Moorish architecture

6749: 5856: 6589: 6186: 15874: 6004: 7652:. Some rulers even built entirely new capital cities centered on their palaces, such as the Qal'at Bani Hammad, founded in 1007 by the Hammadids in present-day Algeria, and Mahdia, begun in 916 by the Fatimid Caliphs in present-day Tunisia. In many periods and regions rulers also built outlying private estates with gardens in the countryside. As early as the 8th century, for example, Abd ar-Rahman I possessed such estates in the countryside outside Cordoba. The later Nasrid-built Generalife, located on the mountainside a short distance outside the Alhambra, is also an example of outlying residence and garden made for the private use of the rulers. Moroccan sultans also built pleasure pavilions or residences within the vast gardens and orchards that they maintained outside their cities, notably the Menara Gardens and Agdal Gardens on the outskirts of Marrakesh. 6474: 5686: 6494: 7784:. The castle of El Vacar near Cordoba is an early example of a rammed-earth fortification in Al-Andalus, likely dating from the Emirate period (756–912), while the castle at Baños de la Encina, dating from later in the 10th century, is a more imposing example of rammed earth construction. Many of these early fortifications had relatively simple architecture with no barbicans and only a single line of walls. The gates were typically straight entrances with an inner and outer doorway (often in the form of horseshoe arches) on the same axis. The castles typically had quadrangular layouts with walls reinforced by rectangular towers. To guarantee a protected access to water even in times of siege, some castles had a tower built on a riverbank which was connected to the main castle via a wall, known in Spanish as a 6510: 5500:. With the exception of minarets, Moorish monuments were rarely very tall and Moorish architecture persisted in using the hypostyle hall – one of the earliest types of structures in Islamic architecture – as the main type of interior space throughout its history. Moreover, Moorish architecture also continued an early Islamic tradition of avoiding ostentatious exterior decoration or exterior monumentality. With the important exception of gateways and minarets, the exteriors of buildings were often very plain, while the interiors were the focus of architectural innovation and could be lavishly decorated. By contrast, architectural styles in the eastern parts of the Islamic world developed significantly different and innovative spatial arrangements in their construction of domed halls or vaulted 6102: 6670: 394: 2088: 6800: 5805: 6348: 8323: 2163: 6848: 6432: 5670: 5755: 2802: 6066: 6690: 625: 5781: 733: 6214: 6627: 6651: 915: 861: 8154:, and the walls of Rabat, all of which date essentially to the Almoravids or Almohads. In western Algeria, the walls of Tlemcen (formerly Tagrart) were likewise partly built by the Almoravids with a mix of rubble stone at the base and rammed earth above. As elsewhere, the gates were often the weakest points of a defensive wall and so were usually more heavily fortified than the surrounding wall. In Morocco, gates were typically designed with a bent entrance. They ranged from very plain in appearance to highly monumental and ornamental. Some of the most monumental gates still standing today were built in stone during the late 12th century by the Almohad Caliph 5630: 5884: 605: 1304: 6555:

stylized and almost illegible. In the decoration of the Alhambra, one can find examples of "Knotted" Kufic, a particularly elaborate style where the letters tie together in intricate knots. This style is also found in other parts of the Islamic world and may have had its origins in Iran. The extensions of the letters could turn into strips or lines that continued to form more motifs or form the edges of a cartouche encompassing the rest of the inscription. As a result, Kufic script could be used in a more strictly decorative form, as the starting point for an interlacing or knotted motif that could be woven into a larger arabesque background.

6888: 6403: 6387: 6562: 6031: 1991: 15497: 7265: 57: 7804: 7061: 6611: 6242: 1335:("Palace of the Sea"), was built around an enormous rectangular water basin. The architecture of the site has been compared to Fatimid architecture, but bears specific resemblances to contemporary architecture in the western Maghreb, Al-Andalus, and Arab-Norman Sicily. For example, while the Fatimids usually built no minarets, the grand mosque of Qal'at Bani Hammad has a large square-based minaret with interlacing and polylobed arch decoration, which are features of architecture in al-Andalus. Various remnants of tile decoration have been discovered at the site, including the earliest known use of 8002: 1396: 2716: 2255: 6458: 5903: 374: 1051: 6828: 5739: 5650: 2707: 7591: 7189: 1677: 1189: 8351:). There is also a high concentration of historic Islamic architecture in Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. The types of monuments that have been preserved vary greatly between regions and between periods. For example, the historic palaces of North Africa have rarely been preserved, whereas Spain retains multiple major examples of Islamic palace architecture that are among the best-studied in the world. By contrast, few major mosques from later periods have been preserved in Spain, whereas many historic mosques are still standing and still being used in North Africa. 892:. Its construction started in 936 and continued for decades during his reign and that of his son. The site was later destroyed and pillaged after the end of the Caliphate, but its remains have been excavated since 1911. The site covers a vast area divided into three terraced levels: the highest level contained the caliph's palaces, the level below this contained official buildings and dwellings of high officials, and the lowest and largest level was inhabited by common workers, craftsmen, and soldiers. The most lavish building discovered so far, known today as the 2735:

architectural activity. Mosque architecture in Algiers during this period demonstrates the convergence of multiple influences as well as peculiarities that may be attributed to the innovations of local architects. Domes of Ottoman influence were introduced into the design of mosques, but minarets generally continued to be built with square shafts instead of round or octagonal ones, thus retaining local tradition, unlike contemporary architecture in Ottoman Tunisia and other Ottoman provinces, where the "pencil"-shaped minaret was a symbol of Ottoman sovereignty.

6868: 6924: 5529: 5868: 6086: 2746:, a convert of Italian origin, in 1622. The mosque is built on top of a raised platform and was once associated with various annexes including a hospice, a hammam, and a mill. A minaret and public fountain stand on its northeast corner. The interior prayer hall is centered around a square space covered by a large octagonal dome supported on four large pillars and pendentives. This space is surrounded on all four sides with galleries or aisles covered by rows of smaller domes. On the west side of the central space this gallery is two 6775: 7400: 2584: 7867: 7324: 15235: 14384: 7883: 7517: 35: 7628:, used by the Umayyad emirs and their predecessors, was an early example of this. When Cordoba first became the capital of Al-Andalus in the 8th century the early Muslim governors simply moved into the former Visigothic palace, which was eventually redeveloped and modified by the Umayyad rulers after them. The Alcázar of Seville was also occupied and rebuilt in different periods by different rulers. In Marrakesh, Morocco, the Almohad Caliphs in the late 12th century built a large new palace district, the 2948: 1448: 1571: 1492: 8142:, southeast of Marrakesh, and Amargu, northeast of Fes, provide evidence about some of these. Built out of rubble stone or rammed earth, they illustrate similarities with earlier Hammadid fortifications as well as an apparent need to build quickly during times of crisis. City walls in Morocco were in turn generally built out of rammed earth and consisted of a wall topped by a walkway for soldiers, reinforced at regular intervals by square towers. These walls were characteristically crowned by 8029: 1547: 6269: 7146: 8217: 7666: 1264:. It is one of the oldest palaces in the Maghreb to have been discovered and excavated. It was built in stone and has a carefully-designed symmetrical plan which included a large central courtyard and two smaller courtyards in each of the side wings of the palace. Some scholars believe this design imitated the now-lost Fatimid palaces of Mahdia. As independent rulers, however, the Zirids of Ifriqiya built relatively few grand structures. They reportedly built a new palace at 1123: 550: 7094: 5915: 2356: 7375:), making them a convenient means of protecting family fortunes, but this was not allowed under the Maliki school of law that was dominant in the western Islamic lands. As a result, the construction of madrasas was less prolific in the Maghreb and in al-Andalus than it was further east. Madrasas in this region are also frequently named after their location or some other distinctive physical feature, rather than after their founders (as was common further east). 6993: 16147: 8118: 2433: 5553: 1841: 7575: 1967: 7036:) and became a prominent feature in Moorish palaces in Spain (such Madinat al-Zahra, the Aljaferia, and the Alhambra). In Morocco, they became especially widespread in the palaces and mansions of Marrakesh, where the combination of available space and warm climate made them particularly appealing. The term is nowadays applied in a broader way to traditional Moroccan houses that have been converted into hotels and tourist guesthouses. 5581:. They also appear frequently in Visigothic churches in the Iberian peninsula (5th–7th centuries). Perhaps due to this Visigothic influence, horseshoe arches were particularly predominant afterwards in al-Andalus under the Umayyads of Cordoba, although the "Moorish" arch was of a slightly different and more sophisticated form than the Visigothic arch. Arches were not only used for supporting the weight of the structure above them. 2756:, the galleries are just one bay deep. Several other mosques in Algiers built from the 17th to early 19th centuries had a similar floor plan. This particular design was unprecedented in the Maghreb. The use of a large central dome was a clear connection with Ottoman architecture. However, the rest of the layout is quite different from the mosques of metropolitan Ottoman architecture in cities like Istanbul. Some scholars, such as 13191: 14103: 14116: 7748: 2323:(today a national museum) was also begun by the Hafsids in the 15th century, and is mentioned in historical records for the first time during the reign of Abu Faris. The Hafsids also made significant renovations to the much older Great Mosque of Kairouan – renovating its ceiling, reinforcing its walls, and building or rebuilding two of its entrance gates in 1293 – as well as to the al-Zaytuna Mosque in Tunis. 46: 8095: 8076:'the dark vestibule'), defended by two flanking bastions and featuring a vaulted interior passage 44 meters long. (Although it's not clear today how much of the structure dates from the original Fatimid construction.) The peninsula's shoreline was also defended by a stone wall with towers at regular intervals, interrupted only by the entrance to a man-made harbor and arsenal. 1145:, begun in the early 11th century and subsequently modified, is one of the most important examples. The earliest part of the palace features horseshoe arches with carved vegetal decoration that appear to imitate, with less sophistication, the style of Madinat al-Zahra. Another part contains intersecting multifoil arches that resemble those of al-Hakam II's 6159:(meaning "net"), is believed by some scholars to have originated with the large interlacing arches in the 10th-century extension of the Great Mosque of Cordoba by Caliph al-Hakam II. It was then miniaturized and widened into a repeating net-like pattern that can cover surfaces. This motif, in turn, had many detailed variations. One common version, called 5841:

also seen in the mosque building of the Aljafería of Zaragoza. The architectural form of the ribbed dome was further developed in the Maghreb: the central dome of the Great Mosque of Tlemcen, a masterpiece of the Almoravids founded in 1082 and redecorated in 1136, has twelve slender ribs, the shell between the ribs is filled with filigree stucco work.

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is standard practice across the Muslim world that the direction of prayer is the direction of the shortest distance between oneself and the Kaaba in Mecca. In Morocco, this corresponds to a generally eastern orientation (varying slightly depending on your exact position). However, in early Islamic periods there were other interpretations of what the

5619:, which elaborated on the existing examples of al-Hakam II's extension to the Great Mosque of Cordoba. In the Almoravid and Almohad periods, this type of arch was further refined for decorative functions while horseshoe arches continued to be standard elsewhere. Some early examples appear in the Great Mosque of Tlemcen (in Algeria) and the Mosque of 896:("Rich Hall" in Spanish), is the reception hall of Abd ar-Rahman III, which is fronted by sunken gardens and reflective pools on a terrace overlooking the landscape below. Its main hall is a rectangular space divided into three naves by two rows of horseshoe arches and nearly every wall surface is covered in exceptional stone-carved decoration with 6543:, as in other parts of the Muslim world, was also an art form. Many buildings had foundation inscriptions which record the date of their construction and the patron who sponsored it. Inscriptions could also feature Qur'anic verses, exhortations of God, and other religiously significant passages. Early inscriptions were generally written in the 6689: 2060:(ruled 1354–1359 and 1362–1391). The Palace of the Lions was built under Muhammad V and possibly finished around 1380. It features a courtyard with a central marble fountain decorated with twelve lion sculptures. The galleries and chambers around the courtyard are notable for their extremely fine stucco decoration and some exceptional 2635:(r. 1631–1664) between 1631 and 1654, reprises many of these same elements as the Yusuf Dey Mosque. Both mosques make use of marble columns and capitals that were imported from Italy and possibly even carved by Italian craftsmen in Tunis. Hammuda Pasha was also responsible for starting in 1629 a major restoration and expansion of the 2603:(r. 1610–1637), is one of the earliest and most important examples that imported Ottoman elements into local architecture. Its congregational mosque is accompanied by a madrasa, a primary school, fountains, latrines, and even a café, many of which provided revenues for the upkeep of the complex. This arrangement is similar to Ottoman 1232:, further east in Catalonia today, are contemporary with the Aljaferia. Fragments of stucco decoration found here show that it was built in a very similar style. However, they also include rare surviving examples of figural sculpture in western Islamic architectural decoration, such as the carved image of a tree occupied by birds and 668:(r. 817–838), although various additions and repairs were effected later which complicate the chronology of its construction. Its design was a major reference point in the architectural history of mosques in the Maghreb. The mosque features an enormous rectangular courtyard, a large hypostyle prayer hall, and a thick three-story 1668:, founded in 1171, were excavated in the 1970s. Sunken gardens were also part of Almohad palace courtyards. In some cases the gardens were divided symmetrically into four parts, much like a riad garden. Examples of these have been found in some courtyards of the Alcázar of Seville, where the former Almohad palaces once stood. 8197:, the southwestern gate of the medina, dates from this period in 1276 and generally continues the Almohad format, including a bent entrance. In later centuries, Moroccan rulers continued to build traditional walls and fortifications while at the same time borrowing elements from European military architecture in the new 2411:, which are notable for being part of larger multi-purpose charitable complexes including several other structures like public fountains, hammams, madrasas, and libraries. This marked a shift from the previous patterns of architectural patronage and may have been influenced by the tradition of building such complexes in 7079:(direction of prayer). Every neighbourhood normally had one or many mosques to accommodate the spiritual needs of its residents. Historically, there was a distinction between regular mosques and "Friday mosques" or "great mosques", which were larger and had a more important status by virtue of being the venue where the 955:. This is seen for example in the stylized vegetal motifs intricately carved onto limestone panels on the walls at Madinat al-Zahra. It is also at Madinat al-Zahra that the "caliphal" style of horseshoe arch was formalized: the curve of the arch forms about three quarters of a circle, the voussoirs are aligned with the 1875:). Some differences are still found between the styles of each dynasty, such as the wider use of marble columns in Nasrid palaces and the increasing use of wooden elements in Marinid architecture. Nasrid architecture also exhibits details influenced by Granada's closer interactions with Christian kingdoms like 1100:. While only sparse remains of the city have been uncovered, it appears to have differed from earlier Fatimid palaces in its extensive use of water. One excavated structure had a vast rectangular courtyard mostly occupied by a large pool. This use of water was reminiscent of earlier Aghlabid palaces at nearby 7043:, sometimes built outside the main defensive walls or within their own defensive enclosure. This tradition is evident in the gardens of the Madinat al-Zahra built by the Caliphs of Cordoba (10th century), in the Agdal Gardens south of the Kasbah of Marrakesh created by the Almohads (12th century), the 1224:'s audience hall, is an unusual small octagonal room with a mihrab, most likely a private oratory for the ruler. The designs and decoration of the palace appear to be a further elaboration of 10th-century Cordoban architecture, in particular al-Hakam II's extension in the Mosque of Cordoba, and of the 7819:

In addition to the more sizeable castles, there was a proliferation of smaller castles and forts which held local garrisons, especially from the 10th century onward. The authorities also built multitudes of small, usually round, watch towers which could rapidly send messages to each other via fire or

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in Fes; in part because, unlike the mosque, they provided accommodations for students who came from outside the city. Many of these students were poor, seeking sufficient education to gain a higher position in their home towns, and the madrasas provided them with basic necessities such as lodging and

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Various types of interlacing lozenge-like motifs are heavily featured on the surface of minarets starting in the Almohad period (12th–13th centuries) and are later found in other decoration such as carved stucco along walls in Marinid and Nasrid architecture, eventually becoming a standard feature in

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The so-called "lambrequin" arch, with a more intricate profile of lobes and points, was also introduced in the Almoravid period, with an early appearance in the funerary section of the Qarawiyyin Mosque (in Fes) dating from the early 12th century. It then became common in subsequent Almohad, Marinid,

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has a more traditional western Islamic form, with a horseshoe-arch shape and stucco decoration, although the decoration around it is crowned with Ottoman-style half-medallion and quarter-medallion shapes. The mosque's overall design and its details thus attest to an apparent mix of Ottoman, Maghrebi,

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of Tunis was one of the first works of this period, built by Abu Zakariya (the first independent Hafsid ruler) at the beginning of his reign. Its floor plan had noticeable differences from previous Almohad-period mosques but the minaret, completed in 1233, bears very strong resemblance the minaret of

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and its Alcazaba. The Alcazaba of Málaga also dates from this period but was later redeveloped under the Nasrids. Traces of an 11th-century fortress also exist on the site of Granada's current Alcazaba in the Alhambra. Military architecture also became steadily more complex. Fortified gates began to

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kitchens, and hammams), and the private residences of the ruler and his family. Although palace architecture varied from one period and region to the next, certain traits recurred such as the predominance of courtyards and internal gardens around which elements of the palace were typically centered.

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or domed chambers without windows, designed to keep steam from escaping, but partially lit thanks to small holes in the ceiling which could be covered by ceramic or coloured glass. Many historic hammams have been preserved in cities like Marrakesh and Fez in Morocco, partly thanks to their continued

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The whole structure of a mosque was also orientated or aligned with the direction of prayer, such that mosques were sometimes orientated in a different direction from the rest of the buildings or streets around it. This geographic alignment, however, varied greatly from period to period. Nowadays it

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issues the call to prayer to the surrounding city. (This was historically done by the muezzin climbing to the top and projecting his voice over the rooftops, but nowadays the call is issued over modern megaphones installed on the tower.) Minarets traditionally have a square shaft and are arranged in

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Mosque architecture in Al-Andalus and the Maghreb was heavily influenced from the beginning by major well-known mosques in early cultural centers like the Great Mosque of Kairouan and the Great Mosque of Cordoba. Accordingly, most mosques in the region have roughly rectangular floor plans and follow

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script began to appear, though it only became commonplace in monuments from the Marinid and Nasrid period (13th–15th century) onward. Kufic was still employed, especially for more formal or solemn inscriptions such as religious content. However, from the 13th century onward Kufic became increasingly

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During this period Algiers developed into a major town and witnessed regular architectural patronage, and as such most of the major monuments from this period are concentrated there. By contrast, the city of Tlemcen, the former major capital of the region, went into relative decline and saw far less

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who took over most of the Maghreb in the 16th century, with the exception of Morocco, which remained an independent kingdom. This resulted in an even greater divergence between the architecture of Morocco to the west, which continued to follow essentially the same Andalusi-Maghrebi traditions of art

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In Ifriqiya (Tunisia), the Hafsids, a branch of the Almohad ruling class, declared their independence from the Almohads in 1229 and developed their own state which came to control much of the surrounding region. They were also significant builders, particularly under the reigns of successful leaders

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Sicily was progressively brought under Muslim control in the 9th when the Aghlabids conquered it from the Byzantines. The island was subsequently settled by Arabs and Berbers from North Africa. In the following century the island passed into the control of the Fatimids, who left the island under the

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and was occupied seasonally by its semi-nomadic inhabitants. It was destroyed by the Fatimids in 909 but its remains were excavated in the 20th century. The city was surrounded by a fortified wall interspersed with square towers. It contained a hypostyle mosque, a fortified citadel on higher ground,

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After the Aghlabids came the Fatimids, who took over Ifriqiya in the early 10th century. Most notably, the Fatimids built a heavily-fortified new capital at Mahdia, located on a narrow peninsula extending from the coastline into the sea. The narrow land approach to the peninsula was protected by an

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was a type of residential fortress which was built to guard the early frontiers of Muslim territory in North Africa, including the coastline. They were built at intervals along the coastline so that they could signal each other from afar. Especially in later periods, ribats also served as a kind of

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system which heated the floors. The furnace re-used natural organic materials (such as wood shavings, olive pits, or other organic waste byproducts) by burning them for fuel. The smoke generated by this furnace helped with heating the floors while excess smoke was evacuated through chimneys. Of the

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influential but independent religious elites and also to portray themselves to the general population as protectors and promoters of orthodox Sunni Islam. In other parts of the Muslim world, the founders of madrasas could name themselves or their family members as administrators of the foundation's

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in different colours fitted together to form elaborate geometric motifs, often based on radiating star patterns. Zellij made its appearance in the region during the 10th century and became widespread by the 14th century during the Marinid and Nasrid period. It may have been inspired or derived from

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The most famous architectural legacy of the Nasrids in Granada is the Alhambra, a hilltop palace district protected by heavy fortifications and containing some of the most famous and best-preserved palaces of western Islamic architecture. Initially a fortress built by the Zirids in the 11th century

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The architectural styles of the Marinids, Zayyanids, and Nasrids were very similar to each other. Craftsmen probably travelled between royal courts and from region to region, resulting in mutual influences between the arts of the three kingdoms. Compared with the relatively restrained decoration of

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in Spanish) are part of the present-day Monastery of Santa Clara in Murcia. The muqarnas fragments are painted with images of musicians and other figures. Ibn Mardanish also constructed what is now known as the Castillejo de Monteagudo, a hilltop castle and fortified palace outside the city that is

1220:. The carved stucco of the southern portico, enveloping a simple brick core, is especially dizzying and complex, drawing on the forms of plain and multifoil arches but manipulating them into motifs outside their normal structural logic. Next to the northern hall of the courtyard, which was probably 8439:

It was replaced by the present-day Church of San Salvador. Today, only the lower part of the mosque's minaret survives, as part of the church's bell tower. The minaret is likely of a later date than the mosque's foundation, but it existed before 1079, as records show it was repaired by al-Mu'tamid

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Starting with the Almoravid and Almohad domination of the 11th–13th centuries, most medieval fortifications in the western Maghreb shared many characteristics with those of Al-Andalus. Many Almoravid fortifications in Morocco were built in response to the threat of the Almohads. The archaeological

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of mountains in Spain, around the region of Madrid, and finally up to the areas of Navarre and Huesca, north of Zaragoza, in the east. In addition to these border defenses, castles and fortified garrisons existed in the interior regions of the realm as well. Such fortifications were built from the

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coast as close as possible to his capital at Marrakesh, to which he tried to move and restrict European trade. He hired European architects to design the city, resulting in a relatively unique historic city built by Moroccans but with Western European architecture, particularly in the style of its

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of three arches. Both the Ibn Khayrun and Bu Fatata mosques are early examples of the "nine-bay" mosque, meaning that the interior has a square plan subdivided into nine smaller square spaces, usually vaulted, arranged in three rows of three. This type of layout is found later in al-Andalus and as

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is strongly felt in the Islamic architecture during this early Emirate period of the peninsula. The most obvious example of this was the reuse of columns and capitals from earlier periods in the initial construction of the Great Mosque of Cordoba. When new, richly-carved capitals were produced for

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The remains of castles and fortifications from various periods of Al-Andalus have survived across Spain and Portugal, often situated on hilltops and elevated positions that command the surrounding countryside. A large number of Arabic terms were used to denote the different types and functions of

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The main palaces of rulers were usually located inside a separate fortified district or citadel of the capital city. These citadels included a complex of different structures including administrative offices, official venues for ceremonies and receptions, functional amenities (such as warehouses,

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Madrasas were generally centered around a main courtyard with a central fountain, off which other rooms could be accessed. Student living quarters were typically distributed on an upper floor around the courtyard. Many madrasas also included a prayer hall with a mihrab, though only the Bou Inania

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The ribbed domes of the Mosque of Córdoba served as models for later mosque buildings in Al-Andalus and the Maghreb. At around 1000 AD, the Bab al-Mardum Mosque in Toledo was constructed with a similar, eight-ribbed dome, surrounded by eight other ribbed domes of varying design. Similar domes are

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in the mid-17th century, succeeded the Saadians as rulers of Morocco and continue to be the reigning monarchy of the country to this day. As a result, many of the mosques and palaces standing in Morocco today have been built or restored by the 'Alawis at some point or another in recent centuries.

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in Marrakesh as one of the apogees of this style. Starting with the Saadians, and continuing with the 'Alawis (their successors and the reigning monarchy of Morocco today), Moroccan art and architecture is portrayed by modern scholars as having remained essentially "conservative"; meaning that it

1216:. Inside its enclosure of fortified walls, one courtyard has been preserved from this period, occupied by pools and sunken gardens and wide rectangular halls fronted by porticos at either end. The arches of this courtyard have elaborate intersecting and mixed-linear designs and intricately-carved 7089:

were considered more important and were accompanied by preaching, and also had political and social importance as occasions where news and royal decrees were announced, as well as when the current ruler's name was mentioned. In the early Islamic era there was typically only one Friday mosque per

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or pendentives at the corners of domes, they were quickly adapted to other architectural uses. In the western Islamic world they were particularly dynamic and were used, among other examples, to enhance entire vaulted ceilings, fill in certain vertical transitions between different architectural

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script, a style where letters were written with straight lines and had fewer flourishes. At a slightly later period, mainly in the 11th century, Kufic letters were enhanced with ornamentation, particularly to fill the empty spaces that were usually present above the letters. This resulted in the

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in a mosque. In the extension of the Great Mosque of Córdoba by al-Hakam II in the late 10th century, three domes were built over the maqsura (the privileged space in front of the mihrab) and another one in the central nave or aisle of the prayer hall at the beginning of the new extension. These

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Perhaps the most characteristic arch type of western Islamic architecture generally is the so-called "Moorish" or "horseshoe" arch. This is an arch where the curves of the arch continue downward past the horizontal middle axis of the circle and begin to curve towards each other, rather than just

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and the use of pillars instead of columns in mosques. Stucco-carved decoration began to appear more and more as part of these compositions and would become even more elaborate in subsequent periods. Almoravid patronage thus marks a period of transition for architecture in the region, setting the

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The Almoravids made use of Andalusi craftsmen throughout their realms, thus helping to spread the highly ornate architectural style of al-Andalus to North Africa. Almoravid architecture assimilated the motifs and innovations of Andalusi architecture, such as the complex interlacing arches of the

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Almohad architecture showed more restraint than Almoravid architecture in its use of ornamental richness, giving greater attention to wider forms, contours, and overall proportions. Earlier motifs were refined and were given a grander scale. While surface ornament remained important, architects

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complexes. It was also the first example of a "funerary mosque" in Tunis, as the complex includes the founder's mausoleum, dated to 1639. While the hypostyle form of the mosque and the pyramidal roof of the mausoleum reflect traditional architecture in the region, the minaret's octagonal shaft

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Madrasas played an important role in training the scholars and professionals who operated the state bureaucracy. To dynasties like the Marinids, madrasas also played a part in bolstering the political legitimacy of their rule. They used this patronage to encourage the loyalty of the country's

