85:
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378:. They were over half the population and had long fought integration into Iraq because they wanted independence. Most Kurds did not consider themselves as a part of the new country of Iraq. Various Kurdish leaders rallied Kurdish groups that already had their own weapons and had been helped by different imperial powers on occasions that it suited their needs. Furthermore, many Kurds felt betrayed by promises that the British had made in earlier times but not kept. Faisal wanted to integrate them because most were
188:
256:, the local Ottoman commander, and communications between London and the Ottoman government in which the British justified their intent by reference to Clause 7 of the agreement and their intent to proceed in any event, the local commander was instructed to withdraw, and the British occupied Mosul on 10 November 1918.
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majority of the Iraqi population. The
British liked and respected Faisal because of all of the assistance that he had given to them, and they also felt that they could trust him to do what they wanted. In that belief, Britain was both right and wrong. Faisal was a brilliant diplomat who balanced what
303:
Another area of contention between
Britain and Turkey was the actual boundary line. There was a Brussels Line, which had been decided by the League of Nations as the true border of Iraq, and a British line, which had been the division line that the Britain had used as reference. When that was brought
163:
On May 19, 1924, the
Istanbul Conference was held between Turkey and Britain. At the conference, the Turkish side argued that Mosul had historically always been Ottoman territory, that this situation had not changed at the end of the First World War, and that since two thirds of the population of the
588:
During the period of
Ottoman rule, Mosul was involved in the production of fine cotton goods. Oil was a known commodity in the region and has been critically important ever since World War I. Mosul was considered a trading capital of the Ottoman Empire because of its location along the trade routes
437:
that made up a total population of about 800,000 people in the early 20th century. The communities and their respective leaders were heavily influenced by the political hierarchy, trading networks, and the judicial system of the
Ottoman Empire even though they considered themselves on their own and
357:
Prior to the League of
Nations decision, Faisal had continually petitioned the British government to give control of Mosul to him so that he could succeed in his aim of unification. Finally, after the League of Nations decision, the British agreed to let Faisal control Mosul in return for important
263:
was signed to end the war, but the
Ottomans still contested the British right to Mosul as being taken illegally since Mudros. Even when the Treaty of Lausanne was signed between Turkey and Britain in 1923, Turkey maintained that Britain was controlling the Mosul vilayet illegally. British officials
597:
The leadership was constantly plagued with accusations of corruption and incompetence, and leaders were replaced with an alarming regularity. Also, because of those problems, the administration of Mosul was entrusted to Palace and notable favorites, and the high officials' careers were usually
280:
was called on to send a factfinding commission to determine the rightful owner. The commission investigated the region and reported that Turkey had no claim to Mosul, which belonged to the
British, and that no one else had any rightful claim to the area. Britain was highly influential in the
151:
were not “racially separable“, and that the Arabs constituted only a minority of the population. Turkey appealed for the population's right of self-determination and claimed that the majority wanted to be a part of Turkey. The
British responded that the Kurds were of
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province consisted of Muslim Turks and Kurds, Mosul should be within the borders of Turkey for historical, military and ethnic reasons. The
Istanbul Conference was dissolved after the British side steadfastly rejected Turkey's request. The dispute was taken to the
346:
the British wanted and the true needs of his people into a very complex system. However, one of the things that he wanted most was the unification of and a strong status for Iraq, which he did not believe to be possible without the control of the Mosul vilayet.
