable land was converted to cereal or clover production, and previous importers including India achieved cotton self-sufficiency.
577:
played major roles in nationwide Egyptian strike actions beginning in 1977, with the U.S.-backed liberalization of the Egyptian economy. Resisting nationwide trends, workers at Misr Helwan rejected privatization in Mahalla and encouraged workers at other public facilities to do the same.
291:
12.50 a week; Egyptian Interior Ministry officials stated that workers had burned cotton shipments and looted the homes of company executives. During this period, in order to organize labor activity, Misr Helwan workers created a political organization of several hundred members called
485:
headquarters. On December 7 protesters in El-Mahalla El-Kubra stormed the city hall and declared independence from the "Muslim Brotherhood State." One Misr Helwan worker, arrested on previous occasions by the Mubarak government, explained workers' attitudes to the Muslim brotherhood:
262:
Due to low capital investment in Egypt's textile industry, the proportion of textile workers in Egypt's workforce began declining in 1960, and absolute numbers were declining by 1976. While wages initially increased following nationalization, wages began declining in the 1970s under
438:
threatened strikers, declaring that the military "will not allow the continuation of these illegal acts which pose a danger to the nation, and they will confront them.". Following threats, the military acceded to strike demands and Misr Helwan workers returned to the factory.
206:
In the 1990s, solar heat increasingly used in dye and bleaching saved the textile company 11,000 barrels of oil annually, according to Egypt's New and Renewable Energy Authority. Efforts to private Misr Helwan, and Misr Fine Spinning and Weaving in
528:
In 2015, Egyptian Sumo wrestler and Misr Helwan employee, Ramy Abd El Aty Ibrahim Belalal-Gazzar, became the world Sumo wrestling champion at the annual US Sumo Open. Gazzar is a maintenance worker at the company and also coaches its Judo team.
299:
the government $ 400 million annually. Between 1986 and 1988, workers struck demanding an increase in wages from $ 26 to $ 30 monthly, and placed an image of Mubarak in a coffin outside the factory walls; government response was severe.
202:
contributed $ 96 million in loans to the Egyptian government, intended to help further modernize the Misr company. The loan caused controversy among American textile manufacturers, faced with losses as global textile markets expanded.
364:
that they had been subjected to beatings, electric shocks and starvation during their 76 days of confinement. Police reportedly sought to block the publicizing of workers conditions and planned protests via blogs and
186:
Long-staple cotton had been invented in Cairo in the 1820s, becoming a staple of the Egyptian economy in the 19th and 20th Centuries. Cotton production used 2.1 million acres for cultivation after the
602:
has argued that the strike called by Misr Helwan workers in the early days of February 2011 prevented further compromise between government and opposition groups, contributing to Mubarak's departure.
170:
King Fouad I visits the Misr Spinning and Weaving Company, also known as Misr Helwan, in El-Mahalla El-Kubra, Egypt. The company owns the largest factory in Egypt, today employing over 25,000 workers.
307:
In 2003, Egypt passed a Unified Labor Law effectively outlawing strikes, by prohibiting labor actions not authorized by the General Federation of Egyptian Trade Unions, itself run by the ruling
589:, Paula Mejia has written that Misr Helwan's strikes "not only voiced the grievances of many Egyptians, but they also provided them with a solution: collective action for government response."
286:
In May 1975, workers from Misr Helwan, still the Middle East's largest spinning and weaving plant, demonstrated against high costs of living. Many workers were veterans of the 1973
354:
Among those arrested in the April strikes was Kareem el-Beheiri, a Misr Helwan worker and organizer of previous strikes, whose arrest sparked concern and condemnation from
271:
during the 1990s, Egyptian textile manufacturing wages declined more precipitously, making them among the lowest of any textile manufacturers on earth as of the mid-2000s.
501:
criticized the constitution, stating that article 14 tied wages to production and not food prices. Voting in Mahalla was largely peaceful on the day of the election.
1419:
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by the Muslim Brotherhood; some Misr Helwan workers participating in the protest stated that they did not participate in an attack on the Muslim Brotherhood's
1763:
1738:
1683:
1978:
809:
199:
174:
The Misr Spinning and Weaving Company was founded in 1927 by a group of Egyptian businessmen in collaboration with the Misr Bank, facing Mahalla's
863:
198:. It began to diversity its cotton sources and products, and in 1975 established a garment unit to complement its cloth manufactory. In 1976, the
495:
Other protestors noted that Misr Helwan workers could launch a general strike, slowing or crippling the national economy. One worker speaking to
239:
Misr Helwan currently sells approximately 70% of its production to domestic markets, with the remaining production sold primarily to Europe.
