813:. For light models, tissue paper is used. For larger models (usually powered and radio controlled) heat-curing or heat shrink covering plastic films or heat-shrinkable synthetic fabrics are applied to the model. Microfilm covering is used for the lightest models and is made by spreading few drops of lacquer out over several square feet of water, and lifting a wire loop through it, which creates a thin plastic film. Flying models can be assembled from kits, built from plans, or made completely from scratch. A kit contains the necessary raw material, typically die- or laser-cut wood parts, some molded parts, plans, assembly instructions and may have been flight tested. Plans are intended for the more experienced modeller, since the builder must make or find the materials themselves. Scratch builders may draw their own plans, and source all the materials themselves. Any method may be labor-intensive, depending on the model in question.
1373:. They are available for both electric and liquid-fuelled engines, although they have become common with recent improvements in electric-flight technology. A model aircraft can now be fitted with four electric ducted fans for less than the cost of a single jet turbine, enabling affordable modelling of multi-engine airplanes. Compared to an unducted propeller, a ducted fan generates more thrust for the same area and speeds of up to 200 mph (320 km/h) have been recorded with electric-powered ducted fan airplanes, largely due to the higher RPMs possible with ducted fan propellers. Ducted fans are popular with scale models of jet aircraft, where they mimic the appearance of jet engines but they are also found on non-scale and sport models, and even lightweight 3D-flyers.
1656:(9.8 ft) string. Each pilot attacks only the other aircraft's streamer, to attempt to cut it with their propeller or wing. Each cut scores 100 points. Each second the model is in the air scores a point and the match runs for 4 minutes from the starter's signal. At the almost 120 mph (200 km/h) speeds of the aircraft, mistakes often lead to crash damage so two aircraft are permitted for each match. The mechanics are prepared for crashes and quickly start the second aircraft and transfer the streamer to the reserve model before launching. The action is so fast that an observer may miss the cuts of the streamers. A second loss eliminates a competitor, and the last pilot still flying wins.
1587:(tilting the engine toward the outside) yaw the model outward. The position where the lines exit the wing can compensate for the tendency of the aerodynamic drag of the lines to yaw the model inboard. Weight on the outside wing, an inside wing that is longer or has more lift than the outside wing (or even no outside wing at all) and the torque of a left rotating propeller (or flying clockwise) tend to roll the model toward the outside. Wing tip weights, propeller torque, and thrust vectoring are more effective when the model is going slowly, while rudder offset and other aerodynamic effects have more influence on a fast moving model.
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1793:. Where two models at different scales are flown with the same Reynolds number, the airflow is similar. Where the Reynolds numbers differ, as for example a small-scale model flying at lower speed than the full-size craft, the airflow characteristics can differ significantly. This can make an exact scale model unflyable, and the model has to be modified in some way. For example, at low Reynolds numbers, a flying scale model usually requires a larger-than-scale propeller.
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plateauing to a steady output, until the final turns unwind and power drops off completely. Using it efficiently is one of the challenges of competitive free-flight rubber flying, and variable-pitch propellers, differential wing and tailplane incidence and rudder settings, controlled by timers, can help to manage the torque. There are also usually motor weight restrictions in contest classes. Even so, models have achieved flights of nearly 1 hour.
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1163:, inside ductwork, usually in the fuselage. The fans were generally powered by 2 stroke engines at high RPM. They generally had 0.40 to 0.90 cu in (6.6 to 14.7 cc) displacements, but some were as small as 0.049 cu in (0.80 cc). This fan-in-tube design has been adopted successfully for electric-powered jets while glow engine powered ducted-fan aircraft are now rare. Small
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too heavy, cause undue wear on the powerplant. Model aircraft propellers are usually specified as diameter Ă— pitch, in inches. For example, a 5 x 3 propeller has a diameter of 5 inches (130 mm), and a pitch of 3 inches (76 mm). The pitch is the distance that the propeller would advance if turned through one revolution in a solid medium. Two and three bladed propellers are the most common.
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824:(RTF) radio control aircraft are also available, however model building remains integral to the hobby for many. For a more mass market approach, foamies, injection-molded from lightweight foam (sometimes reinforced) have made indoor flight more accessible and many require little more than attaching the wing and landing gear.
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require large production runs to cover the cost of making them. Today, this takes place mostly in Asia and
Eastern Europe. Smaller runs are possible with copper molds, and some companies use resin or rubber molds, but while the cost is lower for the mold, the durability is also lower and labor costs can be much higher.
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semiannually throughout the world, most recently in 2008 in France, with a limited slate of events – special varieties of Racing (F2C or "Team Race"), combat (F2D), and speed (F2A), all limited to engines displacing 0.15 cu. in (2.5cc), and Stunt (F2b), which is essentially unlimited with regard to design and size.