729:
453:, and claimed that the two ethnic groups were the same people by ancestral origin. The British rejected any ethno-national commonality between Turks and Kurds and emphasized that the Kurds and the Kurdish language were of
251:
For the British, "It was most desirable that Mosul should be occupied by the British force and General Marshall should send a detachment to Mosul to accept the surrender of the Turkish garrison". After discussions with
461:
and Kurdish ethnic composition of Mosul and the northern regions. Ismet Pasha insisted that the population of Turks in Mosul exceeded that of Arabs, although the British dismissed this argument and asserted that those
139:. Despite relentless opposition from Turkey, Britain managed to bring the issue to the international scene and to scale it down to a frontier problem between Turkey and Iraq. During the negotiations for the
218:
into areas of British and French control and spheres of influence. The Mosul vilayet was allocated to France by the agreement, and this accord was formally ratified in May 1916. Shortly before the end of
264:
in London and Baghdad continued to believe that Mosul was imperative to the survival of Iraq because of its resources and the security of its mountainous border. Turkish leaders were also afraid that
337:
ruler who had become the king of the newly-created state of Iraq by the British in 1921, also wanted to claim the Mosul vilayet as his. In part Faisal wanted the Mosul vilayet because due to its
168:, where the Turkish side repeated their arguments and demanded a general referendum. Britain rejected that request as well, stating that the people of the region lacked a national consciousness.
390:
later used the Kurds and their firepower to keep the unrest in Iraq. The Kurds did not want to be integrated into Iraq but supported the continuance of the British mandate in the area.
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Because the British also wanted to soothe Turkish anger over the League of Nations decision, they gave Turkey a portion of the oil profits. By having control over the oil and the
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289:, had already decided before the commission's work was completed that Britain needed to have control over the whole area because of its oil concerns for the
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appointed an investigative commission that recommended that Iraq should retain Mosul, and Turkey reluctantly assented to the decision by signing the
227:. The agreement stipulated a cessation of hostilities effective October 31, 1918. Three weeks after World War I ended, French Prime Minister
1134:
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population. Britain used both the Kurdish firepower and Faisal's desire for a united Iraq to keep a stranglehold over him, and Iran under
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origin, and on the 4 February 1923, the parties decided that the Mosul Question would be excluded from the Lausanne Treaty negotiations.
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promised Clemenceau a significant share of any oil discovered in British-controlled Mosul, possibly as much as 50 percent.
864:"The Creation of Iraq: 1914-1921" by Reeva Spector Simon and Eleanor H. Tejirian, New York: Columbia University Press 2004
1149:
1124:
300:, the British stayed in control of the resources of Mosul even though they had given political control back to Faisal.
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71:
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with the Iraqi government. Iraq agreed to give a 10 percent royalty on Mosul's oil deposits to Turkey for 25 years.
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to use the Brussels Line because they did not think there was that large of a difference between the two lines.
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17:
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695:"France's Middle Eastern Ambitions, the Sykes-Picot Negotiations, and the Oil Fields of Mosul, 1915-1918"
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354:, urged against concessions on Mosul, as he considered it "an integral part of the Arab state of Iraq".
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A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East
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would thrive under the British mandate and start trouble with the Kurdish population in Turkey.
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Assyrians, Kurds, and Ottomans: Intercommunal Relations on the Periphery of the Ottoman Empire
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8:
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1079:"Ottoman Administration of Iraq 1890-1908" by Gokhan Cetinsaya New York: Routledge, 2006
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223:, on October 30, 1918, the debilitated Ottoman Empire and the United Kingdom signed the
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20th-century territorial dispute between the Republic of Turkey and British-ruled Iraq
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origin. The British produced population statistics that backed up the predominantly
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Imperial Resilience: The Great War's End, Ottoman Longevity, and Incidental Nations
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647:
414:. In contrast to Mosul's neighbours, it was much more directly integrated into the
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403:
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936:"Identity and the Ba'th Regime's Campaign against Kurdish Rebels in Northern Iraq"
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The Geography of the Mosul Boundary "The Geographical Journal" by H.I. Lloyd 1926
426:
411:
329:
The Mosul vilayet was not just contested by external powers, Britain and Turkey.
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to India and the Mediterranean; it was also considered a political sub-capital.