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period, during which al-Andalus was politically fragmented into a number of smaller kingdoms. The disintegration of central authority resulted in the ruin and pillage of Madinat al-Zahra. Despite this political decline, the culture of the Taifa emirates was vibrant and productive, with the

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Term used specifically in the 19th century to describe a Western style based on the architecture and decorative arts of the Muslim inhabitants (the Moors) of northwest Africa and (between 8th and 15th centuries) of southern Spain; it is often used imprecisely to include Arab and Indian

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Geometric patterns, most typically making use of intersecting straight lines which are rotated to form a radiating star-like pattern, were common in Islamic architecture generally and across Moorish architecture. These are found in carved stucco and wood decoration, and most notably in

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forming a half circle. This arch profile became nearly ubiquitous in the region from the very beginning of the Islamic period. The origin of this arch appear to date back to the preceding Byzantine period across the Mediterranean, as versions of it appear in Byzantine-era buildings in

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was founded in 829 and was considered the second-oldest Muslim building in Spain (after the Great Mosque of Cordoba) until it was demolished in 1671. This mosque had a hypostyle form consisting of eleven aisles divided by rows of brick arches supported on marble columns. Of the brief

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or commercial building which served as both an inn for merchants and a warehouse for their goods and merchandise. In North Africa some funduqs also housed the workshops of local artisans. As a result of this function, they also became centers for other commercial activities such as

5844:

In Ifriqiya, certain domes from the 9th and 10th centuries, of a quite different style, are also particularly accomplished in their design and decoration. These are the 9th-century (Aghlabid) dome in front of the mihrab in the Great Mosque of Kairouan and the 10th-centuy (Zirid)

825:, which became their capital and the major political and cultural center of early Islamic Morocco. In this early period Morocco also absorbed waves of immigrants from Tunisia and al-Andalus who brought in cultural and artistic influences from their home countries. The well-known 7960:

In the 13th–15th centuries, during the final period of Muslim rule in Al-Andalus, fortresses and towns were again refortified by either the Nasrids or (in fewer cases) the Marinids. In addition to the fortifications of Granada and its Alhambra, the Nasrids built or rebuilt the

2122:

or Muslims under Christian rule). This type of architecture, created by Muslim craftsmen or by other craftsmen following the same tradition, continued many of the same forms and motifs with minor variations. Numerous examples are found in the early churches of Toledo (e.g. the

275:). Over time, it made increasing use of surface decoration while also retaining a tradition of focusing attention on the interior of buildings rather than their exterior. Unlike Islamic architecture further east, western Islamic architecture did not make prominent use of large 1041:

from this period include expansions to the Qarawiyyin and Andalusiyyin mosques in Fes and the addition of their square-shafted minarets, carried out under the sponsorship of Abd ar-Rahman III and following the example of the minaret he built for the Great Mosque of Cordoba.

2533:

also became centers of pirate activity, which brought in wealth to local elites but also attracted intrusions by European powers, who occupied and fortified some coastal positions. In the late 17th century and early 18th century, Ottoman control became largely nominal: the

8009:

Some of the oldest surviving Islamic-era monuments in the Maghreb are military structures in Ifriqiya and present-day Tunisia. The best-known examples are the Ribat of Sousse and the Ribat of Monastir, both dating generally from the Aghlabid period in the 9th century. A

7251:

but rather that they should follow the cardinal orientation of the Kaaba itself (which is a rectangular structure with its own geometric axes), which is in turn aligned according to certain astronomical references (e.g. its minor axis is aligned with the sunrise of the

2219:

and geometric motifs whose style was repeated in some subsequent Marinid monuments. The Marinids also intermittently occupied Tlemcen in the 14th century and left their mark on the area. During his siege of the city at the beginning of the century, the Marinid leader

2775:

spaces, with small domed or vaulted bays occupying the corners between these barrel vaults. The barrel-vaulted space on the north side of the dome (the entrance side) is elongated, giving the main vaulted spaces of the mosque a cross-like configuration resembling a

1649:(citadel). The caliphs also constructed multiple country estates and gardens right outside some of these cities, continuing a tradition that existed under the Almoravids. These estates were typically centered around a large artificial water reservoir that sustained 1072:. Construction began in 916 and the new city was officially inaugurated on 20 February 921, although some construction continued. In addition to its heavy fortified walls, the city included the Fatimid palaces, an artificial harbor, and a congregational mosque (the 5588:

Starting in the Almoravid period, the first pointed or "broken" horseshoe arches began to appear in the region and became more widespread during the Almohad period. This arch is likely of North African origin, since pointed arches were already present in earlier

8205:, are one early example of these architectural innovations. As the defensive function of city walls and gates became less relevant in the modern era, city gates eventually became more ornamental and symbolic structures. A prominent example of this is the iconic 9509:

Borrás Gualís, Gonzalo M.; Lavado Paradinas, Pedro; Pleguezuelo Hernández, Alfonso; Pérez Higuera, María Teresa; Mogollón Cano-Cortés, María Pilar; Morales, Alfredo J.; López Guzman, Rafael; Sorroche Cuerva, Miguel Ángel; Stuyck Fernández Arche, Sandra (2018).

1327:, founded in 1007. Although abandoned and destroyed in the 12th century, the city has been excavated by modern archeologists and the site is one of the best-preserved medieval Islamic capitals in the world. It contains several palaces, various amenities, and a 1381:, which was founded by the Almoravids in the second half of the 11th century. This period is one of the most formative stages of architecture in al-Andalus and the Maghreb, establishing many of the forms and motifs that were refined in subsequent centuries. 7361:" religious doctrines, including the doctrine espoused by the Almohad dynasty. As such, in the westernmost parts of the Islamic world it only came to flourish in the late 13th century, after the Almohads, under the Marinid, Zayyanid, and Hafsid dynasties. 2335:(1341). Many of these early madrasas, however, have been poorly preserved or have been considerably modified in the centuries since their foundation. The Madrasa al-Muntasiriya, completed in 1437, is among the best preserved madrasas of the Hafsid period. 1096:, near Kairouan. Unlike Mahdia, which was built with more strategic and defensive considerations in mind, this capital was built as a display of power and wealth. The city had a round layout with the caliph's palace at the center, possibly modeled on the 6347: 7499:

and markets. They typically consisted of a large central courtyard surrounded by a gallery, around which storage rooms and sleeping quarters were arranged, frequently over multiple floors. Some were relatively simple and plain, while others, like the

2505:. Late sultans were also significant builders. Up until the late 19th century and early 20th century, both the sultans and their ministers continued to build beautiful palaces, many of which are now used as museums or tourist attractions, such as the 8308:(Berber) areas, Kasbahs are again typically made of rammed earth and mud-brick (or sometimes stone) and are often marked by square corner towers, often decorated with geometric motifs along their upper walls and topped with sawtooth-shaped merlons. 6748: 298:

influence and other changes from the 16th century onward, while in Morocco the earlier Hispano-Maghrebi style was largely perpetuated up to modern times with fewer external influences. In the 19th century and after, the Moorish style was frequently

7981:) was also built in Malaga, which served as a Nasrid naval base. This late period saw the construction of massive towers and keeps which likely reflected a growing influence of Christian military architecture. The Calahorra Tower (now known as the 1532:

one of the best-preserved examples of Almoravid-era architecture in the Iberian Peninsula. It has a rectangular plan and contained a large riad garden courtyard with symmetrical reception halls facing each other across the long axis of the garden.

1084:

in the 1960s. It consists of a hypostyle prayer hall with a roughly square courtyard. The mosque's original main entrance, a monumental portal projecting from the wall, was relatively unusual at the time and may have been inspired by ancient Roman

6728:

in Spain), sometimes referred to as "honeycomb" or "stalactite" carvings, consists of a three-dimensional geometric prismatic motif which is among the most characteristic features of Islamic architecture. This technique originated further east in

6473: 6003: 6493: 6101: 2643:

on many of its walls. These tiles, generally produced in the Qallalin district of Tunis, are painted with motifs of vases, plants, and arches and use predominant blue, green, and ochre-like yellow colours which distinguish them from contemporary

1440:(r. 1106–1143), is one of the highlights of this period. The design of the dome traces its origins to the earlier ribbed domes of Al-Andalus and, in turn, it probably influenced the design of similar ornamental domes in later mosques in Fez and 7212:

of copper or brass spheres. Some minarets in North Africa have octagonal shafts, though this is more characteristic of certain regions or periods. Inside the main shaft a staircase, and in other cases a ramp, ascends to the top of the minaret.

5855: 6322:

in the Comares Palace at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain. The ceiling, composed of 8,017 individual wooden pieces joined together into a pyramid-like dome, consists of a recurring 16-pointed star motif which is believed to have symbolized the

6185: 2202:

in 1296. The Zayyanids built other religious foundations in the area, but many have not survived to the present day or have preserved little of their original appearance. In addition to mosques, they built the first madrasas in Tlemcen. The

9238:. They are used here as denominators of two phenomena that have been essentially shaped in the 19th century. When speaking of the Islamic architecture of al- Andalus, the term Moorish is rejected. In these cases, the terms Ibero-Islamic or 6669: 7647:

Rulers with enough resources sometimes founded entirely separate and autonomous royal cities outside their capital cities, such as Madinat al-Zahra, built by Abd ar-Rahman III outside Cordoba, or Fes el-Jdid built by the Marinids outside

7462:). They typically included a mosque, school, and other charitable facilities. Such religious establishments were major centers of Sufism across the region and grew in power and influence over the centuries, often associated with specific 2793:

and European influences. As the architect is unknown, Jonathan Bloom suggests that it could very well have been a local architect who simply took the general idea of Ottoman mosque architecture and developed his own interpretation of it.

7852:– meaning that their passage made one or more right-angle turns to slow down any attackers. Precedents for this type of gate existed as far back as the mid-9th century, with a notable example from this time being the Bab al-Qantara (or 1002:, which has a nine-bay layout covered by a variety of ribbed domes and an exterior façade with an Arabic inscription carved in brick. Other monuments from the Caliphate period in al-Andalus include some of Toledo's old city gates (e.g. 5685: 833:

mosques in Fes, founded in the 9th century during, were built in hypostyle form but the structures themselves were rebuilt during later expansions. The layout of two other mosques from this era, the Mosque of Agadir and the Mosque of

6588: 969:) of the Great Mosque and built its first true minaret. The minaret, with a cuboid shape about 47 metres (154 ft) tall, became the model followed for later minarets in the region. Abd ar-Rahman III's cultured son and successor, 7898:

Later on, the Almohads (12th and early 13th centuries) were particularly active in the restoration and construction of fortresses and city walls across the regions under their control to counter the growing threat of the Christian

846:

in Algeria), while the Mosque of Aghmat, a town about 30 km southeast of present-day Marrakesh, was founded in 859 by Wattas Ibn Kardus. Both of them were also hypostyle mosques with prayer halls supported by rows of pillars.

6847: 946:

Andalusi decoration and craftsmanship of this period became more standardized. While Classical inspirations are still present, they are interpreted more freely and are mixed with influences from the Middle East, including ancient

6213: 904:

motifs. While garden estates were built by the Umayyad rulers and elites of Cordoba before this, the gardens of Madinat al-Zahra are the oldest archeologically documented example of geometrically-divided gardens (related to the

7090:

city, but over time Friday mosques multiplied until it was common practice to have one in every neighbourhood or district of the city. Mosques could also frequently be accompanied by other facilities which served the community.

8083:(who were in turn governors for the Fatimids), also built a new fortified capital in Algeria known as Qal'a Beni Hammad in the 11th century, located on a strategic elevated site. Along with the earlier Zirid fortifications of 713:. An elegant dome in front of the mihrab with an elaborately-decorated drum is one of architectural highlights of this period. Its light construction contrasts with the bulky structure of the surrounding mosque and the dome's 2885:, proved particularly popular in both Spain and its colonies. Examples of Mudéjar-influenced colonial architecture are concentrated in Mexico and Central America, including some in what is now the southwestern United States. 2403:, were extensive builders and benefitted from great economic resources at the height of their power in the late 16th century. In addition to the Saadian Tombs, they also built several major mosques in Marrakesh including the 1377:(12th–13th centuries), both of whom created empires that stretched across large parts of western and northern Africa and took over the remaining Muslim territories of al-Andalus in Europe. Both empires had their capital at 6626: 212:. While Kairouan and Córdoba were some of the most important centers during the 8th to 10th centuries, a wider regional style was later synthesized and shared across the Maghreb and al-Andalus thanks to the empires of the 2330:

built in Tunis in 1238 (or in 1249 according to some sources). This was followed by many others (almost all of them in Tunis) such as the Madrasa al-Hawa founded in the 1250s, the Madrasa al-Ma'ridiya (1282), and the

2147:) in the Great Mosque (which was converted to a cathedral in 1236). Some surviving 13th and 14th-century Jewish synagogues were also built (or rebuilt) in Mudéjar Moorish style while under Christian rule, such as the 6799: 1076:). Much of this has not survived to the present day. Fragments of mosaic pavements from the palaces have been discovered from modern excavations. The mosque is one of the most well-preserved Fatimid monuments in the 8430:. The word later acquired more racial connotations and has fallen out of use since the mid-20th century. Its usage today is generally limited to adjectival uses in terms like "Moorish architecture" or "Moorish art". 7026:) is an interior garden found in many Moorish palaces and mansions. It is typically rectangular and divided into four parts along its central axes, with a fountain at its middle. Riad gardens probably originated in 6509: 5477:. The nature of the medieval Islamic world encouraged people to travel, which made it possible for artists, craftsmen, and ideas from other parts of the Islamic world to be transmitted here. Some features, such as 7566:

use by locals up to the present day. In Al-Andalus, by contrast, they fell out of use after the expulsion of Muslims from the Iberian Peninsula and are only preserved as archeological sites or historic monuments.

