923:, that the rabbis began to feel compelled to find authors for their books, and the process which led to Moses becoming identified as the author of the Torah may have been influenced by three factors: first, by a number of passages in which he is said to write something, frequently at the command of God, although these passages never appear to apply to the entire five books; second, by his key role in four of the five books (Genesis is the exception); and finally, by the way in which his authority as lawgiver and liberator of Israel united the story and laws of the Pentateuch.
953:(a summary of the required beliefs of Judaism), the 8th of which states: "I believe with perfect faith that the entire Torah presently in our possession is the one given to Moses." The rabbis explained that God wrote the Torah in heaven before the world was created, in letters of black fire on parchment of white fire, and that Moses received it by divine dictation, writing the exact words spoken to him by God. The rabbis also explained how the Torah was handed down to later generations: "Moses received the Torah from Sinai and transmitted it to
55:
1240:
698:
1103:
1032:(1843–1921), who attempted to defend Mosaic authorship by demonstrating that the sources identified by the documentary hypothesis were, in fact, pre-exilic; if this were proven, he believed, then the hypothesis itself was dis-proven. The most he would concede to the proponents of the hypothesis was that Moses may have written various scrolls over his career and that these may have been collated and united before his death.
20:
1372:: "Moses wrote this law and gave it to the priests, the sons of Levi, the ones carrying the Ark of the Covenant of the Lord" and Deuteronomy 31:24: "Moses ... finished writing the words of this law on a scroll." It is not clear just what Moses wrote, but it is usually taken to be the collection of laws that make up Deuteronomy 5–30.
1223:
Christian support for Mosaic authorship is now limited largely to conservative
Evangelical circles. This is tied to the way Evangelicals view the unity and authority of scripture: in the words of the Zondervan Encyclopedia of the Bible, "Faith in Christ and faith in the books of the OT canon stand or
1027:
in the 19th century, which understood the
Pentateuch as a composite work made up of four "sources," or documents, compiled over centuries in a process that was not concluded until long after Moses' death. The documentary hypothesis aroused understandable opposition from traditional scholars. One of
1171:
pointed out to his
Christian colleagues, "if any part is once proved spurious, a door will be opened for another and another without end." As Levi had feared, the questioning of Mosaic authorship led to a profound skepticism towards the very idea of revealed religion, and by the late 19th century
982:
was that the verses were indeed by Moses, but written "with tears in his eyes" as God dictated to him this description of his end. More serious were a few passages which implied an author long after the time of Moses, such as
Genesis 12:6, "The Canaanite was then in the land," implying a time when
879:
The development of the Torah began by around 600 BCE, when previously unconnected material began to be drawn together. By around 400 BCE these books, the forerunners of the Torah, had reached their modern form and began to be recognised as complete, unchangeable, and sacred. By around 200 BCE, the
995:
responded that Moses had written this and similar passages, as he was a prophet, but that it made no difference whether they were by him or some later prophet, "since the words of all of them are true and inspired." Finally, there were a few passages which implied that Moses had used pre-existing
968:
The rabbis were aware that some phrases in the Torah do not seem to fit with divine dictation of a pre-existent text, and this awareness accounts for a second tradition of how the divine word was transmitted: God spoke and Moses remembered the divine words and wrote them down afterwards, together
1218:
There is no one today who doubts the existence of these sources or refuses to admit a progressive development of the Mosaic Laws due to social and religious conditions of later time…. Therefore, we invite
Catholic scholars to study these problems, without prepossession, in the light of sound
1228:... took the Pentateuch as Mosaic put their seal on it as Holy Scripture." Nevertheless, the majority of contemporary Evangelicals, while accepting that some or much of the Pentateuch can be traced to Moses or traditions about him, pay little attention to the question of authorship.
1107:
1366:: "Here are the stages in the journey of the Israelites when they came out of Egypt ... at the Lord's command Moses recorded the stages in their journey; this is their journey by stages:" There follows a list of the places where the Israelites camped in the wilderness.
