20:
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is a result of mitotic recombination. However, it also depends on the allelic status of the genes undergoing recombination. Twin spot occurs only if the heterozygous genes are linked in repulsion, i.e. the trans phase. The recombination needs to occur between the centromeres of the adjacent gene.
386:
Gonosomal mosaicism is a type of somatic mosaicism that occurs very early in the organisms development and thus is present within both germline and somatic cells. Somatic mosaicism is not generally inheritable as it does not usually affect germ cells. In the instance of gonosomal mosaicism,
228:
regions in the genome. Further, the accumulation of DNA copy errors and damage over a lifetime lead to greater occurrences of mosaic tissues in aging humans. As longevity has increased dramatically over the last century, human genome may not have had time to adapt to cumulative effects of
528:
Using negatively marked clones is sometimes inconvenient, especially when generating very small patches of cells, where seeing a dark spot on a bright background is more difficult than a bright spot on a dark background. Creating positively marked clones is possible using the so-called
261:
and affect all cells of the organism, some cases occur where the trisomy occurs in only a selection of the cells. This may be caused by a nondisjunction event in an early mitosis, resulting in a loss of a chromosome from some trisomic cells. Generally, this leads to a milder
302:, called 46,XY/47,XXY mosaic wherein some of the patient's cells contain XY chromosomes, and some contain XXY chromosomes. The 46/47 annotation indicates that the XY cells have the normal number of 46 total chromosomes, and the XXY cells have a total of 47 chromosomes.
370:, where all cells in an organism have the same genotype, but a different copy of the X chromosome is expressed in different cells. The latter is the case in normal (XX) female mammals, although it is not always visible from the phenotype (as it is in
148:
In 1944, Belgovskii proposed that mosaicism could not account for certain mosaic expressions caused by chromosomal rearrangements involving heterochromatic inert regions. The associated weakening of biochemical activity led to what he called a
524:
expression, cells that undergo recombination will have progeny homozygous for either the marker or the allele being studied. Therefore, the cells that do not carry the marker (which are dark) can be identified as carrying a mutation.
122:, as a result of which mutations or small chromosomal rearrangements in somatic cells. Thus the inert region causes an increase in mutation frequency or small chromosomal rearrangements in active segments adjacent to inert regions.
464:, where specially selected strains frequently lose an X or a Y chromosome in one of the first embryonic cell divisions. These mosaics can then be used to analyze such things as courtship behavior, and female sexual attraction.
867:
Belgovskii, ML (1962) . "K Voprosu o
Mekhanizme Osushchestvleniya Mozaichnosti Svyazannoi s Geterokhromaticheskimi Raionami Khromosom" [The Causes of Mosaicism Associated With Heterochromatic Chromosome Regions].
84:, in which case the mutation will be passed on only to its daughter cells (and will be present only in certain adult cells). Somatic mosaicism is not generally inheritable as it does not generally affect germ cells.
287:, where a fly possessing two X chromosomes is a female and a fly possessing a single X chromosome is a sterile male, a loss of an X chromosome early in embryonic development can result in sexual mosaics, or
551:
gene is used to repress the action of GAL4, preventing the expression of GFP. Instead of using GFP to mark the wild-type chromosome as above, GAL80 serves this purpose, so that when it is removed by
452:
gene. The resulting BLM protein is defective. The defect in RecQ, a helicase, facilitates the defective unwinding of DNA during replication, thus is associated with the occurrence of this disease.
114:
inert regions, several hypotheses on the nature of such mosaicism were proposed. One hypothesis assumed that mosaicism appears as the result of a break and loss of chromosome segments.
1718:"From Many, One -- Diverse mammals, including humans, have been found to carry distinct genomes in their cells. What does such genetic chimerism mean for health and disease?"
1804:
1725:
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organisms have the potential to pass the genetic alteration, including to potential offspring because the altered allele is present in both somatic and germline cells.
439:
in 1936. The amount of tissue that is mosaic depends on where in the tree of cell division the exchange takes place. A phenotypic character called "twin spot" seen in
186:—carry a mutation, but the rest are normal. The cause is usually a mutation that occurred in an early stem cell that gave rise to all or part of the gametes.
316:
Mosaicism need not necessarily be deleterious, though. Revertant somatic mosaicism is a rare recombination event with a spontaneous correction of a mutant,
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2528:
2524:
1762:
1701:
317:
320:. In revertant mosaicism, the healthy tissue formed by mitotic recombination can outcompete the original, surrounding mutant cells in tissues such as
1182:
Fitzgerald, P. H.; Donald, R. A.; Kirk, R. L. (1979). "A true hermaphrodite dispermic chimera with 46,XX and 46,XY karyotypes".