2386:

dynasties. Artistically and architecturally, however, there was broad continuity and the Saadians are seen by modern scholars as continuing to refine the existing Moorish-Moroccan style, with some considering the

7919:

also date from this time, both of them either built, restored, or expanded by the Almoravids and Almohads. Military technology again became more sophisticated, with barbicans appearing in front of city walls and

7221:

should be. In the western Islamic world (the Maghreb and al-Andalus), in particular, early mosques often had a southern orientation, as can be seen in major early mosques like the Great Mosque of Cordoba and the

6317:

tiles, geometric motifs were also predominant in the decoration and composition of wooden ceilings. One of the most famous examples of such ceilings, considered the masterpiece of its kind, is the ceiling of the

6030: 5780: 1104:

and of contemporary palaces at Madinat al-Zahra, but not of older Umayyad and Abbasid palaces further east, suggesting that displays of waterworks were evolving as symbols of power in the Maghreb and al-Andalus.

7941:. Fortification towers also became taller and more massive, sometimes with round or polygonal bases but more commonly still rectangular. Some of the more famous tower fortifications from this period include the 7184:

wall); thus forming a T-shaped space in the floor plan of the mosque which was often accentuated by greater decoration (e.g. more elaborate arch shapes around it or decorative cupola ceilings at each end of the

5754: 1764:

and door decor, the Arabic arches and scripts adorning the roof, the Byzantine dome and mosaics. The central nave of the chapel is covered by a large rectangular vault ceiling made of painted wood and carved in

1593:

mosques are often considered the prototypes of medieval mosque architecture in the region. The so-called "T-plan", combined with a hierarchical use of decoration that emphasizes the wider central and transverse

721:, squinches carved in the shape of shells, and various motifs carved in low-relief. The mosque's minaret is the oldest surviving one in North Africa and the western Islamic world. Its form was modeled on older 8346:

Many important examples of Moorish architecture are located in Europe, in the Iberian Peninsula (in the former territories of Al-Andalus), with an especially strong concentration in southern Spain (modern-day

676:

is issued). The prayer hall's layout reflects an early use of the so-called "T-plan", in which the central nave of the hypostyle hall (the one leading to the mihrab) and the transverse aisle running along the

7644:, which were occupied by the various governors and local rulers. The most famous of all these, however, is the Alhambra of Granada, which was built up by the Nasrid dynasty during the 13th to 15th centuries. 6431: 569:

are two military structures dated to the late 8th century, making them the oldest surviving Islamic-era monuments in Tunisia – although subjected to later modifications. The Ribat of Sousse contains a small

5669: 6561: 5720:

and Nasrid architecture, in many cases used to highlight the arches near the mihrab area of a mosque. This type of arch is also sometimes referred to as a "muqarnas" arch due to its similarities with a

2025:

which, although only partly preserved, demonstrates the typical layout which would be repeated in other palaces nearby: a courtyard centered on a large reflective pool with porticos at either end and a

1938:, on the other hand, is one of the major Marinid mosques that is still well-preserved today, while numerous other mosques were built throughout Fes and in other cities during this period, including the 1922:, are considered among the greatest architectural works of this period. The Marinids also imitated previous dynasties by founding their own fortified palace-city to the west of Fes, known afterwards as 7764:

very beginning of Muslim occupation in the 8th century, but a larger number of remaining examples date from the Caliphal period of the 10th century. Some notable examples from this period include the

6241: 7835:

Following the collapse of the Caliphate in the 11th century, the resulting political insecurity encouraged further fortification of cities. The Zirid walls of Granada along the northern edge of the

6065: 5828:

Although domes and vaulting were not extensively used in western Islamic architecture, domes were still employed as decorative features to highlight certain areas, such as the space in front of the

2569:, especially in the coastal cities where Ottoman influence was strongest. Some European influences were also introduced, particularly through the importation of materials from Italy such as marble. 2135:. Among the most famous and celebrated examples is the Alcazar of Seville, which was the former palace of the Abbadids and the Almohads in the city but was rebuilt in by Christian rulers, including 683:

wall are wider than the other aisles and intersect in front of the mihrab. The mihrab of the prayer hall is among the oldest examples of its kind, richly decorated with marble panels carved in high-

6650: 5973:

motifs from this Hellenistic tradition. Almoravid and Almohad architecture made more use of a general striated leaf motif, often curling and splitting into unequal parts along an axis of symmetry.

768:

in Kairouan (also known as the "Mosque of the Three Doors"), dated to 866 and commissioned by a private patron, possesses what is considered by some to be the oldest decorated external façade in

8193:(near Tlemcen), and a part of the walls of Tlemcen. Further east, the Hafsids carried out important works on the walls of Tunis, their capital, once again making extensive use of rammed earth. 7283:

Synagogues had a very different layout from mosques but in North Africa and Al-Andalus they often shared similar decorative trends as the traditional Islamic architecture around them, such as

1861:

Almohad architecture, the monuments of all three dynasties during this period are marked by increasingly extensive and intricate decoration on every surface, particularly in wood, stucco, and

5804: 6386: 2828:

outlines the influence of Arab and Amazigh substrates in popular architecture in Brazil, noting the considerable number of architectural terms in Portuguese inherited from Arabic, including

2565:

until the return of direct Ottoman control in 1835. Whereas architecture in Morocco remained largely traditional during the same period, architecture in Algeria and Tunisia was blended with

7440:: individuals who came to be venerated for their strong piety, reputed miracles, or other mystical attributes. Many of these existed within the wider category of Islamic mysticism known as 780:. Apart from its limestone façade, most of the mosque was rebuilt at a later period. Another small local mosque from this period is the Mosque of Bu Fatata in Sousse, dated to the reign of 6163:("step and shoulder") by Moroccan craftsmen, makes use of alternating straight and curved lines which cross each other on their symmetrical axes, forming a motif that looks roughly like a 7504:

in Fes, were quite richly decorated. While many structures of this kind can be found in historic North African cities, the only one in Al-Andalus to have been preserved is the Nasrid-era

6867: 6610: 4158: 596:, has a marble plaque over its entrance inscribed with the name of Ziyadat Allah I and the date 821, which in turn is the oldest Islamic-era monumental inscription to survive in Tunisia. 8173:

After the Almohads, the Marinids followed in a similar tradition, again building mostly in rammed earth. Their most significant fortification system was the 13th-century double walls of

1473:, a small but highly ornate ablutions pavilion in Marrakesh, and the Almoravid expansion of the Qarawiyyin Mosque in Fez. These two monuments also contain the earliest clear examples of 10727: 9255: 220:, which unified both regions for much of the 11th to 13th centuries. Within this wider region, a certain difference remained between architectural styles in the more easterly region of 7546:

model, hammams normally consisted of four main chambers: a changing room, from which one then moved on to a cold room, a warm room, and a hot room. Heat and steam were generated by a

5902: 1821:. Both the Nasrids in al-Andalus to the north and the Marinids in Morocco to the south were important in further refining the artistic legacy established by their predecessors. When 12956:. Paris: LienArt. – In French; well-illustrated volume focusing on Almoravid and Almohad architecture. The same author has published other books on Saadian and Marinid architecture. 6827: 5488:

remarks in his introduction to this topic, traditional Islamic-era architecture in the Maghreb and Al-Andalus was in some respects more "conservative" than other regional styles of

2017:), it was expanded into a self-contained and well-fortified palace district complete with habitations for servants and workers. The oldest remaining palace there today, built under 911:

type) in the western Islamic world, among the oldest examples in the Islamic world generally, and the oldest known example to combine this type of garden with a system of terraces.

7419:

are traditionally simple and unadorned, but in North Africa the graves of important figures were often covered in a domed structure (or a cupola of often pyramidal shape) called a

6984:

method. Although the exact patterns vary from case to case, the underlying principles have been constant for centuries and Moroccan craftsmen are still adept at making them today.

2771:

in Algiers, built in 1660–1661. The mosque has a large central dome supported by four pillars, but instead of being surrounded by smaller domes it is flanked on four sides by wide

1484:

appearing in the central nave of the Qarawiyyin Mosque. The Almoravid palace of Ali Ibn Yusuf in Marrakesh, excavated in the 20th century, contains the earliest known example of a

7632:, on the south side of the city, which was subsequently occupied and rebuilt by the later Saadian and 'Alawi dynasties. In Al-Andalus many palace enclosures were highly fortified 6733:

before spreading across the Muslim world. It was first introduced into al-Andalus and the western Maghreb by the Almoravids, who made early use of it in early 12th century in the

9157: 6402: 5867: 1641:

in the late 12th century as their main residence, imitating earlier examples of self-contained palace-cities such as Madinat al-Zahra in the 10th century. The Almohads also made

9976:

Hillenbrand, Robert; Burton-Page, J.; Freeman-Greenville, G.S.P. (1991). "Manār, Manāra". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.).

7927:

appearing as a recurring innovation. Both Cordoba and Seville were reinforced by the Almohads with a set of double walls in rammed earth, consisting of a main wall with regular

6887: 2899:. The term "Moorish" or "neo-Moorish" sometimes also covered an appropriation of motifs from a wider range of Islamic architecture. This style was a recurring choice for Jewish 2639:

or "Mosque of the Barber" in Kairouan. While the Zawiya has been further modified since, one of its characteristic 17th-century features is the decoration of underglaze-painted

1141:

architectural forms of the Caliphate period continuing to evolve. A number of important palaces or fortresses, in various cities, were begun or expanded by local dynasties. The

6341:, which is also inscribed at the ceiling's base). Like other stucco and wood decoration, it would have originally been painted in different colours order to enhance its motifs. 1516: 1288:

and was commissioned by al-Mu῾izz ibn Badis in the first half of the 11th century (though later restored). It is notable for its woodwork, which includes an elaborately carved

5629: 2460:

Ornate architectural elements from Saadian buildings, most infamously from the lavish El Badi Palace, were also stripped and reused in buildings elsewhere during the reign of

12756: 6457: 8264:(ruled 1672–1727), for example, built numerous kasbahs across the country which acted as garrison forts to maintain order and control, while also building a vast fortified 1212:, though much restored in modern times, is one of the most significant and best-preserved examples of this period, built during the second half of the 11th century by the 2139:

who added lavish sections in Moorish style starting in 1364 with the help of craftsmen from Granada and Toledo. Other smaller but notable examples in Cordoba include the

2072:

were also created nearby – at the end of the 13th century or in the early 14th century – in a tradition reminiscent of the Almohad-era Agdal Gardens of Marrakesh and the

1323:, an offshoot of the Zirids, ruled in the central Maghreb (present-day Algeria) during the 11th and 12th centuries. They built an entirely new fortified capital known as 8091:, demonstrating a slow shift in construction methods away from earlier Byzantine-Roman methods and towards more characteristically North African and Berber architecture. 2084:– and left their mark on other structures and fortifications throughout their territory, though not many significant structures have survived intact to the present-day. 973:, further expanded the mosque's prayer hall, starting in 962. He endowed it with some of its most significant architectural flourishes and innovations, which included a 5883: 661:

of Kairouan. Much of their architecture, even their mosques, had a heavy and almost fortress-like appearance, but they nonetheless left an influential artistic legacy.

5649: 1436:(1145), all located in Algeria today. The highly ornate, semi-transparent plaster dome in front of the mihrab of the Great Mosque of Tlemcen, dating from the reign of 884:

in al-Andalus and inaugurated the height of Andalusi power in the region. He marked this political evolution with the creation of a vast and lavish palace-city called

2421:

s of Ottoman architecture. The Saadians also rebuilt the royal palace complex in the Kasbah of Marrakesh for themselves, where Ahmad al-Mansur constructed the famous

15873: 15803: 8017:

spiritual retreat, and the examples in Sousse and Monastir both contained prayer rooms that acted as mosques. Also dating from the same period are the city walls of

1339:

tile decoration in western Islamic architecture. Archeologists also discovered fragments of plaster which have been identified by some as the earliest appearance of

8449:

His claims were controversial and some French archeologists rejected his findings. In 1956 the excavations were ended and the remains re-buried under the courtyard.

5849:

dome in the Al-Zaytuna Mosque in Tunis. Both are elegant ribbed domes with stonework flourishes such as decorative niches, inscriptions, and shell-shaped squinches.

2287:

was the capital and progressively replaced it as the main city of the region and the main center of architectural patronage. Unlike the architecture further west,

224:(roughly present-day Tunisia) and a more specific style in the western Maghreb (present-day Morocco and western Algeria) and al-Andalus, sometimes referred to as 7047:

created by the Marinids north of their palace-city of Fes el-Jdid (13th century), and the Generalife created by the Nasrids east of the Alhambra (13th century).

5492:, in the sense that these buildings were less structurally ambitious than, for example, the increasingly audacious domed or vaulted structures that developed in 1622:

in Rabat, were all models that established the overall decorative schemes that became recurrent in these architectural elements from then on. The minaret of the

521: 17169: 7759:

In the Umayyad period (8th–10th centuries) an extensive network of fortifications stretched in a wide line roughly from Lisbon in the west then up through the

1033:

In the 10th century much of northern Morocco also came directly within the sphere of influence of the Ummayyad Caliphate of Cordoba, with competition from the

6085: 15158: 13271: 12334:"Cultural Heritage Conservation and Sustainability Based on Surveying and Modeling: The Case of the 14th Century Building Corral del Carbón (Granada, Spain)" 12222:

Gilson Miller, Susan; Petruccioli, Attilio; Bertagnin, Mauro (2001). "Inscribing Minority Space in the Islamic City: The Jewish Quarter of Fez (1438-1912)".