973:
is followed by the phrase, "As the Lord commanded Moses." There were also passages which seemed impossible for Moses to have written, notably the account of his own death and burial in last verses of
Deuteronomy: the Talmud's answer is that
957:, Joshua to the Elders, the Elders to the Prophets, and the Prophets transmitted it to the men of the Great Assembly," who in turn transmitted it to the rabbis. (The Great Assembly, according to Jewish tradition, was called by
1360:: Moses "wrote upon the tablets the words of the covenant, ten words." The identity of these "ten words" is not made clear, but probably is a reference to the Ten Commandments given several chapters previously, in Exodus 20.
1093:
when redacting that book. This view is supported by some rabbinical sources and medieval commentaries which recognize that the Torah incorporates written texts and divine messages from before and after the time of Moses.
904:
the meaning had expanded to include the other laws such as
Leviticus, and by the Hellenistic period, Jewish writers referred to the entirety of the five books, narrative and laws, as the Book (or books) of Moses.
1018:
Biblical scholars today agree almost unanimously that the Torah is the work of many authors over many centuries. A major factor in this rejection of the tradition of Mosaic authorship was the development of the
1162:
Jerome, Luther and others still believed that the bulk of the
Pentateuch was written by Moses, even if a few phrases were not, but in the 17th century scholars began to seriously question its origins, leading
1205:
encouraging scholars to investigate the sacred texts utilizing such resources as recent discoveries in archaeology, ancient history, linguistics, and other technical methods. On
January 16, 1948, cardinal
797:, how it was curated and transmitted to later generations, and how difficult passages such as the last verses of Deuteronomy, which describe his death, were to be explained. This culminated in the 8th of
868:
of Israel, the story of the people's origins and the foundations of their culture and institutions, and it is a fundamental principle of
Judaism that the relationship between God and his
1195:("On the authenticity of the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch") stating that Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch was not a subject of discussion. This started to change in 1943, when
1333:, dating from the early 2nd century BCE – pronouncements such as "These are the prophecies of Isaiah" identify bodies of tradition rather than authors. See Schniedewind, pp. 7–10.
884:. It seems that the tradition of Mosaic authorship was first applied to Deuteronomy, which scholars generally agree was composed in Jerusalem during the reform program of King
793:, an encyclopedia of Jewish tradition and scholarship composed between 200 and 500 CE. There, the rabbis noticed and addressed such issues as how Moses had received the divine
991:(c.1092–1167) made a celebrated comment on this phrase, writing that it contains "a great secret, and the person who understands it will keep quiet;" the 14th century rabbi
381:
1348:: God commands Moses: "Write this, a remembrance..." The context indicates that God is commanding Moses to record Joshua's battle with Amalek described in Exodus 7:8–13.
969:
with some explanatory phrases of his own. This explanation is a minority one, but it explains, for example, why every step in the description of the construction of the
770:
and was then gradually extended until Moses, as the central character, came to be regarded not just as the mediator of law but as author of both laws and narrative.
1393:
The episode of Balaam, found in the Book of Numbers, tells how the Canaanite prophet Balaam was asked by Israel's enemies to curse Israel, but blessed them instead.
1047:
adopted pagan practices from their neighbours and neglected the Torah of Moses, with the result that it became "blemished and maculated;" only on the return from
1176:
dated not from the time of Moses but from the 7th century BCE, with the Pentateuch as a whole being compiled by unknown editors from various originally distinct
1167:
to declare that "the Pentateuch was not written by Moses but by someone else." This conclusion had major implications, for as the 18th century Jewish scholar
1077:(1895–1983), taking a different approach, accepted the documentary hypothesis but adapted it to the Mosaic tradition, pointing to certain traditions of the
1143:), and the early Christians therefore followed the rabbis. Like them, they addressed those passages which seemed to cast doubt on the Mosaic tradition:
1947:
965:
therefore say that thanks to this chain of custodians the Torah of today is identical with that received by Moses, not varying by a single letter.