1581:. In Adam, Margaret P.; Ardinger, Holly H.; Pagon, Roberta A.; Wallace, Stephanie E.; Bean, Lora J.H.; Stephens, Karen; Amemiya, Anne (eds.).
198:
of the body are of more than one genotype. In the more common mosaics, different genotypes arise from a single fertilized egg cell, due to
2331:
137:. When it does, it results in somatic (body) mosaics. These organisms contain two or more genetically distinct types of tissue. The term
76:. Anaphase lagging is the most common way by which mosaicism arises in the preimplantation embryo. Mosaicism can also result from a
555:, GAL4 is allowed to function, and GFP turns on. This results in the cells of interest being marked brightly in a dark background.
396:
1755:
547:
313:. Around 30% of Turner's syndrome cases demonstrate mosaicism, while complete monosomy (45, X) occurs in about 50–60% of cases.
205:
Somatic mutation leading to mosaicism is prevalent in the beginning and end stages of human life. Somatic mosaics are common in
845:
Sturtevant, A. H. (1929). "The claret mutant type of
Drosophila simulans: a study of chromosome elimination and cell-lineage".
1115:
818:
224:. In early development, DNA from undifferentiated cell types may be more susceptible to mobile element invasion due to long,
545:. This system builds on the GAL4/UAS system, which is used to express GFP in specific cells. However, a globally expressed
1507:
Lee MH, Siddoway B, Kaeser GE, Segota I, Rivera R, Romanow WJ, Liu CS, Park C, Kennedy G, Long T, Chun J (November 2018).
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2017:
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can present with some form of mosaicism. The only non-lethal full monosomy occurring in humans is the one causing
2416:
2359:
1949:
1139:
Marchi, M. De; et al. (2008). "True hermaphroditism with XX/XY sex chromosome mosaicism: Report of a case".
2410:
2349:
2287:
1604:
Nissani, M (1975). "A new behavioral bioassay for an analysis of sexual attraction and pheromones in insects".
1693:
1904:
448:. another example of mitotic recombination is the Bloom's syndrome, which happens due to the mutation in the
237:
has shown that somatic mutations are increasingly present throughout a lifetime and are responsible for most
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2345:
2301:
1993:
1933:
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542:
2544:
2532:
1912:
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1989:
1985:
1649:"Mosaic analysis with a repressible cell marker for studies of gene function in neuronal morphogenesis"
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2420:
2219:
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517:
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that recognizes "flip recombinase target" (FRT) sites, which are short sequences of DNA, and induces
107:
520:) and an allele of a gene to be studied (both on chromosomes bearing FRT sites). After induction of
1908:
1284:
Nissani, Moti (1978). "The site of function of the Y chromosome in
Drosophila melanogaster males".
485:
329:
274:
752:
Taylor, T. H.; Gitlin, S. A.; Patrick, J. L.; Crain, J. L.; Wilson, J. M.; Griffin, D. K. (2014).
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2029:
595:
461:
336:
283:
876:(6). United States Department of Commerce - Office of Technical Services: 325–356. OTS 61-11476.
754:"The origin, mechanisms, incidence and clinical consequences of chromosomal mosaicism in humans"
1920:
1771:
1460:"Unexpected relevant role of gene mosaicism in patients with primary immunodeficiency diseases"
1006:
Schwab, Angela L.; et al. (2007). "Gonadal mosaicism and familial adenomatous polyposis".
585:
375:
344:
110:
and
Schultz in 1936 showed that in all cases studied these rearrangements were associated with
35:
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126:
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gene can then be induced selectively, commonly using either the heat shock promoter or the
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8:
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in 1935 assumed that the structural changes in the chromosomes took place as a result of
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210:
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54:
1665:
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1230:
Hotta, Yoshiki; Benzer, Seymour (1972). "Mapping of
Behaviour in Drosophila mosaics".
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2050:
2005:
1973:
1961:
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1586:
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1481:
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1416:"Review and hypotheses: Somatic mosaicism, observations related to clinical genetics"
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39:
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634:
Campbell, Ian M.; Shaw, Chad A.; Stankiewicz, Pawel; Lupski, James R. (2015-07-01).
332:, normal skin spots appear early in life and increase in number and size over time.
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Genetic mosaics are a particularly powerful tool when used in the commonly studied
288:
2519:
2108:
988:
506:
363:
to induce somatic mutation has been a useful technique in the study of genetics.