1812:, resisting sudden changes in pitch and yaw. While it may be possible for a pilot to respond quickly enough to control an unstable aircraft, a radio control scale model of the same aircraft would be flyable only with design adjustments such as increased tail surfaces and wing dihedral for stability, or with
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or sweep back generally leads to increasing spiral turn. Too much dihedral or sweepback generally causes Dutch roll. These all depend on the scale, as well as details of the shape and weight distribution. For example, the paper glider shown here is a contest winner when made of a small sheet of paper
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propeller offers greater thrust and acceleration at low airspeed, while a small diameter and higher-pitch propeller sacrifices acceleration for higher maximum speeds. The builder can choose from a selection of propellers to match the model but a mismatched propeller can compromise performance, and if
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The course is 6.2 mi (10 km), with 100 laps. Flying speeds are around 200 km/h (120 mph), which means that the pilots turn one lap in roughly 1.8 seconds. Line pull due to centrifugal force is 19 lbf (85 N). An overtaking model is steered over the heads of the competing
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Also referred to as U-Control in the US, it was pioneered by the late Jim Walker who often, for show, flew three models at a time. Normally the model is flown in a circle and controlled by a pilot in the center holding a handle connected to two thin steel wires. The wires connect through the inboard
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engines to provide a short, under 10 second burst of power. Government restrictions in some countries made rocket-propulsion rare but these were being eased in many places and their use was expanding, however a reclassification from "smoke producing devices" to "fireworks" has made them difficult to
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Many of the world's airlines allow their aircraft to be modelled for publicity. Airlines used to order large scale models of their aircraft to supply them to travel agencies as a promotional item. Desktop model airplanes may be given to airport, airline and government officials to promote an airline
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providing artificial stability. Free flight models need to have both static and dynamic stability. Static stability is the resistance to sudden changes in pitch and yaw already described, and is typically provided by the horizontal and vertical tail surfaces respectively, and by a forward center of
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The events originated largely in the United States, and were later adapted for use internationally. The rules for US Competition are available from the
Academy of Model Aeronautics. The international rules are defined by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI). World Championships are held
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engines are now used in hobbyist models that resemble simplified versions of the turbojet engines found on commercial aircraft, but are not scaled-down as
Reynolds numbers come into play. The first hobbyist-developed turbine was developed and flown in the 1980s but recently have commercial examples
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configurations. Variations include engines with multiple-cylinders, spark-ignition gasoline operation, carbureted diesel operation and variable compression-ratio engines. Diesels are preferred for endurance and have higher torque, and for a given capacity, can "swing" a larger propeller than a glow
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that is twisted to add tension, prior to flight. It is the most widely used powerplant, found on everything from children's toys to competition models. The elastic offers simplicity and durability, but has a short running time, and the initial high torque of a fully wound motor drops sharply before
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Since its introduction, control line flying has developed into a competition sport. There are contest categories for control line models, including Speed, Aerobatics (AKA Stunt), Racing, Navy
Carrier, Balloon Bust, Scale, and Combat. There are variations on the basic events, including divisions by
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uses gears to reduce shaft rpm, so the motor can spin much faster. The higher the gear ratio, the slower the prop rotates, which also increases torque by roughly the same ratio. This is common on larger models and on those with unusually large propellers. The reduction drive matches the powerplant
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Recent developments have resulted in the use of brushless three-phase motors in model aviation. Brushless motors are more powerful and offer greater torque and efficiency. The design of brushless motors also means less internal friction, as there is no requirement for brushes to be in contact with
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The mechanic stands at a pit area outside the marked flight circle. The engine is started and the model released on the start signal. For refueling, the pilot operates a fuel shutoff by a quick down elevator movement after the planned number of laps so that the model can approach the mechanic at
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plastic, formed in steel forms. Plastic pellets are heated into a liquid and forced into the mold under high pressure through trees that hold all the parts, and ensure plastic flows to every part of the mold. This allows a greater degree of automation than other manufacturing processes but molds
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skills and these scales compromised between size and detail. After WWII, manufacturers continued with these scales, however kits are also added in other divisions of the imperial system. 1:50th and 1:100th are common in Japan and France, which both use Metric. Promotional models for airlines are
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and free-flight research tests and may have components that can be swapped to compare various fittings and configurations, or have features such as controls that can be repositioned to reflect various in flight configurations. They are also often fitted with sensors for spot measurements and are
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From World War I through the 1950s, static model airplanes were also built from light weight bamboo or balsa wood and covered with tissue paper in the same manner as with flying models. This was a time-consuming process that mirrored the actual construction of airplanes through the beginning of
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to collect data for the design of full scale aircraft. They may be built using any suitable material, which often includes plastic, wood, metal, paper and fiberglass and may be built to a specific scale, so that the size of the original may be compared to that of other aircraft. Models may come
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CLASS F2D - Control Line Combat Model
Aircraft - Two pilots compete, with four mechanics in the pit. The aircraft are light and stubby so as to maneuver quickly in the air. Each has a 8 ft 2 in (2.5 m) crepe paper streamer attached to the rear of the aircraft by a 3 m
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has also become practical for R/C hobbyists, and in June 2005 a record flight of 48 hours and 16 minutes was set in
California. It is now possible to power most models under 20 lb (9.1 kg) with electric power for a cost equivalent to or lower than traditional power sources.
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control through a connection to the elevator. Some use a third cable to control a throttle. There are many competition categories. Speed flying is divided into classes based on engine displacement. Class 'D' 60 size speed planes can easily reach speeds well in excess of 150 mph
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optimum speed, of around 31 mph (50 km/h). The mechanic catches the model by the wing, fill the tank from a pressurized can by a hose and finger valve, then restart the engine by flicking the propeller with his finger. A pitstop generally takes less than three seconds.
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wing tip of the plane to a mechanism that translates the handle movement to the aircraft elevator, allowing maneuvers to be performed along the aircraft pitch axis. The pilot turns to follow the model going round, the convention being counterclockwise for upright level flight.
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697:, which determines how the air reacts when flowing past the model, and compared to a full sized aircraft the size of control surfaces needed, the stability and the effectiveness of specific airfoil sections may differ considerably requiring changes to the design.
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Three pilots, plus mechanic teams, compete simultaneously in the same circle, and the object is to finish the determined course as fast as possible. Tank size is limited to 7 cc (0.43 cu in), requiring 2 or 3 refueling pitstops during the race.
552:" brand. 1:72 was popularized in the US during the Second World War by the US War Department after it requested models of commonly encountered single engine aircraft at that scale, and multi-engine aircraft in 1:144th scale. They hoped to improve aircraft
1825:. An aircraft with too large a horizontal tail on a fuselage that is too short may have a phugoid instability with increasing climbs and dives. With free flight models, this usually results in a stall or loop at the end of the initial climb. Insufficient
712:(F/F) model aircraft are uncontrolled other than by control surfaces that must be preset before flight, and must have a high degree of natural stability. Most free flying models are either unpowered gliders or rubber powered. These pre-date manned flight.
1495:(SMAE) approached Lord Wakefield for a new larger silver trophy for international competition. This trophy is the present Wakefield International Cup and was first awarded in 1928. The SMAE organized the international competitions until 1951 when the
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designed for this purpose of up to 2.5 cc (0.15 cu in) are used. At the world championship level it is common for competitors design and build their own engines. Output power approaches 0.8 hp (0.60 kW) at 25,000 rpm.
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is the building and operation of flying model aircraft. Some flying models resemble scaled down versions of full scale aircraft, while others are built with no intention of looking like real aircraft. There are also models of birds, bats and
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is proportional to lever arm length while angular inertia is proportional to the square of the lever arm, so the smaller the scale the more quickly an aircraft or other vehicle turns in response to control inputs or outside forces.