773:
The books of the Torah do not name any author, as authorship was not considered important by the society that produced them, and it was only after
978:
wrote ... eight verses of the Torah," yet this implied that the Torah was incomplete when Moses handed it to Israel; the explanation of rabbi
785:
that the rabbis began to find authors for their scriptures. By the 1st century CE, it was already common practice to refer to the five as the "
359:
941:, an encyclopedia of Jewish scholarship composed between 200 and 500 CE, states that "Moses wrote his own book and the section concerning
406:
1067:
sources, which indicate that Ezra played a role in editing the Torah. He further states that while the text of the Torah was corrupted,
1089:; based on a number of Bible verses and rabbinic statements, he therefore suggested that Moses made use of documents authored by the
726:
522:
428:
328:
209:
204:
2336:
1354:: "Moses wrote all the words of the Lord." This apparently refers to the laws which God has just given in Exodus 20:21–23:33.
1147:, for example, felt that "unto this day" implied an editor long after the time of Moses, presumably the 5th century BCE sage
881:
196:
2677:
1342:
See McEntire, 2008, pp. 8–9, for some of the passages in which Moses is said to write (this list is not exhaustive):
457:
2672:
2294:
2013:
232:
227:
1011:(the equivalent of brackets) which the rabbis said indicated that these verses were from a separate book, the Book of
844:(or Pentateuch, as biblical scholars sometimes call it) is the collective name for the first five books of the Bible:
2653:
2632:
2611:
2590:
2569:
2546:
2525:
2504:
2483:
2462:
2441:
2420:
2399:
2378:
2357:
2315:
2271:
2250:
2229:
2208:
2187:
2166:
2145:
2124:
2103:
2080:
2059:
2036:
375:
240:
1280:
651:
132:
691:
561:
323:
1211:
1188:
400:
824:. Despite this, the role of Moses is an article of faith in traditional Jewish circles and for some Christian
2137:
Remembering Biblical Figures in the Late Persian and Early Hellenistic Periods: Social Memory and Imagination
1225:
527:
1071:
was preserved intact, which is why the Oral Law appears to contradict the Biblical text in certain details.
896:(completed in the mid-6th century BCE) mean when they speak of the "torah of Moses". In later books such as
950:
932:
1402:
Eldad and Medad prophesied among the Israelites despite not having received the gift of prophecy from God.
1375:
719:
566:
1369:
1207:
423:
2263:
The Hebrew Bible, the Old Testament, and Historical Criticism: Jews and Christians in Biblical Studies
1363:
908:
Authorship was not considered important by the society that produced the Hebrew Bible (the Protestant
2687:
1108:
Light and Colour (Goethe's Theory) – The Morning after the Deluge – Moses Writing the Book of Genesis
992:
646:
1357:
1345:
1140:
54:
1351:
1268:
821:
591:
412:
370:
214:
1253:
1201:
616:
601:
551:
386:
186:
174:
155:
1311:
to Moses, but this article deals only with the written Torah, the first five books of the Bible.
2536:
1177:
1074:
1020:
961:
to ensure the accurate transmission of the Torah of Moses, when the Jews returned from exile).
828:
scholars, for whom it remains crucial to their understanding of the unity and authority of the
802:
712:
675:
667:
611:
581:
418:
391:
119:
2643:
2557:
2452:
2431:
2219:
2198:
2177:
2135:
2047:
1135:
himself recognised Moses as the author of at least some portions of the Pentateuch (e.g., the
789:", but the first unequivocal expression of the idea that this meant authorship appears in the
2601:
2579:
Van Seters, John (1998). "The Pentateuch". In Steven L. McKenzie, Matt Patrick Graham (ed.).
2389:
2326:
2261:
2114:
2091:
2070:
782:
606:
596:
495:
2494:
2473:
2410:
2347:
2156:
2024:
1274:
1258:
1168:
1086:
813:
546:
532:
447:
354:
281:
1842:
8:
1378:: "Moses wrote down this song on that day." The "song" is presumably Deuteronomy 32, the
1173:
1036:
920:
897:
873:
861:
778:
767:
576:
571:
556:
537:
472:
467:
260:
820:
of the five books led the majority of scholars to conclude that they are the product of
1090:
1029:
680:
662:
621:
437:
256:
150:
140:
1320:
The Jewish canon is made up of three parts, the Torah, the Prophets, and the Writings.