234:
225:
111:
73:
64:
Genetic mosaicism can result from many different mechanisms including chromosome
1326:"Revertant somatic mosaicism by mitotic recombination in Dyskeratosis Congenita"
2193:
2159:
2154:
1829:
1476:
1459:
1341:
926:
Stern, Curt 1968. "Genetic mosaics in animals and man". pp27–129, in Stern, C.
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605:
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65:
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2010:
1998:
1978:
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1834:
1485:
779:
719:
659:
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206:
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Germline or gonadal mosaicism is a particular form of mosaicism wherein some
81:
57:, wherein a single organism is composed of cells with more than one distinct
47:
770:
753:
253:
The most common form of mosaicism found through prenatal diagnosis involves
2183:
2090:
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1966:
1954:
1938:
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1400:
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1125:
1084:
1027:
974:
828:
787:
727:
677:
292:
195:
69:
1509:"Somatic APP gene recombination in Alzheimer's disease and normal neurons"
1441:
1259:
509:. The resulting clones can be identified either negatively or positively.
444:
This gives an appearance of yellow patches on the wild-type background in
2205:
2176:
2171:
2068:
1633:
1203:
1160:
711:
360:
352:
230:
218:
694:
Forsberg, Lars A.; Gisselsson, David; Dumanski, Jan P. (February 2017).
273:
conditions can be caused by mosaicism where some cells in the body have
2325:
2321:
2127:
1873:
1851:
1841:
1577:
Sanz, Maureen M.; German, James; Cunniff, Christopher (11 March 1993).
1297:
636:"Somatic mosaicism: implications for disease and transmission genetics"
533:("mosaic analysis with a repressible cell marker" system, developed by
494:
435:
430:
406:
371:
325:
115:
98:
19:
1391:
1374:
1051:"Detectable Clonal Mosaicism and Its Relationship to Aging and Cancer"
102:, a genus of fruit fly. Muller in 1930 demonstrated that mosaicism in
2166:
2122:
1814:
1809:
1251:
534:
468:
278:
263:
1563:
King R. C; Stansfield W. D. and
Mulligan P. K. 2006.
1066:
886:
541:, and his postdoctoral student Tzumin Lee, who now leads a group at
405:. Possible sources of such variation were suggested to be incorrect
2282:
2232:
2228:
2100:
1779:
566:
493:
between them. FRT sites have been inserted transgenically near the
348:
306:
270:
242:
238:
194:
Somatic mosaicism (also known as clonal mosaicism) occurs when the
77:
58:
50:
43:
2335:
2118:
1791:
258:
254:
199:
134:
130:
397:
Human somatic variation § Human somatic variations in brain
248:
1375:"Genetic mosaic techniques for studying Drosophila development"
335:
Other endogenous factors can also lead to mosaicism, including
183:
175:
46:. This means that various genetic lines resulted from a single
2424:
2363:
2339:
2269:
1694:"Every Cell in Your Body Has the Same DNA. Except It Doesn't"
953:
De, S. (2011). "Somatic mosaicism in healthy human tissues".
633:
530:
321:
214:
179:
366:
True mosaicism should not be mistaken for the phenomenon of
2470:
2462:
2406:
2392:
2367:
2295:
2265:
2255:
696:"Mosaicism in health and disease — clones picking up speed"
693:
2251:
906:
Stern C. 1936. "Somatic crossing-over and segregation in
141:
was used by CW Cotterman in 1956 in his seminal paper on
1319:
1317:
1315:
751:
257:. Although most forms of trisomy are due to problems in
1506:
421:
One basic mechanism that can produce mosaic tissue is
1312:
1181:
562:
516:for a gene encoding a visible marker (commonly the
266:than in nonmosaic patients with the same disorder.
1324:Jongmans, M. C. J.; et al. (2012).
1103:
948:
946:
944:
942:
940:
938:
936:
806:
475:genome has made the system far more flexible. The
1576:
1407:
401:A frequent type of neuronal genomic mosaicism is
378:are likely to be somatic mosaics to some extent.
298:An example of this is one of the milder forms of
53:. Mosaicism is one of several possible causes of
2567:
933:
1458:Mensa-VilarĂł, Anna; et al. (2019-01-01).
862:
860:
455:
2510:46,XX testicular disorders of sex development
1756:
249:Trisomies, monosomies, and related conditions
1770:
1500:
1097:
800:
794:
747:
745:
328:that regenerate often. In the skin disorder
2332:Acute myeloblastic leukemia with maturation
1229:
857:
1763:
1749:
1464:Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology
930:. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
866:
847:Zeitschrift fĂĽr Wissenschaftliche Zoologie
844:
483:is a gene from the commonly studied yeast
1664:
1540:
1475:
1431:
1390:
1349:
1074:
769:
742:
667:
1323:
1049:Jacobs, K. B.; et al. (2012).
