Mobutu Sese Seko - Knowledge

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government, switching the cabinet roster constantly to ensure that no one would pose a threat to his rule. Between November 1965 and April 1997, Mobutu reshuffled his cabinet 60 times. The frequent cabinet reshuffles as intended encouraged insecurity in his ministers, who knew that the mercurial Mobutu would reshuffle his cabinet with no regard for efficiency and competence on the part of his ministers. The frequency that men entered and left the cabinet also encouraged gross corruption because ministers never knew how long they might be in office, thus encouraging them to steal as much as possible while they were in the cabinet. Another tactic was to arrest and sometimes torture dissident members of the government, only to later pardon them and reward them with high office. The Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani wrote: "Most public officials knew that regardless of their inefficiency and degree of corruption, they could reenter the government. To hold a government position required neither a sense of management nor a good conscience. On most occasions, effectiveness and a good conscience were major obstacles to political advancement. Mobutu demanded absolute personal allegiance in return for the opportunity to accumulate wealth". As early as 1970, it was estimated that Mobutu had stolen 60% of the national budget that year, marking him as one of the most corrupt leaders in Africa and the world. Kisangani wrote that Mobutu created a system of

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constitution stated that the MPR was embodied by the party's president, who was elected every seven years at its national convention. At the same time, the party president was automatically nominated as the sole candidate for a seven-year term as president of the republic; he was confirmed in office by a referendum. The document codified the emergency powers Mobutu had exercised since 1965; it vested Mobutu with "plenitude of power exercise", effectively concentrating all governing power in his hands. Mobutu was reelected three times under this system, each time by implausibly high margins of 98 percent or more. A single list of MPR candidates was returned to the legislature every five years with equally implausible margins; official figures gave the MPR list unanimous or near-unanimous support. At one of those elections, in

1249: 1032: 1245:), Mobutu assumed sweeping—almost absolute—powers for five years. In his first speech upon taking power, Mobutu told a large crowd at Léopoldville's main stadium that, since politicians had brought the Congo to ruin in five years, it would take him at least that long to set things right again, and therefore there would be no more political party activity for five years. On 30 November 1965 Parliament approved a measure which turned over most legislative powers to Mobutu and his cabinet, though it retained the right to review his decrees. In early March 1966 he opened a new session of Parliament by declaring that he was revoking their right of review, and two weeks later his government permanently suspended the body and assumed all of its remaining functions. 6162: 753: 1902:, the leader of the National Liberation Front of Angola, and his guerrillas to Beijing for training, China provided weapons and money to the rebels. Zaire itself launched an ill-fated, pre-emptive invasion of Angola in a bid to install a pro-Kinshasa government, but was repulsed by Cuban troops. The expedition was a fiasco with far-reaching repercussions, most notably the Shaba I and Shaba II invasions, both of which China opposed. China sent military aid to Zaire during both invasions, and accused the Soviet Union and Cuba (who were alleged to have supported the Shaban rebels, although this was and remains speculation) of working to de-stabilize central Africa. 1316:

a red paper if they opposed his candidacy. Casting a green ballot was deemed a vote for hope, while a red ballot was deemed a vote for chaos. Under the circumstances, the result was inevitable–according to official figures, Mobutu was confirmed in office with near-unanimous support, garnering 10,131,669 votes to only 157 "no" votes. It later emerged that almost 30,500 more votes were cast than the actual number of registered voters. The legislative elections were held in a similar fashion. Voters were presented with a single list from the MPR; according to official figures, an implausible 98.33% of voters voted in favor of the MPR list.

2084: 2024:. During the first Shaba invasion, the United States played a relatively inconsequential role; its belated intervention consisted of little more than the delivery of non-lethal supplies. But during the second Shaba invasion, the US played a much more active and decisive role by providing transportation and logistical support to the French and Belgian paratroopers that were deployed to aid Mobutu against the rebels. Carter echoed Mobutu's (unsubstantiated) charges of Soviet and Cuban aid to the rebels, until it was apparent that no hard evidence existed to verify his claims. In 1980, the 1432:, who, with three cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—was tried in May 1966, and sent to the gallows on 30 May, before an audience of 50,000 spectators. The men were executed on charges of being in contact with Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi, for the purpose of planning a coup. Mobutu explained the executions as follows: "One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period." 1492:

proved to be a disaster for Zaire as copper was its most important export. The American historian Thomas Odom wrote because of the collapse in copper prices Zaire went from "prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight" in 1974. The economic collapse forced Zaire to turn towards the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to help it manage its debts which could no longer be serviced. Seeking an alternative source of support as the auditors for the IMF discovered major corruption within the Zairian finances, Mobutu visited China in 1974 and returned wearing a Mao jacket and the new title of

1413: 1554:(however, a comparatively small $ 3.4 million was declared found in Swiss banks after he was ousted.). This was almost equivalent to the amount of the country's foreign debt at the time. In a speech that he delivered on 20 May 1976 in a football stadium in Kinshasa that was filled with some 70,000 people, Mobutu openly accepted petty corruption, stating: "If you want to steal, steal a little in a nice way, but if you steal too much to become rich overnight, you will be caught". By 1989, the government was forced to default on international loans from Belgium. 1342: 3505: 1261:

to mobilize popular support behind Mobutu, who was proclaimed the nation's "Second National Hero" after Lumumba. Despite the role he played in Lumumba's ousting, Mobutu worked to present himself as a successor to Lumumba's legacy. One of his key tenets early in his rule was "authentic Congolese nationalism". In 1966, Mobutu started renaming cities that had European names with more "authentic" African names, and in this way Léopoldville became Kinshasa, Stanleyville became Kisangani and Élisabethville became

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Mobutu's daughter Yaki, Mobutu had no concern for the cost of the expensive gifts he gave away to his cronies. Janssen married Yaki in a lavish ceremony that included three orchestras, a US$ 65,000 wedding cake, and a giant fireworks display. Yaki wore a US$ 70,000 wedding gown and US$ 3 million worth of jewels. Janssen wrote a book describing Mobutu's daily routine, which included several daily bottles of wine, retainers flown in from overseas, and lavish meals.

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him that we appealed when our people were arrested by Lumumba's hashish-stimulated guards. It was he who would bring up, in a disarmingly casual way, Lumumba's most outrageous requests – that the UN should, for example, meet the pay roll of the potentially mutinous Congolese army. In those early days, Mobutu seemed a comparatively sensible young man, one who might even, at least now and then, have the best interests of his newly independent country at heart."

1272:(MPR), which until 1990 was the nation's only legal political party. Among the themes advanced by the MPR in its doctrine, the Manifesto of N'Sele, were nationalism, revolution, and "authenticity". Revolution was described as a "truly national revolution, essentially pragmatic", which called for "the repudiation of both capitalism and communism". One of the MPR's slogans was "Neither left nor right", to which would be added "nor even center" in later years. 638: 1131: 1500: 1572:(FAZ) suffered from low morale made worse by irregular salaries, dismal living conditions, shortages of supplies and a venal officer corps. The soldiers of the FAZ behaved very much like a brutal occupying force who supported themselves by robbing the civilian population of Zaire. A recurring feature of Mobutu's rule were the seemingly endless number of roadblocks put by the FAZ who extorted money from the drivers of any passing automobile or lorries. 1164: 1475: 1024: 1957: 2571:

recognition and legitimacy in the process. Mobutu gained Zaire and its people considerable publicity in the weeks even before the televised bout, as worldwide attention focused on his country. According to a quote in the film, Ali supposedly said: "Some countries go to war to get their names out there, and wars cost a lot more than ten million (dollars)." On 22 September 1974, Mobutu presented the rebuilt

1496:("Citizen Mobutu"). Influenced by the Cultural Revolution, Mobutu shifted to the left and announced his intention to "radicalize the Zairian revolution". The businesses that Mobutu had just handed over to Zairians were in turn nationalized and placed under state control. At the same time, Mobutu imposed a 50% salary cut to state employees, which led a failed coup attempt against him in June 1975. 1655: 3307: 3274: 49: 469: 1384:(meaning "The all-powerful warrior who, because of his endurance and inflexible will to win, goes from conquest to conquest, leaving fire in his wake."). Around this time, he eschewed his military uniform in favor of what would become his classic image—the tall, imposing man carrying a walking stick while wearing an abacost, thick-framed glasses, and leopard-skin 1096:, the US government feared that the Soviet activity was a maneuver to spread communist influence in Central Africa. Kasa-Vubu was encouraged by the US and Belgium to dismiss Lumumba, which he did on 5 September. An outraged Lumumba declared Kasa-Vubu deposed. Parliament refused to recognise the dismissals and urged reconciliation, but no agreement was reached. 1104:. Lumumba rejected this action but was forced to retire to his residence, where UN peacekeepers prevented Mobutu's soldiers from arresting him. Urquhart recalled that on the day of the coup, Mobutu showed up unannounced at the UN headquarters in Léopoldville and refused to leave, until the radio announced the coup, leading Mobutu to say over and over again " 1732:

Relations soured early in Mobutu's rule over disputes involving the substantial Belgian commercial and industrial holdings in the country, but they warmed soon afterwards. Mobutu and his family were received as personal guests of the Belgian monarch in 1968, and a convention for scientific and technical cooperation was signed that same year. During

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military reforms. However, Mobutu reduced the size of the Army from 51,000 troops in 1978 down to 23,000 troops in 1980. By 1980, it was estimated that about 90% of the Zairian Army were Ngbandi as Mobutu did not trust the other peoples of Zaire to serve in the Army. The most loyal and best of Mobutu's units were his bodyguards, the Israeli-trained

936:(present-day Mbandaka), where he attended the Christian Brothers School, a Catholic-mission boarding school. A tall and physically imposing figure at 191 cm (6 ft 3 in), Mobutu dominated school sports. He also excelled in academic subjects and ran the class newspaper. He was known for his pranks and impish sense of humor. 1940:. This had a dramatic effect on Zairian foreign policy for the next decade; bereft of his claim to African leadership (Mobutu was one of the few leaders who refused to recognize the Marxist government of Angola), Mobutu turned increasingly to the US and its allies, adopting pro-American stances on such issues as the 2171:

where they attacked and killed ethnic Tutsis across the border in Rwanda and in Zaire itself, ostensibly to prepare for a renewed offensive back into Rwanda. The new Rwandan government began sending military aid to the Zairian Tutsis in response. The resulting conflict began to destabilize eastern Zaire as a whole.

1073:. While he was there Mpolo acted as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu was affronted by this development, and upon his return to the capital he confronted Lumumba in a cabinet meeting, saying, "Either I was unworthy, and you have to dismiss me, or I faithfully accomplished my mission and so I keep my rank and functions." 754: 2009:, speculated that Mobutu invented the plot as an excuse to purge the military of talented officers who might otherwise pose a threat to his rule. In spite of these hindrances, the chilly relationship quickly thawed when both countries found each other supporting the same side during the Angolan Civil War. 1731:

Relations between Zaire and Belgium wavered between close intimacy and open hostility during the Mobutu years. More often than not, Belgian decision-makers responded in a lackluster way when Mobutu acted against the interests of Belgium, partly explained by the highly divided Belgian political class.

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vehicles that he used to travel between his numerous palaces, while the nation's roads deteriorated and many of his people starved. The infrastructure virtually collapsed, and many public service workers went months without being paid. Most of the money was siphoned off to Mobutu, his family, and top

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invasion of 1978. The governments of Belgium and France deployed troops with logistical support from the United States and defeated the rebels again. The poor performance of the Zairian Army during both Shaba invasions, which humiliated Mobutu by forcing him to ask for foreign troops, did not lead to

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ended the "long summer" of prosperity in the West that had begun in 1945, and sent the world economy into its sharpest contraction since the Great Depression. One consequence of the oil shock and the resulting global recession was that the price of copper dropped by 50% over the course of 1974, which

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elections were held. Although the constitution allowed for the existence of two parties, the MPR was the only party allowed to nominate candidates. For the presidential election, Mobutu was the only candidate. Voting was not secret; voters chose a green paper if they supported Mobutu's candidacy, and

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Initially, Mobutu's government presented itself as apolitical or even anti-political. The word "politician" carried negative connotations, and became almost synonymous with someone who was wicked or corrupt. In 1966 the Corps of Volunteers of the Republic was established, a vanguard movement designed

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During the 1960 talks in Brussels on Congolese independence, the US embassy held a reception for the Congolese delegation. Embassy staff were each assigned a list of delegation members to meet, and discussed their impressions afterward. The ambassador noted, "One name kept coming up. But it wasn't on

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Mobutu was infamous for amassing the equivalent of millions of US dollars from his country. According to the most conservative estimates, he stole US$ 50–125 million from his country, and some sources put the figure as high as US$ 150 million. According to Pierre Janssen, the ex-husband of

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gone, there was no longer any reason to support Mobutu as a bulwark against communism. Accordingly, the US and other Western powers began pressuring Mobutu to democratize the regime. Regarding the change in US attitude to his regime, Mobutu bitterly remarked: "I am the latest victim of the cold war,

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serving with the United Nations wrote: "When I first met Mobutu in July 1960, he was Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba's chief military assistant and had just promoted himself from sergeant to lieutenant-colonel. By comparison with his boss, Mobutu was a pillar of pragmatism and common sense. It was to

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if he were given power. The latter was perceived as calmer and more thoughtful. Lumumba saw Mpolo as courageous, but favored Mobutu's prudence. As the discussions continued, the cabinet began to divide according to who they preferred to serve as chief of staff. Lumumba wanted to keep both men in his

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by unpaid soldiers, Mobutu brought opposition figures into a coalition government, but still connived to retain control of the security services and important ministries. Factional divisions led to the creation of two governments in 1993, one pro- and one anti-Mobutu. The anti-Mobutu government was