2649:
2628:
2607:
2586:
2565:
2542:
2521:
2500:
2479:
2458:
2437:
2416:
2395:
2374:
2353:
2332:
2311:
2290:
2283:
2267:
2246:
2225:
2204:
2183:
2162:
2141:
2120:
2099:
2076:
2055:
2032:
2027:. In Coogan, Marc Z. Brettler, Michael D.; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Newsom, Carol (eds.).
2009:
1056:
1024:
979:
938:
901:
853:
817:
790:
763:
513:
452:
1051:
did the people once again accept the Torah, which was then recompiled and edited by
27:
1304:
1263:
988:
962:
364:
342:
271:
191:
145:
2200:
Egypt on the Pentateuch's Ideological Map: Constructing Biblical Israel's Identity
1219:
criticism and of the findings of other sciences connected with the subject matter.
2622:
2580:
2515:
2368:
2305:
2240:
2003:
1184:
1116:
1112:
1012:
1001:
997:
857:
845:
743:
1043:, literally, "Israel has sinned", which states that the originally monotheistic
2692:
2682:
1164:
1136:
1068:
893:
889:
849:
825:
586:
462:
276:
67:
38:
1115:. It illustrates Turner's belief in God's omnipotence as it is He who creates
2666:
1379:
1196:
1152:
1128:
909:
869:
755:
110:
105:
2029:
The New Oxford Annotated Bible with Apocrypha: New Revised Standard Version
1245:
1008:
1005:
805:, establishing belief in Mosaic authorship as an article of Jewish belief.
786:
751:
702:
318:
313:
302:
124:
79:
2454:
The Meaning of the Pentateuch: Revelation, Composition and Interpretation
865:
1155:
similarly concluded that the description of Moses' death was written by
1308:
1285:
1102:
1078:
1044:
970:
946:
809:
798:
794:
641:
291:
89:
1082:
1748:
1159:– but believed that the question itself was of no great importance.
888:
in the late 7th century BCE; it is this law-code that books such as
296:
2496:
The Hebrew Bible Reborn: From Holy Scripture to the Book of Books
2475:
How the Bible Became a Book: The Textualization of Ancient Israel
1064:
1048:
808:
Mosaic authorship of the Torah was unquestioned by both Jews and
508:
308:
94:
1591:
1589:
1330:
1329:
The earliest Jewish text to identify its author is the Book of
1156:
1144:
1060:
984:
975:
954:
942:
885:
503:
286:
2005:
Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible
1685:
1214:, responded to a question about the origin of the Pentateuch:
1772:
1697:
1586:
1472:
1470:
1468:
1466:
1132:
841:
829:
759:
747:
84:
46:
2391:
Essential Torah: A Complete Guide to the Five Books of Moses
1531:
1529:
1123:
to survive, and inspires Moses to write the Book of Genesis.
1546:
1544:
1148:
1120:
1052:
958:
774:
19:
2582:
The Hebrew Bible today: an introduction to critical issues
1811:
1576:
1574:
1463:
926:
919:, when Jews came into intense contact with author-centric
912:), and the Torah never names an author. It was only after
2370:
The History of Scepticism : From Savonarola to Bayle
1916:
1784:
1726:
1724:
1561:
1559:
1526:
1980:
1673:
1541:
1504:
1502:
1500:
1422:
1420:
1418:
1968:
1760:
1661:
1637:
1571:
1453:
1451:
1449:
1447:
2349:
Struggling with God: An Introduction to the Pentateuch
1892:
1801:
1799:
1736:
1721:
1709:
1601:
1556:
2433:
Expanding the Palace of Torah: Orthodoxy and Feminism
1928:
1870:
1868:
1613:
1514:
1497:
1487:
1485:
1432:
1415:
880:
five books were accepted as the first section of the
2221:
Heavenly Torah: As Refracted Through the Generations
1880:
1625:
1444:
1235:
1187:
initially rejected such a position: a decree of the
2050:. In Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C. (eds.).
1853:
1796:
1649:
2282:
1904:
1865:
1823:
1482:
16:Belief that the Torah was dictated to Moses by God
2328:Reading the Pentateuch: a historical introduction
2664:
2624:An Introduction to the Old Testament Pentateuch
2560:. In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi (eds.).