512:In negatively marked clones, the fly is
416:
18:
1603:
1567:. 7th ed, Oxford University Press. p282
1283:
1098:Strachan, Tom; Read, Andrew P. (1999).
801:Strachan, Tom; Read, Andrew P. (1999).
390:
355:. Somatic mosaics have been created in
2568:
1691:
1646:
1138:
1110:(2nd ed.). New York: Wiley–Liss.
1048:
1005:
900:
880:
813:(2nd ed.). New York: Wiley–Liss.
381:
125:In the 1930s, Stern demonstrated that
1744:
1585:. University of Washington, Seattle.
1453:
1451:
1372:
1279:
1277:
1225:
1223:
1221:
359:using X‑ray treatment and the use of
163:
16:Condition in multi-cellular organisms
1413:
840:
838:
689:
687:
629:
627:
202:errors at first or later cleavages.
189:
2445:Desmoplastic small-round-cell tumor
920:
215:long interspersed nuclear element-1
13:
1728:from the original on 25 April 2017
1685:
1448:
1420:American Journal of Human Genetics
1330:American Journal of Human Genetics
1274:
1218:
1196:10.1111/j.1399-0004.1979.tb02032.x
1153:10.1111/j.1399-0004.1976.tb00047.x
952:
14:
2592:
835:
684:
624:
295:can result in XY/X mosaic males.
2018:22q11.2 distal deletion syndrome
1704:from the original on 23 May 2018
1647:Lee, Tzumin; Luo, Liqun (1999).
928:Genetic Mosaics and Other Essays
565:
2417:Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans
2360:Acute megakaryoblastic leukemia
2288:Anaplastic large-cell lymphoma
1950:Chromosome 5q deletion syndrome
1640:
1606:Journal of Experimental Zoology
1597:
1570:
1557:
1366:
1175:
1132:
1091:
1042:
999:
981:
1286:Molecular and General Genetics
23:Tulip flower showing mosaicism
1:
2140:Klinefelter syndrome (47,XXY)
1905:1q21.1 copy number variations
1666:10.1016/S0896-6273(00)80701-1
617:
429:. It was first discovered by
2346:Acute promyelocytic leukemia
2302:Acute lymphoblastic leukemia
1994:17q12 microdeletion syndrome
1869:22q11.2 duplication syndrome
1847:16p11.2 duplication syndrome
1692:Zimmer, Carl (21 May 2018).
543:Janelia Farm Research Campus
467:More recently, the use of a
347:. Exogenous factors include
7:
1913:1q21.1 duplication syndrome
1800:1q21.1 duplication syndrome
558:
456:Use in experimental biology
277:and others XY chromosomes (
10:
2597:
1477:10.1016/j.jaci.2018.09.009
1373:Blair, S. S. (2003).
1342:10.1016/j.ajhg.2012.01.004
1100:"Chromosome abnormalities"
497:of each chromosome arm of
394:
291:. Likewise, a loss of the
167:
108:chromosomal rearrangements
106:is always associated with
87:
34:is a condition in which a
2488:
2459:Alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma
2381:
2310:
2240:
2227:
2218:
2194:XYYYY syndrome (49,XYYYY)
2160:XXXXY syndrome (49,XXXXY)
2155:XXXYY syndrome (49,XXXYY)
2117:
2099:
2085:
1894:
1787:
1778:
1533:10.1038/s41586-018-0718-6
1414:Hall, J. G. (1988).