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models, both of which are small and light, where electric-power offers greater efficiency and reliability, less maintenance and mess, quieter flight and near-instantaneous throttle response compared to internal combustion engines.
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and range from 0.01 cu in (0.16 cc) to over 1.0 cu in (16 cc). The smallest engines can spin a 3.5 inches (8.9 cm) propeller to over 30,000 rpm, while the larger engines turn at 10–14,000 rpm.
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usually mounted on a structure that ensures the correct alignment with the airflow, and which provides additional measurements. For wind tunnel research, it is sometimes necessary only to make part of the proposed aircraft.
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After two rounds of elimination heats, the 6, 9 or 12 fastest teams enter two semifinal rounds, and the three fastest teams in the semifinals go to the final, which is run over the double course. Single cylinder two-stroke
749:. Rudimentary flight controllers were first introduced in model helicopters, with standalone electronic gyroscopes used stabilize the tail rotor control. Much like quadcopters, this has now extended to all flight controls.
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and propeller to their respective optimum operating speeds. Geared propellers are rare on internal combustion engines, but are common on electric motors because most electric motors spin extremely fast, but lack torque.
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engines have also been used as they offer more thrust in a smaller package than a traditional glow-engine, but are not widely used due to the extremely high noise levels they produce, and are illegal in some countries.
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Resin kits are made in forms similar to those used for limited run plastic kits, but these molds are usually not as durable, which limits them to smaller production runs, and prices for the finished product are higher.
875:, which are columns of warm rising air created by differences of temperature on the ground such as between an asphalt parking lot and a lake. Heated air rises, carrying the glider with it. As with a powered aircraft,
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are more fuel-efficient, but deliver less power than similar two-stroke engines. The power they deliver is more suited to turning larger diameter propellers for lighter weight, higher drag airframes such as with in
1686:
RC Pylon Racing
Aeroplanes – Pylon racing refers to a class of air racing for radio controlled model aircraft that fly through a course of pylons. The sport is similar to the full-scale Red Bull Air Race World
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and hand-winched against the wind by a line attached to a hook under the fuselage with a ring, so that the line drops when the model is overhead. Other methods include catapult-launching, using an elastic
344:, and is built typically for display, research, or amusement. Model aircraft are divided into two basic groups: flying and non-flying. Non-flying models are also termed static, display, or shelf models.
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The international class of racing is referred to as F2C (F2 = Control-line, C=racing) or Team Race. A pilot and a mechanic compete as a team to fly small 370 g (13 oz) 65 cm (26 in)
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Full-scale static engineering models are also constructed for production development, often made of different materials from the proposed design. Again, often only part of the aircraft is modelled.
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have become increasingly common in model aircraft kits. In model helicopters, main frames and rotor blades are often made from carbon fiber, along with ribs and spars in fixed-wing aircraft wings.
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Ready-made desk-top models include those produced in fiberglass for travel agents and aircraft manufacturers, as well as collectors models made from die-cast metal, mahogany, resin and plastic.
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of wingtip hand-launching has largely supplanted the earlier "javelin" type of launch. Also using ground-based power winches, hand-towing, and towing aloft using a second powered aircraft.
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Flying models borrow construction techniques from full-sized aircraft although the use of metal is limited. These might consist of forming a frame using thin planks of a light wood such as
540:. For example, 1:48 scale is 1/4" to 1-foot (or 1" to 4 feet) and 1:72 is 1" to 6 feet, while in metric scales such as 1:100th, 1 centimeter equals 1 meter. 1:72 scale was introduced with
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is obtained by the action of the wings as the aircraft moves through the air, but in a glider, height is gained by flying through air that is rising faster than the aircraft is sinking.
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or card stock. Commercial models are mainly printed by publishers in
Germany or Eastern Europe but can be distributed through the internet, some of which are offered this way for free.
1261:(NiCad) rechargeable cells that gave flight times of 5 to 10 minutes, while a comparable glow-engine provided double the flight-time. Later electric systems used more-efficient
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all have different common scales but there is some crossover. There is a substantial amount of duplication of more famous subjects in different scales, which can be useful for
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1074:), which is sold pre-mixed as glow-fuel. Glow-engines require an external starting mechanism; the glow plug must be heated until it is hot enough to ignite fuel to start.
1235:. Electrical power began being used on models in the 1970s, but the cost delayed widespread use until the early 1990s, when more efficient battery technologies, and
1082:, which is the engine's primary power-output. Some power is lost from converting linear motion to rotary and in lost heat and unburned fuel, so efficiency is low.
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took over, and has since been made the award for the rubber-power category at the FAI World Free Flight
Championships. The FAI free flight (F1) classes include:
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in the model to actuate servos that adjust the model's flight controls similarly to a full sized aircraft. Traditionally, the radio signal directly controlled
1986:
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gravity. Dynamic stability is the ability to return to straight and level flight without any control input. The three dynamic instability modes are pitch (
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to highly accurate and detailed models produced for museum display and requiring thousands of hours of work. Many are available in kits, typically made of
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Typical rubber powered model having the rubber band (hidden in the fuselage) tightened by turning the propeller backward, here being done with a handcrank
871:, and radio controlled gliders can remain airborne for as long as the updraft remains. Another means of attaining height in a glider is exploitation of
745:, however, modern examples often use flight control computers to stabilize the model or even to fly it autonomously. This is particularly the case with
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is the most commonly used device. Propellers generate thrust due to lift generated by the wing-like sections of the blades, which forces air backward.
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models for testing aerodynamic properties, for basic research, or for the development of new designs. Sometimes only part of the aircraft is modelled.
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RC Multi-rotor FPV Racing – The FAI Drone Racing World Cup is in the F3U class (Radio
Control Multi-rotor FPV Racing). This is a highly competitive
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Most powered model-aircraft, including electric, internal-combustion, and rubber-band powered models, generate thrust by spinning an airscrew. The
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are sometimes used to boost gliders and sailplanes. The earliest purpose-built rocket motor dates back to the 1950s, with the introduction of the
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Older models often did not conform to an established scale as they were sized to fit the box, and are referred to as being to "Box Scale".