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foreign-owned firms and forced European investors out of the country. But in many cases he handed the management of these firms to relatives and close associates, who quickly exercised their own corruption and stole the companies' assets. In 1973–1974, Mobutu launched his "Zairianization" campaign,

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consolidated Mobutu's grip on the country. It defined the MPR as the "single institution" in the country. It was officially defined as "the nation politically organized"—in essence, the state was a transmission belt for the party. All citizens automatically became members of the MPR from birth. The

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Following the general election, Lumumba was tasked with creating a government. He gave Mobutu the office of Secretary of State to the Presidency. Mobutu held much influence in the final determination of the rest of the government. He lost private access to Lumumba following independence, as the new

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Other translations of his name include "the all-powerful warrior who, because of his endurance and inflexible will to win, will go from conquest to conquest leaving fire in his wake", "the earthy, the peppery, all-powerful warrior who, by his endurance and will to win, goes from contest to contest

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for treatment, and he was unable to coordinate the resistance which crumbled in front of the march. The rebel forces would have completely overrun the country far sooner than it ultimately did if not for the country's decrepit infrastructure. In most areas, no paved roads existed; the only vehicle

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In 1974, Mobutu made a surprise visit to both China and North Korea, during the time he was originally scheduled to visit the Soviet Union. Upon returning home, both his politics and rhetoric became markedly more radical; it was around this time that Mobutu began criticizing Belgium and the United

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By June 6 of 1978, two more rockets had been launched and crashed in Zaire. Nevertheless Mobutu continued to promote the program, stating that 200 Zairians were employed by the project and the country would receive royalties from future rocket sales. Two years after the launch of the first rocket,

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Another feature of Mobutu's economic mismanagement, directly linked to the way he and his friends siphoned off so much of the country's wealth, was rampant inflation. The rapid decline in the real value of salaries strongly encouraged a culture of corruption and dishonesty among public servants of

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seized the whole country, leading hundreds of thousands of Hutus including many of the genocidal killers, to flee into refugee camps in eastern Zaire. Mobutu welcomed the Hutu extremists as personal guests and allowed them to establish military and political bases in the eastern territories, from

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that year. Mobutu viewed the Soviet presence as advantageous for two reasons: it allowed him to maintain an image of non-alignment, and it provided a convenient scapegoat for problems at home. For example, in 1970, he expelled four Soviet diplomats for carrying out "subversive activities", and in

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paid a visit to Zaire; later, after becoming France's president, he would develop a close personal relationship with President Mobutu, and under his leadership, France became one of the Mobutu regime's closest and most important foreign allies. During the Shaba invasions, France sided firmly with

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of the twentieth century. The evening newscast opened with an image of him descending through clouds like a god. His portraits were hung in many public places, and government officials wore lapel pins bearing his portrait. He held such titles as "Father of the Nation", "Messiah", "Guide of the

1051:. The revolt spread across the region in the following days. Mobutu assisted other officials in negotiating with the mutineers to secure the release of the officers and their families. On 8 July the full Council of Ministers convened in an extraordinary session under the chairmanship of President 927:

The Belgian judge's wife took a liking to Mobutu and taught him to speak, read, and write fluently in the French language, the official language of the country in the colonial period. His widowed mother Yemo relied on the help of relatives to support her four children, and the family moved often.

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and later served in the government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo as Minister of State and Deputy Prime Minister. Another son of his, Giala, has also served in the government of the Democratic Republic of Congo as both a member of the National Assembly and the Senate. A daughter, Yakpwa

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Mobutu's relationship with the Soviet Union was frosty and tense. A staunch anti-communist, he was not anxious to recognize the Soviets; the USSR had supported—though mostly in words—both Patrice Lumumba, Mobutu's democratically elected predecessor, and the Simba rebellion. However, to project a

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Facing many challenges early in his rule, Mobutu converted much opposition into submission through patronage; those he could not co-opt, he dealt with forcefully. In 1966, four cabinet members were arrested on charges of complicity in an attempted coup, tried by a military tribunal, and publicly

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Lumumba and Kasa-Vubu each ordered Mobutu to arrest the other. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu came under great pressure from multiple sources. The embassies of Western nations, which helped pay the soldiers' salaries, as well as Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu's subordinates, all favored getting rid of the

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A classmate recalled that when the Belgian priests, whose first language was Dutch, made an error in French, Mobutu would leap to his feet in class and point out the mistake. In 1949 Mobutu stowed away aboard a boat, traveling downriver to Léopoldville, where he met a girl. The priests found him

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The name translates as "the warrior who goes from conquest to conquest, leaving fire in his path", "the warrior who leaves a trail of fire in his path", or "the warrior who knows no defeat because of his endurance and inflexible will and is all powerful, leaving fire in his wake as he goes from

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Mobutu later switched to a new tactic, buying off political rivals. He used the slogan "Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still" to describe his tactic of co-opting political opponents through bribery. A favorite Mobutu tactic was to play "musical chairs", rotating members of his

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promised each fighter five million dollars (U.S.) for the fight. To this end, King offered the bout to any African country that put up the money to host it, in exchange for recognition. Mobutu was willing to fund the ten million dollar purse and host the bout, in order to gain international

968:. After passing a course in accounting, Mobutu began to dabble professionally in journalism. Still angry after his clashes with the school priests, he did not marry in a church. His contribution to the wedding festivities was a crate of beer, all his army salary could afford. 1069:

government and wished to avoid upsetting one of their camps of supporters. In the end Mobutu was given the role and awarded the rank of colonel. The following day government delegations left the capital to oversee the Africanisation of the army; Mobutu was sent to

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prevented them from developing and launching missiles in Germany. As a result, they paid Mobutu $ 130 million to develop their program in Zaire. In a 1978 agreement with OTRAG, Mobutu gave the company a 25-year rented plot of land in Zaire. The first rocket,

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recalled in his memoirs that the palace gates closed completely after Mobutu published a handwritten letter of the King. Because of that, Mobutu was one of only two heads of state who did not receive an invitation to the funeral of Baudouin, the other being

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of 1967 led by white mercenaries. By 1970, nearly all potential threats to his authority had been smashed, and for the most part, law and order was brought to nearly all parts of the country. That year marked the pinnacle of Mobutu's legitimacy and power.

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remained fresh on Mobutu's mind. He also opposed seating the PRC at the United Nations. However, by 1972, he began to see the Chinese in a different light, as a counterbalance to both the Soviet Union as well as his intimate ties with the United States,

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stance but also as part of Mao's attempts to create a bloc of Afro-Asian nations led by him. The massive Chinese economic aid that flowed into Zaire gave Mobutu more flexibility in his dealings with Western governments, allowed him to identify as an

956:. Mobutu kept up his studies by borrowing European newspapers from the Belgian officers and books from wherever he could find them, reading them on sentry duty and whenever he had a spare moment. His favorites were the writings of French president 888:, he died three months later in Morocco. Mobutu was notorious for corruption, nepotism, and having amassed between US$ 50 million and $ 125 million during his rule. He was known for extravagances such as shopping trips to Paris via the supersonic 1675:

in Zaire, dancers receiving the fighters can be heard chanting "Sese Seko, Sese Seko". At one point, in early 1975, the media were forbidden to refer to anyone other than Mobutu by name; others were referred to only by the positions they held.

1993:. Relations did cool significantly in 1974–1975 over Mobutu's increasingly radical rhetoric (which included his scathing denunciations of American foreign policy), and plummeted to an all-time low in the summer of 1975, when Mobutu accused the 1712:

the Soviet Union alleged that former Nazi scientists were involved with OTRAG, and became convinced that the company was secretly gathering military intelligence. Mobutu succumbed to Soviet pressure, ended the program, and cut ties with OTRAG.

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Vieira, Daviel Lazure: Precolonial Imaginaries and Colonial Legacies in Mobutu's "Authentic" Zaire in: Exploitation and Misrule in Colonial and Postcolonial Africa, (edited by) Kalu, Kenneth and Falola, Toyin, pp. 165–191, Palgrave Macmillan,

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was the only major world capital Mobutu never visited, although he did accept an invitation to do so in 1974. For reasons unknown, he cancelled the visit at the last minute, and toured the People's Republic of China and North Korea instead.

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Mobutu led one of the most enduring autocracies in Africa and amassed a personal fortune estimated to be over US$ 50 million by selling his nation's rich natural resources while the people lived in poverty. While in office, he formed a

2458:. The French critic Isabelle Hanne praised Zinga's performance as Mobutu, writing he "brilliantly embodies this Shakespearian and bloodthirsty figure." Mobutu was included as an additional promotional card in the card-driven strategy game 1740:

in 1970, a treaty of friendship and cooperation between the two countries was signed. However, Mobutu tore up the treaty in 1974 in protest at Belgium's refusal to ban an anti-Mobutu book written by left-wing lawyer Jules Chomé. Mobutu's

1355:, Mobutu began renaming cities that reflected the colonial past, starting on 1 June 1966: Léopoldville became Kinshasa, Elisabethville became Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville became Kisangani. In October 1971, he renamed the country as the 2884: 7607: 1447:

on the belief that he would receive amnesty. Instead, he was tortured and killed by Mobutu's forces. While Mulele was still alive, his eyes were gouged out, his genitals were ripped off, and his limbs were amputated one by one.

7677: 1879:, and initiated "radicalization" (an extension of 1973's "Zairianization" policy). Mobutu even borrowed a title – the Helmsman – from Mao. Incidentally, late 1974 to early 1975 was when his personality cult reached its peak. 1138:

On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promoted Mobutu to major-general. Historian De Witte argues that this was a political action, "aimed to strengthen the army, the president's sole support, and Mobutu's position within the army".

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Initially, Zaire's relationship with the People's Republic of China was no better than its relationship with the Soviet Union. Memories of Chinese aid to Mulele and other Maoist rebels in Kwilu province during the ill-fated

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obituary: "He built his political longevity on three pillars: violence, cunning, and the use of state funds to buy off enemies. His systematic looting of the national treasury and major industries gave birth to the term

1898:, from coming to power. The Cubans, who exercised considerable influence in Africa in support of leftist and anti-imperialist forces, were heavily sponsored by the Soviet Union during the period. In addition to inviting 1005:

anyone's list because he wasn't an official delegation member, he was Lumumba's secretary. But everyone agreed that this was an extremely intelligent man, very young, perhaps immature, but a man with great potential."

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For the most part, Zaire enjoyed warm relations with the United States. The United States was the third largest donor of aid to Zaire (after Belgium and France), and Mobutu befriended several US presidents, including

1279:, and brought under government control. Mobutu intended for the union to serve as an instrument of support for government policy, rather than as an independent group. Independent trade unions were illegal until 1991. 879:

By 1990, economic deterioration and unrest forced Mobutu Sese Seko into coalition with his power opponents. Although he used his troops to thwart change, his antics did not last long. In May 1997, rebel forces led by

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constructed with a runway long enough to accommodate the Concorde's extended take-off and landing requirements. In 1989, Mobutu chartered Concorde aircraft F-BTSD for a 26 June – 5 July trip to give a speech at the

7600: 7670: 7663: 7656: 7649: 7642: 1631:. Close relatives and fellow members of the Ngbandi tribe were awarded high positions in the military and government, and he groomed his eldest son, Nyiwa, to succeed him as president; however, Nyiwa died from 1234:, as prime minister-designate. However, Parliament twice refused to confirm him. With the government in near-paralysis, Mobutu seized power in a bloodless coup on 24 November. He had turned 35 a month earlier. 7635: 5222: 5202: 2805: 2043:

three times, and criticism of Zaire's human rights record by the US was effectively muted. During a state visit by Mobutu in 1983, Reagan praised the Zairian strongman as "a voice of good sense and goodwill".

1566:– on whom his physical safety depended – was paid adequately or regularly. A popular saying that "the civil servants pretended to work while the state pretended to pay them" expressed this grim reality. The 815:

in 1971, and his own name to Mobutu Sese Seko in 1972. Mobutu claimed that his political ideology was "neither left nor right, nor even centre", though nevertheless he developed a regime that was intensely

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and a change in the international political climate, as well as economic problems and domestic unrest, Mobutu agreed to give up the MPR's monopoly of power. In early May 1990, students studying at the

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China and Zaire shared a common goal in central Africa, namely doing everything in their power to halt Soviet gains in the area. Accordingly, both Zaire and China covertly funneled aid to the

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in 1960. Mobutu installed a government that arranged for Lumumba's execution in 1961, and continued to lead the country's armed forces until he took power directly in a second coup in 1965.

781: 66: 1745:" policy, which expropriated foreign-held businesses and transferred their ownership to Zairians, added to the strain. Mobutu maintained several personal contacts with prominent Belgians. 5022: 1100:

Soviet presence. On 14 September Mobutu launched a bloodless coup, declaring both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba to be "neutralised" and establishing a new government of university graduates, the

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of a local village chief. There she met and married Albéric Gbemani, a cook for a Belgian judge. Shortly afterward she gave birth to Mobutu. The name "Mobutu" was selected by an uncle.

7593: 2523:, Mobutu amassed between US$ 50-125 million from his country, ranking him as the third-most corrupt leader since 1984 and the most corrupt African leader during the same period. 1911:

non-aligned image, he did renew ties in 1967; the first Soviet ambassador arrived and presented his credentials in 1968. Mobutu did, however, join the United States in condemning the

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led partisans in another rebellion. They quickly occupied two-thirds of the Congo. In response, the Congolese army, led by Mobutu, reconquered the entire territory through 1965.