1020:10.1007/s10689-007-9169-1
967:10.1016/j.tig.2011.03.002
870:Zhurnal Obshchei Biologii
758:Human Reproduction Update
652:10.1016/j.tig.2015.03.013
518:green fluorescent protein
343:slippage, and unbalanced
133:, can also take place in
42:as the result of genetic
1934:Wolf–Hirschhorn syndrome
1909:1q21.1 deletion syndrome
1772:Chromosome abnormalities
1565:A Dictionary of Genetics
1106:Human Molecular Genetics
989:"Google Health – Google"
809:Human Molecular Genetics
486:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
330:ichthyosis with confetti
158:
38:possesses more than one
2318:Philadelphia chromosome
2189:XYYY syndrome (48,XYYY)
2150:XXXY syndrome (48,XXXY)
2145:XXYY syndrome (48,XXYY)
2030:22q13 deletion syndrome
1805:2q31.1 microduplication
908:Drosophila melanogaster
888:Drosophila melanogaster
700:Nature Reviews Genetics
596:Human somatic variation
376:multicellular organisms
284:Drosophila melanogaster
2177:Pentasomy X (49,XXXXX)
2109:Turner syndrome (45,X)
1990:Smith–Magenis syndrome
1986:Miller–Dieker syndrome
1921:1p36 deletion syndrome
1626:10.1002/jez.1401920217
586:Extrachromosomal array
471:incorporated into the
345:chromosome segregation
36:multicellular organism
24:
2184:XYY syndrome (47,XYY)
2172:Tetrasomy X (48,XXXX)
2055:Prader–Willi syndrome
771:10.1093/humupd/dmu016
553:mitotic recombination
477:flip recombinase (or
423:mitotic recombination
417:Mitotic recombination
411:somatic recombination
407:repairs of DNA damage
403:copy number variation
222:transposable elements
127:genetic recombination
96:studied mosaicism in
22:
2276:Mantle cell lymphoma
1946:Cri du chat syndrome
712:10.1038/nrg.2016.145
611:45,X/46,XY mosaicism
391:Brain cell mosaicism
300:Klinefelter syndrome
281:). In the fruit fly
245:, and solid tumors.
2262:Follicular lymphoma
1618:1975JEZ...192..271N
1593:– via PubMed.
1525:2018Natur.563..639L
1244:1972Natur.240..527H
539:Stanford University
382:Gonosomal mosaicism
217:(LINE-1 or L1) and
143:antigenic variation
80:in one cell during
2501:Uniparental disomy
2496:Fragile X syndrome
2431:Myxoid liposarcoma
2283:t(11 CCND1:14 IGH)
2167:Trisomy X (47,XXX)
2045:genomic imprinting
1825:Distal trisomy 10q
1698:The New York Times
1579:"Bloom's Syndrome"
1298:10.1007/BF00269910
955:Trends in Genetics
640:Trends in Genetics
581:Chimera (genetics)
211:retrotransposition
170:Germline mosaicism
164:Germline mosaicism
25:
2563:
2562:
2515:Marker chromosome
2484:
2483:
2377:
2376:
2214:
2213:
2081:
2080:
2051:Angelman syndrome
2006:DiGeorge syndrome
1974:Jacobsen syndrome
1962:Williams syndrome
1519:(7733): 639–645.
1392:10.1242/dev.00774
1385:(21): 5065–5072.
1238:(5383): 527–535.
1184:Clinical Genetics
1141:Clinical Genetics
1117:978-1-85996-202-2
993:health.google.com
820:978-1-85996-202-2
613:(X0/XY mosaicism)
537:, a professor at
514:transheterozygous
427:somatic crossover
318:pathogenic allele
311:Turner's syndrome
190:Somatic mosaicism
139:somatic mosaicism
94:Alfred Sturtevant
32:genetic mosaicism
2588:
2506:XX male syndrome
2403:Synovial sarcoma
2280:Multiple myeloma
2248:Burkitt lymphoma
2238:
2237:
2225:
2224:
2128:other karyotypes
2097:
2096:
1879:Cat-eye syndrome
1785:
1784:
1765:
1758:
1751:
1742:
1741:
1737:
1735:
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1713:
1711:
1709:
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1411:
1405:
1404:
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1370:
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1321:
1310:
1309:
1281:
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1271:
1252:10.1038/240527a0
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1095:
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996:
985:
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978:
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792:
791:
773:
749:
740:
739:
691:
682:
681:
671:
631:
575:
570:
569:
374:). However, all
120:somatic crossing
2596:
2595:
2591:
2590:
2589:
2587:
2586:
2585:
2566:
2565:
2564:
2559:
2520:Ring chromosome
2480:
2373:
2306:
2210:
2126:
2113:
2077:
1890:
1789:
1774:
1769:
1731:
1729:
1716:
1707:
1705:
1688:
1686:Further reading
1683:
1682:
1645:
1641:
1602:
1598:
1575:
1571:
1562:
1558:
1505:
1501:
1456:
1449:
1412:
1408:
1371:
1367:
1322:
1313:
1282:
1275:
1228:
1219:
1180:
1176:
1137:
1133:
1118:
1096:
1092:
1067:10.1038/ng.2270
1061:(6): 651–U668.