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became available, while the costs of motors, batteries and control systems dropped dramatically. Electric power now predominated with
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For the conventional control-line system, tension in the lines is required to provide control. Line tension is maintained largely by
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become readily available. Turbines require specialized design and precision-manufacturing, and some have been built from car engine
820:(ARF) models that minimize the skills required, and reduce build time to under 4 hours, versus 10–40 or more for a traditional kit.
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and other materials. Some can be large, especially when used to research the flight properties of a proposed full scale aircraft.
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1277:(LiPoly or LiPo) permit electric flight-times to surpass those of glow-engines, while the more rugged and durable, cobalt-free
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The flight behavior of an aircraft depends on the scale to which it is built, the density of the air and the speed of flight.
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1335:. Direct-drive is most common with fuel-powered engines. Rarely, some electric motors are designed with a sufficiently high
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or driveshaft. This arrangement is preferred when the propeller and powerplant both operate near peak efficiency at similar
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units. Owning or operating a turbine-powered aircraft is prohibitively expensive and many national clubs (as with the USA's
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is another common alternative but requires more skill, and details must be supplied by the modeller. There is a handful of
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of a vintage full-size aircraft, or, on larger (usually powered) models where weight is less of a factor, sheets of wood,
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motor, which used solid fuel pellets, ignited by a wick fuse, in a reusable casing. Flyers can now also use single-use
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in the environment. A hill or slope often produces updrafts of air that sustain the flight of a glider. This is called
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Flying models construction may differ from that of static models as both weight and strength are major considerations.
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978:. These engines can incorporate speed controls and multiple cylinders, and are capable of powering lightweight scale
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are multi-blade propellers encased in a cylindrical duct or tube that may look like and fit in the same space as
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1028:-like flappers instead of a propeller. He speculated that the fuel might be too dangerous for manned aircraft.
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718:(C/L) model aircraft use strings or wires to tether the model to a central pivot, either held by hand or to a
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radio control flying model powered with four internal combustion engines. A crew of five fly and maintain it.
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in England. There were contests in 1912, 1913 and 1914. No contests were held again until 1927, when the
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semi-scale racing models over a tarmac or concrete surface. Lines are 15.92 m (52.2 ft) long.
1134:. Four-stroke engines are now popular as they are quieter than two-stroke engines, and are available in
970:), can power simple models in a manner similar to filling a balloon and then releasing it. Compressed CO
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finished, or may require painting or assembly, with glue, screws, or by clipping together, or both.
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F1G – Model aircraft with extensible (rubber band) motors « Coupe d’hiver » (provisional)
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rather than the crankshaft of a four stroke engine, which runs at half the speed of the crankshaft.
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Some manufacturers made 1:18th scale aircraft to go with cars of the same scale. Aircraft models,
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F1J – Power model aircraft (provisional) (combustion powered 1.0 cc (0.061 cu in))
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521:. Die-cast metal models (pre-assembled and factory painted) are available in scales ranging from
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The Wakefield Gold Challenge Cup is an international modelling competition named for the donor,
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may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience
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1583:. To increase line tension, models may be built or adjusted in various ways. Rudder offset and
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metal kits that allow a high level of detail and they are unable to replicate compound curves.
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and low enough speed and can utilize direct-drive as well. These motors are typically called
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2240:, by Jerry Mander, George Dippel and Howard Gossage, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1967.
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CIAM (FAI Aeromodelling Commission) designed this classes for F2 Control Line category:
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Maneuverability depends on scale, with stability also becoming more important. Control
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A built-in 2:1 gear reduction ratio can be obtained by attaching the propeller to the
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1024:-fueled model aircraft engines in 1807, 1819, and 1850. These had no crank, working
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F1C – Power model aircraft (combustion powered 2.5 cc (0.15 cu in))
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produced by the pilot following in close proximity. In other words, the glider is
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built both steam- and internal-combustion-powered models that made long flights.
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any rotating parts. This increase in efficiency results in longer flight times.
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engine. Home manufacture of model aircraft engines is a hobby in its own right.
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501:. Plastic model kits requiring assembly and painting are primarily available in
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F1B – Model Aircraft with extensible (rubber band) motors – Wakefield Trophy
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Steam is even older than rubber power, and like rubber, contributed much to
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Flying model aircraft are generally controlled through one of three methods
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any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against
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Static model aircraft are primarily available commercially in a variety of
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Scales are not random, but are generally based on divisions of either the
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Testing Commercial Rubber – R.J. North, Model Aircraft magazine, Feb 1961
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2313:, by Charles Hampson Grant, Jay Publishing Corporation, New York, 1941.
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may be employed. It is then given a smooth sealed surface, usually with
599:
Parts for a plastic model airplane still on their injection molding tree
544:
wood and metal model aircraft kits in 1932 and were followed closely by
2732:
2717:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2505:
2500:
2443:
2252:
1939:
1830:
but goes from side to side in Dutch roll when scaled up even slightly.
1822:
1457:
F5B – Electric Motor Glider – Multi Task (held in alternate years only)
1393:
the motion of the wing structure imitates the flapping-wings of living
1370:
1328:
1221:
1160:
1079:
1067:
886:
746:
662:
522:
518:
510:
506:
494:
409:
381:
377:
2285:
2143:"The Rotating Cylinder Valve 4-stroke Engine (SAE Paper 2002-32-1828)"
1789:
At subsonic speeds the relationship between these is expressed by the
1192:
A Vietnamese pilot prepares his model jet (Bien Hoa Air Base, Vietnam)
1188:
990:, like rubber, is known as "cold" power because it generates no heat.
2669:
2659:
2654:
2622:
2406:
2391:
2326:, by Mike Kelly, Limerick Writers' Centre Publishing, Ireland, 2020.
1804:
One consequence of this is that models in general require additional
1021:
762:
Extremely light F1D-class indoor-flight model with microfilm covering
686:
608:
569:
397:
2260:, by Martin Simons, Swanley: Nexus Special Interests, 1999. 4th ed.
1984:
1567:
937:, compressed gas, and tension-loaded (twisted) rubber band devices.