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States (the latter for not doing enough, in Mobutu's opinion, to combat white minority rule in South Africa and Rhodesia), introduced the "obligatory civic work" program called

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and stayed to receive training in journalism. By this time, Mobutu had met many of the young Congolese intellectuals who were challenging colonial rule. He became friendly with

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As what was then the second most populous French-speaking country in the world (it has subsequently come to have a larger population than France) and the most populous one in

1424:

Early in his rule, Mobutu consolidated power by publicly executing political rivals, secessionists, coup plotters, and other threats to his rule. To set an example, many were

7840: 1001:(MNC). Mobutu eventually became Lumumba's personal aide. Several contemporaries indicate that Belgian intelligence had recruited Mobutu to be an informer to the government. 836:". He presided over a period of widespread human rights violations. Under his rule, the nation also suffered from uncontrolled inflation, a large debt, and massive currency 3190: 7903: 3889: 1312: 8345: 1708:, was launched on May 18, 1977, while Mobutu watched from a distance. The rocket took off successfully, but shortly afterwards fell and crashed back down to the ground. 1308: 2846: 2399:, the villain, General Ndofa, described in the film as an extremely corrupt leader of a copper-rich nation in central Africa, was a thinly disguised version of Mobutu. 2303:. Two of his sons from his first marriage died during his lifetime, Nyiwa (d. 16 September 1994) and Konga (d. 1992). Three more died in the years following his death: 2209:

By mid-1997, Kabila's forces resumed their advance, and the remains of Mobutu's army offered almost no resistance. On 16 May 1997, following failed peace talks held in

6128: 6101: 2115:(now the European Union), the United States, and Canada to end all non-humanitarian aid to Zaire, which marked the beginning of the end of Western support for Mobutu. 2111:("The Owls") were sent in, armed with machetes and bayonets. By the dawn of 12 May 1990, at least 290 students had been killed. The massacre led to the nations of the 796:, Mobutu, serving as Chief of Staff of the Army and supported by Belgium and the United States, deposed the democratically elected government of left-wing nationalist 7780: 5219: 5199: 2802: 2537:

Mobutu had really staged a funeral for a generation of African leadership of which he—the Dinosaur, as he had long been known—was the paragon: the client dictator of

2150:

reforms, as prime minister. During this period, Mobutu was becoming increasingly physically frail and during one of his trips to Europe for medical treatment, ethnic

2107:

protested against Mobutu's regime, demanding his resignation. On the night of 11 May 1990, electricity was cut off to the campus while a special military unit called

1471:, in his capacity as Vice-President of the Bureau of the Central Committee, second authority in the land, addressed a speech filled with praise for President Mobutu. 8350: 8270: 8265: 7889: 7882: 7684: 7338: 2264: 7520: 2138:

The economic situation was still dismal, and in 1994 the two groups merged into the High Council of Republic – Parliament of Transition (HCR-PT). Mobutu appointed

4433: 1359:. He ordered the people to change their European names to African ones, and priests were warned that they would face five years' imprisonment if they were caught 8340: 8113: 4181: 1518:

By 1977, Mobutu's nationalizations had precipitated such an economic slump that Mobutu was forced to try to woo foreign investors back. Katangan rebels based in

4008: 3987: 1812:

secession was successfully crushed, Zaire (then called the Republic of the Congo) signed a treaty of technical and cultural cooperation with France. During the

7552: 6802: 6750: 6657: 6653: 6053: 2825: 2575:, a multi-million-dollar sports project constructed to host the Ali-Foreman boxing card, to the Zaire Ministry of Youth and Sport, and to the people of Zaire. 2312: 1820:, diplomatic relations between the two countries gradually grew stronger and closer due to their many shared geopolitical interests. In 1971, Finance Minister 1227: 1778:. Next to friendly ties with Belgians residing in Belgium, Mobutu had a number of Belgian advisors at his disposal. Some of them, such as Hugues Leclercq and 4289: 4132: 1721: 573: 7787: 5165: 4457: 1084:

Encouraged by a Belgian government intent on maintaining its access to rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence erupted in the south. Concerned that the

6242: 5047: 3965: 8280: 980:(African News), a magazine set up by a Belgian colonial. In 1956, he quit the army and became a full-time journalist, writing for the Léopoldville daily 843:

Mobutu received strong support (military, diplomatic and economic) from the United States, France, and Belgium, who believed he was a strong opponent of

1968: 7499: 7408: 7513: 5091: 3347: 2679: 6124: 6062: 4806: 785: 125: 7506: 2267:

recommended returning his remains, and interring them in a mausoleum in the DRC, which has not yet taken place. Mobutu remains interred in Morocco.

1683:

tensions among European nations and the United States. He gained significant support from the West and its international organizations such as the

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several weeks later. At the end of the school year, in lieu of being sent to prison, he was ordered to serve seven years in the colonial army, the

2174:

When Mobutu's government issued an order in November 1996 forcing Tutsis to leave Zaire on penalty of death, the ethnic Tutsis in Zaire, known as

1123:

on 17 January 1961. Lumumba disappeared from public view. It was later discovered that he was executed the same day by the secessionist forces of

2653: 1058:

The ministers debated over who would make a suitable army chief of staff. The two main candidates for the post were Minister of Youth and Sports

1062:

and Mobutu. The former had shown some influence over the mutinying troops, but Kasa-Vubu and the Bakongo ministers feared that he would enact a

7847: 7762: 4035: 3640: 2047:

Mobutu also had a cordial relationship with Reagan's successor, George H. W. Bush; he was the first African head of state to visit Bush at the

2316:(nicknamed Yaki), was briefly married to a Belgian, Pierre Janssen, who later wrote a book that described Mobutu's lifestyle in vivid detail. 7628: 7621: 7614: 7306: 4842: 3575: 2880: 789: 176: 4748: 4476: 4364: 3923: 3872: 3691: 2178:, were the focal point of a rebellion. From eastern Zaire, the rebels, aided by foreign government forces under the leadership of President 1111:

Losing confidence that the international community would support his reinstatement, Lumumba fled in late November to join his supporters in

6625: 4204: 4703: 4664: 4586: 4495: 1092:

for assistance. He received massive military aid and about a thousand Soviet technical advisers within six weeks. As this was during the

4825: 1108:" ("This is me!"). Recognizing that Mobutu had only gone to the UN headquarters in case the coup should fail, Urquhart ordered him out. 8250: 1291:

executed in an open-air spectacle witnessed by over 50,000 people. Uprisings by former Katangan gendarmeries were crushed, as were the

7527: 4095: 832:. During his rule, he amassed a large personal fortune through economic exploitation and corruption, leading some to call his rule a " 5240: 3831:"Mobutu goes cruising as his country burns: The cook's son is feeding Zaire to the crocodiles. Robert Block on an unpopular survivor" 2367:, which detailed the pre-coup and coup years from the perspective of Lumumba. Mobutu also featured in the 1996 American documentary 1808:

era, France tended to side with the conservative and federalist forces, as opposed to unitarists such as Lumumba. Shortly after the

6235: 2118:

Mobutu appointed a transitional government that would lead to promised elections but he retained substantial powers. Following the

8355: 8325: 8295: 8201: 4970: 3182: 6137: 3943: 3896: 2260:

at the age of 66. He is interred in an above ground mausoleum at Rabat, in the Christian cemetery known as Cimetière Européen.

2060:

no longer needed by the US. The lesson is that my support for American policy counts for nothing." In 1993, Mobutu was denied a

1749:, Belgian prime minister between 1973 and 1974, was someone greatly admired by the President. Alfred Cahen, career diplomat and 8255: 2307:(d. 24 September 1998), Manda (d. 27 November 2004), and Ndokula (d. 4 November 2011). His elder son from his second marriage, 2025: 3443: 1248: 8169: 8003: 7492: 5950: 5871: 5662: 5650: 5503: 5429: 5132: 4697: 4658: 4619: 4580: 3369:"Parliament Stripped of All Power by Mobutu: Congo Chief Expected to Decree Budget Ratification and Reduce Provinces to 14". 3245: 2854: 1085: 536: 5001: 4625: 3251: 8260: 2767: 2616:

Crawford Young, Thomas Edwin Turner, The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State, p. 210, 1985, University of Wisconsin Press

1417: 6220: 4858: 3789: 1319:

As he consolidated power, Mobutu set up several military forces whose sole purpose was to protect him. These included the

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as they marched west toward Kinshasa. Burundi and Angola also supported the growing rebellion, which mushroomed into the

1883: 1397: 1276: 2339:(right to deflower) as local chiefs offered him virgins; this practice was considered an honor for the virgin's family. 4946: 4403: 2940: 2635:

David F. Schmitz, The United States and Right-Wing Dictatorships, 1965–1989, pp. 9–36, 2006, Cambridge University Press

1547: 1543: 1269: 804: 508: 275: 6009: 4171: 3752: 3526: 2907: 7299: 5924: 5907: 5886: 5863: 5846: 5832: 5807: 5764: 5750: 5732: 5710: 5691: 5676: 5636: 5618: 5604: 5582: 5567: 5521: 5468: 5450: 5415: 5399: 5385: 5367: 5353: 5339: 5310: 5295: 5077: 4994:"Refworld | Zaire: Information on events that occurred between 16 and 24 May 1997, including the rebel takeover" 4557: 4389: 4346: 4322: 4081: 3984: 3737: 3560: 3468: 3415: 2822: 2065: 1912: 1203: 1181: 982: 8335: 7730: 7586: 7579: 6618: 6255: 6189: 5596: 2503:' to describe a rule of official corruption that reputedly made him one of the world's wealthiest heads of state." 2233: 1101: 1047:

stationed at Camp Léopold II in Léopoldville, dissatisfied with their all-white leadership and working conditions,

669: 4122: 3316:

Turner, Thomas (December 1990). "The Party-State as a System of Rule". In Meditz, Sandra W.; Merrill, Tim (eds.).

1758: 1377:, or "down with the suit"). Christmas was moved from December to June because it was more of an "authentic" date. 8315: 8245: 5161: 2702: 1813: 7875: 6161: 6021: 5039: 2448:

from a fictional standpoint, featuring the role of Mobutu in the crisis. Mobutu was played by the Belgian actor

8131: 7928: 7572: 5792: 5774: 4922: 4901: 4773: 4533: 3533:> and "the all-powerful warrior who goes from conquest to conquest, leaving fire in his wake". (Wrong, p. 4) 2979: 2402:

Mobutu also might be considered as the inspiration behind some of the characters in the works of the poetry of

1941: 1838: 1185: 6022:"Zaire's Mobutu Visits America," by Michael Johns, Heritage Foundation Executive Memorandum #239, 29 June 1989 4823:"Zaire's Mobutu Visits America," by Michael Johns, Heritage Foundation Executive Memorandum #239, 29 June 1989 1821: 8330: 6527: 2468:

of the country then known as Zaire and increases the influence of the United States over the African nation.

2323:

With Marie-Antoinette (first wife): Nyiwa, Ngombo, Manda, Konga, Ngawali, Yango, Yakpwa, Kongulu, Ndagbia (9)

1563: 1320: 1223: 578: 5088: 1997:

of plotting his overthrow and arrested eleven senior Zairian generals and several civilians, and condemned (

1699:

was developing a program to send peaceful satellites into space at lower costs, but a 1954 amendment to the

1070: 371: 247: 8310: 8290: 7959: 7292: 6093: 5988: 5593:

The Real Economy of Zaire: The Contribution of Smuggling and Other Unofficial Activities to National Wealth

3522:

leaving fire in his wake" and "the man who flies from victory to victory and leaves nothing behind him"<

3343: 2104: 2005:). However, many people viewed these charges with skepticism; in fact, one of Mobutu's staunchest critics, 1568: 1048: 998: 380: 8183: 8176: 5978: 4803: 1829:, France airlifted 1,500 Moroccan troops to Zaire, and the rebels were repulsed; a year later, during the 1616:), and on 19 September for a flight from Paris to Gbadolite, and another nonstop flight from Gbadolite to 6611: 5645:, 2006, Chapter Six: "Congo in The 1960s: The Bleeding Heart of Africa." New Africa Press, South Africa. 2112: 1994: 1684: 1605: 1363:

a Zairian child with a European name. Western attire and ties were banned, and men were forced to wear a

1217: 873: 1859:, and South Africa. In November 1972, Mobutu extended diplomatic recognition to the Chinese (as well as 1031: 7994: 6361: 6199: 6076: 6014: 5724: 4745: 4473: 4454: 4408: 4361: 4212: 3920: 3283:

Lemarchand, René (December 1990). "Mobutu's Second Coming". In Meditz, Sandra W.; Merrill, Tim (eds.).

2567: 2191: 1116: 881: 109: 2645: 1526:

rebels. France airlifted 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into the country and repulsed the rebels, ending

8230: 5331: 5303:

Revolutionaries for the Right Anticommunist Internationalism and Paramilitary Warfare in the Cold War

3321: 3288: 2124: 2051:. Even so, Mobutu's relationship with the US radically changed shortly afterward with the end of the 1761:. Relations with King Baudouin were mostly cordial, until Mobutu released a bold statement about the 821: 642: 4031: 2719: 2032:

reinstated the funds, in response to pressure from Carter and American business interests in Zaire.

1487:

nationalising foreign owned businesses that were handed over to Zairians. In October 1973, the Arab

8208: 7861: 7808: 5966: 5742: 2418: 2280: 2006: 1936:

Relations cooled further in 1975, when the two countries found themselves on opposing sides in the

1672: 1453: 605: 3572: 2908:"AFRICA AND DEMOCRACY Joseph Mobutu, Dictator of the DRC, and His Life-Saving Support from the US" 1404:; candidates were presented at public locations around the country where they could be applauded. 8305: 7985: 7709: 7442: 6542: 6461: 6431: 4511: 3869: 3688: 2676:"Revealing the Ultimate 2020 List: The 10 Most Corrupt Politicians in the World - The Sina Times" 2276: 2249: 2167: 1644: 1174: 1009:

prime minister grew busy and surrounded by aides and colleagues, leading the two to drift apart.