1396:
835:
2133:
1754:
1703:
1172:scholars almost universally accepted that the
1081:which show Moses quoting Genesis prior to the
777:came into intense contact with author-centric
720:
2471:
2238:
2196:
1476:
1336:
2578:
2492:
2094:. In Barton, John; Muddiman, John (eds.).
1790:
1778:
1323:
1039:(1927-2022): he has developed a theory of
822:multiple authors throughout many centuries
727:
713:
2450:
2324:
2134:Edelman, Diana V.; Ben Zvi, Ehud (2013).
1986:
1607:
1580:
2387:
2345:
2259:
2239:Kugler, Robert; Hartin, Patrick (2009).
2022:
2001:
1742:
1730:
1679:
1667:
1643:
1565:
1550:
1520:
1508:
1438:
1426:
1101:
1000:(Numbers 10:35–36) is surrounded in the
762:. The tradition probably began with the
18:
2599:
2538:The Zondervan Encyclopedia of the Bible
2493:Shavit, Yaacov; Eran, Mordacai (2007).
2303:
2285:The Old Testament: A Brief Introduction
2217:
2175:
2112:
2068:
1934:
1898:
1715:
1691:
1619:
1535:
1457:
927:Rabbinic tradition to the modern period
2665:
2534:
2517:Introduction to reading the Pentateuch
2412:Deuteronomy: issues and interpretation
2366:
2089:
1974:
1922:
1595:
1387:
1097:
2641:
2555:
2280:
1886:
1835:
1631:
1314:
1298:
2645:An Introduction to the Old Testament
2620:
2429:
2408:
2307:An Introduction to the Old Testament
2154:
2045:
1910:
1874:
1859:
1829:
1817:
1805:
1766:
1655:
1491:
1035:Another important Jewish scholar is
949:(c.1135–1204) enshrined this in his
2541:. Vol. (volume 4). Zondervan.
2513:
13:
2179:The Cambridge Companion to Spinoza
1307:believe that God also revealed an
14:
2704:
2472:Schniedewind, William M. (2005).
2218:Heschel, Abraham Joshua (2005).
2092:"Introduction to the Pentateuch"
2075:. Augsburg Fortress Publishers.
2072:Introduction to the Hebrew Bible
2052:Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible
1950:De mosaica authentia Pentateuchi
1281:Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses
1238:
1193:De mosaica authentia Pentateuchi
696:
53:
2585:. Westminster John Knox Press.
2266:. Westminster John Knox Press.
2197:Greifenhagen, Franz V. (2003).
1995:
1952:- Pontificia Commissio Biblica"
1940:
692:Outline of Bible-related topics
2603:Introduction to the Pentateuch
2478:. Cambridge University Press.
2289:. Princeton University Press.
2260:Levenson, Jon Douglas (1993).
2182:. Cambridge University Press.
2119:. Cambridge University Press.
1224:fall together Christ and the
1212:Pontifical Biblical Commission
1189:Pontifical Biblical Commission
750:, the first five books of the
401:Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia
1:
1409:
913:
528:Historical-grammatical method
2242:An Introduction to the Bible
987:were no longer in the land.
951:Thirteen Principles of Faith
933:Moses in rabbinic literature
836:Development of the tradition
7:
2678:Biblical authorship debates
2600:Whybray, R. Norman (1995).
2564:. Oxford University Press.
2535:Tenney, Merrill C. (2010).
2451:Sailhamer, John D. (2010).
2373:. Oxford University Press.
2367:Popkin, Richard S. (2003).
2352:. Mercer University Press.
2325:McDermott, John J. (2002).
2281:Levin, Christoph L (2005).
2140:. Oxford University Press.
2113:Dozeman, Thomas B. (2010).
2098:. Oxford University Press.
2096:The Oxford Bible Commentary
2031:. Oxford University Press.
2023:Brettler, Marc Zvi (2010).
1231:
10:
2709:
2556:Tigay, Jeffrey H. (2004).
2002:Bandstra, Barry L (2008).
1755:Edelman & Ben Zvi 2013
1704:Edelman & Ben Zvi 2013
996:sources: a section of the
930:
758:, were dictated by God to
523:Allegorical interpretation
2673:1st-century introductions
2642:Young, Edward J. (1984).