1055:Nature Genetics
1047:
1043:
1008:Familial Cancer
1004:
1000:
987:
986:
982:
951:
934:
925:
921:
905:
901:
885:
881:
865:
858:
843:
836:
821:
799:
795:
750:
743:
692:
685:
632:
625:
620:
571:
564:
561:
507:GAL4/UAS system
499:D. melanogaster
458:
419:
399:
393:
384:
337:mobile elements
269:In rare cases,
251:
235:cancer research
192:
172:
166:
161:
152:genetic chimera
112:heterochromatic
90:
74:endoreplication
17:
12:
11:
5:
2594:
2584:
2583:
2578:
2561:
2560:
2558:
2557:
2556:
2555:
2517:
2512:
2503:
2498:
2492:
2490:
2486:
2485:
2482:
2481:
2479:
2478:
2456:
2442:
2428:
2414:
2400:
2385:
2383:
2379:
2378:
2375:
2374:
2372:
2371:
2357:
2343:
2329:
2314:
2312:
2308:
2307:
2305:
2304:
2299:
2285:
2273:
2259:
2244:
2242:
2235:
2222:
2220:Translocations
2216:
2215:
2212:
2211:
2209:
2208:
2203:
2197:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2180:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2163:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2136:
2134:
2115:
2114:
2112:
2111:
2105:
2103:
2094:
2083:
2082:
2079:
2078:
2076:
2075:
2065:
2064:
2063:
2062:
2040:
2039:
2038:
2037:
2027:
2026:
2025:
2015:
2014:
2013:
2003:
2002:
2001:
1983:
1982:
1981:
1971:
1970:
1969:
1959:
1958:
1957:
1943:
1942:
1941:
1931:
1930:
1929:
1900:
1898:
1892:
1891:
1889:
1888:
1887:
1886:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1865:
1864:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1838:
1837:
1830:Patau syndrome
1827:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1802:
1796:
1794:
1782:
1776:
1775:
1768:
1767:
1760:
1753:
1745:
1739:
1738:
1714:
1687:
1684:
1681:
1680:
1639:
1596:
1569:
1556:
1499:
1470:(1): 359–368.
1447:
1426:(4): 355–363.
1406:
1365:
1336:(3): 426–433.
1311:
1292:(2): 221–224.
1273:
1217:
1174:
1131:
1116:
1090:
1041:
998:
980:
961:(6): 217–223.
932:
919:
899:
879:
856:
834:
819:
793:
764:(4): 571–581.
741:
706:(2): 128–142.
683:
646:(7): 382–392.
622:
621:
619:
616:
615:
614:
608:
606:Vanishing twin
603:
601:Parasitic twin
598:
593:
588:
583:
577:
576:
573:Biology portal
560:
557:
457:
454:
418:
415:
392:
389:
383:
380:
368:X-inactivation
341:DNA polymerase
289:gynandromorphs
250:
247:
191:
188:
168:Main article:
165:
162:
160:
157:
89:
86:
66:nondisjunction
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2593:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2573:
2571:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2523:
2522:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2493:
2491:
2487:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2457:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2443:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2429:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2415:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2401:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2389:Ewing sarcoma
2387:
2386:
2384:
2380:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2358:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2344:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2330:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2316:
2315:
2313:
2309:
2303:
2300:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2277:
2274:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2260:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2246:
2245:
2243:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2217:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2198:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2181:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2164:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2137:
2135:
2133:
2129:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2110:
2107:
2106:
2104:
2102:
2098:
2095:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2074:
2073:Proximal 18q-
2070:
2067:
2066:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2049:
2048:
2047:
2046:
2042:
2041:
2036:
2033:
2032:
2031:
2028:
2024:
2021:
2020:
2019:
2016:
2012:
2009:
2008:
2007:
2004:
2000:
1997:
1996:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1984:
1980:
1977:
1976:
1975:
1972:
1968:
1965:
1964:
1963:
1960:
1956:
1953:
1952:
1951:
1947:
1944:
1940:
1937:
1936:
1935:
1932:
1928:
1925:
1924:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1901:
1899:
1897:
1893:
1885:
1882:
1881:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1863:
1860:
1859:
1858:
1857:Down syndrome
1855:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1843:
1840:
1836:
1833:
1832:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1816:
1813:
1811:
1808:
1806:
1803:
1801:
1798:
1797:
1795:
1793:
1788:Duplications,
1786:
1783:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1766:
1761:
1759:
1754:
1752:
1747:
1746:
1743:
1727:
1723:
1722:The Scientist
1719:
1715:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1690:
1689:
1676:
1672:
1667:
1662:
1659:(3): 451–61.
1658:
1654:
1650:
1643:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1600:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1573:
1566:
1560:
1552:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1503:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1478:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1454:
1452:
1443:
1439:
1434:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1410:
1402:
1398:
1393:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1369:
1361:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1320:
1318:
1316:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1280:
1278:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1226:
1224:
1222:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1178:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1147:(5): 265–72.