292: 4804:"When He Was King: On the trail of Marshal Mobutu Sese Seko, Zaire's former Kleptocrat-in-Chief" 4301: 3890:"Plundering politicians and bribing multinationals undermine international development, says TI" 1742: 1351: 1336: 1286:

Mobutu sworn in as President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo following the 1970 election

825: 566: 8104: 8074: 8049: 6592: 6301: 5912: 2714: 2083: 1539:

that was made up exclusively of Ngbandi and was always commanded by one of Mobutu's relatives.

777: 513: 211: 17: 4687: 4648: 4570: 4492: 2930: 2252:

insisted that Mobutu leave the country a few days later. From 23 May 1997, he lived mostly in

2071:

Mobutu also had friends in America outside Washington. Mobutu was befriended by televangelist

1805: 1613: 965: 8151: 8122: 7460: 7253: 6376: 6341: 5377: 4822: 4073: 2434:, was once a personal physician to Mobutu and wrote a book focusing on his service in Zaire. 2349: 2300: 2036: 1834: 1788: 1667:

Revolution", "Helmsman", "Founder", "Savior of the People", and "Supreme Combatant". In the

1392: 1292: 1088:

sent to help restore order was not helping to crush the secessionists, Lumumba turned to the

1036: 924:

Gbemani died when Mobutu was eight. Thereafter, he was raised by an uncle and a grandfather.

561: 556: 2572: 2128: 1412: 8240: 8235: 6567: 6537: 6502: 6456: 6391: 6321: 6286: 6250: 5983: 5686:. Fort Leavenworth: U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, Combat Studies Institute. 4255:

Matti, Stephanie (2010). "Resources and Rent Seeking in the Democratic Republic of Congo".

4092: 2549: 2440: 2374: 2190:

launched an offensive to overthrow Mobutu, joining forces with locals opposed to him under

2029: 1588: 917:. Mobutu's mother, Marie Madeleine Yemo, was a hotel maid who fled to Lisala to escape the 662: 599: 5856:

Mobutu et l'Argent du Zaïre, les révélations d'un diplomate, ex-agent des Services secrets

3944:"RDC : La mort prématurée de Manda Mobutu met un point final à l'histoire du "Zaïre"" 2329:

With Kosia Ngama (mistress and twin sister of his second wife): Yalitho, Tende, Ayessa (3)

1252:

A Congolese cotton shirt embellished with a portrait of Mobutu from the collection of the

8: 8058: 8033: 8010: 5114: 3325: 3292: 2465: 2408: 2075:, who promised to try to get the State Department to lift its ban on the African leader. 1923: 1762: 1640: 1468: 1324: 1300: 829: 583: 7359: 6922: 6577: 6209: 7935: 7221: 7062: 6634: 6522: 6316: 6276: 5993: 5784: 5287: 4425: 4272: 4176: 2732: 2562: 2494: 2435: 2369: 2292: 2214: 2021: 1801: 1700: 1668: 1647:, attempted to purge the country of all Belgian cultural influences, and maintained an 1460: 1238: 418: 317: 7173: 6451: 4962: 8275: 7380: 7352: 7189: 7032: 6938: 6792: 6497: 6466: 6416: 6004: 5946: 5920: 5903: 5882: 5867: 5859: 5842: 5828: 5803: 5788: 5770: 5760: 5746: 5728: 5706: 5687: 5672: 5658: 5646: 5632: 5614: 5600: 5578: 5563: 5545: 5517: 5499: 5479: 5464: 5446: 5425: 5411: 5395: 5381: 5363: 5349: 5335: 5306: 5291: 5128: 5073: 4942: 4918: 4897: 4769: 4693: 4654: 4615: 4576: 4553: 4529: 4429: 4385: 4342: 4318: 4297: 4276: 4077: 3959: 3556: 3464: 3411: 3241: 2975: 2936: 2524: 2460: 2335: 2296: 2119: 1990: 1973: 1937: 1918: 1817: 1609: 1600: 1380:

In 1972, in accordance with his own decree of a year earlier, Mobutu renamed himself

1356: 961: 957: 610: 5769:

Stockwell, John. In Search of Enemies, W. W. Norton; First Edition (March 17, 1984)

2020:

government; even so, Zaire received nearly half the foreign aid Carter allocated to

1429: 1341: 1231: 1064: 8040: 8026: 7971: 7723: 7373: 7269: 7046: 6970: 6874: 6532: 6492: 6146: 6037: 5998: 5460: 5404: 5346:

Beyond the Storm: Treating the Powerless & the Powerful in Mobutu's Congo/Zaire

4417: 4334: 4264: 3583: 3440: 2911: 2736: 2724: 2163: 1895: 1809: 1766: 1663: 1400:, formal voting was dispensed with altogether. Instead, the election took place by 1120: 1052: 688: 148: 7422: 6826: 6401: 5436:

Bureaucratic Corruption and Underdevelopment in the Third World: The Case of Zaire

4421: 1867:). The following year, Mobutu paid a visit to Beijing, where he met with chairman 8140: 8097: 8090: 8083: 7896: 7474: 7387: 7141: 6954: 6842: 6724: 6690: 6665: 6587: 6572: 6517: 6411: 6371: 6356: 5851: 5628: 5531: 5226: 5206: 5095: 4993: 4936: 4862: 4829: 4810: 4609: 4499: 4461: 4268: 4099: 3991: 3876: 3756: 3695: 3579: 3530: 3509: 3447: 3231: 2829: 2809: 2700: 2520: 2508: 2257: 2195: 2179: 2061: 1851: 1746: 1579:

Mobutu was known for his opulent lifestyle. He cruised on the Congo on his yacht

1488: 1483: 1440: 994: 885: 869: 808: 797: 655: 615: 445: 440: 7094: 3553:

In The Footsteps of Mr. Kurtz: Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo

2763: 848: 8360: 8067: 7854: 7833: 7366: 7345: 7331: 7157: 6740: 6708: 6512: 6471: 6396: 6381: 6351: 6311: 6306: 6291: 6271: 4854: 4549: 3781: 2972:

In the Footsteps of Mr Kurtz: Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo

2728: 2557: 2541: 2476: 2395: 2378: 2359: 2354: 2304: 2253: 2232:(AFDL), proclaimed victory the next day. On 23 May 1997, Zaire was renamed the 2228:(who chaired the talks), Mobutu fled into exile. Kabila's forces, known as the 2225: 2139: 1899: 1783: 1771: 1705: 1648: 1130: 1077: 1044: 941: 906: 884:

overran the country and forced him into exile. Already suffering from advanced

364: 346: 199: 7205: 6758: 6557: 6552: 2039:, through financial donations. During Reagan's presidency, Mobutu visited the 8286:

Knights Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic

8224: 8019: 7801: 7401: 7237: 7018: 6986: 6906: 6858: 6547: 6446: 6426: 6406: 6366: 6281: 6204: 5124: 5100: 4752: 4480: 4368: 3927: 3311: 3278: 3227: 2967: 2701:

Acemoglu, Daron; Robinson, James A. & Verdier, Thierry (April–May 2004).

2427: 2423: 2413: 2308: 2218: 2072: 1986: 1982: 1961: 1754: 1733: 1623:

Mobutu's rule earned a reputation as one of the world's foremost examples of

1558: 1551: 1436: 1143: 1124: 1059: 952:

Mobutu found discipline in army life, as well as a father figure in Sergeant

914: 342: 6123: 1275:

That same year, all trade unions were consolidated into a single union, the

7921: 7868: 7794: 7748: 7315: 7284: 7002: 6810: 6774: 6436: 6326: 5541: 5491: 4127: 3749: 3523: 2915: 2553: 2445: 2403: 2382: 2210: 2175: 2056: 2013: 2002: 1860: 1282: 1253: 1089: 1018: 953: 793: 531: 435: 5979:

Speech by Mobutu, vowing to resist the rebel onslaught and remain in power

5483: 7978: 7716: 7467: 6562: 6507: 6487: 6421: 6386: 5527: 3237: 2500: 2431: 2386: 2288: 2202: 2187: 2147: 2048: 2040: 1864: 1624: 1444: 1401: 1134:

Colonel Joseph-Desiré Mobutu (left) with President Joseph Kasa-Vubu, 1961

990: 864: 856: 837: 833: 526: 4404:"East-West and West-West competition in the Great Lakes Region, 1975–85" 4093:

Department of State Background Notes: Congo (Kinshasa) Foreign Relations

2544:, monomaniacal, perfectly corrupt, and absolutely ruinous to his nation. 7826: 7078: 6890: 6582: 6346: 6331: 2530:

We Wish to Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed with Our Families

2454: 2449: 2364: 2100: 1868: 1596: 1499: 1262: 1188: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1035:

Mobutu in a 1963 visit to Israel, where he participated in a shortened

860: 2740: 1522:

invaded Zaire that year, in retaliation for Mobutu's support for anti-

1456:

that greatly debased public morality by rewarding venality and greed.

6603: 6441: 4382:

The Fate of Africa: From the Hopes of Freedom to the Heart of Despair

2481: 2143: 2088: 1617: 1584: 1439:, Lumumba's Minister of Education and a rebel leader during the 1964 1112: 1055:

at Camp Léopold II to address the task of Africanising the garrison.

976:

As a soldier, Mobutu wrote in pseudonym on contemporary politics for

852: 844: 817: 5839:

L'ascension de Mobutu: Du sergent Désiré Joseph au général Sese Seko

4894:

Good Fences, Bad Neighbors: Border Fixity and International Conflict

4526:

South Africa in Southern Africa: The Intensifying Vortex of Violence

1428:

before large audiences. Such victims included former Prime Minister

1163: 6336: 3921:"Zaire: A Country Study", "Establishment of a Personalistic Regime" 3879:. Concorde-jet.com (30 September 1989). Retrieved on 23 April 2014. 2538: 2390: 2284: 2096: 2052: 2017: 1830: 1737: 1680: 1628: 1592: 1531: 1507: 1364: 1304: 1093: 933: 929: 889: 593: 503: 2347:

Mobutu was the subject of the three-part 1999 Belgian documentary

1757:, became a personal friend of Mobutu when he was a student at the 7415: 5781:

Facing the Congo: A Modern-Day Journey into the Heart of Darkness

3310:

This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

3277:

This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

1826: 1779: 1527: 1511: 1474: 1464: 1425: 1369: 1360: 1349:

Embarking on a campaign of pro-Africa cultural awareness, called

1023: 623: 588: 412: 406: 36: 4755:. Lcweb2.loc.gov (30 November 1973). Retrieved on 23 April 2014. 4544:

Leslie, Winsome J. (1993) "Zaire in the International Arena" in

4493:"Shaba II: The French and Belgian Intervention in Zaire in 1978" 2326:

With Bobi Ladawa (second wife): Nzanga, Giala, Toku, Ndokula (4)

1844: 1591:

of the jungle". For shopping trips to Paris, he would charter a

5537: 5498:(expanded ed.). Rochester, Vermont: Schenkman Books, Inc. 2230:

Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire

2183: 1956: 1945: 1929: 1856: 1519: 1504: 910: 243: 3183:"Character Sketches: Mobutu and Tshombe -Two Congolese Rogues" 1871:

and received promises of $ 100 million in technical aid.

1804:, Zaire was of great strategic interest to France. During the 1530:. The rebels attacked Zaire again, in greater numbers, in the 1482:

To gain the revenues of Congolese resources, Mobutu initially

932:(now Kinshasa). His mother eventually sent him to an uncle in 6170: 5684:

Shaba II The French and Belgian Intervention in Zaire in 1978

5575:

Historical Dictionary of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

4650:

Historical Dictionary of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

4546:

Zaire: Continuity and Political Change in an Oppressive State

4315:

La Belgique et l'Afrique Centrale : De 1960 à nos jours

3811: 3809: 3807: 3502:

Zaire: Continuity and Political Change in an Oppressive State

2512:

magazine described him as the "archetypal African dictator".

2151: 1887: 1696: 1654: 1385: 918: 709: 700: 551: 264: 54: 5655:

Africa is in A Mess: What Went Wrong and What Should Be Done

5625:

State Against Development: The Experience of Post-1965 Zaire

4876: 4874: 4872: 4870: 4746:"Zaire: A Country Study", "Relations with the United States" 4723: 4721: 4575:. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. p. 180. 4464:. Lcweb2.loc.gov (8 March 1977). Retrieved on 23 April 2014. 3612: 3429:

The State-Society Struggle: Zaire in Comparative Perspective

2291:, at the age of 36. On 1 May 1980, he married his mistress, 5496:

The Rise and Fall of Patrice Lumumba: Conflict in the Congo

3895:. Transparency International. 25 March 2004. Archived from 3708: 3706: 3704: 3602: 3600: 3598: 3596: 3594: 3592: 3410:

Anthony Mockler, 'The New Mercenaries,' Corgi Books, 1985,

2703:"Kleptocracy and Divide-and-Rule: A Model of Personal Rule" 2245: 1891: 1775: 1632: 1523: 1459:

In 1972, Mobutu tried unsuccessfully to have himself named

944:(FP). This was a usual punishment for rebellious students. 743: 737: 726: 720: 694: 5900:

Ainsi sonne le glas! Les Derniers Jours du Maréchal Mobutu

5476:

The Congo Since Independence: January 1960 – December 1961

5408:

A Continent for the Taking: The Tragedy and Hope of Africa

4813:. Metroactive (24 April 1990). Retrieved on 23 April 2014. 4395: 4294:

De Mobutu à Mobutu: trente ans de relations Belgique-Zaïre

3804: 3782:"BBC News | AFRICA | Mobutu's legacy: Show over substance" 2560:

to Zaire on 30 October 1974. According to the documentary

2484:, ransacked after he was deposed and exiled. Photographed 1327:

and Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP).

764:; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), often shortened to 7263:

Secretary of State for Economic Coordination and Planning

4867: 4718: 4646: 4205:"Belgium and Mobutu's Zaire: Analysis of an Eventful Era" 3130: 2265:

National Assembly of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

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celebrations in Paris (where he was a guest of President

1149: 468: 48: 5328:

State-Society Struggle: Zaire in Comparative Perspective

4611:

Mobutu or chaos?: the United States and Zaire, 1960–1990

3762: 3718: 3701: 3589: 3079: 2299:, thus legitimizing his relationship in the eyes of the 784:

from 1971 to 1997. Previously, Mobutu served as the 2nd

7247:

Secretary of State for Information and Cultural Affairs

5241:"100,000 Cheers Greet Mobutu 'Gift,' a Rebuilt Stadium" 3698:. BBC News (11 March 2014). Retrieved on 23 April 2014. 3641:"Mobutu grants amnesty to political prisoners in Zaire" 3108: 3106: 1542:

Mobutu was re-elected in single-candidate elections in

4653:. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 538–. 3750:"Swiss banks find only $ 3.4 million in Mobutu assets" 3159: 3157: 3142: 2877:"Chronology for Ngbandi in the Dem. Rep. of the Congo" 928:

Mobutu's earliest education took place in the capital

872:

revolutionary", and enabled him to avoid going to the

5669:

The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History

5141: 5023:"RD Congo: Pour le rapatriement des restes de Mobutu" 4607: 3672: 3670: 3668: 3666: 3394: 3392: 3390: 3388: 3386: 3384: 3382: 3380: 2393:

during Mobutu's rule. In the 1978 war adventure film

2311:, now the head of the family, finished fourth in the 2275:

Mobutu was married twice. He married his first wife,

1722:

Foreign policy of the Mobutu Sese Seko administration

740: 734: 723: 717: 5374:

The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo

4070:

The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo

3118: 3103: 3091: 3055: 2932:

The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo

2357:. Mobutu was also featured in the 2000 feature film 1922:

for allegedly instigating student demonstrations at

1662:

Mobutu was the subject of one of the most pervasive

706: 697: 53:

Mobutu in 1983, wearing his emblematic leopard-skin

5305:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 5113: 3154: 3067: 1951: 1888:

National Union for the Total Independence of Angola

1467:; the order was signed by General Likulia Bolongo. 851:. He also built close ties with the governments of 731: 714: 703: 691: 8346:Presidents of the Democratic Republic of the Congo 6086:President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo 5390:Elliot, Jeffrey M., and Mervyn M. Dymally (eds.). 4562: 3829: 3663: 3512:, Winsome J. Leslie, Westview Press, 1993, page 60 3377: 2087:Gui Polspoel with Frédéric François and Mobutu in 2028:voted to terminate military aid to Zaire, but the 2012:Because of Mobutu's poor human rights record, the 1905: 1230:, but Kasa-Vubu appointed an anti-Tshombe leader, 6252:Chairpersons of the Organisation of African Unity 6125:President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo 6063:President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo 4362:"Zaire: A Country Study", "Relations with France" 4357: 4355: 3459:Nohlen, D, Krennerich, M & Thibaut, B (1999) 3344:"Anatomy of an Autocracy: Mobutu's 32-Year Reign" 2035:Mobutu enjoyed a very warm relationship with the 1463:. In June 1983, he raised himself to the rank of 989:Two years later, he went to Belgium to cover the 786:President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo 126:President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo 8351:Recipients of the Order of Isabella the Catholic 8271:Democratic Republic of the Congo Roman Catholics 8266:Democratic Republic of the Congo anti-communists 8222: 5443:Zaire: The Political Economy of Underdevelopment 4992:Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. 4685: 4123:"A Brief History of the Congolese Space Program" 4116: 4114: 4112: 4110: 4108: 3964:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 3282: 2905: 2162:The seeds of Mobutu's downfall were sown in the 1833:, France itself (along with Belgium) would send 5989:Anatomy of an Autocracy: Mobutu's 32-Year Reign 5613:. Claitor's Law Books and Publishing Division. 5577:. Latham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. 5323:. Center for Political Studies. ASIN B00071MTTW 5266: 4941:. Lanham, Maryland: Stryker-Post Publications. 3946:. Archived from the original on 1 November 2005 2928: 2279:, in 1955. They had nine children. She died of 1890:) in order to prevent their former allies, the 1651:stance to gain positive international support. 8341:Popular Movement of the Revolution politicians 6820:Minister of Economic Coordination and Planning 5104:, 10 September 2007. Retrieved on 21 May 2016. 4963:"Togo prods Mobutu to move on _ but to where?" 4647:Emizet Francois Kisangani (18 November 2016). 4601: 4352: 3870:Concorde supersonique jet / Gallery / Pictures 3373:. Associated Press. 23 March 1966. p. 18. 3315: 3226: 2761: 2389:championship of the world which took place in 1892:People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola 971: 189:11 September 1967 – 13 September 1968 7300: 6619: 6236: 6109: 5514:America's Tyrant: The CIA and Mobutu of Zaire 5422:Death in the Congo: Murdering Patrice Lumumba 4640: 4483:. Lcweb2.loc.gov. Retrieved on 23 April 2014. 4371:. Lcweb2.loc.gov. Retrieved on 23 April 2014. 4105: 4007:. CNN World. 7 September 1997. Archived from 3930:. Lcweb2.loc.gov. Retrieved on 23 April 2014. 3689:BBC: "Timeline: Democratic Republic of Congo" 2881:United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 2638: 1845:Relations with the People's Republic of China 1218:Congo Crisis § Second Mobutu coup d'état 1127:, after Mobutu's government turned him over. 859:. From 1972 onward, he was also supported by 803:To consolidate his power, he established the 790:Chairman of the Organisation of African Unity 788:from 1965 to 1971. He also served as the 5th 663: 177:Chairman of the Organisation of African Unity 7314: 7012:Minister of National Education and Fine Arts 6964:Minister of Information and Cultural Affairs 5879:Discours, allocutions et messages, 1965–1975 5721:The Politics of Africa's Economic Stagnation 4689:Prominent African Leaders Since Independence 4679: 4572:Prominent African Leaders Since Independence 4154: 4152: 4150: 3827: 2707:Journal of the European Economic Association 1948:'s position in international organizations. 1916:1971, twenty Soviet officials were declared 1695:In the late 1970s, the West Germany company 900: 378: 369: 5797: 5457:Africa: Dispatches from a Fragile Continent 4832:. Heritage.org. Retrieved on 23 April 2014. 4614:. University Press of America. p. 64. 4064: 4062: 3815: 3176: 3174: 3172: 2840: 2838: 820:. He attempted to purge the country of all 138:24 November 1965 – 27 October 1971 8281:Grand Collars of the Order of Prince Henry 7307: 7293: 6626: 6612: 6243: 6229: 6116: 6102: 5802:. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. 4928: 3337: 3335: 2333:On trips across Zaire he appropriated the 2256:. He died there on 7 September 1997 from 2224:with Kabila and President of South Africa 2068:after he sought to visit Washington, D.C. 1382:Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga 670: 656: 47: 5800:The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State 5572: 4934: 4880: 4857:. New York Amsterdam News. 24 May 1997. 4202: 4147: 4120: 3768: 3724: 3712: 3618: 3606: 3032:The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State 2718: 2319:Altogether, Mobutu had sixteen children: 2016:put some distance between itself and the 1726: 1658:10 Makuta coin depicting Mobutu Sese Seko 1562:political and military leaders. Only the 1510:visits Zaire and meets Mobutu during the 1204:Learn how and when to remove this message 683:Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga 7475:Armée Populaire de Libération ("Simbas") 7151:Secretary of State for External Commerce 7112: 5798:Young, Crawford; Turner, Thomas (1985). 5239:Johnson, Thomas A. (23 September 1974). 4915:Democratic Republic of Congo in Pictures 4692:. Bankole Kamara Taylor. pp. 181–. 4102:. State.gov. Retrieved on 23 April 2014. 4059: 4032:"Zaire/Democratic Republic of the Congo" 3524:http://www.plexoft.com/SBF/N04.html#Sese 3441:DRC: Elections under the Second Republic 3180: 3169: 2835: 2548:Mobutu was instrumental in bringing the 2475: 2342: 2206:paths were irregularly used dirt roads. 2082: 1967: 1955: 1795: 1653: 1498: 1473: 1411: 1340: 1330: 1303:made a highly successful state visit to 1281: 1247: 1129: 1030: 1022: 828:". Mobutu was the object of a pervasive 7601:White Legion (Compagnie Internationale) 6768:Minister-Delegate to the United Nations 6047:President of the Republic of the Congo 5473: 5238: 5040:"Destins de famille(s) – Jeune Afrique" 4855:Mobutu said to have powerful US friends 4518: 4029: 3332: 3148: 3136: 3085: 2844: 2464:. His card, when played, increases the 2277:Marie-Antoinette Gbiatibwa Gogbe Yetene 2133:Union for Democracy and Social Progress 2078: 1478:Mobutu Sese Seko in army fatigues, 1978 307: 1955; died 1977) 293:Marie-Antoinette Gbiatibwa Gogbe Yetene 14: 8223: 7199:Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs 6633: 5917:Mobutu ou l'Incarnation du Mal Zairois 5533:Dictatorland: The Men Who Stole Africa 5526: 5420:Gerard, Emmanuel, and Kuklick, Bruce. 5284:Africa in Chaos: A Comparative History 5220:"Mobutu: A Rich man In Poor Standing". 5200:"Mobutu: A Rich man In Poor Standing". 5153: 4568: 4158: 3985:"Mobutu’s village basks in his glory". 3738:"Mobutu’s village basks in his glory". 3573:Influential Africans: Mobutu Sese Seko 3479: 3341: 2991: 2955: 2823:"Mobutu’s village basks in his glory". 2803:"Mobutu: A Rich man In Poor Standing". 2095:In May 1990, due to the ending of the 1894:, who were supported and augmented by 964:, and Italian Renaissance philosopher 79:27 October 1971 – 16 May 1997 8170:Dissolution of the Lumumba Government 7493:United Nations Operation in the Congo 7288: 7111: 6645: 6607: 6224: 6097: 5739:The Dialectics of Oppression in Zaire 5490: 5300: 5168:from the original on 9 September 2021 5159: 5147: 4436:from the original on 18 February 2023 4254: 4038:from the original on 27 February 2013 3938: 3936: 3350:from the original on 20 February 2012 3124: 3112: 3097: 3061: 2906:Akrasih, Shirley (28 February 2012). 2001:) a former head of the Central Bank ( 811:in 1967, changed the Congo's name to 7135:Secretary of State to the Presidency 7119:Secretary of State to the Presidency 6005:Mobutu's legacy: Show over substance 5936: 5895:. Editions Actuelles. (Unknown ISBN) 5700: 5681: 5392:Voices of Zaire: Rhetoric or Reality 5187:The World's Most Notorious Dictators 5107: 5004:from the original on 3 December 2019 4991: 4973:from the original on 3 December 2019 4686:Bridgette Kasuka (8 February 2012). 4502:by Lieutenant Colonel Thomas P. Odom 4474:"Zaire: A Country Study", "Shaba II" 4401: 4227:from the original on 6 February 2021 4172:"Launching of Rocket In Zaire Fails" 4030:Collins, Carole J.L. (1 July 1997). 3676: 3461:Elections in Africa: A data handbook 3434: 3398: 3254:from the original on 11 January 2023 3181:Urquhart, Brian (13 February 2019). 3163: 3073: 2770:from the original on 29 October 2013 2650:The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia 2578: 2244:Mobutu went into temporary exile in 1972:Mobutu Sese Seko and U.S. President 1782:Willy Mallants, were interviewed in 1186:adding citations to reliable sources 1157: 27:President of Zaire from 1965 to 1997 8202:Belgian general strike of 1960–1961 7215:Secretary of State for the Interior 5945:] (in Czech). Praha: Metafora. 5609:Meditz, Sandra W. and Tim Merrill. 5478:. London: Oxford University Press. 5189:. Athlon Special Issue. 2017. p. 58 5120:Congo: The Epic History of a People 4938:The World Today Series: Africa 2012 4845:. Time. Retrieved on 23 April 2014. 4455:"Zaire: A Country Study", "Shaba I" 3299: 3266: 3211: 2845:Tharoor, Ishaan (20 October 2011). 2652:. Columbia University Press. 2012. 2480:Mobutu's palace in his hometown of 1884:National Liberation Front of Angola 1679:Mobutu successfully capitalized on 24: 5898:Ngbanda Nzambo-ku-Atumba, Honoré. 5441:Gran, Guy, and Galen Hull (eds.). 5424:, 2015, Harvard University Press. 5251:from the original on 29 March 2020 5160:Hanne, Isabelle (3 October 2011). 3933: 3651:from the original on 3 August 2018 3030:Crawford Young and Thomas Turner, 2792:p. 574, 2006 edition, Anchor Books 2762:Pearce, Justin (16 January 2001). 2239: 2201:Ailing with cancer, Mobutu was in 1270:Popular Movement of the Revolution 909:ethnic group, was born in 1930 in 805:Popular Movement of the Revolution 509:Popular Movement of the Revolution 276:Popular Movement of the Revolution 25: 8372: 8251:Commanders of the Legion of Merit 5972: 5643:Nyerere and Africa: End of an Era 5348:. Meadowlark Springs Production. 4913:Dipiazza, Francesca Davis (2007) 4706:from the original on 1 March 2023 4667:from the original on 1 March 2023 4628:from the original on 1 March 2023 4589:from the original on 1 March 2023 4184:from the original on 11 July 2024 4135:from the original on 11 July 2024 4121:Kovalchik, Kara (13 March 2011). 4005:"Mobutu dies in exile in Morocco" 3828:Robert Block (14 February 1993). 3346:. The New York Times on the Web. 3342:French, Howard W. (17 May 1997). 2887:from the original on 15 July 2018 1964:in Washington, D.C., October 1973 1913:Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia 1715: 1277:National Union of Zairian Workers 776:, was a Congolese politician and 7594:6th Commando Battalion (Belgium) 7587:4th Commando Battalion (Belgium) 7580:2nd Commando Battalion (Belgium) 7443:Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC) 6674: 6190:Democratic Republic of the Congo 6160: 5825:Le Dinosaure, le Zaïre de Mobutu 5597:University of Pennsylvania Press 5232: 5212: 5192: 5180: 5082: 5062: 5050:from the original on 16 May 2021 5046:(in French). 10 September 2007. 5032: 5016: 4985: 4955: 4907: 4886: 4848: 4835: 4816: 4797: 4788: 4779: 4758: 4739: 4730: 4034:. Institute for Policy Studies. 3842:from the original on 15 May 2022 3792:from the original on 8 July 2018 3305: 3272: 3193:from the original on 7 July 2020 2678:. 3 January 2020. Archived from 2234:Democratic Republic of the Congo 2186:and Rwandan Minister of Defense 2154:captured much of eastern Zaire. 1952:Relations with the United States 1690: 1537:Division Spéciale Présidentielle 1416:Mobutu Sese Seko with the Dutch 1226:had won a large majority in the 1162: 1102:College of Commissioners-General 1043:On 5 July 1960, soldiers of the 687: 637: 636: 476:This article is part of a series 467: 6071:24 November 1965 – 16 May 1997 5162:""Mister Bob", pantin au Congo" 4896:. University Of Chicago Press. 4538: 4505: 4486: 4467: 4448: 4402:Lott, Gaia (27 February 2019). 4374: 4328: 4313:Lanotte, Olivier et al. (2000) 4307: 4283: 4248: 4239: 4196: 4164: 4086: 4050: 4023: 3997: 3977: 3914: 3882: 3863: 3854: 3821: 3774: 3743: 3730: 3682: 3633: 3624: 3566: 3545: 3536: 3515: 3494: 3485: 3473: 3453: 3421: 3404: 3362: 3220: 3216:. Cambridge UP. pp. 62–65. 3205: 3046: 3037: 3024: 3015: 3006: 2997: 2985: 2961: 2949: 2922: 2899: 2869: 2853:. Time Magazine. Archived from 2815: 2795: 2656:from the original on 8 May 2013 1906:Relations with the Soviet Union 1620:with the youth choir of Zaire. 1606:United Nations in New York City 1407: 1222:Prime Minister Moise Tshombe's 1173:needs additional citations for 1012: 947: 772:and also known by his initials 326: 304: 8356:Soldiers of the Force Publique 8326:People of the Rwandan genocide 8296:Leaders who took power by coup 8177:Torture and killing of Lumumba 7231:Secretary of State for Defence 7183:Secretary of State for Justice 7167:Secretary of State for Finance 6996:Minister of the Middle Classes 6180:Joseph Mobutu/Mobutu Sese Seko 5394:. Washington Institute Press. 5025:, Panapress, 17 December 2007 4917:. Twenty First Century Books. 4841:Zagorin, Adam. (24 June 2001) 4608:Michael G. Schatzberg (1991). 3214:Foreign Intervention in Africa 2782: 2755: 2694: 2668: 2629: 2619: 2610: 2585: 1942:Soviet invasion of Afghanistan 1839:2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment 1736:'s highly successful visit to 792:from 1967 to 1968. During the 13: 1: 8256:Deaths from cancer in Morocco 6718:Minister of External Commerce 6646: 6010:Hope and retribution in Zaire 5759:University Press of America. 