5965:

architectural ornamentation. Early arabesque motifs in Umayyad Cordoba, such as those seen at the Great Mosque or Madinat al-Zahra, continued to make use of

3031: 592:, which is the oldest example of this construction technique in Islamic North Africa. The tall cylindrical tower inside the ribat, most likely intended as a 16072: 9320: 6980:) necessary to form the overall pattern. This pre-established repertoire of shapes combined to generate a variety of complex patterns is also known as the 1089:. Another unusual feature was the absence of a minaret, which may have reflected an early Fatimid rejection of such structures as unnecessary innovations. 801:, who were Ibadi Kharijites and did not recognize the Abbasid Caliphs, held sway over much of the central Maghreb. Their capital, Tahart (near present-day 657:

autonomous. The Aghlabids were major builders and erected many of Tunisia's oldest Islamic religious buildings and practical infrastructure works like the

11549: 10250:

Orihuela, Antonio (2021). "From the Private to the Public Space: Domestic and Urban Architecture of Islamic Granada". In Boloix-Gallardo, Bárbara (ed.).

7112:

the hypostyle format: they consist of a large prayer hall upheld and divided by rows of horseshoe arches running either parallel or perpendicular to the

6774: 584:) which is the oldest preserved mosque or prayer hall in North Africa. Another small room in the fortress, located above the front gate, is covered by a 7287:

and carved stucco, though later synagogues in North Africa were built in other styles too. Notable examples of historic synagogues in Spain include the

959:

rather than the center of the arch, the curve of the extrados is "stilted" in relation to that of the intrados, and the arch is set within a decorative

15408: 8045:

extremely thick stone wall reinforced with square bastions and a round polygonal tower at either end where the wall met the sea. The only gate was the

7744:. Stone was used more commonly in the Umayyad period while rammed earth became more common in subsequent periods and was also more common in the south. 1760:, one of the most important masterpieces of this style, built under Roger II in the 1130s and 1140s. It combines harmoniously a variety of styles: the 1567:

strove for a balance between decorated surfaces and empty spaces, allowing the interaction of light and shadows across carved surfaces to play a role.

2818: 2283:(ruled 1394–1434), though not many of their monuments have survived intact to the present-day. While Kairouan remained an important religious center, 2114:, Andalusi art and architecture continued to be employed for many years as a prestigious style under new Christian patrons, becoming what is known as 16183: 14229: 7792:(9th century), while a much later example is the tower of the Puente del Cadi below the Alhambra in Granada. The Alcazaba of Mérida also features an 5738: 9168: 817:

of present-day Morocco, the westernmost territory of the Muslim world (known as the Maghreb al-Aqsa), became more definitive with the advent of the

16658: 8317: 1630:

motifs and glazed tile, was particularly influential and set a style that was repeated, with minor elaborations, in the following period under the

5914: 15695: 15608: 6268: 11411: 2194:(r. 1236–1283), the founder of the dynasty, added minarets to the earlier Mosque of Agadir and the Great Mosque of Tlemcen while his successor, 15071: 12981: 12897: 12809: 481:), dates from this period and is often noted as an important prototype of later Moorish architectural forms and motifs: the horseshoe arch has 461:

in 836, who preserved the original design while extending its dimensions. The mosque was again embellished with new features by his successors

184:

traditions. Major centers of artistic development included the main capitals of the empires and Muslim states in the region's history, such as

9876:

Lamine, Sihem (2018). "The Zaytuna: The Mosque of a Rebellious City". In Anderson, Glaire D.; Fenwick, Corisande; Rosser-Owen, Mariam (eds.).

7800:) inside the castle which draws water directly from the nearby river. Moats were also used as defensive measures up until the Almohad period. 2608:

reflects the influence of the "pencil"-shaped Ottoman minarets. In this period, octagonal minarets often distinguished mosques following the

11523: 11343: 11126: 9213: 5837:. Rather than meeting in the centre of the dome, the "ribs" intersect one another off-center, forming a square or an octagon in the centre. 5724:

profile and because of its speculated derivation from the use of muqarnas itself. Moreover, this type of arch was indeed commonly used with

2915:

of Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco, the French colonial administration also encouraged, in some cases, the use of indigenous North African or

1653:

of fruit trees and other plants, while small palaces or pleasure pavilions were built along the water's edge. In Marrakesh, the present-day

11496: 9122:

Lévi-Provençal, E.; Donzel, E. van (1993). "Moors". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.).

8201:

age, most likely through their encounters with the Portuguese and other European powers at this time. The Saadian bastions of Fes, such as

1424:

Some of the oldest and most significant surviving examples of Almoravid religious architecture, although with later modifications, are the

11525:

Mudejarismo and Moorish Revival in Europe: Cultural Negotiations and Artistic Translations in the Middle Ages and 19th-century Historicism

9215:

Mudejarismo and Moorish Revival in Europe: Cultural Negotiations and Artistic Translations in the Middle Ages and 19th-century Historicism

6703:

motto ("There is no conqueror but God") in cursive script, repeated more than once, while below is a larger inscription in "Knotted" Kufic

2881:, are found in the architecture of the Spanish colonies. The Islamic and Mudéjar style of decorative wooden ceilings, known in Spanish as 2844: 2659:

and completed by his successor, Ramadan ibn Murad, between 1696 and 1699. The mosque's prayer hall is covered by a dome system typical of

1837:) fled to Morocco and other parts of North Africa, further increasing the Andalusian influence in these regions in subsequent generations. 1268:, a former Fatimid capital near Kairouan, but it has not been found by archeologists. In Kairouan itself the Great Mosque was restored by 14073: 7343:

by the early 11th century and was progressively adopted further west. These establishments provided higher education and served to train

7208:

two tiers: the main shaft, which makes up most of its height, and a much smaller secondary tower above this which is in turn topped by a

1412:

Great Mosque in Cordoba and of the Aljaferia palace in Zaragoza, but it also introduced new ornamental techniques from the east, such as

12909:. Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques. – In French; older, but one of the major comprehensive works on Islamic architecture in the region. 15882: 15055: 10967:

O'Kane, Bernard (2017). "Architecture and Court Cultures of the Fourteenth Century". In Flood, Finbarr Barry; Necipoğlu, Gülru (eds.).

6956:, is a standard decorative element along lower walls and for the paving of floors across the region. It consists of hand-cut pieces of 4834: 5585:

and arched niches were also used as decorative elements. The mihrab of a mosque was almost invariably in the shape of horseshoe arch.

16745: 15151: 14363: 13501: 7957:

tower which fortified a corner of the city walls and which, along with another tower across the river, protected the city's harbour.

7828:, near Madrid, is one surviving example, along with others in the region. This system continued to be used even up until the time of 3146: 2299:

remarks that Hafsid architecture seems to have "largely charted a course independent of the developments elsewhere in the Maghrib ".

1217: 1185:, is also traditionally dated to the 11th century, though recent studies suggest it may date from slightly later, the 12th century. 294:

in Spain, which adapted Moorish techniques and designs for Christian patrons. In Algeria and Tunisia local styles were subjected to

153:

The use of the term "Moorish" comes from the historical Western European designation of the Muslim inhabitants of these regions as "

16799: 15108: 12768: 5449:), and other historic building types common to Islamic architecture. Characteristic elements of the western regional style include 5422: 14017: 5441:

The architecture of the western Islamic world is exemplified by mosques, madrasas, palaces, fortifications, hammams (bathhouses),

535:, where he discovered remains which he interpreted as the remains of a mosque from the 8th-century Muslim occupation of Narbonne. 311:

in Spain. Some scholarly references associate the term "Moorish" or "Moorish style" more narrowly with this 19th-century trend in

15541: 15028: 14305: 12258: 7357:), most commonly in the Maliki branch of Sunni legal thought. The madrasa in the Sunni world was generally antithetical to more " 12688: 8458:

This date has been interpreted by some as the foundation date of the whole ribat rather than the construction date of its tower.

5461:

arches, often with voussoirs of alternating colors or patterns, as well as internal courtyards, riad gardens, ribbed domes, and

752:, which was founded earlier around 698, owes its overall current form to a reconstruction during the reign of the Aghlabid emir 15546: 15401: 14962: 12902:– Comprehensive review of palace architecture in Al-Andalus and the Maghreb; slightly more technical than an introductory text. 12114:

Bonine, Michael E. (1990). "The Sacred Direction and City Structure: A Preliminary Analysis of the Islamic Cities of Morocco".

9806: 8248:) generally refers to a fortified enclosure, ranging from small garrison forts to vast walled districts that functioned as the 7311:

in Casablanca, though numerous other examples exist. One of the most famous historic synagogues in Tunisia is the 19th-century

4809: 1598:

aisles of the mosque, became an established feature of this architecture. The monumental minarets of the Kutubiyya Mosque, the

16283: 12638: 789:

far as Central Asia, suggesting that it may be a design that was disseminated widely by Muslim pilgrims returning from Mecca.

664:

One of the most important Aghlabid monuments is the Great Mosque of Kairouan, which was completely rebuilt in 836 by the emir

17184: 16767: 16176: 15531: 14526: 14432: 14152: 14078: 13717: 13049: 12873: 11984: 11957: 11930: 11870: 11725: 11644: 11617: 11590: 11533: 11506: 11451: 11421: 11386: 10913: 10584: 10261: 9885: 9848: 9816: 9267: 9223: 7625: 2425:(built between 1578 and 1593) which was known for its superlative decoration and costly building materials including Italian 1696: 1328: 1308: 1296:, an elegant dome at the entrance of the prayer hall of the Zaytuna Mosque in Tunis, dates from 991 and can be attributed to 10574: 7288: 6737:

in Marrakesh and in the Qarawiyyin Mosque in Fes. While the earliest forms of muqarnas in Islamic architecture were used as

2148: 16663: 15986: 15446: 15144: 4198: 756:(r. 856–863). Its layout is very similar to the Great Mosque of Kairouan. Two other congregational mosques in Tunisia, the 16358: 11045: 9838: 9570:

Giese, Francine; Varela Braga, Ariane; Lahoz Kopiske, Helena; Kaufmann, Katrin; Castro Royo, Laura; Keller, Sarah (2016).

2087: 1248:

ruled on behalf of the Fatimids, who had moved their base of power to Cairo in the late 10th century. The Zirid palace at

1068:

In Ifriqiya, the Fatimids also built extensively, most notably with the creation of a new fortified capital on the coast,

16370: 15981: 15688: 15451: 15035: 14012: 12067: 11860: 8322: 7383:

bread. Nonetheless, madrasas were also teaching institutions in their own right and offered their own courses, with some

4814: 4576: 3740: 2651:

It wasn't until the end of the 17th century that the first and only Ottoman-style domed mosque in Tunisia was built: the

2032:(lookout) tower at one end which looked down on the city from the edge of the palace walls. The most famous palaces, the 709:

panels. Both the carved panels of the minbar and the ceramic tiles of the mihrab are believed to be imports from Abbasid

393: 15763: 4173: 2162: 16901: 16690: 16365: 15977: 15431: 12974: 12206: 11634: 10886: 9781: 8376: 4819: 12332:

Reinoso-Gordo, Juan Francisco; Rodríguez-Moreno, Concepción; Gómez-Blanco, Antonio Jesús; León-Robles, Carlos (2018).

11607: 6539:

Many Islamic monuments feature inscriptions of one kind or another which serve to either decorate or inform, or both.

1934:

of Granada, the grand palaces of Fes el-Jdid have not survived, though they may have been comparable in splendor. The

457:

on the lower tier) composed of alternating red brick and light-colored stone. The mosque was subsequently expanded by

449:, one of the most important architectural monuments of the western Islamic world. The mosque was notable for its vast 446: 384: 17174: 15657: 15394: 15076: 14956: 14936: 14925: 12844: 12819: 12714: 12596: 12009: 11818: 11793: 11669: 11580: 11479: 11311: 11272: 11215: 11190: 10978: 10762: 10737: 10703: 10648: 10389: 10311: 10209: 10184: 10157: 10039: 10014: 9985: 9960: 9935: 9910: 9709: 9621: 9551: 9519: 9396: 9330: 9194: 9016: 8989: 8943: 8913: 8361: 7132:, usually in the form of a staircase leading to a small kiosk or platform, where the imam would stand to deliver the 6976:

squares, typically 10 cm per side, then cut by hand into a variety of pre-established shapes (usually memorized

4849: 4163: 2295:) and appears to have featured much less decoration. In reviewing the history of architecture in the region, scholar 1177:'s defensive walls, dates from the 11th century, though little remains of the palaces built inside the Alcazaba. The 16017: 15496: 12935: 11344:"Geographies of the Mudéjar in the Spanish Colonial Americas: Realms of Comparison and Competition, circa 1550–1950" 9571: 9416: 8366: 2903:

of the era, where it was seen as an appropriate way to mark Judaism's non-European origins. Similar to Neo-Moorish,

1362: 16772: 16752: 16619: 16533: 16203: 16169: 15813: 15793: 15778: 15718: 15593: 15456: 15375: 14952: 14241: 13066: 11974: 11522:

Varela Braga, Ariane (2021). "Revisiting the Alhambra: Transmediality and Transmateriality in 19th-century Italy".