595:
189:
2737:
2617:
2612:
2607:
1813:
1623:
1376:
1354:
1245:
1181:
1059:
949:'s elastic motor (or extensible motor) of 1871, essentially a long
934:
917:, a mechanism powering propulsion of the aircraft through the air.
790:
541:
341:
2336:
1054:
For larger and heavier models, the most popular powerplant is the
396:
sticks, plastic, (including both molded or sheet polystyrene, and
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2401:
2220:, by Carlos Reyes, RCadvisor.com, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 2009.
2117:"MAS.865 2018 How to Make Something that Makes (almost) Anything"
1818:
1591:
engine size and type, skill categories, and age of model design.
1131:
1006:
872:
581:
359:
27:
Physical model of an aircraft for display, research, or amusement
1753:
RC Semi-Scale Pylon Racing with Controlled Technology Aeroplanes
1040:"Giant scale" 18 feet 6 inches (5.64 m) wingspan
925:
are the most common propulsion systems, but other types include
466:
cannot fly, and are used for display, education and are used in
428:
1797:
1398:
1270:
1269:(NiMh) batteries, yielding considerably improved flight times.
786:
393:
1159:
Early "jet" style model aircraft used a multi-blade propeller
758:
1394:
1327:
systems have the propeller attached directly to the engine's
1200:
417:
401:
325:
1987:"Airline world's tiny secret: infatuation with model planes"
1320:
Three methods are used to transfer energy to the propeller:
86:
may be in need of reorganization to comply with Knowledge's
2664:
1109:
of all glow-engines, but are noisy and require substantial
864:
673:
514:
2280:, by Keith Laumer, Harper, New York, 1960. 2nd ed., 1970.
816:
To increase the hobby's accessibility, some vendors offer
2188:
1763:
activity, involving mental exertion and big cash prizes.
974:
may also be used to power an expansion engine to turn a
1176:) require members to be certified to safely use them.
1105:. These engines are inexpensive, and offer the highest
1058:. Glow engines are fueled by a mixture of slow burning
324:
Group of students with their wooden model airplanes in
1985:
Scott Mayerowitz, AP Airlines Writer (18 March 2015).
1521:
F1P – Power model aircraft (combustion powered 1.0cc)
1549:
F1R – Indoor model aircraft “Micro 35” (provisional)
945:
The oldest method of powering free flight models is
423:
863:Gliders sustain flight through exploitation of the
459:
Lufthansa Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor model on display
214:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1543:F1L – Indoor zone EZB model aircraft (provisional)
1020:built, and flew, internal and external combustion
557:produced in scales ranging from 1:200 to 1:1200.
548:, which used the same scale from 1936 with their "
2291:The Middle Ages of the Internal-Combustion Engine
1380:Small ornithopter, made to resemble a hummingbird
982:. Gasparin and Modela are two recent makers of CO
2782:
615:The most common form of manufacture for kits is
1659:
1552:F1S – Small electric power model aircraft “E36”
1231:powered by a source of electricity - usually a
836:model glider showing typical internal structure
354:Static models range from mass-produced toys in
2278:How to Design and Build Flying Model Airplanes
1463:F5J – Electric Motor Glider – Thermal Duration
1220:Small electric powered model of a pre-WW1 era
97:to make improvements to the overall structure.
2352:
1741:RC Pylon Racing Limited Technology Aeroplanes
1487:. The event was first held on 5 July 1911 at
893:in the updraft of the moving pilot (see also
885:are lightweight model airplanes flown in the
475:or celebrate a new route or an achievement.
347:Aircraft manufacturers and researchers make
2238:The Great International Paper Airplane Book
2218:RCadvisor′s Model Airplane Design Made Easy
847:. Larger outdoor model gliders are usually
64:Learn how and when to remove these messages
2359:
2345:
2311:Model Airplane Design and Theory of Flight
435:model of a Loire-Nieuport LN-10 floatplane
1546:F1M – Indoor model aircraft (provisional)
292:Learn how and when to remove this message
274:Learn how and when to remove this message
172:Learn how and when to remove this message
113:Learn how and when to remove this message
1901:International Plastic Modellers' Society
1771:
1566:
1433:F3B – Radio Control Soaring (Multi-task)
1413:World competitions are organized by the
1375:
1215:
1187:
1150:
1084:
1035:
904:
831:
765:
757:
693:). The reduced size affects the model's
672:
602:
594:
454:
450:
427:
319:
305:
2140:
1493:Society of Model Aeronautical Engineers
1424:F1(x) – Free Flight (A,B,C,D,E,G,H,P,Q)
14:
2783:
2177:. FAI Aeromodelling Commission (CIAM).
2078:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1896:International Miniature Aerobatic Club
1445:F3J – Radio Control Soaring (Duration)
1415:Fédération Aéronautique Internationale
1031:
774:with foam flying surfaces, from a kit.
2340:
2293:, by Horst O. Hardenberg, SAE, 1999.
1918:List of scale model kit manufacturers
1767:
1515:F1E – Gliders with automatic steering
1454:F3P – Radio Control Indoor Aerobatics
1281:batteries are also becoming popular.
1078:cylinders apply torque to a rotating
2005:"Building a 1948 Model Airplane Kit"
1907:List of model aircraft manufacturers
1556:
1451:F3M – Large Radio Control Aerobatics
372:Flying models range from simple toy
212:adding citations to reliable sources
183:
124:
70:
29:
2366:
1644:Diesel compression ignition engines
1524:F1Q – Electric power model aircraft
1478:
1442:F3F – Radio Control Soaring (Slope)
1293:
1146:
997:, but is now rarely used. In 1848,
957:
640:Scale models can also be made from
24:
1717:RC Freestyle Aerobatic Helicopters
1650:
1101:The simplest glow-engines use the
913:Powered models contain an onboard
677:A free-flight hand-launched glider
25:
2802:
2189:"National Miniature Pylon Racing"
1474:Class U – unmanned aerial vehicle
1211:
962:Stored compressed gas, typically
733:have a controller who operates a
424:Aerodynamic research and mock-ups
45:This article has multiple issues.
