National War Labor Board (1942–1945)

1161:"" considered, the War Labor Board carried out its assignment well. How, in the light of manifold cross purposes impinging upon it, the Board managed to do so is not a simple question. The basic answer, I believe, is that, in spite of all of the pulling, pushing, snorting, and pounding which enlivened its course, all elements of the Board were powerfully propelled by a deep sense of devotion to a country which even in wartime permitted such an untrammeled performance in handling labor disputes, instead of committing them to the much more tidy disposition of a dictatorship. At any rate, labor disputes which would cripple war production were prevented and wages were kept relatively stable. These were the major objectives of the War Labor Board." 434:

management than against violations by labor. In practice, the board established what one scholar has called a "common law of industrial relations", built up over a series of decisions and precedents from the regional boards and panels and commissions and considered as precedents or not by the national board. Penalties for giving wage increases higher than NWLB regulations permitted could involve disallowing those payments as allowed costs for tax calculations or for contracting bids. Penalties for unions that were flaunting regulations could include removal of overtime or shift premium benefits or removal of union security provisions. One scholar has described the board's powers as "semicompulsive".

1144:, as unions were no longer bound by their pledge to not engage in strikes. Unions had been gaining strength before the war, a strength that in some ways had been frozen while the War Labor Board adjudicated wage matters, and now that strength was seeking to reassert itself with demands for pay increases of up to 50 percent. Unions were also seeking to have a greater say in management decisions regarding certain aspects of how businesses were run. Over the next year there were some 5,000 different strikes involving around 5 million workers, impacting a number of key industrial and consumer sectors of the economy. The strikes were front-page news as almost every major industry was involved. 570: 516: 566:

they were making. It was likewise unpopular with unions, who felt it violated their normal ability to bargain for higher wages. On the other hand, some fiscal conservatives did not like it either, thinking the increase provision was an insufficient brake on inflation. In any case, while the idea behind the Little Steel formula may have been simple to express, in practice there were often complicating factors and application of the formula by the War Labor Board became a very technical process. In addition, cases had to be resolved more quickly during the war than they might have during normal peacetime collective bargaining.

332:. The danger of strikes occurring during wartime was not just a direct military cost but also a public outrage over the sight of, as one study puts it, "workers' laying down tools men are shouldering arms on battle fronts, the possible danger to the security of loved ones". A major labor-management conference took place in December 1941, and while labor and industry representatives could not agree on everything, they did agree on a no-strike, no-lockout pledge for the duration of the war and on having some kind of mediation board, the structure of which the Roosevelt administration would largely be able to determine. 642: 586:, had endorsed the pledge, but he intensely disliked the Little Steel formula. Mine workers felt even moreso, and staged several prolonged walk-offs, authorized or otherwise, during 1942 and 1943. In particular, the workers considered the Little Steel limits unfair: the onset of the war had created a surge in demand for coal which in turn had increased their exposure to dangerous conditions and resulting mining accidents, and indeed, from December 1941 through May 1943, total U.S. mine workers killed and injured exceeded total U.S. armed forces casualties of killed, wounded, and missing. 657:, whose purpose was to establish a means to control inflation through stricter regulations on prices and wage and salary increases. In particular, the order stated that as a general rule, "No increases in wage rates, granted as a result of voluntary agreement, collective bargaining, conciliation, arbitration, or otherwise, and no decreases in wage rates, shall be authorized unless notice of such increases or decreases shall have been filed with the National War Labor Board, and unless the National War Labor Board has approved such increases or decreases." 442:, who was a public member of the national board in the later stages of the war, noted that the board's business was conducted in a "socially rugged manner" in which "it was commonplace to have charges ranging from those of deceitfulness, venality, and vulgar avarice to the relatively mild accusation that one was being willfully and stubbornly obtuse tossed around the Board and accented by shouting and table pounding." Nevertheless, Keezer said, such accusations were the custom in American labor relations and were rarely meant to be taken personally. 1055: 313: 626:, followed by a general directive issued by the board in November 1942, to this effect. The board did state, however, that if jobs were "diluted in content" in order for women to be able to perform them, wages for such jobs could be reduced accordingly. This rule was stated as "proportionate rates for proportionate work". There was also a question of how to judge wages across different jobs; the War Labor Board formulated a rule of "equal pay for comparable quantity and quality of works on comparable jobs". 336: 1195:

out by the government inevitably caused a competition for labor resources. There was also more work being done during the war, with the average for regular employees rising from 38 hours per week in 1940 to 45 hours in 1944 (it would fall back to 39 hours per week by the end of the 1940s). Public opinion polls taken during 1941–45 showed that while some 7–15 percent of the public felt that there were "bad things" that unions did, only 4–6 percent felt that unions had interfered in war production.

633:, which enforced the Roosevelt administration's 1941 order banning discriminatory employment practices by federal agencies, unions, and companies engaged in work related to the war effort. In particular, in 1943 the board issued an order abolishing pay differentials based on race, saying that "the Negro is necessary for winning the war." The War Labor Board extended this principle to cover areas such as promotions, merit increases, and job classifications. 1327: 1043:

construction work is fundamentally different regarding industrial relations, in that the sites of work are constantly changing, each particular job has a short duration, and workers typically do not remain with contractors on an extended basis. There was some overlap in regulations and administrative procedures between the Wage Adjustment Board and the NWLB, however, with some conflicts arising between the two bodies as a result.

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first, the board created a system of regional entities; but as these bodies had advisory capabilities but little final authority, this arrangement proved insufficient as well. So in January 1943, the board announced the establishment of twelve Regional War Labor Boards, which were tripartite replicas of the national board and which could determine settlements for both voluntary and dispute cases.

1342:, vice president at Champion Fiber & Paper Co. Contrariwise, there was only one change in labor membership during this entire time. This was when Van A. Bittner, assistant to the president at the United Steel Workers, succeeded Thomas Kennedy, who had resigned in April 1943 due to unhappiness with the Little Steel formula and other board policies regarding wages. 554:.) Employees of the four companies wanted wage increases of a dollar a day. After hearing arguments for and against, the War Labor Board decided that wage increases should be bounded by the national cost of living increase between January 1941, when prices were stable, and May 1942, when the United States had introduced various anti-inflation measures. Using the 382:"... the National War Labor Board and its component parts had four basic functions to perform. First, the Board was to decide dispute cases. Second, it was to achieve with its directive orders in dispute cases. ... Third, ... stabilize wages through its power to approve adjustments in wage rates. Fourth, its principles of wage stabilization." 449:(NLRB) as the main focus of federal labor relations for the duration of the war. Although Roosevelt instructed the NWLB not to intrude on jurisdiction exercised by the NLRB, the War Labor Board did not honor this request, and at times the purposes of the two bodies were at odds. From 1942 to 1945, the NRLB chairman, 1178:

Other federal agencies had an all-public composition, but because the no-strike, no-lockout pledge meant that voluntary cooperation was essential in resolving disputes, the War Labor Board's inclusion of labor and industry representatives in a tripartite arrangement proved to be a valuable structural

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in 1941 that there be no discrimination in hiring. The War Labor Board did not hire as many black workers as some government agencies did, with a 5½ percent black workforce compared to 12 percent for war agencies overall. However, those black employees that were hired were present across the nation,

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The expansion of the American workforce during the war included a large rise in the number of women working, often in industrial jobs that were previously considered the domain of men. These women often found resistance to being hired from employers, from unions, and from fellow workers. This rise in

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Throughout the course of the war, the NWLB received a total of 20,692 dispute cases. Some 17,650 of these cases were resolved in some fashion by the board, in actions that affected over 12 million workers. In addition, they received over 450,000 requests for voluntary wage or salary changes, of which

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In addition to the regular members of the board, there were alternate members, associate members, and substitute members, some of whom later became regular members when a vacancy needed filling. In addition, the chairs of the regional boards for each of Regions II, III, and V ended up being selected

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This meant that voluntary cases of wage increase proposals were now coming in, in addition to dispute cases. This greatly expanded the workload of the National War Labor Board, and it soon became clear the existing, centralized operation in Washington, D.C. would not be sufficient to the task. At

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The National War Labor Board did not completely prevent strikes and other work stoppages from happening during the war, and indeed they rose during the last two years of the conflict. Nor could they prevent wage rates from significantly increasing, as the immense war production contracts being let

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The War Labor Board's "maintenance of membership" determination, and especially the automatic checkoff of union dues that was part of it, significantly helped labor union finances during the war and in particular helped the various CIO unions grow in size. Total dues-paying membership in all unions

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such as vacation pay and sick leave and extra pay for certain shifts. As these were either not paid in cash or were not changes in hourly rates, they were allowed. Similarly, companies looking to find people to hire during labor shortages could offer fringe benefits as a way of attracting potential

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This determination became known as the "Little Steel formula" and set a precedent for future wage adjustments to meet recent increases in the cost of living. The formula was unpopular with workers, who felt it limited them whilst businesses with large wartime contracts had no limits on the profits

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from New York; he had been chair of the National Defense Mediation Board, which was abolished as part of Roosevelt's action. Roosevelt had confidence in Davis, and as Davis had established a reputation for being impartial during this prior stint, neither labor nor industry protested his being named

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In the beginning of the War Labor Board's existence, when it was staffed only in Washington, D.C. and its work was limited to settling disputes filed with it, the board had fewer than 100 employees. By 1944, the War Labor Board had over 2,400 employees. The board reached its peak staffing level in

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The public members of the board were often the ones to decide matters, as the labor and industry representatives adopted the expected partisan viewpoints. In discussions on the board, both labor and industry representatives tended to use strong language and arguments, although it was often for the

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While in legal terms the War Labor Board did not have the power to go to the court system in order force compliance to its rulings, it could go to the White House, which in the ultimate case had the power to seize factories and plants. This threat tended to be more effective against violations by

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So the National War Labor Board was established by Roosevelt under Executive Order 9017, issued on January 12, 1942. Roosevelt said that "the national interest demands that there shall be no interruption of any work which contributes to the effective prosecution of the war". The NWLB was given the

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The difference between the two kinds of entities was that commissions were empowered to make final decisions, subject only to possible review by the national board, whereas panels could only make recommendations to the national board or regional boards. The commissions that handled the most cases

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The national board was further decentralized starting in late 1942, when it established special commissions and panels to deal with specific industries on a national, rather than regional, basis. Like the regions, the commissions and panels also adopted the national board's tripartite structure.

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was required and new employees were not obliged to become union members. In June 1942 this was further refined by adding a fifteen-day escape period for new union members to drop their membership, although in practice few new workers would choose to do so. The "maintenance of membership" scheme

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The twelve-member board had a tripartite structure, with four members from each of industry, labor, and the public. While tripartite arrangements had sometimes been used in the past, they were always in a voluntary or advisory arrangement; the War Labor Board was the first to do so in a body with

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Each regional board had four divisions: a wage stabilization division, a disputes division, a legal division, and a division of administrative management. The public members of these boards were usually chosen from the fields of the law, academia, and the civil service. The regional boards were

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during the course of the war, as it could intervene in any labor dispute that it saw as endangering "the effective prosecution of the war" and put into place a settlement. It administered wage control in national industries such as automobiles, shipping, railways, airlines, telegraph lines, and

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The Roosevelt administration was disturbed by the threat of wages increases continuing to cause inflation, in particular those given by the War Labor Board under the inequities exception to the Little Steel formula. On April 8, 1943, President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9328; this was a

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The trend started during the war due to the Little Steel formula's control over wage increases, that of fringe benefits being considered a valuable thing for employees to get aside from actual wages, continued after it. Even though the power of unions was somewhat constrained by the post-war

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Many male staff members of the war agency boards ended up getting drafted into military service. The board had difficulty in recruiting professional staff for that reason, and also because there were few people with experience in industrial relations or with wage stabilization. The economist

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The regions that handled the most cases during the war were those located in Chicago, New York, and Cleveland, each of which dealt with over 1,000 cases. The large majority of decisions were reached not by the national board but by the regional boards, or the panels and commissions. However,

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worked for the War Labor Board as a hearing officer and arbitrator; working in Region II, she later recalled the experience there as enabling her to learn much about the world of contracts and collective bargaining. Following the war's conclusion, she became a founding faculty member of the

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Separately, disputes or voluntary wage increase cases involving the building and construction industry were not handled by the NWLB at all, but instead were referred to the Wage Adjustment Board for the Building Industry, an entity that was part of the Department of Labor. This was because

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The board was additionally divided into twelve Regional War Labor Boards which handled both labor dispute settlement and wage stabilization functions for specific geographic sections of the country. The board also had a number of commissions and panels set up to deal with certain specific

407:

Once a dispute was accepted by the War Labor Board, it was mandated to see it through to a binding settlement, whether by mediation, voluntary arbitration, or imposed arbitration. This gave the board more power than either its immediate predecessor National Defense Mediation Board or

1118:

in August 1945, labor unions lost interest in maintaining the no-strike pledge. The power of the War Labor Board quickly ebbed, and all sides – labor, industry, and the board members themselves – agreed that the board should wrap up its operations as soon as possible.

404:, and indeed, the board insisted that collective bargaining have been fully tried before it would take on a dispute, including use of the Conciliation Service. Overall, about 27 percent of cases received by the Conciliation Service ended up being sent to the War Labor Board. 472:"During World War II, the National War Labor Board was the only large governmental agency that both used interest group representatives as formal members of collegial bodies and at the same time gave those bodies quasi-legislative, quasi-judicial, and administrative power." 1729: 2984:

Estimate of Appropriation for National War Labor Board of the Office for Emergency Management: Communication from the President of the United States Transmitting the Budget for the National War Labor Board of the Office for Emergency Management for the Fiscal Year

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Jane P. Metzger, a review officer for the War Labor Board, sitting at her desk at the Region V offices in Cleveland, Ohio, in late 1944 or 1945. Metzger would subsequently engage in scholarly research regarding the social and public impact of the post-war wave of

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had no role in the creation of the board. The executive order which created the NWLB was imprecise in delineating its jurisdictional responsibilities, a lacuna which later would lead to some bureaucratic frictions. In any case, the creation of the board was an

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Over the course of the board's existence, there was some turnover in membership, especially during the latter parts of 1945. Davis stepped down as chair in March 1945 and was succeeded by Taylor, who in turn stepped down in October 1945 and was succeeded by

562:, this worked out to a fifteen per cent wage increase formula, or forty-four cents per day for the Little Steel employees. There would be allowed exemptions, however, for cases where it could be demonstrated that past inequities or injustices existed. 1186:

in the United States, both during World War II and after it. Indeed, even as the war was still going on and the board still active, there were academic articles being published regarding what the post-war effects of the board might be.

590:"hold-the-line" directive regarding further increases in prices affecting the cost of living and increases in wages and salaries, with a sole exception now being where there were substandard living conditions. The order mandated that the 3531:- The testimony (pp. 2–74) of National War Labor Board Chairman William H. Davis before the committee on May 22, 1944, contains a great deal of information on the creation, organization, and practices of the WLB from its inception. 1097:

not just in Washington, D.C., and relatively few were in traditional custodial duties, with most of the black workers either being in either professional or clerical capacities. As a consequence, as stated in an article in the journal

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basis, or were on an unpaid basis. Similarly, the necessary appropriations level for the board rose during the war; for the government fiscal year 1945, it was estimated at $ 15,596,000 (equivalent to $ 263,950,000 in 2023).

598:, review War Labor Board decisions. In a sense, this meant that the War Labor Board was no longer a fully independent government agency, in that there was now an administrative level between the board and the White House. 303:

in New Jersey, and then had become inconsequential following a November 1941 dispute involving the CIO and certain coal mines that were owned by steel companies. That dispute ended with the CIO dropping out of the board.

497:

In early 1942, the board resolved the matter by putting into place a "maintenance of membership" arrangement, wherein existing union members had to remain union members, with union dues often paid via an automatic

573:

War Labor Board anthracite hearing in Washington, D.C., in January 1943: labor members, seated at the left of conference table, and employer members, seated at the right, hear testimony of striking coal

400:, which was part of that labor department, had been unable to bring the disagreement to a settlement. But the board repeatedly stated that its arbitration procedures were not supposed to be replacing 419:, the vice chair of the board, later made the case that such a course was the only realistic choice, given the urgencies of the war effort and the wide gulf between labor and industry perspectives. 276:; it was considered as almost obvious that the government would have to put into place some kind of program to prevent or bring to an immediate end strikes, if the mobilization was to be effective. 1175:. Indeed, by January 1945, the board – together with its National Defense Mediation Board predecessor – had already made ten times the number of decisions as its earlier incarnation. 1307:, dean of the University of Wisconsin Law School, who had joined the board the previous year and held the chair through the board's end. Public members of note who joined during 1945 included 225:

for women employees and disallowed pay differentials based on employees' race. As one assessment has written, the War Labor Board "held enormous power over American production and industry."

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William Bardsley Collection of United States National Recovery Administrations and National War Labor Board Printed and Mimeographed Documents at Cornell University ILR Library Kheel Center

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Black Americans found large-scale employment in the U.S. federal government as a consequence of the needs of the government and the policy of the Roosevelt administration, which declared in

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One of the board's mandates was to ensure that any wage increases granted during a dispute case would not disrupt the wage structure of the nation as a whole and not contribute to ongoing

1046:

Finally, wage cases involving federal employees were typically handled by those particular federal agencies, who would periodically submit reports of their decisions to the NWLB.

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Cover of "Index to Dispute Cases: April 1944 – October 1945", a document prepared in the disputes division of Region V to cover the final period of the war and its aftermath

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Despite some parties urging that the War Labor Board adopt a broad set of principles to guide is decisions, it did not, instead resolving issues on more of a case-by-case basis.

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Taft-Hartley Act, over the next few decades unions gained a considerable number of new benefits, including those related to healthcare, pensions, and unemployment insurance.

1086: 3132:"Harry S. Truman – 'Executive Order 9672 - Establishing the National Wage Stabilization Board and Terminating the National War Labor Board' – December 31, 1945" 482:

While, following Pearl Harbor, unions had readily agreed to forego strike actions for the duration of the war, an ongoing and more difficult issue to resolve was that of

2106:. Kheel Center for Labor-Management Documentation and Archives, Cornell University Library. New York State School of Industrial and Labor Relations at Cornell University 387:—Kheel Center for Labor-Management Documentation and Archives, Cornell University Library, New York State School of Industrial and Labor Relations at Cornell University 507:

remained in place for the duration of the war, eventually covering around three million workers, and did much to contribute to the growth of unions during the period.

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mid-1945, when it had 2,613 full-time employees. In addition, at that peak the board's staff included close to 2,000 others who were either part-time, and paid on a

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women working also brought about the question of what the women would be paid, and the War Labor Board issued rulings which said that women employees must receive

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Garrison, with the help of the two prior chairs, oversaw the preparation of an extensive multi-volume termination report for the agency, delivered in 1947.

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authority to "finally determine" any labor dispute which threatened to interrupt war production, and to stabilize union wages and benefits during the war. The

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for labor issues, but none of them were especially effective. In particular, the Mediation Board had proved unable to resolve a dispute in summer 1941 at the

453:, tried to secure a jurisdictional agreement with the NWLB, but these discussions proved fruitless and Millis broke them off near the conclusion of the war. 3573: 17: 1708:

The Termination Report of the National War Labor Board: Industrial Disputes and Wage Stabiliation During Wartime, January 12, 1942—December 31, 1945

183: 494:, with business and labor taking predictably opposite sides. President Roosevelt decided to leave the question for the new War Labor Board to decide. 3568: 1334:

Turnover was most pronounced among the industry representatives, with sixteen different people being members at one time or another. They included

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except under wartime conditions (the first peacetime attempts would not occur until the early 1960s and especially in 1971). Following the start of

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War Labor Board member Thomas Kennedy (left) conferring with United Mine Workers leader John L. Lewis (right) at a January 1943 board meeting

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Because wage increases were limited by the Little Steel formula, during the war unions often sought from the War Labor Board improvements in

531:, both in goods and in the labor supply. A key development in this regard came with the "Little Steel" hearing and decision of July 1942. 1072:

The people hired were for the professional staff were mostly economists or those in other social sciences. The NWLB also heavily raided the

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Creating the Center: Liberal Intellectuals, the National War Labor Board, and the Stabilization of American Industrial Relations, 1941–1945

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The members of the War Labor Board, as photographed before their initial meeting on January 16, 1942; Chairman Davis is front row center

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Scene from the "Little Steel" hearing held by the National War Labor Board at the Hotel Washington in Washington, D.C., on July 1, 1942

325: 221:; an inflation-based rule known as the "Little Steel formula" for putting an upper bound on wage increases; and rulings that required 1362: 1172: 409: 300: 254: 292: 195: 92: 2756:"Franklin D. Roosevelt – Executive Order 9250 – Establishing the Office of Economic Stabilization – October 3, 1942" 1623: 242: 1953:"Franklin D. Roosevelt – 'Executive Order 9017 - Establishing the National War Labor Board' – January 12, 1942" 250: 3131: 2733: 280: 201:

The twelve-member board had a tripartite structure, with four members from each of industry, labor, and the public, with

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A fair number of the professional staff of the War Labor Board went into academic fields following the end of the war.

630: 397: 3418: 1421: 1391: 1381: 1103:, the War Labor Board was one of the war agencies that enabled black workers to make important occupational gains. 1526: 1411: 1151:, which modified the Wagner Act and introduced various measures that restricted the activities and power of unions. 654: 591: 316:

Poster put out by the War Production Board, emphasizing the need for labor and industry to cooperate during the war

296: 157: 55: 3578: 1730:"Creating the National War Labor Board: Franklin Roosevelt and the Politics of State Building in the Early 1940s" 1133:, a predecessor agency that had been set up in 1935 and had gone through various ups and downs before the war. 328:, there was an immediate desire for stronger agencies to be in place. In January 1942, Roosevelt established the 1130: 1073: 446: 426:

during the war. Indeed, the number increased during 1943, which led to the passage in June of that year of the

3535:"Equal Pay for Equal Work: The War Labor Board on Gender Inequality", History Matters, George Mason University 3011:(Interview). Interviewed by Marian Warns. Chicago, Illinois: National Academy of Arbitrators. pp. 6–8, 9 569: 457:

almost all were decided on by the board. These voluntary cases ended up affecting around 26 million workers.

3515: 2840: 1244: 1148: 1137: 416: 238: 137: 2044: 1126:, issued Executive Order 9672, ceasing operations of the National War Labor Board on December 31, 1945. 534:

The hearing arose from a wage dispute between union demands and four so-called "Little Steel" companies:

3471: 559: 515: 3540:"The War Labor Board Insists on Equal Pay for Black Workers", History Matters, George Mason University 3525: 1881: 1290: 669:

decisions of the regional boards and commissions and panels could be appealed to the national board.

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Labor and the National War Labor Board, 1942–1945: An Experiment in Corporatist Wage Stabilization

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in Europe in 1939, even though the United States was not yet itself at war, the country began an

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Guide to the United States NWLB files 1942–1945 at Cornell University ILR Library Kheel Center

427: 345: 321: 205:

as its chair. Acting as an arbitration tribunal, the board had the effect of replacing normal

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Fisher, "The National War Labor Board and Postwar Industrial Relations", p. 483 including n1.

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Keezer, "Observations on the Operations of the National War Labor Board", pp. 241–242.

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Reshaping of the National Labor Relations Board: A Study in Economics, Politics, and the Law

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Regarding discrimination in terms of race, the War Labor Board followed the dictates of the

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Fisher, "The National War Labor Board and Postwar Industrial Relations", pp. 485–486.

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Fisher, "The National War Labor Board and Postwar Industrial Relations", pp. 487–488.

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The Wage Adjustment Board: Wartime Stabilization in the Building and Construction Industry

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Important decisions the board made included a "maintenance of membership" rule regarding

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Hearings before the Select Committee to Investigate Seizure of Montgomery Ward & Co.

261:, attained a strong position in industries such as steel, oil, rubber, and automobiles. 1749: 1662: 1654: 1600: 1557: 1513: 1480: 653:, President Roosevelt created, via Executive Order 9250 issued on October 3, 1942, the 422:

In the face of the no-strike pledge agreed to by union leaders, there were a number of

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Text of Executive Order 9017, establishing the National War Labor Board (World War II)

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and similar industry groups; and then regained strength again in the 1930s during the

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increased from around 9 million before the war to 14 million or so at the end of it.

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Schumann, "Compensation from World War II through the Great Society", pp. 1–2.

1781:. The Eleanor Roosevelt Papers Project, George Washington University. Archived from 1741: 1646: 1549: 1505: 1472: 1320: 1276: 833:† Southern New Jersey was transferred from Region II to III shortly after creation 246: 241:(AFL); weakened during the 1920s due to overall prosperity and opposition from the 102: 2882:

Fisher, "The National War Labor Board and Postwar Industrial Relations", p. 489n6.

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employees, and such offers would not be in violation of the Little Steel formula.

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Keezer, "Observations on the Operations of the National War Labor Board", p. 256.

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Davis and Golightly, "Negro Employment in the Federal Government", pp. 337, 340.

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Davis and Golightly, "Negro Employment in the Federal Government", pp. 343, 344.

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Keezer, "Observations on the Operations of the National War Labor Board", p. 238.

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Keezer, "Observations on the Operations of the National War Labor Board", p. 234.

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Keezer, "Observations on the Operations of the National War Labor Board", p. 239.

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for staff, in the process significantly hindering the other agency's operations.

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Fisher, "The National War Labor Board and Postwar Industrial Relations", p. 484.

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Fisher, "The National War Labor Board and Postwar Industrial Relations", p. 496.

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Fisher, "The National War Labor Board and Postwar Industrial Relations", p. 495.

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The one large union that most frequently violated the no-strike pledge was the

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The Impact of the National War Labor Board Upon Management Policy and Practice

2755: 3557: 2841:"202.5 Records of the Regional Boards of the NWLB and the NWSB 1942–47" 1236: 1039:

during the war were those for West Coast Lumber, Trucking, and Tool and Die.

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National War Labor Board, Daily Newspaper and Publishing Commission records

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Schumann, "Compensation from World War II through the Great Society", p. 2.

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Davis and Golightly, "Negro Employment in the Federal Government", p. 346.

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Davis and Golightly, "Negro Employment in the Federal Government", p. 344.

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Schumann, "Compensation from World War II through the Great Society", p. 1.

1270: 1256: 1250: 1230: 539: 269: 1745: 3534: 2861:

Dixon, "Tripartitism in the National War Labor Board", pp. 374–375.

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Richards, "Tripartitism and Regional War Labor Boards", pp. 75–76.

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Labor and the Wartime State: Labor Relations and Law During World War II

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for regular public membership on the national board, with the attorney

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The Effects of the National War Labor Board on Labor Income Inequality

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The National War Labor Board had a major impact upon the direction of

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The National War Labor Board had the effect of displacing the pre-war

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responsible for much of the enforcement of national board decisions.

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In particular, there was a September 1942 ruling in a case involving

524: 487: 3006:"History Committee Interview: Jean T. McKelvey, NAA President, 1970" 1941:

Workman, "Creating the National War Labor Board", pp. 251–253.

1650: 1553: 1509: 194:, the purpose of which was to mediate labor disputes as part of the 1476: 1065: 528: 499: 253:(CIO). The CIO, helped by the passage of legislation such as the 3274:

Workman, "Creating the National War Labor Board", pp. 233, 257n1.

2772:

Richards, "Tripartitism and Regional War Labor Boards", p. 77n30.

1141: 1115: 550:. (The appellation was in contrast to the titan of the industry, 1589:"Observations on the Operations of the National War Labor Board" 835:‡ Territorial War Labor Board for Hawaii, established June 1944 2104:"NWLB Region II Office Files and Cases: Organizational History" 1538:"The National War Labor Board and Postwar Industrial Relations" 1099: 2790:

Dixon, "Tripartitism in the National War Labor Board", p. 377.

2781:

Richards, "Tripartitism and Regional War Labor Boards", p. 77.

2309:

Dixon, "Tripartitism in the National War Labor Board", p. 374.

2244:

Richards, "Tripartitism and Regional War Labor Boards", p. 76.

2022:

Dixon, "Tripartitism in the National War Labor Board", p. 372.

1087:

School of Industrial and Labor Relations at Cornell University

1247:, University of Pennsylvania economics professor (vice chair) 3594:

Agencies of the United States government during World War II

3584:

Defunct independent agencies of the United States government

3060:"Jean McKelvey, 89, Professor and Labor Arbitration Expert" 877:

Region II only; replaced by special representative in 1943

1710:. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1947. 1685:"Compensation from World War II through the Great Society" 1136:

The end of the war saw rising inflation and the so-called

3138:. University of California, Santa Barbara. Archived from 2031:

Workman, "Creating the National War Labor Board", p. 251.

1898:

Workman, "Creating the National War Labor Board", p. 250.

1863:

Workman, "Creating the National War Labor Board", p. 249.

1296:

Edward J. McMillan, president of Standard Knitting Mills

1227:, former head of National Defense Mediation Board (chair) 3129: 1950: 1452:

Intellectual Odyssey: An Economist's Ideological Journey

1166:—Dexter Merriam Keezer, public member of the board, 1946 363:

more force behind it. The chairman of the new board was

3545:

Robert Cuff, "National War Labor Board, World War II",

3474:", EH.Net Encyclopedia, edited by Robert Whaples, 2008 264:

Normally, the United States did not engage in forms of

3529:

U. S. House of Representatives, May 22 - June 8, 1944.

1443:

The Impact of Strikes: Their Economic and Social Costs

1441:

Chamberlain, Neil W.; Schilling, Jane Metzger (1954).

1208:

Members of the National War Labor Board, January 1942

2417: 2415: 1531:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 2740:. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. 1440: 1386:. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press. 3031:

The Reshaping of the National Labor Relations Board

2008:

The Reshaping of the National Labor Relations Board

1982:

The Reshaping of the National Labor Relations Board

1315:, professor of economics, University of Wisconsin; 392:Dispute cases came to the War Labor Board from the 326:

the United States entering the war in December 1941

2811: 2809: 2690: 2688: 2412: 1924: 1922: 1882:"War Labor Board Created; Davis Heads 12-Man Body" 1293:, secretary-treasurer of CIO's United Mine Workers 950:subsumed into National Airframe Panel during 1945 477:—Allan R. Richards, University of New Mexico, 1952 184:independent agency of the United States government 3495:(Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina, 1993) 1319:, professor of law, University of Wisconsin; and 1129:Labor disputes were thereafter arbitrated by the 430:. This gave the War Labor Board even more power. 237:gained during the 1880s with the creation of the 3555: 3172: 3170: 2175: 2173: 2098: 2096: 2094: 2092: 2090: 2088: 2086: 2084: 2082: 2080: 2078: 1459:Davis, John A.; Golightly, Cornelius L. (1945). 1089:and a pioneer in women acting as arbitrators. 3589:History of labor relations in the United States 2953: 2951: 2835: 2833: 2806: 2685: 2076: 2074: 2072: 2070: 2068: 2066: 2064: 2062: 2060: 2058: 1919: 1267:, president of the University of North Carolina 728:Ga., Ala., Fla., Miss., N.C., S.C., Tenn., Va. 609: 3308: 3306: 3304: 3302: 3252: 3250: 2941: 2939: 2734:"Federal Records and African American History" 2661: 2659: 2619: 2617: 2615: 2506: 2504: 2502: 2354: 2352: 2350: 2134: 2132: 2130: 1875: 1873: 1871: 1869: 1833: 1831: 1494:"Tripartitism in the National War Labor Board" 1458: 3167: 3053: 3051: 2718: 2716: 2706: 2704: 2170: 1912: 1910: 1908: 1906: 1904: 1323:, professor of law, Northwestern University. 1287:, dean of the University of Oregon Law School 1171:The scope of the board was much greater than 3401: 3399: 3374: 3372: 3370: 2948: 2830: 2749: 2747: 2601: 2599: 2597: 2305: 2303: 2055: 2039: 2037: 2018: 2016: 1976: 1974: 1972: 1970: 1968: 1966: 1635:"Tripartitism and Regional War Labor Boards" 1615:Labor's War at Home: The CIO in World War II 1611: 1461:"Negro Employment in the Federal Government" 1368:United States home front during World War II 283:, several federal entities began overseeing 3574:1945 disestablishments in the United States 3299: 3247: 3188: 3186: 3118:American Labor from Defense to Reconversion 3105:American Labor from Defense to Reconversion 3036: 2936: 2667:American Labor from Defense to Reconversion 2656: 2625:American Labor from Defense to Reconversion 2612: 2538:American Labor from Defense to Reconversion 2499: 2481:American Labor from Defense to Reconversion 2468:American Labor from Defense to Reconversion 2347: 2320:American Labor from Defense to Reconversion 2207:American Labor from Defense to Reconversion 2194:American Labor from Defense to Reconversion 2144: 2127: 1995:American Labor from Defense to Reconversion 1866: 1828: 1699:American Labor from Defense to Reconversion 1449: 1430: 1311:, economist and president of Reed College; 3477:Vickers, Chris, and Nicolas L. Ziebarth, " 3048: 2864: 2762:. University of California, Santa Barbara. 2754:Peters, Gerhard; Woolley, John T. (eds.). 2713: 2701: 2157: 1959:. University of California, Santa Barbara. 1901: 1773: 1771: 1524: 1454:. Raleigh, North Carolina: Pentland Press. 1259:, chairman of American-Hawaiian Steamship 750:Ill., Ind., Minn., N. Dak., S. Dak., Wis. 3488:(Ph.D. diss., University of Toledo, 1984) 3396: 3367: 2753: 2744: 2594: 2300: 2034: 2013: 1963: 1944: 1673: 1618:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1568: 1338:, vice president at U.S. Rubber Co., and 1273:, president of CIO's United Auto Workers 871:Metropolitan Milk Distributors Commission 845: 783:Colo., Idaho, Mont., N. Mex., Utah, Wyo. 307: 228: 3569:1942 establishments in the United States 3472:The American Economy during World War II 3183: 3003: 2988:. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1944. 1879: 1682: 1632: 1525:Dunlop, John T; Hill, Arthur D. (1950). 1405:. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company. 1325: 1053: 851:These entities included the following: 640: 568: 527:pressures. These pressures were due to 514: 334: 311: 301:Federal Shipbuilding and Drydock Company 255:National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 3564:Government agencies established in 1942 3467:(Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 1955) 3130:Peters, Gerhard; Woolley, John (eds.). 2999: 2997: 2995: 2731: 1951:Peters, Gerhard; Woolley, John (eds.). 1768: 1727: 1702:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1695: 1683:Schumann, Richard E. (September 2001). 1416:. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. 1379: 1140:. The wave began just two weeks after 933:Newspaper Printing and Publishing Panel 717:Pa., Del., D.C., Md., N.J. (southern)† 510: 293:Supply Priorities and Allocations Board 196:American home front during World War II 93:Federal government of the United States 14: 3556: 2732:Cassedy, James Gilbert (Summer 1997). 1678:(8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. 1586: 1535: 1147:The strike wave led to passage of the 186:, established January 12, 1942, by an 146:, chair (October 1945 – December 1945) 3549:, 2004, as hosted at Encyclopedia.com 3057: 2450:"WLB Pledges Speed In Steel Pay Case" 2447: 1577: 1498:Industrial and Labor Relations Review 1491: 1409: 1400: 1373: 695:Mass., Conn., Maine, N.H., R.I., Vt. 594:, led by Roosevelt's longtime friend 243:National Association of Manufacturers 3058:Saxon, Wolfgang (January 14, 1998). 2992: 1880:Lawrence, W. H. (January 13, 1942). 1633:Richards, Allan R. (February 1952). 1587:Keezer, Dexter Merriam (June 1946). 1363:National War Labor Board (1918–1919) 1122:Accordingly, Roosevelt's successor, 1109: 840:traditional abbreviations for states 251:Congress of Industrial Organizations 18:National War Labor Board (1942-1945) 1573:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. 1437:Assisted by Jane Metzger Schilling. 140:, chair (March 1945 – October 1945) 134:, chair (January 1942 – March 1945) 27:U.S. World War II government agency 24: 3457: 3419:"Kennedy Resigns From Labor Board" 3004:McKelvey, Jean T. (May 31, 1989). 1542:The Quarterly Journal of Economics 1445:. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1435:. New York: Harper & Brothers. 816:Wash., Oreg., Alaska (territory) 636: 631:Fair Employment Practice Committee 502:, but neither a closed shop nor a 398:United States Conciliation Service 25: 3605: 3499: 3336:Social Responsibility and Strikes 3323:Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom 2494:Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom 2394:Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom 2152:Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom 1930:Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom 1852:Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom 1433:Social Responsibility and Strikes 1413:Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom 465: 3441: 3438:, Vol. II, pp. 5–7 (Appendix A). 3429: 3425:. April 4, 1943. pp. 1, 43. 3411: 3384: 3354: 3341: 3328: 3315: 3286: 3277: 3268: 3259: 3238: 3225: 3212: 3199: 2553:, pp. 53–54, esp. p. 53n3. 1823:Economics and the Public Purpose 1779:"National Labor Relations Board" 1571:Economics and the Public Purpose 1569:Galbraith, John Kenneth (1973). 655:Office of Economic Stabilization 592:Office of Economic Stabilization 460: 297:National Defense Mediation Board 158:Office of Economic Stabilization 56:National Defense Mediation Board 3162:Roosevelt: The Lion and the Fox 3154: 3136:The American Presidency Project 3123: 3110: 3097: 3088: 3079: 3070: 3023: 2975: 2963: 2924: 2911: 2898: 2885: 2876: 2855: 2821: 2793: 2784: 2775: 2766: 2760:The American Presidency Project 2725: 2672: 2643: 2630: 2581: 2568: 2556: 2543: 2530: 2517: 2486: 2473: 2460: 2441: 2428: 2399: 2386: 2373: 2364: 2334: 2325: 2312: 2291: 2278: 2265: 2256: 2247: 2238: 2225: 2212: 2199: 2186: 2118: 2025: 2000: 1987: 1957:The American Presidency Project 1935: 1854:, pp. 51–53, 151, 191, 192–193. 1410:Burns, James MacGregor (1970). 1403:Roosevelt: The Lion and the Fox 1401:Burns, James MacGregor (1956). 902:Detroit Tool and Die Commission 486:– whether there would be 291:, the last of bodies being the 3547:Dictionary of American History 2045:"U.S. At War: War Labor Board" 1892: 1857: 1844: 1815: 1802: 1789: 1350:being the one from Region II. 1279:, chairman of Congoleum-Nairn 1131:National Labor Relations Board 1074:National Labor Relations Board 761:Mo., Ark., Iowa, Kans., Nebr. 447:National Labor Relations Board 438:sake of effect. The economist 13: 1: 3408:, Vol. II, p. 7 (Appendix A). 3393:, Vol. II, p. 6 (Appendix A). 3381:, Vol. II, p. 5 (Appendix A). 2448:Stark, Louis (July 3, 1942). 1761: 1612:Lichtenstein, Nelson (1982). 1450:Chamberlain, Neil W. (1996). 1431:Chamberlain, Neil W. (1953). 944:West Coast Aircraft Committee 295:for goods production and the 2818:, Vol. I, pp. 482–483. 2565:, Vol. I, pp. 484–485. 1593:The American Economic Review 1536:Fisher, Paul (August 1945). 892:Nonferrous Metals Commission 882:West Coast Lumber Commission 673:Regional Boards, March 1943 610:Equal pay and discrimination 410:its First World War namesake 375: 239:American Federation of Labor 7: 3362:Labor and the Wartime State 3218:Chamberlain and Schilling, 3192:Chamberlain and Schilling, 2696:Labor and the Wartime State 2680:Labor and the Wartime State 2651:Labor and the Wartime State 2525:Labor and the Wartime State 2512:Labor and the Wartime State 2342:Labor and the Wartime State 2286:Labor and the Wartime State 2233:Labor and the Wartime State 2220:Labor and the Wartime State 2181:Labor and the Wartime State 2165:Labor and the Wartime State 1837:Chamberlain and Schilling, 1728:Workman, Andrew A. (2000). 1674:Samuelson, Paul A. (1970). 1356: 1239:, chairman of Standard Oil 1027:Southern Textile Commission 1017:Northern Textile Commission 10: 3610: 3481:", Auburn University, 2022 3470:Tassava, Christopher J., " 1380:Atleson, James B. (1998). 1202: 1173:its World War I equivalent 992:became Commission in 1945 939:became Commission in 1944 560:Bureau of Labor Statistics 249:with the formation of the 2906:The Wage Adjustment Board 2893:The Wage Adjustment Board 2801:The Wage Adjustment Board 2551:The Wage Adjustment Board 2273:The Wage Adjustment Board 1734:Journal of Policy History 1492:Dixon, Robert G. (1949). 1253:, AFL secretary-treasurer 1219:Industry Representatives 1154: 651:Stabilization Act of 1942 649:Following passage of the 544:Youngstown Sheet and Tube 153: 124: 116: 108: 98: 88: 72: 64: 48: 40: 35: 1578:Gross, James A. (1981). 1149:Taft–Hartley Act of 1947 1138:strike wave of 1945–1946 1114:Once the war ended with 1049: 986:National Telephone Panel 617:equal pay for equal work 372:to head the new entity. 353:story in the next day's 281:Roosevelt administration 223:equal pay for equal work 168:National War Labor Board 80:Wage Stabilization Board 31:National War Labor Board 1639:The Journal of Politics 1340:Reuben B. Robertson Jr. 997:Meat Packing Commission 976:National Airframe Panel 923:Shipbuilding Commission 855:Commissions and panels 394:U.S. Secretary of Labor 266:wage and price controls 235:American labor movement 3579:Labor relations boards 3450:, Vol. I, pp. viii–ix. 1696:Seidman, Joel (1953). 1331: 1213:Public Representatives 1163: 1060: 846:Commissions and panels 706:N.Y., N.J. (northern) 646: 575: 520: 474: 428:War Labor Disputes Act 384: 346:United States Congress 340: 322:attack on Pearl Harbor 317: 308:Creation and structure 229:Background and origins 120:$ 15,596,000 (FY 1945) 3484:Willard, Timothy A., 3220:The Impact of Strikes 3194:The Impact of Strikes 1839:The Impact of Strikes 1746:10.1353/jph.2000.0016 1582:. Albany: SUNY Press. 1329: 1309:Dexter Merriam Keezer 1225:William Hammatt Davis 1216:Labor Representatives 1159: 1057: 644: 572: 518: 470: 440:Dexter Merriam Keezer 402:collective bargaining 380: 365:William Hammatt Davis 338: 315: 285:industrial production 274:economic mobilization 207:collective bargaining 203:William Hammatt Davis 192:Franklin D. Roosevelt 132:William Hammatt Davis 3491:Workman, Andrew A., 3233:Intellectual Odyssey 3207:Intellectual Odyssey 3033:, pp. 243–244. 2919:Intellectual Odyssey 2698:, pp. 166–167. 2682:, pp. 164–166. 2591:, pp. 157–161. 2514:, pp. 131–132. 2396:, pp. 194–196. 1689:Monthly Labor Review 1317:Nathan P. Feinsinger 1233:, AFL vice president 1184:industrial relations 1094:Executive Order 8802 794:Calif., Ariz., Nev. 556:cost-of-living index 511:Little Steel formula 396:, usually after the 330:War Production Board 289:industrial relations 233:The strength of the 3463:Grambsch, Paul V., 3349:Labor's War at Home 3294:Labor's War at Home 2843:. National Archives 2638:Labor's War at Home 2607:Labor's War at Home 2589:Labor's War at Home 2576:Labor's War at Home 2436:Labor's War at Home 2423:Labor's War at Home 2407:Labor's War at Home 2381:Labor's War at Home 2051:. January 19, 1942. 1209: 1082:Jean Trepp McKelvey 913:Trucking Commission 856: 827:Hawaii (territory) 674: 580:United Mine Workers 32: 3448:Termination Report 3436:Termination Report 3423:The New York Times 3406:Termination Report 3391:Termination Report 3379:Termination Report 3364:, pp. 46–48. 3064:The New York Times 3043:Termination Report 2970:Termination Report 2960:, Vol. I, p. 12n1. 2958:Termination Report 2931:Termination Report 2908:, pp. 34–37. 2871:Termination Report 2816:Termination Report 2578:, pp. 76–78. 2563:Termination Report 2454:The New York Times 2425:, pp. 80–81. 2383:, pp. 70–71. 2359:Termination Report 2322:, pp. 83–84. 2183:, pp. 45–46. 2139:Termination Report 1886:The New York Times 1785:on March 22, 2015. 1712:In three volumes: 1374:Cited bibliography 1332: 1207: 1061: 966:War Shipping Panel 955:Automotive Section 854: 739:Ohio, Ky., W. Va. 672: 647: 576: 521: 341: 318: 259:Wagner Act of 1935 73:Superseding agency 30: 3045:, Vol. I, p. 484. 2904:Dunlop and Hill, 2891:Dunlop and Hill, 2799:Dunlop and Hill, 2738:Prologue Magazine 2549:Dunlop and Hill, 2361:, Vol. I, p. 504. 2271:Dunlop and Hill, 2141:, Vol. I, p. 479. 1888:. pp. 1, 14. 1625:978-0-521-23472-6 1348:Theodore W. Kheel 1305:Lloyd K. Garrison 1300: 1299: 1110:End and aftermath 1036: 1035: 831: 830: 772:Tex., La., Okla. 164: 163: 144:Lloyd K. Garrison 125:Agency executives 68:December 31, 1945 16:(Redirected from 3601: 3451: 3445: 3439: 3433: 3427: 3426: 3415: 3409: 3403: 3394: 3388: 3382: 3376: 3365: 3358: 3352: 3345: 3339: 3332: 3326: 3319: 3313: 3310: 3297: 3290: 3284: 3281: 3275: 3272: 3266: 3263: 3257: 3254: 3245: 3242: 3236: 3229: 3223: 3216: 3210: 3203: 3197: 3190: 3181: 3174: 3165: 3158: 3152: 3151: 3149: 3147: 3142:on March 4, 2016 3127: 3121: 3114: 3108: 3101: 3095: 3092: 3086: 3083: 3077: 3074: 3068: 3067: 3055: 3046: 3040: 3034: 3027: 3021: 3020: 3018: 3016: 3010: 3001: 2990: 2989: 2979: 2973: 2967: 2961: 2955: 2946: 2943: 2934: 2933:, Vol. I, p. 12. 2928: 2922: 2915: 2909: 2902: 2896: 2895:, pp. 1–3. 2889: 2883: 2880: 2874: 2873:, Vol. I, p. 17. 2868: 2862: 2859: 2853: 2852: 2850: 2848: 2837: 2828: 2825: 2819: 2813: 2804: 2797: 2791: 2788: 2782: 2779: 2773: 2770: 2764: 2763: 2751: 2742: 2741: 2729: 2723: 2720: 2711: 2708: 2699: 2692: 2683: 2676: 2670: 2663: 2654: 2647: 2641: 2634: 2628: 2621: 2610: 2603: 2592: 2585: 2579: 2572: 2566: 2560: 2554: 2547: 2541: 2534: 2528: 2521: 2515: 2508: 2497: 2490: 2484: 2477: 2471: 2464: 2458: 2457: 2445: 2439: 2432: 2426: 2419: 2410: 2403: 2397: 2390: 2384: 2377: 2371: 2368: 2362: 2356: 2345: 2338: 2332: 2329: 2323: 2316: 2310: 2307: 2298: 2295: 2289: 2282: 2276: 2269: 2263: 2260: 2254: 2251: 2245: 2242: 2236: 2229: 2223: 2216: 2210: 2203: 2197: 2190: 2184: 2177: 2168: 2161: 2155: 2148: 2142: 2136: 2125: 2122: 2116: 2115: 2113: 2111: 2100: 2053: 2052: 2041: 2032: 2029: 2023: 2020: 2011: 2004: 1998: 1991: 1985: 1978: 1961: 1960: 1948: 1942: 1939: 1933: 1926: 1917: 1914: 1899: 1896: 1890: 1889: 1877: 1864: 1861: 1855: 1848: 1842: 1835: 1826: 1819: 1813: 1806: 1800: 1793: 1787: 1786: 1775: 1757: 1711: 1703: 1692: 1679: 1670: 1629: 1608: 1583: 1574: 1565: 1532: 1521: 1488: 1455: 1446: 1436: 1427: 1406: 1397: 1321:W. 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Taylor 103:Washington, D.C. 49:Preceding agency 44:January 12, 1942 33: 29: 21: 3609: 3608: 3604: 3603: 3602: 3600: 3599: 3598: 3554: 3553: 3502: 3460: 3458:Further reading 3455: 3454: 3446: 3442: 3434: 3430: 3417: 3416: 3412: 3404: 3397: 3389: 3385: 3377: 3368: 3359: 3355: 3351:, pp. 233, 240. 3346: 3342: 3333: 3329: 3320: 3316: 3311: 3300: 3291: 3287: 3282: 3278: 3273: 3269: 3264: 3260: 3255: 3248: 3243: 3239: 3230: 3226: 3217: 3213: 3204: 3200: 3191: 3184: 3175: 3168: 3164:, pp. 216, 418. 3159: 3155: 3145: 3143: 3128: 3124: 3115: 3111: 3102: 3098: 3093: 3089: 3084: 3080: 3075: 3071: 3056: 3049: 3041: 3037: 3028: 3024: 3014: 3012: 3008: 3002: 2993: 2981: 2980: 2976: 2968: 2964: 2956: 2949: 2944: 2937: 2929: 2925: 2916: 2912: 2903: 2899: 2890: 2886: 2881: 2877: 2869: 2865: 2860: 2856: 2846: 2844: 2839: 2838: 2831: 2826: 2822: 2814: 2807: 2798: 2794: 2789: 2785: 2780: 2776: 2771: 2767: 2752: 2745: 2730: 2726: 2721: 2714: 2709: 2702: 2693: 2686: 2677: 2673: 2664: 2657: 2648: 2644: 2635: 2631: 2622: 2613: 2604: 2595: 2586: 2582: 2573: 2569: 2561: 2557: 2548: 2544: 2535: 2531: 2522: 2518: 2509: 2500: 2491: 2487: 2478: 2474: 2465: 2461: 2446: 2442: 2433: 2429: 2420: 2413: 2404: 2400: 2391: 2387: 2378: 2374: 2369: 2365: 2357: 2348: 2339: 2335: 2330: 2326: 2317: 2313: 2308: 2301: 2296: 2292: 2283: 2279: 2270: 2266: 2261: 2257: 2252: 2248: 2243: 2239: 2235:, pp. 188, 195. 2230: 2226: 2217: 2213: 2204: 2200: 2191: 2187: 2178: 2171: 2162: 2158: 2149: 2145: 2137: 2128: 2123: 2119: 2109: 2107: 2102: 2101: 2056: 2043: 2042: 2035: 2030: 2026: 2021: 2014: 2005: 2001: 1992: 1988: 1979: 1964: 1949: 1945: 1940: 1936: 1927: 1920: 1915: 1902: 1897: 1893: 1878: 1867: 1862: 1858: 1849: 1845: 1836: 1829: 1820: 1816: 1807: 1803: 1794: 1790: 1777: 1776: 1769: 1764: 1706: 1651:10.2307/2126389 1626: 1554:10.2307/1883293 1510:10.2307/2519075 1424: 1394: 1376: 1359: 1205: 1169: 1165: 1157: 1124:Harry S. 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Millis 424:wildcat strikes 390: 386: 378: 369:patent attorney 310: 231: 188:executive order 172:War Labor Board 170:, commonly the 160:(April 1943 on) 149: 84: 60: 36:Agency overview 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3607: 3597: 3596: 3591: 3586: 3581: 3576: 3571: 3566: 3552: 3551: 3542: 3537: 3532: 3523: 3518: 3513: 3508: 3501: 3500:External links 3498: 3497: 3496: 3489: 3482: 3475: 3468: 3459: 3456: 3453: 3452: 3440: 3428: 3410: 3395: 3383: 3366: 3353: 3347:Lichtenstein, 3340: 3327: 3314: 3298: 3292:Lichtenstein, 3285: 3276: 3267: 3258: 3246: 3237: 3224: 3211: 3198: 3182: 3166: 3153: 3122: 3109: 3096: 3087: 3078: 3069: 3047: 3035: 3022: 2991: 2974: 2962: 2947: 2935: 2923: 2910: 2897: 2884: 2875: 2863: 2854: 2829: 2820: 2805: 2792: 2783: 2774: 2765: 2743: 2724: 2712: 2700: 2684: 2671: 2655: 2642: 2636:Lichtenstein, 2629: 2611: 2605:Lichtenstein, 2593: 2587:Lichtenstein, 2580: 2574:Lichtenstein, 2567: 2555: 2542: 2529: 2516: 2498: 2485: 2472: 2459: 2440: 2434:Lichtenstein, 2427: 2421:Lichtenstein, 2411: 2405:Lichtenstein, 2398: 2385: 2379:Lichtenstein, 2372: 2363: 2346: 2333: 2324: 2311: 2299: 2290: 2277: 2264: 2255: 2246: 2237: 2224: 2211: 2198: 2185: 2169: 2156: 2143: 2126: 2117: 2054: 2033: 2024: 2012: 1999: 1986: 1962: 1943: 1934: 1932:, pp. 191–192. 1918: 1900: 1891: 1865: 1856: 1843: 1827: 1825:, pp. 194–196. 1814: 1801: 1799:, pp. 128–130. 1788: 1766: 1765: 1763: 1760: 1759: 1758: 1740:(2): 233–264. 1725: 1704: 1693: 1680: 1671: 1630: 1624: 1609: 1599:(3): 233–257. 1584: 1575: 1566: 1548:(4): 483–523. 1533: 1522: 1504:(3): 372–390. 1489: 1477:10.2307/271380 1471:(4): 337–346. 1456: 1447: 1438: 1428: 1422: 1407: 1398: 1392: 1375: 1372: 1371: 1370: 1365: 1358: 1355: 1336:Cyrus S. 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