1478:
429:– Faisal Naousha, leader of February 2011 strikes at Misr Helwan, explaining workers' continued pressure for reform and improved wages.
183:
was largely staffed by workers from peasant backgrounds, many of whom worked temporarily to save and return money to their families.
1864:"Govt to disburse 10% bonus to public business sector workers, excludes protest-ing workers". Egypt Independent. 30 October 2015.
782:
1839:"Egypt: government moves to outlaw strikes, but is it promoting production?". Legal Monitor Worldwide. Bids Info. 18 June 2014.
1712:
1427:
978:
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1968:
1381:
358:. Later released by Egyptian authorities, el-Beheiri and fellow Misr Helwan workers Tarek Amin and Kamal al-Fayoumy told the
1983:
491:
doesn't represent me... they take with one hand what they pretend to give with the other. They're even worse than Mubarak."
434:
Misr Helwan workers also demanded the resignation of the state-controlled Egyptian Trade Union Federation leadership. The
1973:
1954:
1273:
Michael, Maggie (8 April 2008). "Egypt moves quickly to appease angry workers and head off more unrest over food costs".
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that ultimately played a significant role in Egypt's Arab Spring and the collapse of the Mubarak government. Writing for
459:
435:
101:
1809:
Masriya, Aswat (31 October 2015). "Company losses mount as Mahalla workers continue strike for 11th day". Aswat Masriya.
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In September 2009, 1,500 Misr Helwan workers demanding unpaid wages went on strike and took company executives hostage.
920:
742:
731:"Egyptian textile workers: from craft artisans facing European competition to proletarians contending with the state"
482:
308:
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Hassan, Sara (28 September 2007). "Workers Occupy Egyptian Factory During Massive Strike Over Pay". Global Insight.
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472:
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groups, and arrested Ahmed Maher after he created the Facebook "6 April" group supporting the Misr Helwan workers.
518:
311:. Workers at Misr Helwan nevertheless struck on several occasions prior to the fall of the Mubarak government.
1886:
Al-Youm, Al-Masry (11 August 2015). "Egyptian Sumo champion says suffering from neglect". Egypt Independent.
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Nasrawi, Salah (24 September 2007). "Egypt: Police arrest 5 labor leaders after strike by textile workers".
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In February 2011 Misr Helwan workers closed the factory and went on strike in solidarity with protestors in
398:. Misr Helwan workers struck in solidarity with the pro-democracy protests and continued their strike after
1988:
1850:
Al-Youm, Al-Masry (21 October 2015). "Mahalla textile company on strike over bonuses". Egypt Independent.
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Faced with municipal elections largely ignored by the population of Mahalla and still rising
276:"They eat pigeons and chickens: we're tired of eating beans. And the beans are tired of us!"
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424:"We are in a revolution, and the revolution, as they say, cleaned out the corrupt leaders."
281:– Misr Helwan workers describing disparities in living conditions during the strike of 1975.
1932:
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1029:
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916:
905:
748:
738:
386:
1021:
596:, and continued to fight for improved working conditions after Mubarak's fall. The
574:
224:
187:
35:
1385:
689:
451:
256:
114:
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in 2010, Egypt's major population center, which includes the industrial city of
562:
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264:
208:
1951:
1041:
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1962:
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930:
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of Egypt's industrial development but also its political and labor activity.
510:
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399:
395:
348:
247:
The earliest efforts to unionize Misr Helwan workers were led by the radical
142:
219:
660:
619:
726:
632:
344:
248:
150:
1084:
The Chronicles: Economic and Business History Research Centre Chronicles
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Misr Helwan workers considered themselves to be at the vanguard of the
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Violent clashes broke out in Mahalla on November 27, 2012, over the
888:
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1382:"Egypt: Blogger Kareem el-Beheiri freed after 73 days in prison"
1147:"Protests spread throughout Egypt against Islamist dictatorship"
1764:"Blow by blow: Egypt votes in disputed constitution referendum"
1684:"Delta clashes highlight struggle for revolutionary legitimacy"
570:
566:
467:
Declaration of independence from the "Muslim Brotherhood State"
194:
In 1960, Misr Helwan was the first firm to be nationalized by
178:
in El-Mahalla El-Kubra. The bank, which had formed during the
1606:"Egyptian workers mount mass strikes against US-backed junta"
544:– Al Jazeera, reporting on Misr Helwan's contribution to the
391:
138:
134:
65:
1007:"The Role of the Egyptian Working Class in Mubarak's Ouster"
907:
The New Authoritarianism in the Middle East and North Africa
1933:"The counterrevolutionary role of the Egyptian pseudo-left"
1551:"Clinton backs Egyptian military junta, Islamist president"
864:"Textile industry calls for government controls on imports"
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846:"Egyptian Textile Workers Confront the New Economic Order"
581:
The company's failed 6 April 2008 strike inspired Egypt's
561:
Textile workers at Misr Helwan and at other facilities in
558:
has called the factory "a microcosm of Egyptian society."