1146:
1142:
1135:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1113:
1108:
1107:
1101:
1094:
1086:
1082:
1077:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1045:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1002:
994:
990:
984:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
949:
947:
945:
943:
941:
939:
937:
929:
923:
916:
913:
909:
903:
896:
893:
889:
883:
875:
871:
863:
861:
852:
848:
841:
839:
830:
826:
822:
816:
811:
810:
804:
797:
789:
785:
781:
777:
772:
767:
763:
759:
755:
748:
746:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
690:
688:
679:
675:
670:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
630:
628:
623:
612:
609:
607:
604:
602:
599:
597:
594:
592:
591:Heterochromia
589:
587:
584:
582:
579:
578:
574:
568:
563:
556:
554:
550:
549:
544:
540:
536:
532:
526:
523:
519:
515:
510:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
491:recombination
488:
487:
482:
480:
474:
470:
465:
463:
453:
451:
447:
442:
438:
437:
432:
428:
424:
414:
412:
408:
404:
398:
388:
379:
377:
373:
369:
364:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
333:
331:
327:
323:
319:
314:
312:
308:
303:
301:
296:
294:
290:
286:
285:
280:
276:
272:
267:
265:
260:
256:
246:
244:
240:
236:
232:
227:
223:
220:
216:
212:
208:
207:embryogenesis
203:
201:
197:
196:somatic cells
187:
185:
181:
177:
171:
156:
154:
153:
146:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
123:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
100:
95:
85:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
62:
60:
56:
52:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
21:
2581:Cell biology
2131:
2043:
1917:TAR syndrome
1820:Tetrasomy 9p
1730:. Retrieved
1721:
1706:. Retrieved
1697:
1656:
1652:
1642:
1612:(2): 271–5.
1609:
1605:
1599:
1582:
1572:
1564:
1559:
1516:
1512:
1502:
1467:
1463:
1423:
1419:
1409:
1382:
1378:
1368:
1333:
1329:
1289:
1285:
1235:
1231:
1190:(1): 89–96.
1187:
1183:
1177:
1144:
1140:
1134:
1105:
1093:
1058:
1054:
1044:
1014:(2): 173–7.
1011:
1007:
1001:
992:
983:
958:
954:
927:
922:
914:
911:
907:
902:
894:
891:
887:
882:
873:
869:
850:
846:
808:
796:
761:
757:
703:
699:
643:
639:
546:
527:
521:
511:
502:
498:
484:
478:
472:
466:
459:
449:
445:
440:
434:
420:
400:
385:
365:
356:
353:UV radiation
334:
315:
304:
297:
293:Y chromosome
282:
268:
252:
226:unmethylated
204:
193:
173:
150:
147:
138:
129:, normal in
124:
119:
103:
97:
91:
70:anaphase lag
63:
40:genetic line
31:
27:
26:
2206:46,XX/46,XY
2123:tetrasomies
2069:Distal 18q-
1583:GeneReviews
1379:Development
892:Bio. Zentr.
372:calico cats
361:irradiation
231:mutagenesis
82:development
2570:Categories
2201:45,X/46,XY
2101:Monosomies
1874:Trisomy 22
1852:Trisomy 18
1842:Trisomy 16
1790:including
917:, 625–730.
897:, 194–199.
853:: 323–356.