2765:
2764:
1729:RC Soaring Cross Country Gliders
1518:F1N – Indoor hand-launch gliders
1427:F2(x) – Control Line (A,B,C,D,E)
1417:(FAI) in the following classes:
900:
668:
188:
129:
75:
34:
2181:
2092:
1436:F3C – Radio Control Helicopters
1408:
1253:The first electric models used
1227:Electric-powered models use an
1001:flew a steam-powered model, in
753:
199:needs additional citations for
53:or discuss these issues on the
2167:
2134:
2109:
2086:
2046:
2037:
2015:
1997:
1978:
1960:Simple Plastic Airplane Design
1776:A contest-winning paper glider
1430:F3A – Radio Control Aerobatics
1361:
13:
1:
2587:Standard gauge railway scales
2211:
1912:List of model airplane fields
1571:F2C class control line models
1307:
772:Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5a
1971:
1886:Free flight (model aircraft)
1723:RC Indoor Aerobatic Aircraft
1660:Radio Controlled Flight (F3)
1536:F1K – Model aircraft with CO
1174:Academy of Model Aeronautics
1121:glow engines, whether using
590:
154:Knowledge's inclusion policy
7:
2649:Narrow gauge railway scales
2258:Model Aircraft Aerodynamics
1833:
1711:RC Large Aerobatic Aircraft
1699:RC Thermal Duration Gliders
1530:F1H – Gliders (provisional)
1512:F1D – Indoor model aircraft
1460:F5D – Electric Pylon Racing
923:internal combustion engines
340:of an existing or imagined
10:
2807:
2095:"AMA Documents – Turbines"
1821:) oscillation, spiral and
1779:
1560:
1136:horizontally opposed twins
1047:
895:Controllable slope soaring
827:
700:
482:
412:, and skinned with either
2760:
2688:
2493:
2462:
2374:
1950:Radio-controlled aircraft
1747:RC Jet Aerobatic Aircraft
1638:pilots of slower models.
1448:F3K – Hand Launch Gliders
1421:Class F – model aircraft
1312:A large diameter and low-
1275:lithium polymer batteries
980:radio-controlled aircraft
940:
731:Radio-controlled aircraft
485:List of scale model sizes
376:made of sheets of paper,
1693:RC Slope Soaring Gliders
1680:RC Aerobatic Helicopters
1466:FAI – Drone Racing (F3U)
1384:
849:radio-controlled gliders
843:do not have an attached
737:that sends signals to a
478:
2324:Pulling Back the Clouds
2023:"Model Flying Machines"
1113:mufflers, which may be
1042:Lockheed C-130 Hercules
1011:Samuel Pierpont Langley
404:, either alone or with
1955:Radio-controlled model
1843:also called U-Control
1777:
1705:RC Hand Launch Gliders
1572:
1381:
1279:lithium iron phosphate
1224:
1193:
1156:
1090:
1089:Model Aircraft Engines
1045:
910:
837:
775:
770:Flying model of a WW1
763:
678:
612:
600:
460:
436:
329:
317:
1847:Round-the-pole flying
1810:directional stability
1775:
1674:RC Multi-Task Gliders
1668:RC Aerobatic Aircraft
1570:
1471:Class S – space model
1379:
1219:
1191:
1155:Miniature jet turbine
1154:
1107:power-to-weight ratio
1088:
1039:
908:
835:
769:
761:
676:
606:
598:
464:Static model aircraft
458:
451:Static display models
431:
392:built up from balsa,
323:
309:
1540:motors (provisional)
1267:nickel metal hydride
1265:and higher-capacity
803:expanded polystyrene
439:Models are made for
400:), metal, synthetic
208:improve this article
2175:"F2 - Control Line"
2155:on 12 November 2011
2033:on 28 October 2009.
1929:Model Airplane News
1891:History of aviation
1735:RC Aero-Tow Gliders
1263:brushless DC motors
1095:engine displacement
1093:These are rated by
1032:Internal combustion
818:Almost Ready to Fly
316:scale display model
95:editing the article
2009:www.jitterbuzz.com
1778:
1768:Model aerodynamics
1573:
1489:The Crystal Palace
1439:F3D – Pylon Racing
1382:
1225:
1194:
1157:
1091:
1046:
911:
838:
776:
764:
679:
613:
601:
578:forced perspective
461:
437:
330:
318:
311:Singapore Airlines
2778:
2777:
2744:Diecast Collector
1923:Micro air vehicle
1581:centrifugal force
1557:Control Line (F2)
1397:, producing both
1255:brushed DC motors
1119:four-stroke cycle
1111:expansion chamber
1066:, and lubricant (
999:John Stringfellow
883:Walkalong gliders
785:to duplicate the
562:military vehicles
493:from as large as
302:
301:
294:
284:
283:
276:
258:
182:
181:
174:
123:
122:
115:
88:layout guidelines
68:
16:(Redirected from
2798:
2768:
2767:
2751:Meccano Magazine
2361:
2354:
2347:
2338:
2337:
2205:
2204:
2202:
2200:
2185:
2179:
2178:
2171:
2165:
2164:
2162:
2160:
2154:
2148:. Archived from
2147:
2138:
2132:
2131:
2129:
2127:
2113:
2107:
2106:
2104:
2102:
2090:
2084:
2083:
2077:
2069:
2067:
2065:
2056:. Archived from
2050:
2044:
2041:
2035:
2034:
2029:. Archived from
2019:
2013:
2012:
2001:
1995:
1994:
1982:
1965:Walkalong glider
1864:Cox model engine
1585:thrust vectoring
1479:Free flight (F1)
1294:Propulsion types
1237:brushless motors
1147:Jets and rockets
1103:two-stroke cycle
1056:glow plug engine
995:aviation history
958:Compressed gases
727:(240 km/h).