1062:"Mohielden holds meeting with asset management company".
161:
1455:"Workers in Egypt's largest factory strike: organiser".
1384:. Reporters Without Borders. 2 June 2008. Archived from
255:
and veteran of the German and Turkish armies during the
1914:"Egytpt: Al-Mehalla textile workers lead the struggle"
1739:"Mahalla gears up to vote on contentious constitution"
1442:"Egypt constitutional referendum expected in 2 months"
539:"This is a city within a city; a microcosm of Egypt."
1657:"Workers Struggles: Europe, Middle East & Africa"
1631:"Workers Struggles: Europe, Middle East & Africa"
1576:"Hillary Clinton meets Egypt military leader Tantawi"
406:
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and Egypt's largest industrial facility, Misr Helwan.
211:, were blocked by strike actions at both facilities.
1820:
1818:
1816:
609:
1420:"Egypt military steps in as Mubarak regime totters"
1351:"Rights group calls for release of Egypt blogger".
844:Beinin, Joel; El-Hamalawy, Hossam (25 March 2007).
780:
690:"About Misr Helwan Spinning & Weaving Industry"
267:. Following structural adjustments mandated by the
1479:"Strikers at giant Egypt factory push for reforms"
977:
945:
802:
214:
200:United States Agency for International Development
1813:
843:
295:(Dawn), and published a digest of the same name.
1960:
1804:
1802:
1800:
1240:"Strikers occupy Egypt's largest textile mill".
504:
376:Strikes during and after the Egyptian Revolution
1599:
1597:
848:. Middle East Research and Information Project.
315:Low wages and rising food costs lead to strikes
1175:. Middle East Research and Information Project
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1797:
1713:"Face à Morsi, El-Mahalla retrouve sa hargne"
1090:(3). The American University in Cairo: 16–18.
979:"Egyptian industry at a strategic crossroads"
947:"Egyptian exporters express quota-free fears"
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1857:
1649:
1623:
1594:
1542:
1508:
1392:
1388:on 4 March 2016 – via Canada NewsWire.
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1979:Manufacturing companies established in 1927
1843:
1401:"Egypt hit by wave of strikes and protests"
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1704:
1534:"Strike ends in Egypt's largest factory".
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509:After the overthrow of Egyptian president
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1930:
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1849:
1808:
1782:
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1701:
1517:"Egyptian Junta clamps down on strikes"
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1301:
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1200:
1118:
1005:Del Panta, Gianni (September 1, 2016).
966:
937:
804:"Egypt: new hope for cotton trade . . "
704:
137:, approximately 80 kilometers north of
1961:
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162:Growth of the Egyptian cotton industry
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1434:
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1398:
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911:. Indiana University Press. pp.
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801:McDougall, John (16 September 1985).
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1911:
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1399:Stern, Johannes (23 November 2009).
1359:
1344:
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1296:
1281:
1248:
1209:
1094:
1055:
902:
896:
862:Williams, Debra (28 November 1984).
1515:Marsden, Chris (23 February 2011).
1314:
1263:
1187:
1173:"The militancy of Mahalla El-Kubra"
1145:Stern, Johannes (8 December 2012).
1109:
852:
789:
692:. Misr Spinning and Weaving Company
460:Supreme Council of the Armed Forces
436:Supreme Council of the Armed Forces
118:
13:
1829:
1737:Gaber, Yassin (15 December 2012).
1682:Gaber, Yassin (30 November 2012).
1444:. AlArabiya.net. 15 February 2011.
759:
677:
407:Collapse of the Mubarak government
390:Protesters on 10 February 2011 in
14:
2000:
1946:
1931:Lantier, Alex (2 November 2011).
1711:Mathieu, Luc (11 December 2012).
1477:Dunlop, W.G. (18 February 2011).
1171:Beinin, Joe (29 September 2007).
944:De Coster, Jozef (14 June 2004).
302:
111:Misr Spinning and Weaving Company
17:Misr Spinning and Weaving Company
1604:Stern, Johannes (18 July 2012).
1549:Stern, Johannes (16 July 2012).
1418:Salem, Mona (10 February 2011).
976:De Coster, Jozef (6 June 2005).