803:"Glossary"
618:References
495:centromere
473:Drosophila
446:Drosophila
441:Drosophila
436:Drosophila
431:Curt Stern
395:See also:
357:Drosophila
307:monosomies
116:Curt Stern
104:Drosophila
99:Drosophila
48:fertilized
2119:Trisomies
1896:Deletions
1815:Trisomy 9
1810:Trisomy 8
1792:trisomies
1780:Autosomal
1486:0091-6749
780:1355-4786
720:1471-0064
660:0168-9525
535:Liqun Luo
469:transgene
462:fruit fly
326:epithelia
279:46, XX/XY
264:phenotype
255:trisomies
243:lymphomas
92:In 1929,
55:chimerism
28:Mosaicism
2576:Genetics
2241:Lymphoid
2233:lymphoma
2229:Leukemia
1726:Archived
1702:Archived
1675:10197526
1591:20301572
1551:30464338
1494:30273710
1401:12975340
1360:22341970
1306:39242830
1212:39280592
1126:21089233
1085:22561519
1036:20956228
1028:18026870
975:21496937
912:Genetics
829:21089233
788:24667481
736:44092954
728:27941868
678:25910407
559:See also
349:nicotine
271:intersex
239:leukemia
233:. Thus,
78:mutation
59:genotype
44:mutation
2469:) t (1
2336:RUNX1T1
2311:Myeloid
2132:mosaics
1614:Bibcode
1542:6391999
1521:Bibcode
1442:3052049
1433:1715487
1351:3309184
1268:4181921
1260:4568399
1240:Bibcode
1169:6074108
1076:3372921
669:4490042
259:meiosis
209:due to
200:mitotic
184:oocytes
178:—i.e.,
176:gametes
135:mitosis
131:meiosis
88:History
2421:COL1A1
2093:linked
1732:23 May
1708:23 May
1673:
1653:Neuron
1634:805823
1632:
1589:
1549:
1539:
1513:Nature
1492:
1484:
1440:
1430:
1399:
1358:
1348:
1304:
1266:
1258:
1232:Nature
1210:
1204:759058
1202:
1167:
1161:991437
1159:
1124:
1114:
1083:
1073:
1034:
1026:
973:
827:
817:
786:
778:
734:
726:
718:
676:
666:
658:
501:. The
72:, and
2489:Other
2475:FOXO1
2473:; 13
2467:FOXO1
2465:; 13
2451:; 22
2447:t(11
2437:; 16
2435:DDIT3
2433:t(12
2425:PDGFB
2419:t(17
2395:; 22
2391:t(11
2382:Other
2364:RBM15
2348:t(15
2340:RUNX1
2324:; 22
2264:t(14
1302:S2CID
1264:S2CID
1208:S2CID
1165:S2CID
1032:S2CID
732:S2CID
548:GAL80
531:MARCM
322:blood
305:Also
180:sperm
159:Types
2471:PAX7
2463:PAX3
2461:t(2
2423:;22
2409:;18
2405:t(x
2393:FLI1
2368:MKL1
2366:;22
2362:t(1
2354:RARA
2352:,17
2338:;21
2334:t(8
2320:t(9
2296:NPM1
2290:t(2
2270:BCL2
2268:;18
2254:;14
2250:t(8
1734:2018
1710:2018
1671:PMID
1630:PMID
1587:PMID
1547:PMID
1490:PMID
1482:ISSN
1438:PMID
1397:PMID
1356:PMID
1256:PMID
1200:PMID
1157:PMID
1122:PMID
1112:ISBN
1081:PMID
1024:PMID
971:PMID
825:PMID
815:ISBN
784:PMID
776:ISSN
724:PMID
716:ISSN
674:PMID
656:ISSN
409:and
351:and
324:and
2453:EWS
2449:WT1
2439:FUS
2411:SSX
2407:SYT
2397:EWS
2350:PML
2326:BCR
2322:ABL
2294:;5
2292:ALK
2266:IGH
2256:IGH
2252:MYC
1661:doi
1622:doi
1610:192
1537:PMC
1529:doi
1517:563
1472:doi
1468:143
1428:PMC
1387:doi
1383:130
1346:PMC
1338:doi
1294:doi
1290:165
1248:doi
1236:240
1192:doi
1149:doi
1071:PMC
1063:doi
1016:doi
963:doi
910:".
851:135
766:doi
708:doi
664:PMC
648:doi
522:FLP
503:FLP
479:FLP
450:blm
433:in
425:or
219:Alu
213:of
182:or
51:egg
30:or
2572::
2553:22
2551:,
2549:21
2547:;
2545:20
2543:;
2541:18
2539:;
2537:15
2535:;
2533:14
2531:;
2527:;
2059:15
2035:22
2023:22
2011:22
1999:17
1979:11
1923:)
1884:22
1862:21
1835:13
1724:.
1720:.
1700:.
1696:.
1669:.
1657:22
1655:.
1651:.
1628:.
1620:.
1608:.
1545:.
1535:.
1527:.
1515:.
1511:.
1488:.
1480:.
1466:.
1462:.
1450:^
1436:.
1424:43
1422:.
1418:.
1395:.
1381:.
1377:.
1354:.
1344:.
1334:90
1332:.
1328:.
1314:^
1300:.
1288:.
1276:^
1262:.
1254:.
1246:.
1234:.
1220:^
1206:.
1198:.
1188:15
1186:.
1163:.
1155:.
1145:10
1143:.
1120:.
1102:.
1079:.
1069:.
1059:44
1057:.
1053:.
1030:.
1022:.
1010:.
991:.
969:.
959:27
957:.
935:^
915:21
895:51
890:.
872:.
859:^
849:.
837:^
823:.
805:.
782:.
774:.
762:20
760:.
756:.
744:^
730:.
722:.
714:.
704:18
702:.
698:.
686:^
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