2388:Robinson, George (2008).
2304:Longman, Tremper (2009).
2069:Collins, John J. (2014).
1028:the most significant was
993:Joseph ben Samuel Bonfils
2514:Ska, Jean-Louis (2006).
2409:Rofé, Alexander (2002).
1291:
1269:Historicity of the Bible
1208:Emmanuel Célestin Suhard
413:Novum Testamentum Graece
215:Composition of the Torah
2346:McEntire, Mark (2008).
1254:Authorship of the Bible
1202:Divino afflante Spiritu
2621:Wolf, Herbert (2007).
2562:The Jewish study Bible
2457:. InterVarsity Press.
1843:"Turner and Delacroix"
1791:Shavit & Eran 2007
1779:Shavit & Eran 2007
1694:, p. 539–540,546.
1598:, p. unpaginated.
1221:
1199:issued the encyclical
1124:
1111:, an 1843 painting by
1075:Menachem Mendel Kasher
1021:documentary hypothesis
816:, when the systematic
803:13 Principles of Faith
676:Criticism of the Bible
419:Documentary hypothesis
31:
2499:. Walter de Gruyter.
2176:Garrett, Don (1996).
2158:The Evolution of Adam
2090:Davies, G.I. (2007).
1820:, p. 297, fn.19.
1757:, p. 208, fn.37.
1216:
1105:
945:." The medieval sage
429:NT textual categories
22:
2627:. Moody Publishers.
2430:Ross, Tamar (2004).
2155:Enns, Peter (2012).
2046:Carr, David (2000).
1275:Moses and Monotheism
1259:Biblical archaeology
783:Second Temple period
376:Internal consistency
282:Samaritan Pentateuch
2394:. Knopf Doubleday.
1210:, secretary of the
1174:Book of Deuteronomy
1098:Christian tradition
1037:David Weiss Halivni
876:through the Torah.
812:until the European
779:Hellenistic culture
768:Book of Deuteronomy
746:tradition that the
210:New Testament canon
205:Old Testament canon
133:Chapters and verses
2116:Methods for Exodus
2048:"Genesis, Book of"
1925:, p. 195–196.
1781:, p. 143–144.
1769:, p. 185–186.
1538:, p. 539–540.
1191:of 1906, entitled
1125:
1030:David Zvi Hoffmann
681:Biblical authority
562:Capital punishment
438:Biblical criticism
407:Rahlfs' Septuagint
111:New Testament (NT)
106:Old Testament (OT)
32:
2415:. T&T Clark.
2338:978-0-8091-4082-4
2331:. Pauline Press.
2224:. A&C Black.
1477:Schniedewind 2005
1376:Deuteronomy 31:22
1127:According to the
1025:Julius Wellhausen
980:Shimon bar Yochai
939:Babylonian Talmud
818:textual criticism
791:Babylonian Talmud
740:Mosaic authorship
737:
736:
552:Conspiracy theory
481:
480:
220:Mosaic authorship
2700:
2688:Orthodox Judaism
2659:
2638:
2617:
2596:
2575:
2552:
2531:
2510:
2489:
2468:
2447:
2426:
2405:
2384:
2363:
2342:
2321:
2300:
2288:
2277:
2256:
2235:
2214:
2193:
2172:
2151:
2130:
2109:
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1370:Deuteronomy 31:9
1340:
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1264:Dating the Bible
1248:
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1178:source-documents
1055:as evidenced in
989:Abraham ibn Ezra
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1185:Catholic Church
1113:J. M. W. Turner
1100:
1041:Chate'u Yisrael
1013:Eldad and Medad
998:Book of Numbers
963:Orthodox rabbis
935:
929:
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872:was set out on
864:. It forms the
838:
764:legalistic code
744:Judeo-Christian
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2203:. Bloomsbury.
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2020:
2015:978-0495391050
2014:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1991:
1989:, p. 181.
1987:Sailhamer 2010
1979:
1967:
1956:www.vatican.va
1939:
1927:
1915:
1903:
1901:, p. 387.
1891:
1889:, p. 115.
1879:
1864:
1862:, p. 153.