617:injection molded
364:injection-molded
297:
290:
279:
272:
268:
265:
259:
257:
223:"Model aircraft"
216:
192:
184:
177:
170:
166:
163:
157:
133:
132:
125:
118:
111:
107:
104:
98:
79:
78:
71:
60:
38:
37:
30:
21:
2806:
2805:
2801:
2800:
2799:
2797:
2796:
2795:
2781:
2780:
2779:
2774:
2756:
2728:Miniature model
2684:
2489:
2458:
2370:
2368:Scale modelling
2365:
2214:
2209:
2208:
2198:
2196:
2187:
2186:
2182:
2173:
2172:
2168:
2158:
2156:
2152:
2145:
2139:
2135:
2125:
2123:
2121:fab.cba.mit.edu
2115:
2114:
2110:
2100:
2098:
2091:
2087:
2071:
2070:
2063:
2061:
2060:on 29 June 2008
2054:"Archived copy"
2052:
2051:
2047:
2042:
2038:
2021:
2020:
2016:
2003:
2002:
1998:
1983:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1836:
1791:Reynolds number
1784:
1782:Flight dynamics
1770:
1662:
1653:
1651:F2D – CL Combat
1565:
1559:
1539:
1481:
1411:
1387:
1364:
1347:Reduction drive
1310:
1296:
1214:
1178:V-1 flying bomb
1149:
1125:or more rarely
1052:
1034:
1003:Chard, Somerset
989:
985:
973:
969:
960:
947:Alphonse PĂ©naud
943:
919:Electric motors
903:
830:
756:
703:
695:Reynolds number
671:
607:Paper model of
593:
534:Imperial system
497:to as small as
487:
481:
453:
426:
328:, Serbia, 1936.
298:
287:
286:
285:
280:
269:
263:
260:
217:
215:
205:
193:
178:
167:
161:
158:
144:Please help by
143:
134:
130:
119:
108:
102:
99:
93:Please help by
92:
80:
76:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2804:
2794:
2793:
2791:Model aircraft
2776:
2775:
2773:
2772:
2761:
2758:
2757:
2755:
2754:
2747:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2709:
2708:
2703:
2696:List of brands
2692:
2690:
2689:Related topics
2686:
2685:
2683:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2645:
2640:
2635:
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2583:
2578:
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2563:
2558:
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2548:
2543:
2538:
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2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2497:
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2488:
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2482:
2477:
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2466:
2464:
2460:
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2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2420:
2419:
2409:
2404:
2399:
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2376:
2372:
2371:
2364:
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2349:
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2334:
2321:
2308:
2288:
2275:
2255:
2235:
2213:
2210:
2207:
2206:
2180:
2166:
2133:
2108:
2085:
2045:
2036:
2014:
1996:
1976:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1909:
1904:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1877:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1859:Model building
1856:
1851:
1850:
1849:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1769:
1766:
1765:
1764:
1757:
1754:
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1748:
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1727:
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1703:
1700:
1697:
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1691:
1688:
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1681:
1678:
1675:
1672:
1669:
1666:
1661:
1658:
1652:
1649:
1619:
1618:
1617:CL Team racing
1615:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1603:
1561:Main article:
1558:
1555:
1554:
1553:
1550:
1547:
1544:
1541:
1537:
1534:
1531:
1528:
1525:
1522:
1519:
1516:
1513:
1510:
1507:
1504:
1485:Lord Wakefield
1480:
1477:
1476:
1475:
1472:
1469:
1468:
1467:
1464:
1461:
1458:
1455:
1452:
1449:
1446:
1443:
1440:
1437:
1434:
1431:
1428:
1425:
1410:
1407:
1386:
1383:
1363:
1360:
1359:
1358:
1351:
1344:
1309:
1306:
1295:
1292:
1259:nickel cadmium
1229:electric motor
1213:
1212:Electric power
1210:
1208:obtain again.
1197:Rocket engines
1148:
1145:
1048:Main article:
1033:
1030:
987:
983:
971:
967:
964:carbon dioxide
959:
956:
942:
939:
902:
899:
858:"discus" style
829:
826:
755:
752:
751:
750:
728:
713:
702:
699:
670:
667:
631:Vacuum forming
592:
589:
480:
477:
452:
449:
425:
422:
338:physical model
334:model aircraft
314:Boeing 747-400
300:
299:
282:
281:
196:
194:
187:
180:
179:
137:
135:
128:
121:
120:
83:
81:
74:
69:
43:
42:
40:
33:
26:
18:Model airplane
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2803:
2792:
2789:
2788:
2786:
2771:
2763:
2762:
2759:
2753:
2752:
2748:
2746:
2745:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2723:Miniature art
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2698:
2697:
2694:
2693:
2691:
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2678:
2676:
2673:
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2668:
2666:
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2639:
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2616:
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2611:
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2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
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2579:
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2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2498:
2496:
2492:
2486:
2483:
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2478:
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2473:
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2468:
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2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2418:
2415:
2414:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2387:Architectural
2385:
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1503:F1A – Gliders
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1140:radial engine
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1127:rotary valves
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1123:poppet valves
1120:
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1099:
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1076:Reciprocating
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1072:synthetic oil
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1018:George Cayley
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869:slope soaring
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682:Aeromodelling
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225: –
224:
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219:Find sources:
213:
209:
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202:
197:This article
195:
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186:
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155:
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147:
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138:This article
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84:This article
82:
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58:
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52:
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46:
41:
32:
31:
19:
2749:
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2586:
2511:1:18 diecast
2397:Construction
2381:
2323:
2310:
2290:
2277:
2257:
2237:
2217:
2197:. Retrieved
2192:
2183:
2169:
2157:. Retrieved
2150:the original
2136:
2124:. Retrieved
2120:
2111:
2099:. Retrieved
2088:
2062:. Retrieved
2058:the original
2048:
2039:
2031:the original
2026:
2017:
2008:
1999:
1990:
1980:
1927:
1881:Die-cast toy
1874:O.S. Engines
1854:Model engine
1841:Control line
1806:longitudinal
1803:
1795:
1788:
1785:
1761:drone racing
1654:
1640:
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1632:
1628:
1620:
1597:
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1574:
1563:Control line
1482:
1412:
1409:Competitions
1391:ornithopters
1388:
1365:
1346:
1340:
1336:
1325:Direct-drive
1324:
1319:
1311:
1299:
1297:
1288:
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1244:
1240:
1226:
1205:model rocket
1195:
1170:turbocharger
1158:
1100:
1092:
1064:nitromethane
1053:
1050:Model engine
1016:Baronet Sir
1015:
992:
961:
944:
914:
912:
881:
862:
856:. The newer
839:
822:Ready To Fly
815:
807:wood veneers
780:
777:
754:Construction
716:Control line
704:
691:ornithopters
681:
680:
657:
654:
650:World War II
646:
639:
635:photo etched
629:
625:
614:
586:
559:
550:Frog Penguin
531:
499:1:1250 scale
488:
473:
468:wind tunnels
463:
462:
446:
438:
414:tissue paper
406:carbon fiber
390:scale models
371:
353:
346:
333:
331:
303:
288:
270:
261:
251:
244:
237:
230:
218:
206:Please help
201:verification
198:
168:
162:January 2020
159:
146:spinning off
139:
109:
103:January 2020
100:
85:
61:
54:
48:
47:Please help
44:
1945:Paper plane
1367:Ducted fans
1362:Ducted fans
1283:Solar power
1165:jet turbine
1026:ornithopter
986:engines. CO
951:rubber band
854:bungee cord
747:quadcopters
735:transmitter
710:Free flight
620:polystyrene
611:flying boat
554:recognition
441:wind tunnel
433:Wind tunnel
388:to powered
386:polystyrene
367:polystyrene
356:white metal
349:wind tunnel
2733:Port Revel
2718:Kitbashing
2480:Matchstick
2299:0768003911
2266:1854861905
2246:0671289918
2212:References
2126:21 January
2064:23 October
1940:Model ship
1914:in the USA
1823:Dutch roll
1780:See also:
1371:jet engine
1341:outrunners
1329:crankshaft
1308:Propellers
1241:park-flyer
1222:Bleriot XI
1161:ducted fan
1080:crankshaft
1068:castor oil
915:powerplant
887:ridge lift
845:powerplant
687:pterosaurs
663:fiberglass
519:1:24 scale
495:1:18 scale
483:See also:
410:fiberglass
382:card stock
369:or resin.