5705:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 5573:Kisangani, Emizet F. (2016). 5516:. American University Press. 5321:Politics and Culture in Zaire 4422:10.1080/14682745.2018.1559830 4339:De memoires: luctor et emergo 2788:Jung Chang and Jon Halliday, 2764:"DR Congo's troubled history" 2599: 2485: 2373:, which centred on the famed 1759:Université Libre de Bruxelles 1564:Special Presidential Division 1321:Special Presidential Division 1268:1967 marked the debut of the 1224:Congolese National Convention 855:South Africa, Israel and the 579:Special Presidential Division 267:, Rabat-Salé-Kénitra, Morocco 6980:Minister of Youth and Sports 6884:Minister of Economic Affairs 6734:Minister Resident in Belgium 6658:Minister of National Defence 5919:. Bellew Publishing Co Ltd. 5360:The Assassination of Lumumba 5267:General and cited references 4935:Dickovick, J. Tyler (2008). 4269:10.1080/01436597.2010.488471 3233:The Assassination of Lumumba 2604: 2157: 2105:National University of Zaire 1608:, then again on 16 July for 1587:, he erected a palace, the " 1443:, was lured out of exile in 895: 863:of China, mainly due to his 7: 8261:Deaths from prostate cancer 6932:Minister of Mines and Power 6701:Minister of Foreign Affairs 5960: 5719:Sandbrook, Richard (1985). 5667:Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges. 5474:Hoskyns, Catherine (1965). 2313:2006 presidential elections 2295:, on the eve of a visit by 2113:European Economic Community 2026:US House of Representatives 1995:Central Intelligence Agency 1685:International Monetary Fund 999:Congolese National Movement 972:Early political involvement 874:International Monetary Fund 822:colonial cultural influence 10: 8377: 8321:People of the Congo Crisis 8301:Lumumba Government members 6948:Minister of Social Affairs 6868:Minister of Communications 6672: 6015:From Our Own Correspondent 5725:Cambridge University Press 5682:Odom, Thomas Paul (1993). 5657:, 2006. New Africa Press. 5276: 4843:"Leaving Fire in His Wake" 4736:Elliot and Dymally, p. 150 4524:Callagy, Thomas M. (1983) 4213:Journal of Belgian History 2729:10.1162/154247604323067916 2444:depicts the events of the 1976:in Washington, D.C., 1989. 1719: 1334: 1215: 1154:and consolidation of power 1016: 809:sole legal political party 372:Armée Nationale Congolaise 8193: 8184:Death of Dag Hammarskjöld 8161: 7949: 7913: 7818: 7772: 7740: 7701: 7694: 7562: 7544: 7484: 7452: 7432: 7323: 7262: 7246: 7230: 7214: 7198: 7182: 7166: 7150: 7134: 7118: 7107: 7087: 7071: 7055: 7039: 7027: 7011: 6995: 6979: 6963: 6947: 6931: 6916:Minister of Public Health 6915: 6899: 6883: 6867: 6851: 6835: 6819: 6801: 6783: 6767: 6749: 6733: 6717: 6699: 6683: 6652: 6641: 6480: 6262: 6188: 6169: 6158: 6136: 6073: 6051: 6034: 6029: 5817: 5332:Columbia University Press 5225:25 September 2022 at the 5205:25 September 2022 at the 4794:Elliot and Dymally, p. 88 4380:Meredith, Martin (2005). 4203:Hendrickx, Colin (2019). 3694:26 September 2011 at the 3578:12 September 2014 at the 3322:Federal Research Division 3289:Federal Research Division 2808:25 September 2022 at the 2471: 2438:'s 1998 historical novel 2270: 1643:responsible for numerous 960:, British prime minister 901:Early years and education 780:who was the 1st and only 454: 428: 399: 391: 357: 352: 337: 281: 271: 254: 226: 221: 217: 205: 193: 182: 174: 154: 142: 131: 123: 103: 83: 72: 65: 61: 46: 34: 8209:Decolonisation of Africa 7862:Hubert Fauntleroy Julian 7535:Ghana, Nigeria and Egypt 7028:Minister of Land Affairs 6836:Minister of Public Works 6785:Minister of the Interior 6018:, BBC News, 24 May 1997. 5967:Kinsangani battle (1997) 5930: 5743:Indiana University Press 5701:Reid, Stuart A. (2023). 5653:; Mwakikagile, Godfrey. 5591:MacGaffey, Janet (ed.). 5271: 5068:Janssen, Pierre (1997). 4785:Young and Turner, p. 389 4727:Young and Turner, p. 372 4245:Young and Turner, p. 172 4056:Young and Turner, p. 169 3755:20 December 2003 at the 3630:Young and Turner, p. 211 3446:2 September 2010 at the 2929:Robert Edgerton (2002). 2851:Top 15 Toppled Dictators 2419:Anthills of the Savannah 1822:Valéry Giscard d'Estaing 1557:Mobutu owned a fleet of 1454:institutional corruption 1237:Under the auspices of a 905:Mobutu, a member of the 824:through his program of " 8336:Politicide perpetrators 7960:Force Publique mutinies 7929:William "Rip" Robertson 7685:Cuban Exile Naval Force 7339:Egide Bocheley-Davidson 6852:Minister of Agriculture 5913:Nguza Karl-i-Bond, Jean 5755:Schatzberg, Michael G. 5737:Schatzberg, Michael G. 4460:10 January 2009 at the 4296:. De Boeck Université. 3816:Young & Turner 1985 3551:Wrong, Michela (2002). 3542:Young and Turner, p. 57 2790:Mao: the Unknown Story, 2168:Rwandan Patriotic Front 1645:human rights violations 1569:Forces Armées Zaïroises 381:Forces Armées Zaïroises 8316:People of the Cold War 8246:20th-century criminals 8075:Port Francqui incident 5641:Mwakikagile, Godfrey. 5611:Zaire: A Country Study 5127:, 2012. p. 384f. 4809:6 October 2008 at the 3318:Zaire: A country study 3285:Zaire: A country study 3230:; Wright, Ann (2002). 2592:conquest to conquest". 2546: 2492:According to Mobutu's 2489: 2283:on 22 October 1977 in 2263:In December 2007, the 2120:1991 riots in Kinshasa 2092: 1977: 1965: 1727:Relations with Belgium 1673:1974 Foreman–Ali fight 1659: 1515: 1479: 1421: 1346: 1287: 1257: 1135: 1040: 1028: 1027:Colonel Mobutu in 1960 537:government dissolution 521:Early political career 379: 370: 8152:Stanleyville mutinies 7781:Jean-Marie Crèvecoeur 7678:211th Makasi Squadron 7461:Katangese Gendarmerie 7254:Antoine-Roger Bolamba 6684:Deputy Prime Minister 6200:Laurent-Désiré Kabila 6138:Republic of the Congo 6077:Laurent-Désiré Kabila 5558:Kingsolver, Barbara. 5282:Ayittey, George B.N. 5098:(Mobutu's Children). 4317:. Éditions Complexe. 4257:Third World Quarterly 3529:7 August 2004 at the 3371:The Los Angeles Times 2828:20 March 2024 at the 2552:boxing match between 2535: 2479: 2350:Mobutu, King of Zaire 2343:In art and literature 2192:Laurent-Désiré Kabila 2086: 2037:Reagan Administration 2014:Carter Administration 1971: 1960:Mobutu Sese Seko and 1959: 1835:French Foreign Legion 1831:second Shaba invasion 1796:Relations with France 1789:Mobutu, King of Zaire 1657: 1502: 1477: 1415: 1344: 1331:Authenticity campaign 1293:Stanleyville mutinies 1285: 1251: 1133: 1076:The British diplomat 1034: 1026: 997:and joined Lumumba's 991:1958 World Exposition 978:Actualités Africaines 882:Laurent-Désiré Kabila 826:national authenticity 562:Stanleyville mutinies 557:Constitution of Zaire 392:Years of service 110:Laurent-Désiré Kabila 8331:Political corruption 8133:Violettes Imperiales 7756:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu 7710:Conor Cruise O'Brien 7608:5 Mechanised Brigade 7395:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu 7126:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu 7113:Secretaries of State 5937:Shaw, Karl (2005) . 5893:Mobutu, l'homme seul 5823:Braeckman, Colette. 5623:Mokoli, Mondonga M. 5560:The Poisonwood Bible 5326:Callaghy, Thomas M. 5319:Callaghy, Thomas M. 5301:Burke, Kyle (2018). 4892:Atzili, Boaz (2012) 4828:21 July 2006 at the 4751:12 December 2012 at 4513:Sauvetage de Kolwezi 4479:12 December 2012 at 4367:13 December 2012 at 4290:de Villers, Gauthier 3990:11 July 2024 at the 3983:The New York Times, 3736:The New York Times, 3508:1 March 2023 at the 3427:Callaghy, Thomas M. 3212:Schmidt, Elizabeth. 2821:The New York Times, 2550:Rumble in the Jungle 2441:The Poisonwood Bible 2430:, father of actress 2377:boxing bout between 2375:Rumble in the Jungle 2079:Coalition government 1827:first Shaba invasion 1763:Belgian royal family 1337:Authenticité (Zaire) 1228:March 1965 elections 1182:improve this article 1086:United Nations force 762:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu 600:Rumble in the Jungle 231:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu 116:President of the DRC 96:President of the DRC 8311:People from Mongala 8291:Presidents for life 7809:Frédéric Vandewalle 6803:Minister of Finance 6751:Minister of Justice 5115:David van Reybrouck 5094:16 May 2016 at the 5089:"Enfants de Mobutu" 5070:À la cour de Mobutu 4861:17 May 2013 at the 4764:Lamb, David (1987) 4569:Kasuka, B. (2012). 4498:9 June 2007 at the 4098:9 June 2018 at the 3926:5 December 2012 at 3902:on 3 September 2010 3875:3 July 2009 at the 3759:. CNN. 3 June 1997. 3740:29 September 1988. 3326:Library of Congress 3293:Library of Congress 2743:on 29 December 2014 2409:A Bend in the River 2066:US State Department 1924:Lovanium University 1825:Mobutu: during the 1641:totalitarian regime 1614:François Mitterrand 1610:French bicentennial 1469:Victor Nendaka Bika 1301:Baudouin of Belgium 966:Niccolò Machiavelli 830:cult of personality 514:Manifesto of N'sele 8162:Other major events 7995:Congo-Stanleyville 7468:South Kasai forces 7222:Raphael Batshikama 7063:Charles Kisolokele 6900:Minister of Labour 6635:Lumumba Government 6054:President of Zaire 6030:Political offices 5994:The New York Times 5891:Monheim, Francis. 5877:Mobutu Sese Seko. 5785:Three Rivers Press 5562:. Harper Collins. 5378:St. Martin's Press 5372:Edgerton, Robert. 5344:Close, William T. 5288:Palgrave Macmillan 5245:The New York Times 4177:The New York Times 4074:St. Martin's Press 4068:Edgerton, Robert. 3994:29 September 1988. 3974:. 24 December 2004 3860:Shaw 2005, 47, 58. 3621:, p. 355-356. 3139:, pp. 92, 94. 2857:on 22 October 2011 2847:"Mobutu Sese Seko" 2832:29 September 1988. 2646:"Mobutu Sese Seko" 2563:When We Were Kings 2490: 2436:Barbara Kingsolver 2370:When We Were Kings 2250:Gnassingbé Eyadéma 2248:, until President 2215:South African Navy 2129:Étienne Tshisekedi 2093: 2022:sub-Saharan Africa 1978: 1966: 1802:sub-Saharan Africa 1701:Treaty of Brussels 1660: 1516: 1480: 1461:president for life 1422: 1347: 1288: 1258: 1243:regime d'exception 1239:state of exception 1136: 1041: 1039:paratrooper course 1029: 849:Francophone Africa 782:President of Zaire 419:Commander in chief 167:President of Zaire 67:President of Zaire 8218: 8217: 7950:Main operations / 7945: 7944: 7573:White mercenaries 7435:government forces 7353:Christophe Gbenye 7324:Political leaders 7282: 7281: 7278: 7277: 7190:Maximilien Liongo 7103: 7102: 7088:Minister of State 7072:Minister of State 7056:Minister of State 7040:Minister of State 7033:Alexandre Mahamba 6939:Edmond Rudahindwa 6793:Christophe Gbenye 6601: 6600: 6218: 6217: 6171:Republic of Zaire 6092: 6091: 6074:Succeeded by 5952:978-80-7359-002-4 5943:Šílenství mocných 5872:978-2-7384-1133-4 5779:Taylor, Jeffrey. 5663:978-0-9802534-7-4 5651:978-0-9802534-1-2 5505:978-0-87073-901-9 5438:. ASIN B0006E1JR8 5430:978-0-674-72527-0 5405:French, Howard W. 5218:Washington Post, 5198:Washington Post, 5134:978-0-06-220011-2 5117:(25 March 2014). 4699:978-1-4700-4358-2 4660:978-1-4422-7316-0 4621:978-0-8191-8130-5 4582:978-1-4700-4358-2 4384:. PublicAffairs. 4335:Martens, Wilfried 3586:, 31 October 2009 3247:978-1-85984-410-6 3088:, pp. 88–89. 2974:. HarperCollins. 2801:Washington Post, 2682:on 3 January 2024 2579:Explanatory notes 2525:Philip Gourevitch 2461:Twilight Struggle 2452:in the 2011 film 2336:droit de cuissage 2297:Pope John Paul II 2142:, an advocate of 2125:Laurent Monsengwo 1991:George H. W. Bush 1974:George H. W. Bush 1938:Angolan Civil War 1919:persona non grata 1841:) to aid Mobutu. 1818:Charles de Gaulle 1765:. Prime Minister 1664:personality cults 1601:Gbadolite Airport 1357:Republic of Zaire 1307:. That same year 1214: 1213: 1206: 962:Winston Churchill 958:Charles de Gaulle 680: 679: 611:1991 Zaire unrest 496: 495: 458: 457: 212:Houari Boumédiène 16:(Redirected from 8368: 8231:Mobutu Sese Seko 8211: 8204: 8186: 8179: 8172: 8154: 8145: 8136: 8127: 8118: 8109: 8100: 8093: 8086: 8077: 8070: 8063: 8052: 8045: 8036: 8029: 8027:Battle of Kabalo 8022: 8015: 8006: 7997: 7988: 7981: 7974: 7967: 7966:Secession crisis 7962: 7938: 7931: 7924: 7906: 7899: 7892: 7885: 7878: 7876:Siegfried Müller 7871: 7864: 7857: 7850: 7843: 7836: 7829: 7811: 7804: 7797: 7790: 7788:Jules Crèvecoeur 7783: 7765: 7758: 7751: 7733: 7726: 7724:Dewan Prem Chand 7719: 7712: 7699: 7698: 7687: 7680: 7673: 7666: 7659: 7652: 7645: 7638: 7631: 7624: 7617: 7610: 7603: 7596: 7589: 7582: 7575: 7555: 7537: 7530: 7523: 7516: 7509: 7502: 7495: 7477: 7470: 7463: 7445: 7425: 7418: 7411: 7409:Gaston Soumialot 7404: 7397: 7390: 7383: 7376: 7374:Joseph Kasa-Vubu 7369: 7362: 7360:Dag Hammarskjöld 7355: 7348: 7341: 7334: 7309: 7302: 7295: 7286: 7285: 7270:Alphonse Nguvulu 7109: 7108: 7047:Georges Grenfell 6971:Anicet Kashamura 6923:Grégoire Kamanga 6875:Alphonse Songolo 6678: 6677: 6643: 6642: 6628: 6621: 6614: 6605: 6604: 6245: 6238: 6231: 6222: 6221: 6210:Félix Tshisekedi 6164: 6147:Joseph Kasa-Vubu 6118: 6111: 6104: 6095: 6094: 6038:Joseph Kasa Vubu 6035:Preceded by 6027: 6026: 6012:, Allan Little, 5999:Howard W. French 5956: 5881:. Éditions J.A. 5852:Dungia, Emmanuel 5813: 5757:Mobutu or Chaos? 5716: 5703:The Lumumba Plot 5697: 5595:. Philadelphia: 5588: 5555: 5509: 5492:Kanza, Thomas R. 5487: 5461:Houghton Mifflin 5455:Harden, Blaine. 5358:De Witte, Ludo. 5316: 5261: 5260: 5258: 5256: 5236: 5230: 5216: 5210: 5196: 5190: 5184: 5178: 5177: 5175: 5173: 5157: 5151: 5145: 5139: 5138: 5111: 5105: 5086: 5080: 5072:. Michel Lafon. 