1852:
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1808:, p. 192.
1795:
1793:, p. 143.
1783:
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1759:
1747:
1735:
1720:
1718:, p. 540.
1708:
1706:, p. 160.
1696:
1684:
1672:
1670:, p. 191.
1660:
1658:, p. 4–5.
1648:
1646:, p. 7–8.
1636:
1634:, p. 106.
1624:
1612:
1608:McDermott 2002
1600:
1585:
1581:McDermott 2002
1570:
1555:
1540:
1525:
1513:
1496:
1494:, p. 492.
1481:
1479:, p. 6–7.
1462:
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1411:
1408:
1405:
1404:
1395:
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1364:Numbers 33:1–2
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1137:Gospel of John
1099:
1096:
1069:oral tradition
931:Main article:
928:
925:
917: 300 BCE
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2310:. Zondervan.
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2017:
2011:
2008:. Wadsworth.
2007:
2006:
2000:
1999:
1988:
1983:
1976:
1971:
1957:
1953:
1951:
1943:
1937:, p. 15.
1936:
1931:
1924:
1919:
1913:, p. 17.
1912:
1907:
1900:
1895:
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1877:, p. 60.
1876:
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1861:
1856:
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1832:, p. 97.
1831:
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1792:
1787:
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1745:, p. 67.
1744:
1743:Levenson 1993
1739:
1733:, p. 66.
1732:
1731:Levenson 1993
1727:
1725:
1717:
1712:
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1700:
1693:
1688:
1681:
1680:McEntire 2008
1676:
1669:
1668:Bandstra 2008
1664:
1657:
1652:
1645:
1644:McEntire 2008
1640:
1633:
1628:
1622:, p. 73.
1621:
1616:
1609:
1604:
1597:
1592:
1590:
1583:, p. 21.
1582:
1577:
1575:
1568:, p. 63.
1567:
1566:Levenson 1993
1562:
1560:
1552:
1551:Robinson 2008
1547:
1545:
1537:
1532:
1530:
1523:, p. 10.
1522:
1521:McEntire 2008
1517:
1511:, p. 98.
1510:
1509:Robinson 2008
1505:
1503:
1501:
1493:
1488:
1486:
1478:
1473:
1471:
1469:
1467:
1460:, p. 50.
1459:
1454:
1452:
1450:
1448:
1441:, p. 11.
1440:
1439:McEntire 2008
1435:
1429:, p. 97.
1428:
1427:Robinson 2008
1423:
1421:
1419:
1414:
1399:
1390:
1381:
1380:Song of Moses
1377:
1374:
1371:
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1305:Orthodox Jews
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1197:Pope Pius XII
1194:
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1153:Martin Luther
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1129:New Testament
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1057:Ezra–Nehemiah
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911:
910:Old Testament
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903:
902:Ezra–Nehemiah
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870:chosen people
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831:
827:
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814:Enlightenment
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756:Old Testament
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723:
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711:
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690:
689:
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669:
668:Infallibility
666:
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567:Homosexuality
565:
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531:
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25:
21:
2648:. Eerdmans.
2644:
2623:
2606:. Eerdmans.
2602:
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2284:
2262:
2245:. Eerdmans.
2241:
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2199:
2178:
2157:
2136:
2115:
2095:
2071:
2054:. Eerdmans.
2051:
2028:
2004:
1996:Bibliography
1982:
1970:
1959:. Retrieved
1955:
1949:
1942:
1935:Whybray 1995
1930:
1918:
1906:
1899:Garrett 1996
1894:
1882:
1855:
1846:
1837:
1825:
1813:
1786:
1774:
1762:
1750:
1738:
1716:Heschel 2005
1711:
1699:
1692:Heschel 2005
1687:
1675:
1663:
1651:
1639:
1627:
1620:Dozeman 2010
1615:
1610:, p. 1.