10829: 504: 12492: 11947: 7172:

period. In this model the aisle or "nave" between the arches running towards the mihrab (and perpendicular to the

1706:. By the mid-11th century the island was fragmented into smaller Muslim states and by the end of that century the 16641: 15743: 15461: 14921: 13986: 11920: 8371: 4675: 3360: 2064:

vault ceilings. Four other nearby palaces in the Alhambra were demolished at various points after the end of the

1331:, in an arrangement that bears similarities to other palace-cities such as Madinat al-Zahra. The largest palace, 173: 10225: 10115:

La Mosquée al-Qaraouiyin à Fès; avec une étude de Gaston Deverdun sur les inscriptions historiques de la mosquée

6548:

addition of floral forms or arabesque backgrounds to calligraphic compositions. In the 12th century the cursive

2801: 2696: 2578: 1369:

in 1085, and the rise of major Berber empires originating in northwestern Africa. The latter included first the

17179: 17164: 17159: 17154: 16869: 16827: 16653: 16579: 16398: 16321: 16150: 15962: 15758: 15681: 15567: 15526: 15436: 14890: 14629: 14083: 13764: 12946: 12928: 12547: 12027:

Aboufadil, Y., Thalal, A., & Raghni, M. (2013). "Symmetry groups of Moroccan geometric woodwork patterns".

10673: 10557: 10097: 9753: 9669: 9426: 9106: 8210: 5574: 4256: 3370: 2660: 2343:

as before, and the architecture of Algeria and Tunisia to the east, which increasingly blended influences from

781: 753: 470: 12663: 12378:

Sibley, Magda. "The Historic Hammams of Damascus and Fez: Lessons of Sustainability and Future Developments".

11557: 11073: 10902:

Díez Jorge, María Elena (2020). "Domestic Spaces during the Nasrid Period: Houses". In Fábregas, Adela (ed.).

10327:

Golvin, Lucien (1957). "Notes sur quelques fragments de platre trouvés récemment à la Qal'a des Beni-Hammâd".

2124: 17149: 17144: 17129: 16757: 16675: 16670: 16528: 16443: 16428: 16236: 16032: 15907: 15818: 15624: 15193: 15189: 14915: 14900: 14194: 14063: 14058: 14053: 13009: 12967: 12916:. Yale University Press. – A more recent English-language introduction to Islamic architecture in the region. 10803: 8146:

shaped like square blocks topped by pyramidal caps. Major examples of such fortifications can be seen in the

7740:), which was typically a palace protected by fortifications. Fortifications were built either in stone or in 4551: 2908: 2817:

Certain aspects and traditions of Moorish architecture were brought to the Iberian colonies in the Americas.

2683:

in the transitional zones between the semi-domes. The interior is decorated with marble paneling and Ottoman

2320: 1788: 1730: 290:

on the Iberian Peninsula, the traditions of Moorish architecture continued in North Africa as well as in the

145:). Scholarly references on Islamic architecture often refer to this architectural tradition in terms such as 14295: 9415:

Perez, Manuel Casamar (1992). "The Almoravids and Almohads: An Introduction". In Dodds, Jerrilynn D. (ed.).

1745:, they also come from Moorish architecture and are stylistically similar to the preceding Almoravid period. 17139: 17134: 16962: 16906: 16762: 16722: 16705: 16695: 16599: 16594: 15932: 15892: 15838: 15828: 15598: 15511: 15256: 15218: 15098: 15093: 14942: 14905: 14270: 14199: 14068: 14048: 14043: 14022: 13895: 13283: 13127: 13019: 9700:

Binous, Jamila; Baklouti, Naceur; Ben Tanfous, Aziza; Bouteraa, Kadri; Rammah, Mourad; Zouari, Ali (2002).

9385:

Bennison, Amira K. (2016). "'The most wondrous artifice': The Art and Architecture of the Berber Empires".

5415: 5096: 2957: 2889: 1261: 418: 304: 12949:. – Edited volume and exhibition catalogue focusing on architecture of al-Andalus and some related topics. 10952:

Bressolette, Henri; Delaroziere, Jean (1983). "Fès-Jdid de sa fondation en 1276 au milieu du XXe siècle".

2760:, suggested that the architects or patrons could have been influenced by Ottoman-era mosques built in the 2750:

deep (i.e. composed of two aisles instead of one), while on the other sides, including on the side of the

2392:

continued to reproduce the existing style with high fidelity but did not introduce major new innovations.

1926:("New Fez"), which remained a frequent center of power in Morocco even during later dynasties such as the 732: 16864: 16732: 16680: 16589: 16326: 16231: 15922: 15783: 15521: 15516: 15066: 14978: 14910: 14224: 13044: 12041: 11834: 10875:

Touri, Abdelaziz; Benaboud, Mhammad; Boujibar El-Khatib, Naïma; Lakhdar, Kamal; Mezzine, Mohamed (2010).

7379: 7308: 7223: 7104: 6786: 4984: 4742: 4737: 4680: 4251: 2233: 2140: 1935: 1915: 1645:

the regional capital of their territories in Ifriqiya (present-day Tunisia), establishing the city's own

826: 665: 11019: 7296: 2877:). Elements of Mudéjar architecture, derived from Islamic architectural traditions and assimilated into 2156: 624: 526: 17018: 16842: 16822: 16777: 16740: 16685: 16574: 16569: 16271: 16266: 16002: 15952: 15314: 14994: 14821: 13446: 10423:

Tabbaa, Yasser (2008). "Andalusian roots and Abbasid homage in the Qubbat al-Barudiyyin in Marrakesh".

8381: 6946: 6408: 6296: 6153:

the western Islamic ornamental repertoire in combination with arabesques. This motif, typically called

5962: 4866: 4747: 3814: 3071: 2550: 1872: 1826: 1812: 1345:("stalactite" or "honeycomb" sculpting) in the western Islamic world, but their identification as true 995: 897: 860: 254: 165: 16244: 16027: 7946: 7825: 7808: 5861:

The ribbed dome at the beginning of al-Hakam II's extension of the Great Mosque of Cordoba (circa 965)

1799:

in Ifriqiya. What remained of the Muslim-controlled territories in al-Andalus was consolidated by the

1787:

The eventual collapse of the Almohad Empire in the 13th century was precipitated by its defeat at the

914: 838:, are known thanks to modern archeological investigations. The Mosque of Agadir was founded in 790 by 68: 17076: 17059: 17023: 16879: 16715: 16648: 16463: 16438: 16423: 15972: 15957: 15644: 15004: 14932: 14219: 14209: 14145: 13039: 13029: 10881:(2 ed.). Ministère des Affaires Culturelles du Royaume du Maroc & Museum With No Frontiers. 9572:"Resplendence of al-Andalus: Exchange and Transfer Processes in Mudéjar and Neo-Moorish Architecture" 8155: 7606:

In some cases, rulers were installed in the existing fortified citadel of the city, such as the many

6571: 6306:

mosaic tilework which became commonplace in Moorish architecture from the 13th century onward. Other

6228: 4799: 4794: 4261: 4168: 3407: 3301: 2308: 1623: 1007: 830: 737: 14245: 13251: 13070: 10994: 2350: 604: 16497: 16375: 16012: 15967: 15912: 15309: 13996: 13279: 13205: 8339: 7444:. Some of these tombs became the focus of entire religious complexes built around them, known as a 7162: 6897: 5469:

sculpting, Arabic inscriptions, and epigraphic motifs. These motifs were translated into woodwork,

4665: 3745: 3532: 2280: 1154: 806: 611: 509: 485:

that alternate in colour and decoration and the arch is set inside a decorative rectangular frame (

353: 12730: 5985:

images were also featured. In the late 16th century, Saadian architecture sometimes made use of a

5908:

Detail of decoration inside the dome before the mihrab of the Great Mosque of Kairouan (circa 836)

5481:

and tile revetments, were transmitted from the east but were realized differently in this region.

5061: 2888:

Later, particularly in the 19th century, the Moorish Islamic style was frequently imitated by the

1791:(1212) in al-Andalus and by the advance of the Berber Marinid dynasty in the western Maghreb, the 466: 462: 17093: 16967: 16636: 16393: 16288: 16208: 16192: 15417: 15365: 15342: 13354: 13054: 11101: 10931:

Kubisch, Natascha (2011). "Maghreb – Architecture" in Hattstein, Markus and Delius, Peter (eds.)

10277: 8265: 7904: 7304: 5408: 5301: 3476: 3402: 3355: 2806: 2636: 2465: 2444: 2221: 2167: 2018: 1907: 1433: 1429: 1073: 1055: 56: 16249: 16037: 12689:"Walled Cities & Open Societies: Managing Historic Walls in Urban World Heritage Properties" 12149:

King, David A. (1995). "The Orientation of Medieval Islamic Religious Architecture and Cities".

6013: 5539: 2102:

Meanwhile, in the former territories of al-Andalus under the control of the Spanish kingdoms of

1080:, although it too has been extensively damaged over time and was in large part reconstructed by 881: 17054: 16977: 16957: 16894: 16523: 16313: 16261: 16226: 16107: 15662: 15603: 15347: 13543: 13095: 12414:"Hybrid Transitions: Combining Biomass and Solar Energy for Water Heating in Public Bathhouses" 11151: 9508: 8059: 7730: 7702: 5465:(square-base) minarets. Decoration typically consists of vegetal arabesques, geometric motifs, 4914: 4829: 4732: 4670: 4541: 4491: 4140: 4128: 3710: 2978: 2900: 2656: 2237: 2028: 1734: 1637:

The Almohad caliphs constructed their own palace complexes in several cities. They founded the

1390: 1303: 1297: 1269: 1149:

in the Cordoba mosque, though serving a purely decorative and non-structural purpose here. The

761: 722: 492: 333: 169: 14414: 14189: 13014: 12568:

Gil-Crespo, Ignacio-Javier (2016). "Islamic fortifications in Spain built with rammed earth".

12291: 7854: 7670: 7637: 5504:

and featured increasingly imposing and elaborate exteriors that dominated their surroundings.

4076: 1990: 1733:. Multiple examples of this "Arab-Norman" architecture – which was also heavily influenced by 1170: 17066: 17049: 17044: 16911: 16403: 16308: 16276: 16256: 15853: 15748: 15629: 15486: 15357: 15021: 14501: 13749: 13152: 13110: 13090: 11922:

A Handbook of Early Arabic Kufic Script: Reading, Writing, Calligraphy, Typography, Monograms

8151: 8102: 7378:

Madrasas also played a supporting role to major learning institutions of the region like the

7264: 6278: 4879: 4804: 4481: 2973: 2931: 2628: 2473: 2436: 2303: 2259: 2199: 2057: 1955: 1782: 1324: 1097: 1038: 956: 765: 544: 10968: 10876: 10693: 10002: 9386: 9152: 9006: 8933: 7803: 7781: 7777: 7641: 7060: 5700: 5640: 5616: 2525:

Over the course of the 16th century the central and eastern Maghreb – Algeria, Tunisia, and

2095: 1150: 1142: 1127: 1050: 1027: 442: 17103: 17098: 17039: 16987: 16916: 16884: 16559: 16458: 16453: 16418: 16353: 16348: 16338: 16333: 15942: 15704: 15324: 15266: 15199: 15168: 14984: 14948: 14794: 14634: 14609: 14290: 14285: 14275: 14265: 14250: 14204: 14184: 14169: 14138: 14095: 13849: 13147: 13142: 13132: 13117: 13100: 13075: 13024: 13004: 12990: 12425: 12393:

Raftani, Kamal; Radoine, Hassan (2008). "The Architecture of the Hammams of Fez, Morocco".

12158: 8167: 7824:

in northern Spain, for example, could arrive in Cordoba after as little as five hours. The

7595: 7562: 7446: 7027: 6938: 6092: 5608: 5590: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5436: 4266: 3390: 3385: 3273: 2993: 2988: 2983: 2968: 2878: 2566: 2456: 2344: 2327: 2191: 2175: 2033: 1939: 1749: 1742: 1661:

gardens both developed from such Almohad creations. In Seville, the remains of the Almohad

1541: 1481: 1063: 952: 810:

and a palace structure with a large courtyard similar to the design of traditional houses.

769: 757: 692: 328:

In the 7th century the region of North Africa became steadily integrated into the emerging

276: 114: 8025:, both made in stone and bearing similarities to earlier Byzantine-Roman walls in Africa. 7769: 7590: 7505: 7292: 7176:

wall) was wider than the others, as was also the aisle directly in front of and along the

7168:

Medieval hypostyle mosques also frequently followed the "T-type" model established in the

2152: 2081: 1725:

have survived today. However, the following period of Norman domination, especially under

1676: 1395: 1188: 8: 17108: 17071: 16941: 16926: 16832: 16710: 16609: 16538: 16475: 16448: 16408: 15947: 15634: 15577: 15481: 15319: 15273: 15224: 15209: 15184: 14748: 14705: 14619: 14255: 14234: 14107: 13865: 13707: 13637: 13609: 13548: 13441: 13122: 13105: 13080: 13059: 10329:

Mélanges d'Histoire et d'archéologie de l'occident musulman II, Hommage a Georges Marçais

9878:

The Aghlabids and Their Neighbors: Art and Material Culture in Ninth-Century North Africa

8253: 8071: 8001: 7812: 7629: 7372: 7328: 7312: 7300: 7269: 7009: 6923: 6660: 6637: 6540: 6530: 6500: 6418: 6119: 6072: 5767: 5024: 5014: 4939: 4628: 4571: 4561: 4531: 4496: 4476: 3290: 3096: 3066: 3003: 2912: 2706: 2472:, where the remains of his monumental structures can still be seen today. In 1765 Sultan 2412: 2408: 2288: 2254: 2249: 2049: 1899: 1761: 1741:(since 2015). While the Arab-Islamic elements of this architecture are closely linked to 1738: 1638: 1578: 1485: 658: 12954:

Maroc Almoravide et Almohade: Architecture et décors au temps des conquérants, 1055–1269

12429: 12162: 10905:

The Nasrid Kingdom of Granada between East and West: (Thirteenth to Fifteenth Centuries)

10070:

Fès avant le protectorat: étude économique et sociale d'une ville de l'occident musulman

9369:

Maroc Almoravide et Almohade: Architecture et décors au temps des conquérants, 1055–1269

7075:

five times a day and participate in prayers together as a community, facing towards the

3782: 2823: 2780:. The mosque's minaret has a traditional form with a square shaft surmounted by a small 2715: 1134:

The collapse of the Cordoban caliphate in the early 11th century gave rise to the first

16931: 16874: 16492: 16077: 15536: 15261: 15061: 14723: 14713: 14557: 14511: 14214: 13034: 12891: 12538:

Zozaya, Juan (1992). "The Fortifications of Al-Andalus". In Dodds, Jerrilynn D. (ed.).

