778:, however, Ibn Ra'iq received a nomination by the caliph to the governorship of Syria and in 939 marched west to claim it from al-Ikhshid's forces. Ibn Ra'iq's appointment enraged al-Ikhshid, who sent an envoy to Baghdad to clarify the situation. There Bajkam informed him that the caliph might appoint whomever he chose, but that it ultimately did not matter: it was military strength that would determine who was governor of Syria and even of Egypt, not any appointment by a figurehead caliph. If either Ibn Ra'iq or al-Ikhshid emerged victorious from the conflict, caliphal confirmation would soon follow. Al-Ikhshid was even more infuriated by the reply, and reportedly for a time even threatened to give one of his daughters to the Fatimid caliph al-Qa'im and to have coins minted and the
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Hamdanid ruler was also to marry one of al-Ikhshid's daughters or nieces. For al-Ikhshid, the maintenance of Aleppo was less important than southern Syria with
Damascus, which was Egypt's eastern bulwark. Provided that these remained under his control, he was more than willing to allow the existence of a Hamdanid state in the north. The Egyptian ruler knew that he would have difficulty in asserting and maintaining control over northern Syria and Cilicia, which had traditionally been influenced more by Upper Mesopotamia and Iraq. By abandoning its claims on these distant provinces, not only would Egypt be spared the cost of maintaining a large army there, but the Hamdanid emirate would also fulfil the useful role of a
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529:) on 22 September, suggesting that Ibn Tughj's nomination was in all likelihood also due to Mu'nis. The fact that al-Qahir sent a eunuch called Bushri to replace Ibn Tughj in Damascus after the fall of Mu'nis reinforces this view. Bushri was able to take over the governorship of Aleppo (to which he also had been appointed), but Ibn Tughj resisted his replacement, and defeated and took him prisoner. The caliph then charged Ahmad ibn Kayghalagh with forcing Ibn Tughj to surrender, but although Ahmad marched against Ibn Tughj, both avoided a direct confrontation. Instead, the two men met and reached an agreement of mutual support, upholding the status quo.
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Hamdanid garrisons withdrew before him, and in
September 944, al-Ikhshid reached Raqqa. Distrusting the Hamdanids given their treatment of Ibn Ra'iq, he waited until Sayf al-Dawla had left the city before entering it to meet the caliph. Al-Ikhshid tried without success to persuade al-Muttaqi to come with him to Egypt, or at least to stay in Raqqa, while the caliph tried to get al-Ikhshid to march against Tuzun, which al-Ikhshid refused. The meeting was not entirely fruitless, as al-Ikhshid secured an agreement that virtually repeated the terms of a similar treaty between the Tulunid Khumarawayh and Caliph
724:
679:, he was "a resolute prince, displaying great foresight in war, and a close attention to the prosperity of his empire; he treated the military class with honour and governed with ability and justice". His potential rivals Muhammad ibn Takin and al-Madhara'i were quickly won over and incorporated in the new administration. The latter had tried to resist al-Ikhshid's takeover in vain, as his troops had immediately defected, and was initially imprisoned by al-Ikhshid, only to be released in 939. He soon recovered his status and influence, and briefly served as regent of al-Ikhshid's son and heir,
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Kayghalagh was indicative of his approach: instead of a direct clash, the truce between the two gave al-Ikhshid the time to reconnoitre the situation in Egypt before acting. Although following in the footsteps of Ibn Tulun, his ambitions were more modest and his objectives more practical, as became particularly evident in his policies towards Syria and the rest of the
Caliphate. Historically, possession of Syria, and particularly Palestine, was a foreign policy objective for many rulers of Egypt, to foreclose the most likely invasion route into the country. Ibn Tulun before and
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get to keep northern Syria, while al-Ikhshid would pay him an annual tribute for the possession of
Palestine and Damascus. Sayf al-Dawla refused and reportedly even boasted that he would conquer Egypt itself, but al-Ikhshid held the upper hand: his agents managed to bribe several Hamdanid leaders, and he won over the citizens of Damascus, who barred their gates before the Hamdanid and opened them for al-Ikhshid. The two armies met near Qinnasrin in May, where the Hamdanids were defeated. Sayf al-Dawla fled to Raqqa, leaving his capital Aleppo to be captured by al-Ikhshid.
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1056:. There were important differences, however: al-Ikhshid lacked the "flamboyance" (Hugh Kennedy) of the Tulunids. Al-Ikhshid's caution and self-imposed restraint in his foreign policy objectives also stood in stark contrast with his contemporaries and other rulers of Egypt who preceded and followed him, earning him a reputation of extreme caution, often misinterpreted as timidity by contemporaries. He was also described as less cultivated than his predecessor Ibn Tulun. Unlike Ibn Tulun, who built an entire new capital at
764:. Although carried out in the name of Caliph al-Radi, it was a special honour and an implicit recognition of al-Ikhshid's autonomy, since correspondence and negotiations for such events were normally directed to the caliph rather than provincial governors. The exchange took place in autumn 938, resulting in the release of 6,300 Muslims for an equivalent number of Byzantine captives. As the Byzantines held 800 more prisoners than the Muslims, these had to be ransomed and were gradually released over the next six months.
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241:. In 933, he was briefly named governor of Egypt, but this order was revoked after the death of Mu'nis, and Ibn Tughj had to fight to preserve even his governorship of Damascus. In 935, he was re-appointed to Egypt, where he quickly defeated a Fatimid invasion and stabilized the turbulent country. His reign marks a rare period of domestic peace, stability and good government in the annals of early Islamic Egypt. In 938 Caliph
1041:. The succession of his son Unujur was peaceful and undisputed, due to the influence of the powerful and talented commander-in-chief, Kafur. One of the many Black African slaves recruited by al-Ikhshid, Kafur remained the paramount minister and virtual ruler of Egypt over the next 22 years, assuming power in his own right in 966 until his death two years later. Encouraged by Kafur's demise, in 969 the Fatimids
1068:, he was described by medieval chroniclers as "a choleric and gluttonous man, yet shrewd and inclined toward avarice", but with a fondness for luxuries imported from the east, and especially perfumes. His love of eastern luxuries soon spread among the upper classes of Fustat as well and influenced the style and fashion of local Egyptian products in turn, which began to imitate them.
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realist". His goals were limited but clear: his main concern was Egypt proper and the establishment of his family as a hereditary dynasty over it, while Syria remained a secondary objective. Unlike other military strongmen of the time, he had no intention of entering the contest for control of
Baghdad and the caliphal government through the all-powerful office of
505:, may indicate that Ibn Tughj commanded a significant military force. Three years later, in July 931, Muhammad ibn Tughj was promoted to governor of Damascus, while al-Rashidi returned to Ramla. Both these appointments were likely the result of Ibn Tughj's relation with Mu'nis al-Muzaffar, who at this time was at the zenith of his power and influence.
801:, the two men came to an understanding, dividing Syria between them: the areas from Ramla to the south would be under al-Ikhshid, and the areas to the north under Ibn Ra'iq. In May or June 940, however, al-Ikhshid learned that Ibn Ra'iq had once again moved against Ramla. Once more, the Egyptian ruler led his army to battle. Although defeated at
866:. Al-Ikhshid used the opportunity to reoccupy Syria for himself, joining his forces in person in June 942, and venturing as far as Damascus, before returning to Egypt in January 943. The Hamdanids also staked claim on Syria at the same time, but the sources do not record details of their expeditions there. Nasir al-Dawla's position as
809:. Despite his victory, Ibn Ra'iq opted for peace: he gave Abu Nasr an honourable burial and sent his son, Muzahim, as envoy to Egypt. True to his political strategy, al-Ikhshid accepted. The agreement saw the restoration of the territorial status quo of the previous year, but with al-Ikhshid paying an annual tribute of 140,000 gold
915:), for a period of thirty years, with the right of hereditary succession for al-Ikhshid's sons. This development had already been anticipated by al-Ikhshid the previous year, when he named his son Unujur as his regent during his absences from Egypt, although Unujur had not yet come of age, and had required an oath of allegiance (
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states did not clash. Despite Sayf al-Dawla's attempt to push again into southern Syria soon after al-Ikhshid's death, the border agreed in 945 held, and even outlived both dynasties, forming the dividing line between
Mesopotamian-influenced northern Syria and the Egyptian-controlled southern part of the country until the
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Nevertheless, in
October the two sides came to an agreement, broadly on the lines of the earlier Ikhshidid proposal: al-Ikhshid acknowledged Hamdanid control over northern Syria and even consented to sending an annual tribute in exchange for Sayf al-Dawla's renunciation of all claims on Damascus. The
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and burned its arsenal. Ibn Tughj's admirals Ali ibn Badr and Bajkam defected to the
Fatimids, and Alexandria itself was captured in March 936. Nevertheless, on 31 March, Ibn Tughj's brother al-Hasan defeated the Fatimid forces near Alexandria, driving them out of the city and forcing the Fatimids to
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Throughout his governorship, al-Ikhshid was engaged in conflicts with other regional strongmen for control over Syria, without which Egypt was vulnerable to invasion from the east, but unlike many other
Egyptian leaders, notably the Tulunids themselves, he was prepared to bide his time and compromise
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Following his meeting with al-Muttaqi, al-Ikhshid returned to Egypt, leaving the field open for the ambitious Sayf al-Dawla. The
Ikhshidid forces left behind in Syria were relatively weak, and the Hamdanid leader, having gained the support of the Banu Kilab, had little difficulty in capturing Aleppo
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As it happened, al-Muttaqi was persuaded by the emissaries of Tuzun, who protested his loyalty, to return to Iraq, only to be seized, blinded and deposed on 12 October and replaced by al-Mustakfi. Al-Mustakfi reconfirmed al-Ikhshid's governorship, but by this point it was an empty gesture. According
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in 946, before being overthrown and imprisoned for a year. Thereafter, and until his death in 957, he retired into private life. Like the Tulunids before him, al-Ikhshid also took particular care to build up a considerable military force of his own, including Turkic and Black African slave soldiers.
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attack on Damascus in 903; although defeated in battle, he held the city itself against the Qarmatians for seven months until, with the arrival of reinforcements from Egypt, the Qarmatians were driven away. Thus Muhammad ibn Tughj spent a great part of his youth in the Tulunid Levant at his father's
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and retreated back to Egypt, abandoning Damascus and Palestine to the Hamdanids. Al-Ikhshid was then forced to once again campaign in person in April 945, but at the same time he sent envoys proposing to Sayf al-Dawla an agreement along the lines of the one with Ibn Ra'iq: the Hamdanid prince would
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In the meantime, al-Muttaqi with Sayf al-Dawla had fled to Raqqa before Tuzun's advance, but the caliph grew increasingly suspicious of the Hamdanids, and wrote to al-Ikhshid (perhaps as early as the winter of 943), asking for aid. The latter immediately responded by leading an army into Syria. The
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against incursions from both Iraq and a resurgent Byzantine Empire. Indeed, throughout al-Ikhshid's rule, and that of his successors, relations with the Byzantines were quite friendly, as the lack of a common border and the common hostility to the Fatimids guaranteed that the interests of the two
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In Syria, Muhammad ibn Tughj joined the service of the tax supervisor of the local provinces, Abu'l-Abbas al-Bistam. He soon followed his new master to Egypt, and after al-Bistam's death in June 910 he continued serving the latter's son. Eventually, he gained the attention of the local governor,
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As commander and ruler in Egypt, al-Ikhshid was a patient and cautious man. He achieved his goals as much by diplomacy and ties to powerful personages in the Baghdad regime as by force, and even then he tended to avoid direct military confrontation whenever possible. His conflict with Ahmad ibn
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after al-Ikhshid were two typical examples of Egyptian rulers who spent much of their reigns securing control of Syria, and indeed used Egypt mostly as a source of revenue and resources to accomplish this goal. Al-Ikhshid differed from them; Bacharach describes him as a "cautious, conservative
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revolt in 942, which was swiftly suppressed—stands in stark contrast to the usual narrative of Bedouin raids, urban riots over high prices, or military and dynastic revolts and intrigues, and indicates that he was successful in restoring internal tranquillity and orderly government in Egypt.
574:, whose son was married to one of Ibn Tughj's daughters, Ibn Tughj was once more named the governor of Egypt. Taking no chances, Ibn Tughj organized an invasion of the country by land and sea. Although Ahmad ibn Kayghalagh was able to delay the advance of the army, Ibn Tughj's fleet took
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writes, "in some ways the Fatimid threat actually helped Ibn Tughj" since, as long as he supported the Abbasids, "the caliphs were prepared to give their approval to his rule in return". His standing in the Abbasid court was sufficient for him to ask in 938 for the honorific title
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and northern Syria in the autumn of 944, and although defeated and driven out of Syria by Ibn Tughj himself in the next year, a treaty dividing the region along the lines of the agreement with Ibn Ra'iq was concluded in October. Ibn Tughj died nine months later, and was buried in
805:, al-Ikhshid was able to quickly rally his troops and ambush Ibn Ra'iq, preventing him from entering Egypt proper and forcing him to retreat back to Damascus. Al-Ikhshid sent his brother, Abu Nasr al-Husayn, with another army against Ibn Ra'iq, but he was defeated and killed at
667:, originally held by the kings of his ancestral homeland Farghana. Caliph al-Radi granted the request, although formal approval was delayed until July 939. After receiving official confirmation, Ibn Tughj required that he be henceforth addressed solely by his new title.
649:) in 936, Muhammad ibn Tughj could present a commendable record: the Fatimid invasion was defeated and first measures for improving the financial situation in the province had been undertaken. The caliph confirmed him in his post and sent robes of honour. As
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but grew up in Syria and acquired his first military and administrative experiences at his father's side. He had a turbulent early career: he was imprisoned along with his father by the Abbasids in 905, was released in 906, participated in the murder of the
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sheltered the caliph, they also did not confront Tuzun's troops, and in May 944 they reached an agreement that gave Upper Mesopotamia and northern Syria to the Hamdanids in exchange for recognizing Tuzun's possession of Iraq. Nasir al-Dawla sent his cousin
275:; the caliph had fled there from the various strongmen vying to kidnap him and control the caliphal government in Baghdad. Although unsuccessful in persuading the caliph to come to Egypt, he received recognition of hereditary rule over Egypt, Syria and the
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Ahmad ibn Kayghalagh soon proved incapable of restoring order to the increasingly turbulent province. By 935, the troops were rioting over lack of pay, and Bedouin raids had recommenced. At the same time, Takin's son Muhammad and the fiscal administrator
793:, Ibn Ra'iq's troops swiftly took over the districts of northern Syria, where al-Ikhshid's brother Ubayd Allah was governor, while the Egyptian forces retreated south. By October or November, Ibn Ra'iq's men had reached Ramla and moved on into the
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Takin died in March 933, and his son and nominated successor, Muhammad, failed to establish his authority in Egypt. Ibn Tughj was named as the new governor in August but the appointment was revoked a month later before he could reach Egypt, and
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in 896, the Tulunid state quickly began crumbling from within, and failed to put up any serious resistance when the Abbasids moved to re-establish direct control over Syria and Egypt in 905. Tughj defected to the invading Abbasids under
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once again retreat from Egypt to their base at Barqa. During the campaign, Ibn Tughj notably prohibited his troops from looting, which, according to J. L. Bacharach, was indicative of his "long-term view towards his stay in Egypt".
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that had handled the province's finances since the time of Ibn Tulun and amassed enormous wealth—undermined Ahmad ibn Kayghalagh and coveted his position. Infighting broke out among the troops between the Easterners
921:) to be sworn to him. Nevertheless, as Michael Brett comments, the territories conferred were "mixed blessings", as the holy cities were exposed to Qarmatian raids, while the marches of the
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raiders, thereby improving his standing at the Abbasid court. Two years later, Ibn Tughj gained an influential patron when he briefly served under the powerful Abbasid commander-in-chief
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were imprisoned in Baghdad. Tughj died in prison in 906, and the brothers were freed shortly after. The sons of Tughj participated in the palace coup that tried to depose the new caliph,
774:
was in power in Baghdad (936–938) with al-Ikhshid's old friend al-Fadl ibn Ja'far ibn al-Furat as vizier, relations with Baghdad were good. Following Ibn Ra'iq's replacement by the Turk
1014:
In mid-spring 946, al-Ikhshid sent emissaries to the Byzantines for yet another prisoner exchange (which eventually would take place under Sayf al-Dawla's auspices in October). Emperor
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and moved on to the capital Fustat. Outmanoeuvred and defeated in battle, Ahmad ibn Kayghalagh fled to the Fatimids. The victorious Muhammad ibn Tughj entered Fustat on 26 August 935.
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to take over the Syrian provinces allotted to him in this agreement. The Ikhshidid forces either defected or retreated, and al-Husayn swiftly took over the districts of Qinnasrin and
731:
Following the expulsion of the Fatimids from Egypt, al-Ikhshid had his troops occupy all of Syria up to Aleppo, allying himself, as Ibn Tulun had done, with the local tribe of
874:. In October, Caliph al-Muttaqi, fearing that Tuzun intended to replace him, fled the capital and sought refuge with the Hamdanids. Although Nasir al-Dawla and his brother
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When Takin returned to Egypt as governor in 923, Ibn Tughj joined him there, but the two men fell out in 928 over Takin's refusal to give Ibn Tughj the post of governor of
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invasion. During the campaign, Ibn Tughj commanded the finest troops of the Egyptian army. The two men evidently established a rapport, and remained in contact thereafter.
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minted in Palestine under al-Ikhshid, 944 CE. From 942 on, Ibn Tughj included his name and title ("Muhammad al-Ikhshid"), alongside that of the caliph in his coinage.
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and read the Friday prayer in the new caliph's name, based on the available numismatic evidence, he appears to have delayed recognition of both al-Mustakfi and his
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read in his name rather than the Abbasid caliph, until the Abbasids formally reconfirmed his position. The Fatimids themselves were preoccupied with the revolt of
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1048:
Medieval historians noted the many parallels between al-Ikhshid and his Tulunid predecessors, especially Khumarawayh. Ibn Sa'id even reported that according to
670:
Very little is known about al-Ikhshid's domestic policies. Nevertheless, the silence of the sources about domestic troubles during his reign—apart from a minor
417:, and was named governor of Aleppo in return; Muhammad al-Katib himself fell victim to court intrigues soon after, and Tughj along with his sons Muhammad and
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on 29 October 944. He then began extending his control over the provinces of northern Syria down to Hims. Al-Ikhshid sent an army under the eunuchs
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Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit Online. Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Nach Vorarbeiten F. Winkelmanns erstellt
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in December 908. Although the attempt failed, Muhammad ibn Tughj and his brother were able to avenge themselves for their imprisonment on the
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between 939 and 942. Following Ibn Ra'iq's murder, al-Ikhshid reimposed his control over northern Syria, only to have it challenged by the
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in response, which arrived at Damascus on 11 July. On 24 July 946, al-Ikhshid died in Damascus; his body was transported for burial in
823:
Peace did not last for long, as the political turmoil in Baghdad continued. In September 941, Ibn Ra'iq assumed once more the post of
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was appointed in his place. The timing of Ibn Tughj's recall coincides with the arrest (and subsequent murder) of Mu'nis by Caliph
952:) for several months by refraining from including them in his coinage, in an act that was a deliberate and clear statement of his
570:, who backed Ahmad ibn Kayghalagh. With the support this time of the former vizier and inspector-general of the western provinces
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The Rise of the Fatimids: The World of the Mediterranean and the Middle East in the Fourth Century of the Hijra, Tenth Century CE
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with his rivals. Although he was initially in control of the entirety of Syria, he was forced to cede the northern half to
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records that in the correspondence of the Byzantine court, the "Emir of Egypt" was accorded a golden seal worth four
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Matériaux pour un Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum, Deuxième partie: Syrie du Sud. Tome deuxième: Jérusalem "Haram"
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side, gaining his first experiences in administration—he served as his father's sub-governor of Tiberias—and war.
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The Mashhad (Mausoleum) of al-Tabataba, erected in 943 CE during the reign of Muhammad ibn Tughj al-Ikhshid in
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Bacharach, Jere L. (1975). "The Career of Muḥammad Ibn Ṭughj Al-Ikhshīd, a Tenth-Century Governor of Egypt".
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were increasingly menaced by the Byzantines, and Aleppo (with northern Syria) was coveted by the Hamdanids.
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The Breaking of a Thousand Swords: A History of the Turkish Military of Samarra (A.H. 200–275/815–889 C.E.)
604:) to invade Egypt with their assistance. The Fatimid invasion met with initial success: the Fatimid army's
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749:. Thus, in 936/7 or 937/8 (most likely in autumn 937) he received an embassy from the Byzantine emperor,
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to strengthen his hold over northern Syria. As governor of Syria, his remit extended to the borderlands (
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344:", is a Turkic royal title. Muhammad's grandfather Juff left Farghana to enter military service in the
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1064:, al-Ikhshid was neither a patron of artists and poets nor a major builder. According to historian
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The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century
2173:(1936). "Une lettre de Muḥammad ibn Ṭuġj al-Ihšid, émir d'Egypte, à l'empereur Romain Lécapène".
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1052:, the two men had entered Egypt on the same day of the year and with the same star in the same
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independence from Baghdad. This independence was also acknowledged by others; the contemporary
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Islamic History Through Coins: An Analysis and Catalogue of Tenth-century Ikhshidid Coinage
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in 886. The caliph recognized the authority of al-Ikhshid over Egypt, Syria (with the
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With the capital under his control, Ibn Tughj now had to confront the Fatimids. The
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caravan, among which was one of the ladies-in-waiting of al-Muqtadir's mother, from
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for Damascus, whose governorship he assumed. His flight, according to historian
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2404:(in French). Cairo: Imprimerie de l'Institut français d'archéologie oriantele.
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Towards a Shi'i Mediterranean Empire: Fatimid Egypt and the Founding of Cairo
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Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, Translated from the Arabic. Vol. III
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also proved to be weak, and in June 943 he was ousted by the Turkish general
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by a ruse, and managed to obtain for himself an appointment as governor of
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under the leadership of Habashi ibn Ahmad, and invited the Fatimid ruler
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as ruler of his domains, under the tutelage of the powerful black eunuch
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for thirty years. Following his departure, the ambitious Hamdanid prince
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who refused to submit to Ibn Tughj had fled to Alexandria and then to
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from Baghdad; the incumbent, al-Rashidi, fled the governor's seat at
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The Cambridge History of Egypt, Volume 1: Islamic Egypt, 640–1517
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Map of the region of Syria and its provinces under the Abbasids
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183:) from 935 until his death in 946. He was the founder of the
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1797:
1770:
1729:
1702:
1636:
1595:
1583:
1571:
1415:
1391:
1381:
1379:
1347:
Architecture for the Dead : Cairo's Medieval Necropolis
1313:
1258:
687:
2155:. The Medieval Mediterranean. Vol. 30. Leiden: BRILL.
1998:
1996:
1981:
1933:
1909:
1899:
1897:
1895:
1893:
1812:
1787:
1785:
1760:
1758:
1756:
1719:
1717:
1614:
1612:
1610:
1512:
1510:
1508:
1506:
1291:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1248:
1246:
1244:
1242:
1240:
1089:
989:
613:
466:
377:
325:
42:
2359:; Ludwig, Claudia; Pratsch, Thomas; Zielke, Beate (2013).
2134:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 86–119.
1969:
1665:
1663:
1661:
1659:
1657:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1493:
1491:
1489:
1427:
1189:
1179:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1109:
1107:
209:
rulers of Egypt and Syria, Muhammad ibn Tughj was born in
171:
commander and governor who became the autonomous ruler of
2383:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 21–73.
1880:
1878:
1561:
1559:
1557:
1555:
1553:
1551:
1549:
1476:
1474:
1376:
988:
and Fatik against the Hamdanid, but it was defeated near
540:, is the only remaining monument of the Ikhshidid period.
2194:. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press.
1993:
1945:
1890:
1863:
1827:
1782:
1753:
1714:
1607:
1534:
1522:
1503:
1325:
1282:
1237:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1150:
1148:
1146:
1131:
929:
to J. L. Bacharach, although the 13th-century historian
340:, and claimed royal descent; the name of his ancestor, "
1648:
1486:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1270:
1166:
1104:
205:
origin who served both the Abbasids and the autonomous
1875:
1546:
1471:
1444:
1442:
1225:
1201:
903:(carrying with it the prestigious guardianship of the
251:, which had been borne by the rulers of his ancestral
233:. These ties led him to being named governor first of
1851:
1690:
1143:
316:
According to the biographical dictionary compiled by
1454:
1403:
255:. It is by this title that he was known thereafter.
152:(8 February 882 – 24 July 946), better known by the
2128:"Autonomous Egypt from Ibn Ṭūlūn to Kāfūr, 868–969"
1741:
1439:
2210:
2187:
2076:
1350:. American Univ in Cairo Press. pp. 96, 297.
2263:The Empire of the Mahdi: The Rise of the Fatimids
2554:Prisoners and detainees of the Abbasid Caliphate
2510:
1045:, beginning a new era in the country's history.
324:on 8 February 882, on the street leading to the
1680:
1678:
225:to enter the service of the governor of Egypt,
818:
456:, who sent him to govern the lands beyond the
2284:
1125:
1098:
933:reports that al-Ikhshid immediately took the
27:Ruler of Egypt and the Levant from 935 to 946
1675:
675:According to the biographical dictionary of
2397:
2367:(in German). Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter.
1963:
1343:
715:) offered him the post, he turned it down.
478:, when he came to help defend Egypt from a
400:). He played a major role in repelling the
372:. Tughj served the Tulunids as governor of
2377:"The Fatimids and the Qarmaṭīs of Baḥrayn"
2234:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
2208:
2100:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
1385:
718:
425:(reigned 908–932), in favour of the older
2415:
2074:
2029:
2014:
2002:
1951:
1903:
1869:
1845:
1833:
1806:
1791:
1776:
1764:
1735:
1723:
1708:
1642:
1630:
1618:
1601:
1589:
1577:
1540:
1528:
1516:
1421:
1397:
1331:
1319:
1295:
1264:
1252:
1183:
1113:
786:and were unable to offer any assistance.
688:Foreign policy and the struggle for Syria
2549:10th-century monarchs in the Middle East
2371:
2122:
1987:
1939:
1915:
1669:
1497:
1480:
1370:
1344:Kadi, Galila El; Bonnamy, Alain (2007).
970:
722:
624:
531:
436:, whom they struck down with the aid of
307:
303:
2529:10th-century Abbasid governors of Egypt
2422:. Cairo: American University in Cairo.
2331:
1975:
1884:
1821:
1565:
1433:
1307:
1231:
1219:
1195:
1160:
14:
2569:Amir al-umara of the Abbasid Caliphate
2511:
2381:Mediaeval Isma'ili History and Thought
2185:
2169:
1927:
1857:
1696:
1137:
620:
547:Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Ali al-Madhara'i
360:. Juff and his son, Muhammad's father
2148:
1465:
1409:
968:, the same as the caliph in Baghdad.
245:granted his request for the title of
2361:"Muḥammad b. Ṭuġǧ al-Iḫšīd (#25443)"
2341:(Second ed.). Harlow: Longman.
2317:. London and New York: I.B. Tauris.
2310:
2256:
2242:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 953.
2108:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 411.
1747:
1448:
1276:
1207:
508:
1009:
408:After the death of Ibn Tulun's son
187:, which ruled the region until the
164:
24:
2409:
1006:seized the entire region in 1260.
434:al-Abbas ibn al-Hasan al-Jarjara'i
312:Map of the Tulunid domains ca. 893
219:al-Abbas ibn al-Hasan al-Jarjara'i
25:
2580:
2559:Syria under the Abbasid Caliphate
2501:Abu'l-Qasim Unujur ibn al-Ikhshid
2492:autonomous, from 944 hereditary)
320:, Muhammad ibn Tughj was born in
2355:
1684:
975:Map of the fragmentation of the
489:. Ibn Tughj escaped the capital
448:, while Muhammad fled to Syria.
388:(the capital of the district of
1337:
1020:
947:
833:
755:
710:
644:
608:Berbers captured the island of
599:
572:al-Fadl ibn Ja'far ibn al-Furat
524:
267:. In 944 al-Ikhshid met Caliph
2539:Abbasid governors of Palestine
415:Muhammad ibn Sulayman al-Katib
13:
1:
2534:Abbasid governors of Damascus
1083:
979:in the 9th and 10th centuries
444:and Ubayd Allah fled east to
45:of Egypt, Syria and the Hejaz
35:Muhammad ibn Tughj al-Ikhshid
2379:. In Daftary, Farhad (ed.).
2311:Jiwa, Shainool, ed. (2009).
1930:, pp. 190–193, 205–209.
827:at the invitation of Caliph
7:
2416:Bacharach, Jere L. (2006).
2186:Gordon, Matthew S. (2001).
2130:. In Petry, Carl F. (ed.).
2075:Bacharach, Jere L. (1993).
1071:
1043:invaded and conquered Egypt
819:Conflict with the Hamdanids
54:26 August 935 – 24 July 946
10:
2585:
2023:
2497:
2461:
2439:
2398:van Berchem, Max (1927).
2296:Baron Mac Guckin de Slane
2209:Gottschalk, H.L. (1986).
137:
127:
115:
103:
87:
68:
58:
50:
39:
34:
2078:"Muḥammad b. Ṭug̲h̲d̲j̲"
1373:, pp. 97, 105, 111.
1310:, pp. 191–194, 311.
1222:, pp. 184–185, 310.
1128:, pp. 217, 219–220.
1025:) sent an embassy under
328:Gate. His family was of
2149:Brett, Michael (2001).
1078:10th century in Lebanon
719:Conflict with Ibn Ra'iq
464:. In 918, he rescued a
352:, as did the father of
980:
840:Abu'l-Husayn al-Baridi
728:
704:; indeed, when Caliph
635:
551:dynasty of bureaucrats
541:
313:
2357:Lilie, Ralph-Johannes
974:
941:-installed successor
931:Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi
726:
628:
535:
356:, the founder of the
311:
304:Origin and early life
2443:Ahmad ibn Kayghalagh
1824:, pp. 196, 312.
1633:, pp. 597, 603.
1198:, pp. 185, 286.
1050:Egyptian astrologers
516:Ahmad ibn Kayghalagh
167:) after 939, was an
2564:People from Baghdad
2017:, pp. 610–612.
1990:, pp. 115–118.
1978:, pp. 312–313.
1942:, pp. 113–114.
1918:, pp. 113–115.
1848:, pp. 603–608.
1809:, pp. 602–603.
1779:, pp. 601–602.
1738:, pp. 599–600.
1711:, pp. 598–599.
1645:, pp. 597–598.
1604:, pp. 596–597.
1592:, pp. 594–595.
1580:, pp. 595–596.
1436:, pp. 311–312.
1424:, pp. 592–594.
1400:, pp. 592–593.
1322:, pp. 591–592.
1279:, pp. 208–209.
1267:, pp. 589–590.
1210:, pp. 143–144.
1140:, pp. 158–159.
881:al-Husayn ibn Sa'id
751:Romanos I Lekapenos
621:Government of Egypt
460:, with his seat at
446:Yusuf ibn Abi'l-Saj
398:homonymous district
18:Muhammad al-Ikhshid
1126:Ibn Khallikan 1868
1099:Ibn Khallikan 1868
1035:Gate of the Tribes
981:
729:
638:Writing to Caliph
636:
542:
476:Mu'nis al-Muzaffar
314:
292:. He left his son
231:Mu'nis al-Muzaffar
2507:
2506:
2498:Succeeded by
2485:Abbasid Caliphate
2459:
2455:Abbasid Caliphate
2451:governor of Egypt
2429:978-977-424-930-3
2390:978-0-521-45140-6
2373:Madelung, Wilferd
2348:978-0-582-40525-7
2324:978-1-84511-960-7
2277:978-90-04-10056-5
2270:. Leiden: BRILL.
2249:978-90-04-07819-2
2162:978-90-04-11741-9
2124:Bianquis, Thierry
2115:978-90-04-09419-2
1966:, pp. 13–14.
1357:978-977-416-074-5
986:Abu al-Misk Kafur
977:Abbasid Caliphate
762:prisoner exchange
760:), to organize a
509:Takeover of Egypt
503:Jere L. Bacharach
442:Upper Mesopotamia
438:Husayn ibn Hamdan
298:Abu al-Misk Kafur
221:in 908, and fled
185:Ikhshidid dynasty
147:
146:
122:Ikhshidid dynasty
16:(Redirected from
2576:
2446:
2440:Preceded by
2437:
2436:
2433:
2405:
2394:
2368:
2352:
2328:
2307:
2294:. Translated by
2281:
2253:
2214:
2212:"al-Mād̲h̲arāʾī"
2205:
2193:
2182:
2166:
2145:
2119:
2091:Heinrichs, W. P.
2080:
2071:
2018:
2012:
2006:
2000:
1991:
1985:
1979:
1973:
1967:
1964:van Berchem 1927
1961:
1955:
1949:
1943:
1937:
1931:
1925:
1919:
1913:
1907:
1901:
1888:
1882:
1873:
1867:
1861:
1855:
1849:
1843:
1837:
1831:
1825:
1819:
1810:
1804:
1795:
1789:
1780:
1774:
1768:
1762:
1751:
1745:
1739:
1733:
1727:
1721:
1712:
1706:
1700:
1694:
1688:
1682:
1673:
1667:
1646:
1640:
1634:
1628:
1622:
1616:
1605:
1599:
1593:
1587:
1581:
1575:
1569:
1563:
1544:
1538:
1532:
1526:
1520:
1514:
1501:
1495:
1484:
1478:
1469:
1463:
1452:
1446:
1437:
1431:
1425:
1419:
1413:
1407:
1401:
1395:
1389:
1383:
1374:
1368:
1362:
1361:
1341:
1335:
1329:
1323:
1317:
1311:
1305:
1299:
1293:
1280:
1274:
1268:
1262:
1256:
1250:
1235:
1229:
1223:
1217:
1211:
1205:
1199:
1193:
1187:
1181:
1164:
1158:
1141:
1135:
1129:
1123:
1117:
1111:
1102:
1096:
1066:Thierry Bianquis
1024:
1022:
1010:Death and legacy
951:
949:
837:
835:
759:
757:
743:Byzantine Empire
714:
712:
648:
646:
603:
601:
528:
526:
454:Takin al-Khazari
396:(capital of the
376:(capital of the
332:origin from the
227:Takin al-Khazari
166:
94:
78:
76:
32:
31:
21:
2584:
2583:
2579:
2578:
2577:
2575:
2574:
2573:
2544:Ikhshidid emirs
2509:
2508:
2503:
2494:
2488:
2478:
2445:
2430:
2412:
2410:Further reading
2391:
2349:
2325:
2278:
2250:
2217:Bosworth, C. E.
2202:
2163:
2142:
2116:
2083:Bosworth, C. E.
2044:10.2307/2855469
2026:
2021:
2013:
2009:
2001:
1994:
1986:
1982:
1974:
1970:
1962:
1958:
1950:
1946:
1938:
1934:
1926:
1922:
1914:
1910:
1902:
1891:
1883:
1876:
1868:
1864:
1856:
1852:
1844:
1840:
1832:
1828:
1820:
1813:
1805:
1798:
1790:
1783:
1775:
1771:
1763:
1754:
1746:
1742:
1734:
1730:
1722:
1715:
1707:
1703:
1695:
1691:
1683:
1676:
1668:
1649:
1641:
1637:
1629:
1625:
1617:
1608:
1600:
1596:
1588:
1584:
1576:
1572:
1564:
1547:
1539:
1535:
1527:
1523:
1515:
1504:
1496:
1487:
1479:
1472:
1464:
1455:
1447:
1440:
1432:
1428:
1420:
1416:
1408:
1404:
1396:
1392:
1386:Gottschalk 1986
1384:
1377:
1369:
1365:
1358:
1342:
1338:
1330:
1326:
1318:
1314:
1306:
1302:
1294:
1283:
1275:
1271:
1263:
1259:
1251:
1238:
1230:
1226:
1218:
1214:
1206:
1202:
1194:
1190:
1182:
1167:
1159:
1144:
1136:
1132:
1124:
1120:
1112:
1105:
1097:
1090:
1086:
1074:
1019:
1016:Constantine VII
1012:
946:
905:two holy cities
832:
821:
754:
721:
709:
690:
651:Hugh N. Kennedy
643:
623:
598:
549:—the heir of a
523:
511:
358:Tulunid dynasty
334:Farghana Valley
306:
253:Farghana Valley
201:, a general of
111:
96:
92:
80:
74:
72:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2582:
2572:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2505:
2504:
2499:
2496:
2460:
2441:
2435:
2434:
2428:
2411:
2408:
2407:
2406:
2395:
2389:
2369:
2353:
2347:
2329:
2323:
2308:
2282:
2276:
2268:Michael Bonner
2254:
2248:
2221:van Donzel, E.
2206:
2200:
2183:
2171:Canard, Marius
2167:
2161:
2146:
2140:
2120:
2114:
2087:van Donzel, E.
2072:
2038:(4): 586–612.
2025:
2022:
2020:
2019:
2015:Bacharach 1975
2007:
2005:, p. 610.
2003:Bacharach 1975
1992:
1980:
1968:
1956:
1954:, p. 609.
1952:Bacharach 1975
1944:
1932:
1920:
1908:
1906:, p. 608.
1904:Bacharach 1975
1889:
1887:, p. 273.
1874:
1872:, p. 607.
1870:Bacharach 1975
1862:
1860:, p. 191.
1850:
1846:Bacharach 1975
1838:
1836:, p. 603.
1834:Bacharach 1975
1826:
1811:
1807:Bacharach 1975
1796:
1794:, p. 602.
1792:Bacharach 1975
1781:
1777:Bacharach 1975
1769:
1767:, p. 601.
1765:Bacharach 1975
1752:
1750:, p. 408.
1740:
1736:Bacharach 1975
1728:
1726:, p. 599.
1724:Bacharach 1975
1713:
1709:Bacharach 1975
1701:
1699:, p. 193.
1689:
1674:
1672:, p. 113.
1647:
1643:Bacharach 1975
1635:
1631:Bacharach 1975
1623:
1621:, p. 600.
1619:Bacharach 1975
1606:
1602:Bacharach 1975
1594:
1590:Bacharach 1975
1582:
1578:Bacharach 1975
1570:
1568:, p. 312.
1545:
1543:, p. 595.
1541:Bacharach 1975
1533:
1531:, p. 605.
1529:Bacharach 1975
1521:
1519:, p. 594.
1517:Bacharach 1975
1502:
1500:, p. 112.
1485:
1470:
1468:, p. 162.
1453:
1451:, p. 284.
1438:
1426:
1422:Bacharach 1975
1414:
1412:, p. 161.
1402:
1398:Bacharach 1975
1390:
1388:, p. 953.
1375:
1363:
1356:
1336:
1334:, p. 592.
1332:Bacharach 1975
1324:
1320:Bacharach 1975
1312:
1300:
1298:, p. 590.
1296:Bacharach 1975
1281:
1269:
1265:Bacharach 1975
1257:
1255:, p. 589.
1253:Bacharach 1975
1236:
1234:, p. 191.
1224:
1212:
1200:
1188:
1186:, p. 588.
1184:Bacharach 1975
1165:
1163:, p. 311.
1142:
1130:
1118:
1116:, p. 411.
1114:Bacharach 1993
1103:
1101:, p. 220.
1087:
1085:
1082:
1081:
1080:
1073:
1070:
1023: 913–959
1011:
1008:
950: 946–974
864:Nasir al-Dawla
836: 940–944
820:
817:
758: 920–944
720:
717:
713: 944–946
689:
686:
647: 934–940
622:
619:
602: 934–946
568:Black Africans
527: 932–934
510:
507:
427:Ibn al-Mu'tazz
305:
302:
199:Tughj ibn Juff
145:
144:
139:
135:
134:
132:Tughj ibn Juff
129:
125:
124:
119:
113:
112:
107:
105:
101:
100:
95:(aged 64)
89:
85:
84:
79:8 February 882
70:
66:
65:
60:
56:
55:
52:
48:
47:
37:
36:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2581:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2516:
2514:
2502:
2493:
2491:
2486:
2482:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2458:
2457:
2456:
2452:
2444:
2438:
2431:
2425:
2421:
2420:
2414:
2413:
2403:
2402:
2396:
2392:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2344:
2340:
2339:
2334:
2333:Kennedy, Hugh
2330:
2326:
2320:
2316:
2315:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2292:
2287:
2286:Ibn Khallikan
2283:
2279:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2264:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2235:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2213:
2207:
2203:
2201:0-7914-4795-2
2197:
2192:
2191:
2184:
2180:
2177:(in French).
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2158:
2154:
2153:
2147:
2143:
2141:0-521-47137-0
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2101:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2079:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2028:
2027:
2016:
2011:
2004:
1999:
1997:
1989:
1988:Bianquis 1998
1984:
1977:
1972:
1965:
1960:
1953:
1948:
1941:
1940:Bianquis 1998
1936:
1929:
1924:
1917:
1916:Bianquis 1998
1912:
1905:
1900:
1898:
1896:
1894:
1886:
1881:
1879:
1871:
1866:
1859:
1854:
1847:
1842:
1835:
1830:
1823:
1818:
1816:
1808:
1803:
1801:
1793:
1788:
1786:
1778:
1773:
1766:
1761:
1759:
1757:
1749:
1744:
1737:
1732:
1725:
1720:
1718:
1710:
1705:
1698:
1693:
1686:
1681:
1679:
1671:
1670:Bianquis 1998
1666:
1664:
1662:
1660:
1658:
1656:
1654:
1652:
1644:
1639:
1632:
1627:
1620:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1603:
1598:
1591:
1586:
1579:
1574:
1567:
1562:
1560:
1558:
1556:
1554:
1552:
1550:
1542:
1537:
1530:
1525:
1518:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1499:
1498:Bianquis 1998
1494:
1492:
1490:
1483:, p. 34.
1482:
1481:Madelung 1996
1477:
1475:
1467:
1462:
1460:
1458:
1450:
1445:
1443:
1435:
1430:
1423:
1418:
1411:
1406:
1399:
1394:
1387:
1382:
1380:
1372:
1371:Bianquis 1998
1367:
1359:
1353:
1349:
1348:
1340:
1333:
1328:
1321:
1316:
1309:
1304:
1297:
1292:
1290:
1288:
1286:
1278:
1273:
1266:
1261:
1254:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1243:
1241:
1233:
1228:
1221:
1216:
1209:
1204:
1197:
1192:
1185:
1180:
1178:
1176:
1174:
1172:
1170:
1162:
1157:
1155:
1153:
1151:
1149:
1147:
1139:
1134:
1127:
1122:
1115:
1110:
1108:
1100:
1095:
1093:
1088:
1079:
1076:
1075:
1069:
1067:
1063:
1062:famous mosque
1059:
1055:
1051:
1046:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1027:John Mystikos
1017:
1007:
1005:
1000:
994:
991:
987:
978:
973:
969:
967:
966:
961:
960:
959:De Ceremoniis
955:
944:
940:
936:
932:
926:
924:
920:
919:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
894:
888:
886:
882:
877:
876:Sayf al-Dawla
873:
869:
868:amir al-umara
865:
861:
857:
856:amir al-umara
853:
849:
845:
841:
830:
826:
825:amir al-umara
816:
814:
813:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
787:
785:
781:
780:Friday prayer
777:
773:
770:
769:amir al-umara
765:
763:
752:
748:
744:
740:
739:
734:
725:
716:
707:
703:
702:
701:amir al-umara
696:
685:
682:
678:
677:Ibn Khallikan
673:
668:
666:
665:
659:
658:
652:
641:
633:
632:
627:
618:
615:
611:
607:
596:
592:
588:
583:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
552:
548:
539:
534:
530:
521:
517:
506:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
483:
481:
477:
473:
469:
468:
463:
459:
455:
449:
447:
443:
439:
435:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
411:
406:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
318:Ibn Khallikan
310:
301:
299:
295:
291:
286:
282:
281:Sayf al-Dawla
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
256:
254:
250:
249:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
217:
212:
208:
204:
200:
195:
193:
190:
186:
182:
178:
175:and parts of
174:
170:
162:
158:
155:
151:
143:
140:
136:
133:
130:
126:
123:
120:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
99:
90:
86:
83:
71:
67:
64:
61:
57:
53:
49:
46:
44:
38:
33:
30:
19:
2489:
2480:
2462:
2448:
2447:
2418:
2400:
2380:
2364:
2337:
2313:
2290:
2262:
2239:
2232:
2189:
2178:
2174:
2151:
2131:
2105:
2098:
2035:
2031:
2010:
1983:
1976:Kennedy 2004
1971:
1959:
1947:
1935:
1923:
1911:
1885:Kennedy 2004
1865:
1853:
1841:
1829:
1822:Kennedy 2004
1772:
1743:
1731:
1704:
1692:
1638:
1626:
1597:
1585:
1573:
1566:Kennedy 2004
1536:
1524:
1434:Kennedy 2004
1429:
1417:
1405:
1393:
1366:
1346:
1339:
1327:
1315:
1308:Kennedy 2004
1303:
1272:
1260:
1232:Kennedy 2004
1227:
1220:Kennedy 2004
1215:
1203:
1196:Kennedy 2004
1191:
1161:Kennedy 2004
1133:
1121:
1047:
1039:Temple Mount
1013:
999:buffer state
995:
982:
963:
957:
953:
934:
927:
922:
916:
896:
889:
867:
859:
855:
824:
822:
810:
788:
768:
766:
736:
730:
699:
691:
669:
661:
655:
637:
629:
586:
584:
562:), probably
559:
555:
543:
512:
484:
465:
458:Jordan River
450:
407:
315:
257:
246:
237:and then of
196:
156:
149:
148:
40:
29:
2258:Halm, Heinz
2229:Pellat, Ch.
2104:Volume VII:
2095:Pellat, Ch.
1928:Canard 1936
1858:Canard 1936
1697:Canard 1936
1138:Gordon 2001
1033:, near the
899:), and the
893:al-Mu'tamid
741:) with the
706:al-Mustakfi
423:al-Muqtadir
419:Ubayd Allah
410:Khumarawayh
338:Transoxiana
197:The son of
142:Sunni Islam
93:(946-07-24)
91:24 July 946
41:Hereditary
2524:946 deaths
2519:882 births
2513:Categories
2304:1204465708
2181:: 189–209.
1466:Brett 2001
1410:Brett 2001
1084:References
1058:al-Qatta'i
829:al-Muttaqi
767:While the
733:Banu Kilab
580:Nile Delta
487:Alexandria
269:al-Muttaqi
248:al-Ikhshid
157:al-Ikhshīd
2464:Ikhshidid
2238:Volume V:
2225:Lewis, B.
2068:161166177
2052:0038-7134
1748:Halm 1996
1449:Halm 1996
1277:Halm 1996
1208:Jiwa 2009
1054:ascendant
1031:Jerusalem
858:with the
850:ruler of
799:al-Farama
784:Abu Yazid
772:Ibn Ra'iq
587:Maghariba
560:Maghariba
556:Mashariqa
495:Palestine
402:Qarmatian
390:Qinnasrin
354:Ibn Tulun
348:court at
290:Jerusalem
265:Hamdanids
261:Ibn Ra'iq
235:Palestine
109:Jerusalem
75:882-02-08
59:Successor
2495:935–946
2490:de facto
2483:for the
2474:and the
2466:emir of
2453:for the
2375:(1996).
2335:(2004).
2288:(1868).
2260:(1996).
2240:Khe–Mahi
2231:(eds.).
2126:(1998).
2097:(eds.).
2032:Speculum
1072:See also
954:de facto
848:Hamdanid
803:al-Arish
610:al-Rawda
595:al-Qa'im
578:and the
520:al-Qahir
394:Damascus
378:district
374:Tiberias
239:Damascus
194:of 969.
192:conquest
138:Religion
98:Damascus
2481:de jure
2106:Mif–Naz
2060:2855469
2024:Sources
1037:of the
1004:Mamluks
943:al-Muti
923:thughur
897:thughur
747:Cilicia
738:thughur
695:Saladin
672:Shi'ite
664:Ikhshid
640:al-Radi
612:on the
564:Berbers
480:Fatimid
472:Bedouin
350:Samarra
346:Abbasid
322:Baghdad
283:seized
243:al-Radi
211:Baghdad
207:Tulunid
189:Fatimid
169:Abbasid
165:الإخشيد
117:Dynasty
82:Baghdad
2426:
2387:
2345:
2321:
2302:
2274:
2246:
2227:&
2198:
2159:
2138:
2112:
2093:&
2066:
2058:
2050:
1354:
1060:and a
965:solidi
913:Medina
812:dinars
807:Lajjun
776:Bajkam
681:Unujur
606:Kutama
576:Tinnis
491:Fustat
431:vizier
392:) and
386:Aleppo
382:Jordan
342:Khaqan
330:Turkic
294:Unujur
285:Aleppo
216:vizier
203:Turkic
181:Levant
161:Arabic
128:Father
104:Burial
63:Unujur
2476:Hejaz
2472:Syria
2468:Egypt
2215:. In
2081:. In
2064:S2CID
2056:JSTOR
939:Buyid
935:bay'a
918:bay'a
909:Mecca
901:Hejaz
872:Tuzun
860:laqab
852:Mosul
844:Basra
795:Sinai
791:Raqqa
789:From
660:) of
657:laqab
631:Dinar
591:Barqa
538:Cairo
499:Ramla
462:Amman
370:Syria
366:Egypt
362:Tughj
277:Hejaz
273:Raqqa
177:Syria
173:Egypt
154:title
2424:ISBN
2385:ISBN
2343:ISBN
2319:ISBN
2300:OCLC
2272:ISBN
2244:ISBN
2196:ISBN
2157:ISBN
2136:ISBN
2110:ISBN
2048:ISSN
1685:PmbZ
1352:ISBN
990:Hama
911:and
885:Hims
614:Nile
566:and
467:hajj
368:and
326:Kufa
223:Iraq
88:Died
69:Born
51:Rule
43:emir
2449:as
2040:doi
907:of
862:of
842:of
745:in
662:al-
384:),
380:of
336:in
271:at
2515::
2470:,
2363:.
2236:.
2223:;
2219:;
2179:II
2102:.
2089:;
2085:;
2062:.
2054:.
2046:.
2036:50
2034:.
1995:^
1892:^
1877:^
1814:^
1799:^
1784:^
1755:^
1716:^
1677:^
1650:^
1609:^
1548:^
1505:^
1488:^
1473:^
1456:^
1441:^
1378:^
1284:^
1239:^
1168:^
1145:^
1106:^
1091:^
1021:r.
948:r.
887:.
834:r.
756:r.
711:r.
645:r.
600:r.
525:r.
300:.
163::
2487:,
2479:(
2432:.
2393:.
2351:.
2327:.
2306:.
2280:.
2252:.
2204:.
2165:.
2144:.
2118:.
2070:.
2042::
1687:.
1360:.
1018:(
945:(
831:(
753:(
708:(
654:(
642:(
597:(
554:(
522:(
179:(
159:(
77:)
73:(
20:)
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