1603:
1536:Heschel 2005
1516:
1458:Collins 2014
1434:
1398:
1389:
1358:Exodus 34:28
1346:Exodus 17:14
1338:
1325:
1316:
1300:
1273:
1246:Bible portal
1222:
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1200:
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1161:
1141:John 5:46–47
1126:
1106:
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1017:
967:
936:
907:
882:Jewish canon
878:
866:charter myth
839:
807:
787:Law of Moses
781:in the late
772:
752:Hebrew Bible
739:
738:
635:Perspectives
496:Hermeneutics
411:
399:
319:Luther Bible
314:Gothic Bible
303:Vetus Latina
301:
257:Translations
219:
197:Hebrew canon
125:Antilegomena
120:Deuterocanon
23:
1975:Davies 2007
1923:Popkin 2003
1596:Tenney 2010
1352:Exodus 24:4
874:Mount Sinai
862:Deuteronomy
826:Evangelical
533:Inspiration
371:Historicity
329:by language
261:manuscripts
2667:Categories
1961:2021-04-25
1887:Young 1984
1632:Tigay 2004
1410:References
1309:oral Torah
1286:The Exodus
1169:David Levi
1091:Patriarchs
1079:Oral Torah
1045:Israelites
985:Canaanites
971:Tabernacle
947:Maimonides
898:Chronicles
810:Christians
799:Maimonides
795:revelation
538:Literalism
448:Historical
355:Archeology
292:Septuagint
187:Authorship
175:Authorship
1911:Enns 2012
1875:Wolf 2007
1860:Enns 2012
1830:Ross 2004
1818:Ross 2004
1806:Ross 2004
1767:Ross 2004
1656:Rofé 2002
1492:Carr 2000
1139:, verses
1119:, allows
1117:the flood
1065:Midrashic
854:Leviticus
663:Inerrancy
473:Canonical
468:Redaction
360:Artifacts
141:Apocrypha
70:and books
2558:"Exodus"
2436:. UPNE.
1232:See also
1226:apostles
1083:epiphany
1061:Talmudic
1006:inverted
612:Violence
597:Serpents
587:Prophecy
582:Muhammad
297:Peshitta
287:Targumim
39:a series
37:Part of
2025:"Torah"
1151:, and
1049:Babylon
858:Numbers
846:Genesis
766:of the
742:is the
652:Quranic
647:Islamic
642:Gnostic
617:Warfare
607:Slavery
547:Alcohol
509:Midrash
453:Textual
309:Vulgate
95:Ketuvim
90:Nevi'im
2652:
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1331:Sirach
1157:Joshua
1145:Jerome
1002:Hebrew
976:Joshua
955:Joshua
943:Balaam
890:Joshua
886:Josiah
860:, and
850:Exodus
577:Incest
557:Ethics
514:Pardes
504:Pesher
458:Source
387:Places
382:People
365:Dating
192:Dating
146:Jewish
80:Tanakh
68:Canons
41:on the
30:(1638)
2693:Torah
2683:Moses
1292:Notes
1133:Jesus
1087:Sinai
894:Kings
842:Torah
830:Bible
760:Moses
748:Torah
622:Women
572:Humor
392:Names
85:Torah
47:Bible
24:Moses
2650:ISBN
2629:ISBN
2608:ISBN
2587:ISBN
2566:ISBN
2543:ISBN
2522:ISBN
2501:ISBN
2480:ISBN
2459:ISBN
2438:ISBN
2417:ISBN
2396:ISBN
2375:ISBN
2354:ISBN
2333:ISBN
2312:ISBN
2291:ISBN
2268:ISBN
2247:ISBN
2226:ISBN
2205:ISBN
2184:ISBN
2163:ISBN
2142:ISBN
2121:ISBN
2100:ISBN
2077:ISBN
2056:ISBN
2033:ISBN
2010:ISBN
1183:The
1149:Ezra
1121:Noah
1063:and
1059:and
1053:Ezra
1009:nuns
983:the
959:Ezra
937:The
900:and
892:and
840:The
775:Jews
592:Rape
463:Form
259:and
1180:.
1085:at
1023:by
1004:by
602:Sex
26:by
2669::
1954:.
1867:^
1845:.
1798:^
1723:^
1588:^
1573:^
1558:^
1543:^
1528:^
1499:^
1484:^
1465:^
1446:^
1417:^
1131:,
1015:.
914:c.
856:,
852:,
848:,
832:.
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156:NT
151:OT
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