12239: 12174: 12131: 9594: 8147: 7829: 7789: 7501: 7408: 7193: 6878: 6499:

Another example of geometric patterns in a (smaller and simpler) wooden ceiling in the

6393: 5787: 4954: 4889: 4874: 4844: 4643: 4638: 4623: 4516: 4511: 4205: 4178: 3777: 3365: 3335: 3321: 2747: 2739: 2652: 2596: 2588: 2396: 2276: 2204: 2183: 2107: 2077: 2053: 2037: 2002: 1895: 1849: 1804: 1792: 1726: 1366: 1265: 1130:, Spain (first half of 11th century), reminiscent of earlier arches at Madinat al-Zahra 1093: 1011: 839: 414: 373: 84: 10666:

La médina de Marrakech: Formation des espaces urbains d'une ancienne capitale du Maroc

10550:

La médina de Marrakech: Formation des espaces urbains d'une ancienne capitale du Maroc

10331:. Algiers: Imprimerie Officielle du Gouvernement Général de l'Algérie. pp. 75–94. 9274:

Some terms such as "Saracenic," "Mohammedan," and "Moorish" are no longer fashionable.

7839:

today (formerly the Old Alcazaba of the city) date from this time, as do the walls of

2757: 2617:(which was associated with the Ottomans), while mosques which continued to follow the 2103: 17088: 17081: 16889: 16629: 16614: 16543: 16487: 15251: 14695: 14690: 14672: 13804: 13216: 12942: 12924: 12879: 12869: 12840: 12815: 12710: 12592: 12543: 12266: 12202: 12178: 12005: 11980: 11953: 11926: 11866: 11814: 11789: 11721: 11665: 11640: 11613: 11586: 11529: 11502: 11475: 11447: 11417: 11392: 11382: 11307: 11268: 11211: 11186: 10974: 10909: 10882: 10758: 10733: 10699: 10669: 10644: 10580: 10553: 10454: 10385: 10307: 10257: 10205: 10180: 10153: 10093: 10035: 10010: 9981: 9956: 9931: 9906: 9881: 9844: 9812: 9787: 9777: 9749: 9705: 9665: 9617: 9547: 9515: 9422: 9392: 9326: 9263: 9219: 9190: 9102: 9012: 8985: 8939: 8909: 8261: 8194: 8190: 8033: 7908: 7684:

these structures, many of which were borrowed into Spanish and are found in numerous

7203:

Lastly, mosque buildings were distinguished by their minarets: towers from which the

7169: 6962: 6934: 6048: 5130: 5111: 4657: 4618: 4566: 4556: 4546: 4521: 4506: 4469: 4100: 3484: 3228: 2907:

was a revivalist style evident in late 19th and early 20th-century Spain and in some

2632: 2562: 2461: 2440: 2332: 2225: 2195: 2128: 2111: 1947: 1927: 1845: 1757: 1722: 1715: 1689: 1681: 1631: 1603: 1457: 1374: 1370: 1221: 1182: 1034: 1019: 1003: 988: 877: 865: 745: 646: 566: 410: 126: 16067: 16062: 15125: 12792:

Urbanisme princier en Islam: Meknès et les villes royales islamiques post-médiévales

12331: 9598: 7391:

Madrasa of Fes officially functioned as a full mosque and featured its own minaret.

6175:, consists of interlacing multifoil/polylobed arches which form a repeating partial 4355: 2668: 2624:(predominant in the Maghreb) continued to employ traditional square-shaft minarets. 434: 185: 17008: 16624: 16122: 16007: 15798: 15773: 15204: 14972: 14968: 14808: 14680: 14647: 14567: 14358: 13961: 13769: 13647: 13491: 13481: 13404: 13211: 12433: 12355: 12345: 12231: 12166: 12123: 11899: 11764: 11754: 11355: 10509: 10476: 10466: 10432: 10351: 9586: 9512:

Mudéjar Art: Islamic Aesthetics in Christian Art (Islamic Art in the Mediterranean)

8273: 7916: 7912: 7873: 7765: 7752: 7399: 7120:(direction of prayer) was always symbolized by a decorative niche or alcove in the 6742:

elements, and even to highlight the presence of windows on otherwise flat surfaces.

5966: 5559: 5101: 5086: 5071: 5019: 4924: 4824: 4727: 4690: 4633: 4613: 4608: 4581: 4501: 4360: 4123: 4031: 3921: 3916: 3700: 3605: 3543: 3508: 3500: 3350: 3340: 3243: 3076: 2768: 2725: 2583: 2558: 2510: 2404: 2229: 2171: 2136: 1943: 1876: 1586: 1555: 1320: 1312: 1166: 1015: 984: 798: 497: 458: 15234: 12914:

Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1800

10729:

Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1800

8905:

Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1800

5528: 5141: 2728:

in Algiers (1660): exterior view (left) and interior view of the main dome (right)

2476:(one of Moulay Isma'il's sons) started the construction of a new port city called 2076:

of Fes. The Nasrids also built other structures throughout the city – such as the

1467:

In Morocco, the only notable remnants of Almoravid religious architecture are the

16604: 16584: 15917: 15843: 15833: 15823: 15466: 15370: 15334: 15291: 15136: 14999: 14880: 14875: 14870: 14685: 14521: 14488: 14405: 13936: 13754: 13604: 13599: 13594: 13466: 13226: 12438: 12413: 11441: 10903: 10251: 10174: 10129: 9659: 9172: 9165: 9161: 8903: 8297: 8277: 8237: 8221: 8050: 7942: 7933: 7921: 7866: 7760: 7721: 7693: 7455: 7416: 7253: 7237: 7065: 7040: 6534: 5958: 5714: 5676: 5656: 5454: 5378: 5251: 5106: 5034: 4999: 4899: 4789: 4695: 4536: 4340: 4066: 3931: 3797: 3787: 3750: 3516: 3183: 3126: 3116: 2554: 2535: 2400: 2360: 2351:

The Sharifian dynasties in Morocco: Saadians and 'Alawis (16th century and after)

2326:

The Hafsids also introduced the first madrasas to the region, beginning with the

2316: 2312: 2182:

Further east, in Algeria, the Berber Zayyanid or Abd al-Wadid dynasty controlled

1711: 1662: 1469: 1425: 1417: 1400: 1158: 948: 818: 562: 554: 438: 426: 380: 349: 7516: 7188: 6171:

shape. Another version, also commonly found on minarets in alternation with the

5146: 4061: 4026: 453:

hall composed of rows of columns connected by double tiers of arches (including

16837: 16564: 16300: 16127: 15788: 15728: 15283: 14852: 14738: 14614: 14516: 14473: 14468: 13910: 13905: 13794: 13696: 13584: 13553: 13231: 13221: 12170: 11759: 11742: 10471: 8335: 8289: 8285: 8206: 8139: 8088: 8046: 7986: 7579: 7539: 7247:", as well as on a popular view that mosques should not be aligned towards the 6700: 6676: 6656: 6550: 6484: 6017: 5994: 5636: 5602: 5578: 5543: 5535: 5518: 5485: 5470: 5458: 5450: 5291: 5076: 5051: 4722: 4603: 4595: 4395: 4325: 4041: 4016: 3869: 3819: 3767: 3705: 3650: 3553: 3417: 3375: 3238: 3223: 3131: 3106: 3051: 3041: 2947: 2640: 2530: 2520: 2481: 2422: 2375:

in the 16th century, which marked a political shift from Berber-led empires to

2339: 2296: 2267: 2208: 2045: 1903: 1830: 1800: 1796: 1658: 1447: 1257: 1086: 1023: 980: 929: 885: 869: 454: 295: 236: 15863: 15768: 15476: 14383: 11904: 11887: 10514: 10498:"Andalusian roots and Abbasid homage in the Qubbat al-Barudiyyin in Marrakesh" 10497: 10436: 10355: 7993:

is one particular example of this, built by the Marinids in the 14th century.

7323: 5692: 4021: 2904: 2115: 2092: 1829:

and the last Muslim realm of al-Andalus came to an end, many of the remaining

1488:

garden (an interior garden symmetrically divided into four parts) in Morocco.

308: 291: 17123: 16794: 16727: 16700: 16470: 16022: 15471: 14865: 14753: 14624: 14604: 14506: 13589: 13574: 12883: 12270: 11396: 11360: 9791: 8182: 8122: 8080: 8028: 7950: 7888: 7849: 7840: 7086: 7044: 6997: 6977: 6973: 6765: 6616:

Late 12th-century Kufic inscription carved into stone on the Almohad gate of

6444: 6324: 5745: 5333: 5171: 5116: 4894: 4420: 4402: 3911: 3573: 3492: 3447: 3380: 3306: 2764:

provinces of the empire, where many of the rulers of Algiers had originated.

2684: 2645: 2388: 2372: 2364: 2073: 2022: 1973: 1654: 1590: 1546: 1437: 1336: 1278:

within the mosque today is believed to date from this time. It is the oldest

1245: 999: 889: 357: 312: 241: 118: 11636:

Orientalist Aesthetics: Art, Colonialism, and French North Africa, 1880-1930

7882: 7522: 7145: 2851: 2529:– came under Ottoman control. Major port cities such as Algiers, Tunis, and 2311:

in Marrakesh. Other foundations from the Hafsid period in Tunis include the

1178: 764:(851), were also built by the Aghlabids but have different forms. The small 235:

This architectural style came to encompass distinctive features such as the

34: 16992: 16972: 16847: 15733: 15176: 15113: 14988: 14758: 14461: 14451: 14443: 14280: 14120: 13875: 13137: 11919:

Jazayeri, S. M. V. Mousavi; Michelli, Perette E.; Abulhab, Saad D. (2017).

9590: 8163: 8106: 7741: 7665: 7491: 7197: 7001: 6641: 6516: 6422: 6200: 6164: 6111: 6076: 5982: 5811: 5771: 5446: 5363: 5286: 5176: 5081: 4964: 4757: 4145: 4118: 4036: 3966: 3946: 3735: 3695: 3684: 3469: 3432: 3198: 2939: 2772: 2506: 1883: 1853: 1671: 1619: 1607: 1461: 938:(left and right) in the Great Mosque of Cordoba, in the extension added by 901: 822: 814: 329: 245:

gardens (courtyard gardens with a symmetrical four-part division), square (

193: 16161: 15386: 13241: 11498:

Cairo in Chicago: Cairo Street at the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893

11376: 11331:(7th ed.). Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press. p. 34. 8422:(present-day Algeria and Morocco), but the term was later also applied to 6853:

Extreme close-up of carved and painted details in constituent niches of a

4415: 4407: 4286: 2493:, were built at the same time in other port cities like Anfa (present-day 1570: 1491: 1205: 1193: 1122: 549: 16936: 16784: 16502: 16480: 15858: 15808: 15301: 15243: 14830: 14639: 14428: 14422: 14410: 14161: 13722: 13456: 13436: 12866:

Islamic palace architecture in the Western Mediterranean : a history

10695:

Where Three Worlds Met: Sicily from the Dār al-Islām to Latin Christendom

9230:

The authors of this volume are conscious of the contested terminology of

8268:

which acted as his imperial citadel containing his palaces. "Kasbah", or

8126: 8098: 8084: 7649: 5373: 5328: 5226: 5066: 4430: 4051: 4006: 3941: 3849: 3772: 3625: 3620: 3427: 3345: 3316: 3311: 3166: 2896: 2893: 2743: 2648:. The artistic height of these tiles was in the 17th and 18th centuries. 2355: 1817: 1808: 1776: 1358: 1253: 1081: 970: 963:. Back in Cordoba itself, Abd ar-Rahman III also expanded the courtyard ( 939: 907: 287: 177: 158: 15673: 14348: 12454: 11769: 10481: 9975: 7836: 7429:). This was especially characteristic for the tombs of "saints" such as 7093: 6992: 496:

the mosque's 9th-century expansion, they emulated the form of classical

16804: 16789: 16047: 15848: 15119: 14478: 14333: 14318: 13920: 13880: 13691: 13426: 13339: 13275: 12959: 12360: 12350: 12333: 12135: 10779:"Arab-Norman Palermo and the Cathedral Churches of Cefalú and Monreale" 10778: 10148:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Madinat al-Zahra".