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The Geography of the Mosul Boundary: Discussion "The Geographical Journal" 1926
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775:"The First World War continues: Britain's dash for Mosul, Iraq, November 1918"
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British and Ottoman officials meet in northern Iraq during November 1918
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1042:"A History of Iraq" by Charles Tripp, New York: Cambridge Press 2007
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312:, the British civil commissioner in Baghdad, urged Prime Minister
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To reach a resolution on the conflicting claims over Mosul, the
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claimed that the population of Mosul was primarily composed of
399:
379:
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105:
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Another internal group that wanted control over Mosul was the
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abandoned France's claim to Mosul and ceded control of all of
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418:. In terms of religious communities, it was predominately
636:"The Kurds and the Lausanne Peace Negotiations, 1922-23"
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382:, and he felt that he needed them to balance out the
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1918 Clemenceau–Lloyd George Agreement (Middle East)
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1918 Clemenceau–Lloyd George Agreement (Middle East)
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598:determined by tribal issues within their states.
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341:majority, it would bring a counterweight to the
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358:resource concessions. The British founded the
398:The vilayet contained populations that spoke
308:, the British High Commissioner of Iraq, and
131:, when it was occupied by Britain. After the
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116:) over the possession of the former Ottoman
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470:Ethnic groups in Mosul vilayet (1922–1924)
1145:Territorial disputes of the United Kingdom
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802:The British Army in Mesopotamia, 1914-1918
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1002:. Univ of California Press. p. 158.
885:The American Journal of International Law
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438:not completely controlled by the empire.
92:in 1914, with modern borders superimposed
72:Learn how and when to remove this message
1092:Newspaper clippings about Mosul question
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237:private discussion on December 1, 1918
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285:. The Secretary of the War Cabinet,
247:British occupation and Turkish claim
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123:The Mosul vilayet was part of the
104:in the early 20th century between
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826:Erik J. ZĂĽrcher (25 June 2004).
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206:In 1916, the United Kingdom and
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422:, with notable communities of
216:partitioned the Ottoman Empire
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832:. I.B.Tauris. pp. 133–.
699:The Journal of Modern History
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1140:Territorial disputes of Iraq
1055:. 2017-04-17. Archived from
996:Kayali, Hasan (2021-10-26).
879:Wright, Quincy (July 1926).
805:. McFarland. pp. 153–.
799:Paul Knight (16 July 2013).
304:up to British leaders, both
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133:Turkish War of Independence
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1150:Political history of Mosul
733:. Macmillan. p. 372.
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680:Ali, Othman (1997). p.522
652:10.1080/00263209708701167
360:Turkish Petroleum Company
173:League of Nations Council
829:Turkey: A Modern History
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235:to Britain, following a
613:Treaty of Ankara (1926)
584:An 1876 sketch of Mosul
177:Frontier Treaty of 1926
43:This article cites its
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762:The Historical Journal
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477:Number and percentage
364:Iraq Petroleum Company
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259:In August 1920, the
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266:Kurdish nationalism
225:Armistice of Mudros
102:territorial dispute
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331:Faisal ibn Hussein
241:David Lloyd George
229:Georges Clemenceau
210:signed the secret
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141:Treaty of Lausanne
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129:World War I
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946:(3): 388.
910:10 January
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619:References
512:Christians
291:Royal Navy
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727:(2009).
602:See also
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503:166,941
490:520,007
388:Khomeini
108:and the
1098:of the
1094:in the
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555:11,897
542:26,257
538:Yazidis
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516:61,336
464:Turkmen
431:Yazidis
408:Kurdish
404:Turkish
384:Shi'ite
366:(IPC).
183:History
112:(later
45:sources
1053:"Iraq"
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563:Total
506:20.8%
493:64.9%
412:Syriac
400:Arabic
380:Sunnis
333:, the
208:France
106:Turkey
100:was a
980:JSTOR
972:S2CID
964:JSTOR
901:JSTOR
664:JSTOR
569:100%
558:1.5%
545:3.3%
532:4.8%
525:Turks
519:7.7%
499:Arabs
486:Kurds
451:Kurds
447:Turks
376:Kurds
370:Kurds
339:Sunni
149:Turks
145:Kurds
1004:ISBN
956:ISSN
912:2023
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807:ISBN
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656:ISSN
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435:Jews
433:and
410:and
343:Shia
171:The
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