612:
473:2012 Draft Constitution of Egypt
454:met with Egyptian Field Marshal
1868:
1103:Facts on File World News Digest
998:
532:
309:National Democratic Party (NDP)
215:Misr Helwan in the 21st Century
653:
156:
1:
810:The Christian Science Monitor
643:
505:Reign of Abdel Fattah el-Sisi
402:fall, demanding higher wages.
1969:1927 establishments in Egypt
1912:Rady, Faiza (2 March 2011).
417:fall of Mubarak's government
7:
1984:Clothing companies of Egypt
1064:Egyptian State News Service
605:
449:American Secretary of State
333:Failed April 6, 2008 strike
78:Mohamed Moheb Salah Elden,
10:
2005:
1974:Textile companies of Egypt
1500:"Egypt strikes continue".
1014:Partecipazione e Conflitto
868:United Press International
470:
379:
336:
1026:10.1285/i20356609v9i2p614
519:2013 Egyptian coup d'état
483:Freedom and Justice Party
356:Reporters Without Borders
180:Egyptian uprising of 1920
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89:
72:
49:
41:
31:
21:
1937:World Socialist Web Site
1661:World Socialist Web Site
1635:World Socialist Web Site
1610:World Socialist Web Site
1555:World Socialist Web Site
1521:World Socialist Web Site
1405:World Socialist Web Site
1151:World Socialist Web Site
1101:"Textile workers riot".
599:World Socialist Web Site
594:2011 Egyptian Revolution
546:2011 Egyptian Revolution
382:2011 Egyptian revolution
147:2011 Egyptian revolution
1257:Deutsche Presse-Agentur
1227:Deutsche Presse-Agentur
456:Mohamed Hussein Tantawi
93:Thread, cloth, clothing
1502:Daily News (Sri Lanka)
903:King, Stephen (2009).
638:April 6 Youth Movement
583:April 6 Youth Movement
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339:April 6 Youth Movement
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119:شركة مصر للغزل والنسيج
26:State-owned enterprise
785:. Al Jazeera English.
537:
488:
479:constitution proposed
422:
389:
274:
243:Early labor struggles
222:
169:
82:Chairman of the Board
1536:Agence France Presse
1483:Agence France Presse
1457:Agence France Presse
1424:Agence France Presse
1368:Agence France Presse
1353:Agence France Presse
1338:Agence France Presse
1323:The Associated Press
1308:Agence France Presse
1290:Agence France Presse
1275:The Associated Press
1244:. 27 September 2007.
1203:The Associated Press
737:. pp. 184–197.
515:Abdel Fattah el-Sisi
361:Agence France Presse
253:Muhammad Ali Dynasty
1989:Gharbia Governorate
1538:. 20 February 2011.
1504:. 18 February 2011.
1489:on 14 January 2013.
1459:. 16 February 2011.
1430:on 5 February 2013.
1121:The Washington Post
1066:. 1 September 2010.
628:El-Mahalla El-Kubra
229:El-Mahalla El-Kubra
127:El-Mahalla El-Kubra
125:company located in
59:Gharbia Governorate
55:El-Mahalla El-Kubra
18:
1770:. 16 December 2012
443:Subsequent strikes
404:
326:Muslim Brotherhood
251:, a member of the
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196:Gamal Abdel Nasser
176:Tal‘at Harb Square
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1586:16 December
1560:16 December
1179:11 December
696:10 December
633:Arab Spring
587:The Majalla
513:by general
345:food prices
249:Abbas Halim
157:Development
151:Arab Spring
129:within the
1963:Categories
1955:(Archived)
1717:Libération
1615:8 December
1156:8 December
1042:7180864217
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990:9 December
986:. Aroq Ltd
984:Just-Style
958:9 December
954:. Aroq Ltd
952:Just-Style
873:8 December
816:9 December
670:2023-12-12
644:References
556:Al Jazeera
471:See also:
380:See also:
337:See also:
269:World Bank
149:, and the
131:Nile Delta
74:Key people
1034:2035-6609
931:313659352
753:957766271
400:Mubarak's
1918:Al-Ahram
1768:Al-Ahram
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1688:Al-Ahram
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606:See also
498:Al-Ahram
367:Facebook
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567:Qalyub
115:Arabic
1010:(pdf)
392:Cairo
139:Cairo
135:Egypt
66:Egypt
1776:2012
1750:2012
1724:2012
1695:2012
1669:2012
1643:2012
1617:2012
1588:2012
1562:2012
1181:2012
1158:2012
1049:2020
1038:OCLC
1030:ISSN
992:2012
960:2012
927:OCLC
917:ISBN
915:–9.
875:2012
818:2012
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739:ISBN
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573:and
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