5066: 5060: 5059: 5057: 5055: 5044:JeuneAfrique.com 5036: 5030: 5028: 5020: 5014: 5013: 5011: 5009: 4989: 4983: 4982: 4980: 4978: 4959: 4953: 4952: 4932: 4926: 4911: 4905: 4890: 4884: 4878: 4865: 4852: 4846: 4839: 4833: 4820: 4814: 4801: 4795: 4792: 4786: 4783: 4777: 4762: 4756: 4743: 4737: 4734: 4728: 4725: 4716: 4715: 4713: 4711: 4683: 4677: 4676: 4674: 4672: 4644: 4638: 4637: 4635: 4633: 4605: 4599: 4598: 4596: 4594: 4566: 4560: 4542: 4536: 4522: 4516: 4509: 4503: 4490: 4484: 4471: 4465: 4452: 4446: 4445: 4443: 4441: 4409:Cold War History 4399: 4393: 4378: 4372: 4359: 4350: 4332: 4326: 4311: 4305: 4287: 4281: 4280: 4252: 4246: 4243: 4237: 4236: 4234: 4232: 4226: 4209: 4200: 4194: 4193: 4191: 4189: 4168: 4162: 4156: 4145: 4144: 4142: 4140: 4118: 4103: 4090: 4084: 4066: 4057: 4054: 4048: 4047: 4045: 4043: 4027: 4021: 4020: 4018: 4016: 4001: 3995: 3981: 3975: 3969: 3963: 3955: 3953: 3951: 3940: 3931: 3918: 3912: 3911: 3909: 3907: 3901: 3894: 3886: 3880: 3867: 3861: 3858: 3852: 3851: 3849: 3847: 3833: 3825: 3819: 3813: 3802: 3801: 3799: 3797: 3778: 3772: 3766: 3760: 3747: 3741: 3734: 3728: 3722: 3716: 3710: 3699: 3686: 3680: 3674: 3661: 3660: 3658: 3656: 3637: 3631: 3628: 3622: 3616: 3610: 3604: 3587: 3584:Voice of America 3570: 3564: 3549: 3543: 3540: 3534: 3519: 3513: 3498: 3492: 3489: 3483: 3477: 3471: 3457: 3451: 3438: 3432: 3425: 3419: 3408: 3402: 3396: 3375: 3374: 3366: 3360: 3359: 3357: 3355: 3339: 3330: 3329: 3309: 3308: 3303: 3297: 3296: 3276: 3275: 3270: 3264: 3263: 3261: 3259: 3224: 3218: 3217: 3209: 3203: 3202: 3200: 3198: 3178: 3167: 3161: 3152: 3146: 3140: 3134: 3128: 3122: 3116: 3110: 3101: 3095: 3089: 3083: 3077: 3071: 3065: 3059: 3053: 3050: 3044: 3041: 3035: 3028: 3022: 3019: 3013: 3012:Wrong, pp. 74–75 3010: 3004: 3003:Wrong, pp. 72–74 3001: 2995: 2989: 2983: 2965: 2959: 2953: 2947: 2946: 2926: 2920: 2919: 2918:on 3 March 2014. 2914:. 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cabinet 1747:Edmond Leburton 1729: 1724: 1718: 1693: 1441:Simba rebellion 1418:Prince Bernhard 1410: 1373:(shorthand for 1365:Mao-style tunic 1339: 1333: 1220: 1210: 1199: 1193: 1190: 1179: 1167: 1156: 1115:to establish a 1021: 1015: 995:Patrice Lumumba 974: 950: 903: 898: 886:prostate cancer 870:anti-capitalist 798:Patrice Lumumba 752: 751: 730: 713: 690: 686: 676: 635: 628: 620: 616:First Congo War 543: 518: 486: 484: 483: 482: 481: 477: 475: 474: 450: 446:First Congo War 441:Shaba invasions 424: 387: 333: 332: 329: 1980) 324: 320: 310: 302: 298: 295: 272:Political party 263: 259: 250:, Belgian Congo 242: 241:14 October 1930 236: 234: 233: 232: 206: 194: 188: 183: 164: 163: 155: 143: 137: 132: 113: 112: 104: 93: 92: 84: 78: 73: 57: 42: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8374: 8364: 8363: 8358: 8353: 8348: 8343: 8338: 8333: 8328: 8323: 8318: 8313: 8308: 8306:Ngbandi people 8303: 8298: 8293: 8288: 8283: 8278: 8273: 8268: 8263: 8258: 8253: 8248: 8243: 8238: 8233: 8216: 8215: 8213: 8212: 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F. Maspero. 5837:Chomé, Jules. 5835: 5819: 5816: 5815: 5814: 5808: 5795: 5777: 5767: 5753: 5735: 5717: 5711: 5698: 5692: 5679: 5665: 5639: 5621: 5607: 5589: 5583: 5570: 5556: 5550: 5524: 5510: 5504: 5488: 5471: 5453: 5439: 5434:Gould, David. 5432: 5418: 5402: 5388: 5370: 5356: 5342: 5324: 5317: 5311: 5298: 5278: 5275: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5262: 5231: 5211: 5191: 5179: 5164:. Liberation. 5152: 5150:, p. 110. 5140: 5133: 5106: 5081: 5061: 5031: 5015: 4984: 4954: 4948:978-1610488815 4947: 4927: 4906: 4885: 4883:, p. 401. 4881:Kisangani 2016 4866: 4847: 4834: 4815: 4796: 4787: 4778: 4757: 4738: 4729: 4717: 4698: 4678: 4659: 4639: 4620: 4600: 4581: 4561: 4550:Westview Press 4537: 4517: 4504: 4485: 4466: 4447: 4416:(4): 511–528. 4394: 4373: 4351: 4327: 4306: 4282: 4263:(3): 401–413. 4247: 4238: 4220:(1): 102–103. 4195: 4163: 4146: 4104: 4085: 4058: 4049: 4022: 4011:on 20 May 2012 3996: 3976: 3932: 3913: 3881: 3862: 3853: 3820: 3818:, p. 259. 3803: 3786:news.bbc.co.uk 3773: 3771:, p. 355. 3769:Kisangani 2016 3761: 3742: 3729: 3727:, p. 425. 3725:Kisangani 2016 3717: 3715:, p. 424. 3713:Kisangani 2016 3700: 3681: 3662: 3632: 3623: 3619:Kisangani 2016 3611: 3609:, p. 356. 3607:Kisangani 2016 3588: 3565: 3544: 3535: 3514: 3493: 3491:Shaw 2005, 63. 3484: 3472: 3452: 3433: 3420: 3403: 3376: 3361: 3331: 3298: 3265: 3246: 3228:De Witte, Ludo 3219: 3204: 3187:United Nations 3168: 3166:, p. 176. 3153: 3151:, p. 136. 3141: 3129: 3127:, p. 193. 3117: 3115:, p. 192. 3102: 3100:, p. 191. 3090: 3078: 3076:, p. 124. 3066: 3064:, p. 113. 3054: 3045: 3036: 3023: 3014: 3005: 2996: 2984: 2968:Wrong, Michela 2960: 2948: 2942:978-0312304867 2941: 2921: 2898: 2868: 2834: 2814: 2794: 2781: 2754: 2693: 2667: 2637: 2628: 2618: 2608: 2606: 2603: 2601: 2598: 2595: 2594: 2583: 2582: 2580: 2577: 2573:20 May Stadium 2558:George Foreman 2542:neocolonialism 2495:New York Times 2473: 2470: 2396:The Wild Geese 2379:George Foreman 2363:, directed by 2355:Thierry Michel 2344: 2341: 2331: 2330: 2327: 2324: 2272: 2269: 2254:Rabat, Morocco 2241: 2238: 2226:Nelson Mandela 2159: 2156: 2140:Kengo Wa Dondo 2103:campus of the 2080: 2077: 1953: 1950: 1907: 1904: 1900:Holden Roberto 1846: 1843: 1837:paratroopers ( 1806:First Republic 1797: 1794: 1784:Thierry Michel 1772:Saddam Hussein 1743:Zairianisation 1728: 1725: 1720:Main article: 1717: 1716:Foreign policy 1714: 1692: 1689: 1649:anti-communist 1494:Citoyen Mobutu 1430:Évariste Kimba 1409: 1406: 1335:Main article: 1332: 1329: 1232:Évariste Kimba 1212: 1211: 1170: 1168: 1161: 1155: 1148: 1117:new government 1078:Brian Urquhart 1045:Force Publique 1017:Main article: 1014: 1011: 973: 970: 949: 946: 942:Force Publique 934:Coquilhatville 902: 899: 897: 894: 678: 677: 675: 674: 667: 660: 652: 649: 648: 647: 646: 630: 629: 627: 626: 619: 618: 613: 608: 603: 596: 591: 586: 581: 576: 574:Foreign policy 571: 564: 559: 554: 542: 541: 540: 539: 529: 517: 516: 511: 506: 498: 497: 494: 493: 472: 456: 455: 452: 451: 449: 448: 443: 438: 432: 430: 426: 425: 423: 422: 416: 410: 403: 401: 397: 396: 393: 389: 388: 386: 385: 376: 367: 365:Force Publique 361: 359: 358:Branch/service 355: 354: 350: 349: 341:16, including 339: 335: 334: 322: 316: 315: 314: 313: 300: 296: 291: 290: 289: 288: 285: 283: 279: 278: 273: 269: 268: 262:(aged 66) 256: 252: 251: 230: 228: 224: 223: 219: 218: 215: 214: 209: 203: 202: 200:Haile Selassie 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7957: 7956: 7954: 7948: 7937: 7933: 7930: 7926: 7923: 7919: 7918: 7916: 7912: 7905: 7901: 7898: 7894: 7891: 7887: 7884: 7880: 7877: 7873: 7870: 7866: 7863: 7859: 7856: 7852: 7849: 7845: 7842: 7838: 7835: 7831: 7828: 7824: 7823: 7821: 7817: 7810: 7806: 7803: 7802:Jean Schramme 7799: 7796: 7792: 7789: 7785: 7782: 7778: 7777: 7775: 7771: 7764: 7760: 7757: 7753: 7750: 7746: 7745: 7743: 7739: 7732: 7728: 7725: 7721: 7718: 7714: 7711: 7707: 7706: 7704: 7700: 7697: 7693: 7686: 7682: 7679: 7675: 7672: 7668: 7665: 7661: 7658: 7654: 7651: 7647: 7644: 7640: 7637: 7633: 7630: 7626: 7623: 7619: 7616: 7612: 7609: 7605: 7602: 7598: 7595: 7591: 7588: 7584: 7581: 7577: 7574: 7570: 7569: 7567: 7561: 7554: 7550: 7549: 7547: 7543: 7536: 7532: 7529: 7525: 7522: 7518: 7515: 7511: 7508: 7504: 7501: 7497: 7494: 7490: 7489: 7487: 7485:UN contingent 7483: 7476: 7472: 7469: 7465: 7462: 7458: 7457: 7455: 7451: 7444: 7440: 7439: 7437: 7431: 7424: 7423:Moïse Tshombe 7420: 7417: 7413: 7410: 7406: 7403: 7402:Pierre Mulele 7399: 7396: 7392: 7389: 7385: 7382: 7378: 7375: 7371: 7368: 7364: 7361: 7357: 7354: 7350: 7347: 7343: 7340: 7336: 7333: 7329: 7328: 7326: 7322: 7317: 7310: 7305: 7303: 7298: 7296: 7291: 7290: 7287: 7271: 7268: 7267: 7265: 7261: 7255: 7252: 7251: 7249: 7245: 7239: 7238:Albert Nyembo 7236: 7235: 7233: 7229: 7223: 7220: 7219: 7217: 7213: 7207: 7204: 7203: 7201: 7197: 7191: 7188: 7187: 7185: 7181: 7175: 7172: 7171: 7169: 7165: 7159: 7156: 7155: 7153: 7149: 7143: 7140: 7139: 7137: 7133: 7127: 7124: 7123: 7121: 7117: 7110: 7106: 7096: 7093: 7092: 7090: 7086: 7080: 7077: 7076: 7074: 7070: 7064: 7061: 7060: 7058: 7054: 7048: 7045: 7044: 7042: 7038: 7034: 7030: 7026: 7020: 7019:Pierre Mulele 7017: 7016: 7014: 7010: 7004: 7001: 7000: 6998: 6994: 6988: 6987:Maurice Mpolo 6985: 6984: 6982: 6978: 6972: 6969: 6968: 6966: 6962: 6956: 6953: 6952: 6950: 6946: 6940: 6937: 6936: 6934: 6930: 6924: 6921: 6920: 6918: 6914: 6908: 6907:Joseph Masena 6905: 6904: 6902: 6898: 6892: 6889: 6888: 6886: 6882: 6876: 6873: 6872: 6870: 6866: 6860: 6859:Joseph Lutula 6857: 6856: 6854: 6850: 6844: 6841: 6840: 6838: 6834: 6828: 6827:Aloïs Kabangi 6825: 6824: 6822: 6818: 6812: 6809: 6808: 6806: 6804: 6800: 6794: 6791: 6790: 6788: 6786: 6782: 6776: 6773: 6772: 6770: 6766: 6760: 6757: 6756: 6754: 6752: 6748: 6742: 6739: 6738: 6736: 6732: 6726: 6723: 6722: 6720: 6716: 6710: 6707: 6706: 6704: 6702: 6698: 6692: 6689: 6688: 6686: 6682: 6667: 6664: 6663: 6661: 6659: 6655: 6651: 6644: 6640: 6636: 6629: 6624: 6622: 6617: 6615: 6610: 6609: 6606: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6576: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6491: 6489: 6486: 6485: 6483: 6481:African Union 6479: 6473: 6470: 6468: 6465: 6463: 6460: 6458: 6455: 6453: 6450: 6448: 6445: 6443: 6440: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6425: 6423: 6420: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 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Zed Books. 5670: 5666: 5664: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5640: 5638: 5637:0-313-28213-7 5634: 5630: 5626: 5622: 5620: 5619:1-57980-162-5 5616: 5612: 5608: 5606: 5605:0-8122-1365-3 5602: 5598: 5594: 5590: 5586: 5584:9781442273160 5580: 5576: 5571: 5569: 5568:0-606-19420-7 5565: 5561: 5557: 5553: 5547: 5543: 5539: 5535: 5534: 5529: 5525: 5523: 5522:1-879383-17-9 5519: 5515: 5512:Kelly, Sean. 5511: 5507: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5477: 5472: 5470: 5469:0-395-59746-3 5466: 5462: 5458: 5454: 5452: 5451:0-275-90358-3 5448: 5444: 5440: 5437: 5433: 5431: 5427: 5423: 5419: 5417: 5416:1-4000-3027-7 5413: 5409: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5400:0-88702-045-3 5397: 5393: 5389: 5387: 5386:0-312-30486-2 5383: 5379: 5375: 5371: 5369: 5368:1-85984-410-3 5365: 5361: 5357: 5355: 5354:0-9703371-4-0 5351: 5347: 5343: 5341: 5340:0-231-05720-2 5337: 5333: 5329: 5325: 5322: 5318: 5314: 5312:9781469640747 5308: 5304: 5299: 5297: 5296:0-312-21787-0 5293: 5289: 5285: 5281: 5280: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5235: 5228: 5224: 5221: 5215: 5208: 5204: 5201: 5195: 5188: 5183: 5167: 5163: 5156: 5149: 5144: 5136: 5130: 5126: 5125:HarperCollins 5122: 5121: 5116: 5110: 5103: 5102: 5101:Jeune Afrique 5097: 5093: 5090: 5085: 5079: 5078:2-84098-332-X 5075: 5071: 5065: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5035: 5024: 5019: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4988: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4958: 4950: 4944: 4940: 4939: 4931: 4924: 4920: 4916: 4910: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4889: 4882: 4877: 4875: 4873: 4871: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4851: 4844: 4838: 4831: 4827: 4824: 4819: 4812: 4808: 4805: 4800: 4791: 4782: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4761: 4754: 4753:archive.today 4750: 4747: 4742: 4733: 4724: 4722: 4705: 4701: 4695: 4691: 4690: 4682: 4666: 4662: 4656: 4652: 4651: 4643: 4627: 4623: 4617: 4613: 4612: 4604: 4588: 4584: 4578: 4574: 4573: 4565: 4559: 4558:0-86531-298-2 4555: 4551: 4547: 4541: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4521: 4515: 4514: 4508: 4501: 4497: 4494: 4489: 4482: 4481:archive.today 4478: 4475: 4470: 4463: 4459: 4456: 4451: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4415: 4411: 4410: 4405: 4398: 4391: 4390:1-58648-246-7 4387: 4383: 4377: 4370: 4369:archive.today 4366: 4363: 4358: 4356: 4348: 4347:9789020965209 4344: 4340: 4336: 4331: 4324: 4323:2-87027-831-4 4320: 4316: 4310: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4286: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4251: 4242: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4214: 4206: 4199: 4183: 4179: 4178: 4173: 4167: 4160: 4155: 4153: 4151: 4134: 4130: 4129: 4124: 4117: 4115: 4113: 4111: 4109: 4101: 4097: 4094: 4089: 4083: 4082:0-312-30486-2 4079: 4075: 4071: 4065: 4063: 4053: 4037: 4033: 4026: 4010: 4006: 4000: 3993: 3989: 3986: 3980: 3973: 3967: 3961: 3945: 3939: 3937: 3929: 3928:archive.today 3925: 3922: 3917: 3898: 3891: 3885: 3878: 3874: 3871: 3866: 3857: 3841: 3837: 3832: 3824: 3817: 3812: 3810: 3808: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3777: 3770: 3765: 3758: 3754: 3751: 3746: 3739: 3733: 3726: 3721: 3714: 3709: 3707: 3705: 3697: 3693: 3690: 3685: 3679:, p. 11. 3678: 3673: 3671: 3669: 3667: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3636: 3627: 3620: 3615: 3608: 3603: 3601: 3599: 3597: 3595: 3593: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3574: 3569: 3562: 3561:0-06-093443-3 3558: 3555:. Perennial. 3554: 3548: 3539: 3532: 3528: 3525: 3518: 3511: 3507: 3504: 3503: 3497: 3488: 3481: 3476: 3470: 3469:0-19-829645-2 3466: 3462: 3456: 3449: 3445: 3442: 3437: 3430: 3424: 3417: 3416:0-552-12558-X 3413: 3407: 3401:, p. 10. 3400: 3395: 3393: 3391: 3389: 3387: 3385: 3383: 3381: 3372: 3365: 3349: 3345: 3338: 3336: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3313: 3312:public domain 3302: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3280: 3279:public domain 3269: 3253: 3249: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3234: 3229: 3223: 3215: 3208: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3177: 3175: 3173: 3165: 3160: 3158: 3150: 3145: 3138: 3133: 3126: 3121: 3114: 3109: 3107: 3099: 3094: 3087: 3082: 3075: 3070: 3063: 3058: 3049: 3043:Wrong, pp. 76 3040: 3033: 3027: 3018: 3009: 3000: 2993: 2988: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2964: 2957: 2952: 2944: 2938: 2935:. Macmillan. 2934: 2933: 2925: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2902: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2872: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2841: 2839: 2831: 2827: 2824: 2818: 2811: 2807: 2804: 2798: 2791: 2785: 2769: 2765: 2758: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2721: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2697: 2681: 2677: 2671: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2641: 2632: 2622: 2613: 2609: 2588: 2584: 2576: 2574: 2569: 2565: 2564: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2545: 2543: 2540: 2534: 2532: 2531: 2526: 2522: 2519:According to 2517: 2513: 2511: 2510: 2504: 2502: 2497: 2496: 2483: 2478: 2469: 2467: 2463: 2462: 2457: 2456: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2442: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2428:William Close 2425: 2424:Chinua Achebe 2421: 2420: 2415: 2414:V. S. 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