264:April 2021
234:newspapers
150:relocating
50:improve it
2660:H0m scale
2655:H0e scale
2623:Protofour
2463:Materials
2454:Wargaming
2407:Dollhouse
2233:361461928
2193:nmpra.net
2159:3 January
2101:5 October
1991:USA TODAY
1972:Footnotes
1301:propeller
1022:gunpowder
976:propeller
791:longerons
689:(usually
609:Dornier X
591:Materials
536:, or the
398:styrofoam
56:talk page
2785:Category
2770:Category
2738:Room box
2701:Aircraft
2618:OO scale
2613:HO scale
2608:TT scale
2429:Military
2382:Aircraft
2375:Products
2306:40632327
2273:43634314
2074:cite web
1834:See also
1827:dihedral
1814:avionics
1624:wingspan
1605:CL Speed
1355:camshaft
1246:3D-flyer
1182:Pulsejet
1132:biplanes
1060:methanol
935:pulsejet
929:, small
873:thermals
739:receiver
582:dioramas
542:Skybirds
384:or foam
342:aircraft
2680:V scale
2643:1 scale
2638:O scale
2633:G scale
2628:S scale
2603:N scale
2598:Z scale
2593:T gauge
2485:Plastic
2475:Diecast
2449:Railway
2402:Diorama
2319:1336984
2195:. NMPRA
1819:phugoid
1687:Series.
1233:battery
1007:England
931:turbine
841:Gliders
828:Gliders
787:formers
701:Control
566:figures
374:gliders
360:plastic
248:scholar
2713:Gundam
2494:Scales
2439:Rocket
2417:Action
2412:Figure
2330:
2317:
2304:
2297:
2284:
2271:
2264:
2253:437094
2251:
2244:
2231:
2224:
2199:6 July
1903:(IPMS)
1798:torque
1399:thrust
1337:torque
1271:Cobalt
941:Rubber
927:rocket
805:, and
797:, and
743:servos
574:trains
572:, and
517:, and
491:scales
394:bamboo
250:
243:
236:
229:
221:
2675:16 mm
2581:1:700
2576:1:500
2571:1:350
2566:1:285
2561:1:200
2556:1:144
2470:Brass
2434:Robot
2424:Horse
2286:95315
2153:(PDF)
2146:(PDF)
2097:. AMA
2093:AMA.
1395:birds
1389:With
1385:Other
1314:pitch
1201:Jetex
1180:type
1115:tuned
795:spars
783:balsa
724:pitch
642:paper
527:1:600
503:1:144
479:Scale
418:mylar
402:resin
378:balsa
336:is a
326:Sonta
255:JSTOR
241:books
2706:Cars
2665:Gn15
2551:1:72
2546:1:64
2541:1:50
2536:1:48
2531:1:43
2526:1:35
2521:1:32
2516:1:24
2506:1:18
2501:1:12
2444:Ship
2392:Cars
2328:ISBN
2315:OCLC
2302:OCLC
2295:ISBN
2282:OCLC
2269:OCLC
2262:ISBN
2249:OCLC
2242:ISBN
2229:OCLC
2222:ISBN
2201:2015
2161:2012
2128:2022
2103:2012
2080:link
2066:2007
1808:and
1403:lift
1401:and
1333:rpms
1273:and
1257:and
1243:and
1138:and
921:and
877:lift
865:wind
799:ribs
720:pole
661:and
580:box
570:cars
546:Frog
523:1:48
515:1:32
511:1:48
507:1:72
227:news
2670:On2
1756:F3U
1750:F3T
1744:F3S
1738:F3R
1732:F3Q
1726:F3H
1720:F3P
1714:F3N
1708:F3M
1702:F3K
1696:F3J
1690:F3F
1683:F3D
1677:F3C
1671:F3B
1665:F3A
1614:F2C
1608:F2B
1602:F2A
1497:FAI
1070:or
966:(CO
897:).
525:to
408:or
358:or
210:by
148:or
2787::
2191:.
2119:.
2076:}}
2072:{{
2025:.
2007:.
1989:.
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1009:.
1005:,
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568:,
564:,
529:.
513:,
509:,
505:,
416:,
380:,
332:A
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2203:.
2163:.
2130:.
2105:.
2082:)
2068:.
2011:.
1993:.
1538:2
1343:.
988:2
984:2
972:2
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295:)
289:(
277:)
271:(
266:)
262:(
252:·
245:·
238:·
231:·
204:.
175:)
169:(
164:)
160:(
156:.
142:.
116:)
110:(
105:)
101:(
91:.
66:)
62:(
20:)
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