9866:, David Westerlund, Ingvar Svanberg, Palgrave Macmillan, 1999, page 342 8419: 8301: 8293: 8225: 8216: 8159: 8117: 7962: 7938: 7404: 7358: 6617: 5582: 5570: 5338: 5266: 5246: 5241: 4839: 4705: 4526: 4335: 4113: 4046: 3993: 3859: 3762: 3645: 3412: 3268: 3203: 3091: 3036: 2831: 2785: 2680: 2494: 2432: 2069: 1834: 1615: 1611: 1574: 784:(r. 838–841), which has a hypostyle prayer hall fronted by an external 718: 696: 593: 516:

have been found. In 1952 French archaeologist Jean Lacam excavated the

430: 213: 122: 72: 15897: 15103: 14027: 13941: 13779: 12243: 10874: 9569: 7844: 7614: 7071:

Mosques are the main place of worship in Islam. Muslims are called to

3188: 2738:

The oldest surviving mosque from the Ottoman period in Algeria is the

2417: 2119: 1840: 1174: 994:

A much smaller but notable work from the late caliphate period is the

17013: 16518: 15441: 15081: 14816: 14418: 13712: 13670: 13652: 13421: 13344: 13289: 13236: 9005:

Ettinghausen, Richard; Grabar, Oleg; Jenkins-Madina, Marilyn (2001).

8348: 8202: 8198: 8130: 7990: 7970: 7954: 7574: 7547: 7542:

which were ubiquitous in Muslim cities. Essentially derived from the

7332: 6680: 6448: 6232: 6130: 6107: 6036: 6021: 6009: 5944: 5834: 5815: 5660: 5552: 5348: 5318: 5181: 5009: 4974: 4949: 4752: 4710: 4700: 4350: 3874: 3635: 3583: 3548: 3258: 3061: 3026: 2777: 2676: 2600: 2514: 2477: 2216: 2040:, were added afterwards. The Comares Palace, which includes a lavish 1559: 1404: 1378: 777: 714: 642: 615: 450: 258: 197: 15927: 12127: 11609:

Colonial al-Andalus: Spain and the Making of Modern Moroccan Culture

11306:. Translated by Mill, Adair. Antique Collectors' Club. p. 585. 10342:

Tabbaa, Yasser (1985). "The Muqarnas Dome: Its Origin and Meaning".

8276:, can also refer to various fortresses or fortified mansions in the 7966: 7636:

s located on hilltops overlooking the rest of the city, such as the

7128:. Next to the mihrab there was usually a symbolic pulpit known as a 3101: 164:

This architectural tradition integrated influences from pre-Islamic

16982: 16921: 16854: 16097: 16092: 16042: 15902: 15738: 15723: 15086: 14860: 14743: 14733: 14496: 14353: 13681: 13642: 13579: 13522: 13496: 13461: 13359: 13180: 12235: 12092:

Terrasse, Henri (1964). "La mosquée almohade de Bou Jeloud à Fès".

9322:

Islamic Palace Architecture in the Western Mediterranean: A History

8980:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Architecture".

8427: 8327: 8174: 7974: 7685: 7607: 7599: 7551:

different rooms, only the changing room was heavily decorated with

7437: 7240: 7032: 6814: 6781: 6716: 6575: 6373: 6255: 6168: 6044: 6040: 5986: 5978: 5974: 5791: 5762: 5729: 5607:

Polylobed (or multifoil) arches, have their earliest precedents in

5383: 5296: 5276: 5261: 5056: 5029: 4385: 4345: 4291: 3879: 3660: 3615: 3568: 3558: 3442: 3161: 3156: 3151: 3141: 3111: 2672: 2591:

complex in Tunis (c. 1614–1639), with mausoleum and minaret visible

2292: 1977: 1966: 1931: 1923: 1685: 1452: 1341: 1274: 1229: 1213: 1209: 1197: 975: 934: 532: 482: 345: 337: 300: 221: 217: 189: 88: 13844: 13190: 7820:

smoke signals. Using this system of signals, a coded message from

5957:

motifs, derive from a long tradition of similar motifs in Syrian,

5216: 5211: 5156: 4425: 2211:(r. 1318–1337), was celebrated for its rich decoration, including 2048:) and the Hall of the Ambasadors (a throne room), was begun under 16859: 16132: 16112: 16082: 16057: 16052: 15639: 15562: 14784: 14763: 14343: 13991: 13814: 13799: 13789: 13774: 13627: 13471: 13369: 13299: 13246: 12612: 12221: 11888:"The Writing on the Wall: Reading the Decoration of the Alhambra" 9699: 8415: 8331: 8305: 8257: 8249: 8186: 8110: 7928: 7797: 7713: 7553: 7543: 7527: 7496: 7277: 7204: 7081: 6957: 6942: 6901: 6818: 6738: 6579: 6377: 6337: 6307: 6259: 6224: 6176: 6052: 5795: 5388: 5358: 5313: 5281: 5236: 5231: 5221: 5166: 5161: 5091: 5046: 5004: 4884: 4486: 4313: 4188: 4183: 3864: 3824: 3792: 3610: 3578: 3218: 2781: 2613: 2502: 2498: 2486: 2187: 1996: 1981: 1887: 1863: 1822: 1753: 1707: 1703: 1650: 1599: 1551: 1496: 1284: 1233: 1228:-period aesthetic that followed it. Remains of another palace at 1162: 1101: 1077: 843: 785: 726: 669: 650: 589: 571: 422: 341: 323: 271: 250: 209: 205: 201: 181: 161:

and architecture consider this term to be outdated or contested.

142: 138: 134: 130: 92: 80: 9004: 8178: 8079:

The Hammadids, who started out as governors as governors of the

7747: 7339:

The madrasa was an institution which originated in northeastern

6632:

Kufic script with floral and interlacing flourishes, painted on

4227: 1951: 1911: 1361:

into Muslim al-Andalus, particularly with the fall of Toledo to

983:, four ornate ribbed domes, and a richly-ornamented mihrab with 821:

at the end of the 8th century. The Idrisids founded the city of

15937: 14836: 14768: 14718: 14588: 14583: 14562: 14547: 14338: 13951: 13900: 13890: 13885: 13870: 13838: 13809: 13784: 13759: 13686: 13632: 13558: 13506: 13486: 13374: 13364: 13349: 13334: 11714:

Das islamische Rippengewölbe : Ursprung, Form, Verbreitung

9702:

Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia

9612:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Moorish ".

9542:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Moorish ".

8229: 8143: 8037: 8018: 7773: 7621: 7558: 7463: 7441: 7348: 7284: 7273: 7232: 7209: 7157: 7151: 6929: 6918: 6790: 6760: 6600: 6595: 6464: 6439: 6413: 6364: 6355: 6328: 6282: 6251: 6124: 5990: 5950: 5620: 5462: 5368: 5353: 5343: 5196: 5151: 4994: 4989: 4979: 4959: 4909: 4380: 4375: 4365: 4330: 4296: 4244: 4237: 4222: 4217: 4153: 4107: 4081: 4071: 3971: 3956: 3951: 3936: 3926: 3901: 3889: 3884: 3854: 3844: 3839: 3730: 3715: 3655: 3640: 3588: 3563: 3452: 3437: 3422: 3263: 3233: 3213: 3208: 3193: 3171: 2810: 2761: 2752: 2618: 2609: 2469: 2464:(1672–1727). Moulay Isma'il is also notable for having built a 2448: 2426: 2383: 2376: 2243: 2132: 2041: 1919: 1646: 1520: 1504: 1069: 924: 919: 835: 802: 701: 684: 576: 262: 246: 14130: 14102: 12705:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Seville".

12292:"Morocco is a trove of Jewish history if you know where to go" 11784:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Granada".

11639:. University of California Press. pp. 194 and elsewhere. 11231:

Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila S., eds. (2009). "Madrasa".

10302:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Maqsura".

9926:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Minaret".

9185:

Assouline, David (2009). "Moors". In Esposito, John L. (ed.).

8094: 6467:

plating of the doors of the Al-Attarine Madrasa (14th century)

5877:

of the Great Mosque of Cordoba, covered in mosaics (circa 965)

4086: 3906: 3802: 348:(also transliterated as "Qayrawan") became an early center of 45: 16102: 16087: 14826: 14789: 14728: 14542: 14456: 14313: 13966: 13946: 13834: 13829: 13824: 13819: 13537: 13527: 13476: 13431: 13416: 13410: 13384: 13379: 13328: 13323: 13318: 13294: 13175: 12835:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Berber".

12395:

Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research

11660:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Mosque".

11206:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Hafsid".

11181:

Lintz, Yannick; Déléry, Claire; Tuil Leonetti, Bulle (2014).

10092:. Paris: Les Presse de l'UNESCO: Nouvelles Éditions Latines. 9901:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Mihrab".

8423: 8411: 8407: 8281: 8012: 7821: 7675: 7561:, or carved wood. The cold, warm, and hot rooms were usually 7421: 7384: 7344: 7248: 7072: 6952:

Tilework, particularly in the form of mosaic tilework called

6567: 6544: 6487:

throne room) at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain (14th century)

6332: 6310:

motifs are also found, often in combination with arabesques.

6204: 6155: 6147: 6115: 6056: 5970: 5954: 5393: 5323: 5256: 5206: 5201: 5186: 4969: 4934: 4929: 4919: 4904: 4772: 4762: 4685: 4435: 4370: 4212: 4193: 4056: 4011: 4001: 3976: 3961: 3834: 3725: 3670: 3665: 3630: 3600: 3253: 3248: 3121: 3086: 3046: 3021: 3016: 2892:

which emerged in the Europe and North America as part of the

2767:

The most notable monument from this period in Algiers is the

2664: 2526: 2380: 2284: 2263: 1721:

Virtually no examples of architecture from the period of the

1642: 1289: 1249: 1135: 842:

on the site of the former Roman town of Pomeria (present-day

773: 749: 679: 673: 581: 513: 487: 176:

architectures, from ongoing artistic currents in the Islamic

154: 76: 16:

Architectural style associated with the western Islamic world

11949:

Rum Seljuq Architecture, 1170–1220: The Patronage of Sultans

10639:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Tunis".

10202:

Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus

9840:

L'Islam et les musulmans en France: une histoire de mosquées

9421:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 75–83. 8177:, their capital, but they also built a part of the walls of 5889:

Smaller ribbed domes in the Bab al-Mardum Mosque in Toledo (

2521:

Ottoman rule in Algeria and Tunisia (16th century and after)

2232:(begun in 1303, only partly preserved today). Further east, 1737:– have survived today and are even classified together as a 16117: 15572: 14552: 14328: 14323: 13956: 13915: 13701: 13675: 13532: 13451: 13267: 11046:"Royal Chapel | Web Oficial – Mezquita-Catedral de Córdoba" 8022: 7931:

towers and a smaller outer wall, both topped by a walkway (

7430: 7367: 7353: 7340: 7138: 7099: 6730: 6633: 5501: 5271: 5191: 4944: 4777: 4767: 4281: 4232: 3829: 3720: 3136: 3081: 3056: 1891: 1868: 1441: 1352: 1157:

were also the site of earlier fortresses or palaces by the

965: 710: 706: 688: 585: 280: 266: 12839:. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. pp. 276–278. 12709:. Vol. 3. Oxford University Press. pp. 197–199. 12380:

The 23rd Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture

11788:. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 120–127. 11664:. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 548–553. 11443:

Art and Architecture of Viceregal Latin America, 1521-1821

11210:. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 133–134. 10579:. Translated by McElhearn, Kirk. ACR Edition. p. 68. 10306:. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 461–462. 10072:. Casablanca: Société Marocaine de Librairie et d'Édition. 9930:. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 530–533. 9905:. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 515–517. 9616:. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 543–545. 9546:. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 543–545. 7243:

which stated that "what is between the east and west is a

2367:(late 16th and early 17th centuries) in Marrakesh, Morocco 1890:

in this region, a type of institution which originated in

1688:

vault (above), while the rest of the church is covered in

888:, located just outside Cordoba on the lower slopes of the 16218: 11743:"The Great Mosque of Tlemcen and the Dome of its Maqsura" 11501:. Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale. p. 29. 11235:. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 430–433. 11050:

Royal Chapel | Web Oficial – Mezquita-Catedral de Córdoba

10455:"The Great Mosque of Tlemcen and the Dome of its Maqsura" 8984:. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. pp. 68–212. 8189:(which include a particularly ornate gate), the walls of 8087:

and 'Achir, its walls were made mainly of rough stone or

7907:

is a clear example dating from this time, as well as the

7891:

in Seville, an Almohad defensive tower built in 1220–1221

7716:

where the governor or ruler was typically installed, and

7688:. Some of the most important Spanish terms today include 7387:

making their reputation by teaching at certain madrasas.

7227: 2543: 1976:(early 14th century), the oldest surviving palace in the 1108: 1092:

In 946 the Fatimids began construction of a new capital,

360:

in 670, although the current structure dates from later.

11180: 7973:, and many smaller strategic hilltop forts like that of 6965:

and then adapted by Muslim craftsmen for faience tiles.

5611:

in Ifriqiya and Egypt and had also appeared in Andalusi

2784:

structure. Its simple decoration includes tilework; the

1672:

Arab-Norman architecture in Sicily (11th-12th centuries)

1349:

has been questioned or rejected by some other scholars.

805:), was founded in the second half of the 8th century by 11918: 11435: 11433: 10755:

Arabic Administration in Norman Sicily: The Royal Diwan

5786:

A lambrequin/muqarnas arch (top) in the gallery of the

1731:

blending of Norman, Byzantine and Arab-Islamic cultures

1239: 402:

gate of the Great Mosque of Cordoba (8th–9th centuries)

12837: